CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of SIWES

Industrial training (I.T) is a training given to students in the higher institution of

learning to enhance their practical knowledge and improve their skill and

experience. This training widens people’s knowledge by bringing them close to

the material and equipment used in the industries, firms, establishment or the

labour market at large. The industrial training exercise is usually found in

school. E.g. University, Polytechnics, Monotechnics etc.

In schools little is done about practical work, 90% of the school scheme of work

is theory, while just a little is done in practical. It is not understatement saying

that some schools do not participate in practical work at all.

Industrial training is the solution to this ugly situation. Industrial training fund

(ITF), Supervised Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) these are the

bodies given the authority to see to the Affairs of what happens in the

programme.

1.2 General objectives of SIWES

SIWES is strategized for skill acquisition. It is in fact designed to prepare and

expose students of universities, polytechnics and colleges of education to the

real-life work situation they would be engaged in after graduation. Therefore,

SIWES is a key factor required to inject and help keep alive industrialization

and economic development in the nation through the introduction and practical

1
teaching of scientific and technological skills to students. (Culled from Detailed

Manual on SIWES Guidelines and Operations for Tertiary Institutions).

Objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme include:

1. Provide an avenue for students to acquire industrial skills for experience

during their course of study

2. Expose students to work methods and techniques that may not be

available during their course of study.

3. Bridging the gap between theory and practice by providing a platform to

apply knowledge learnt in school to real work situations

4. Enabling the easier and smoother transition from school by equipping

students’ with better contact for future work placement

5. Introduce students to real work atmosphere so that they know what they

would most likely meet once they graduate.

1.3 Importance of SIWES

All Nigerian students who study technology and science must know about

SIWES. Partaking in SIWES as become a prerequisite for the award of diploma

and degree certificates in many Nigerian Institutions according to the Nigerian

government Educational policy. Undergraduate students of the following

disciplines are expected to be a part of the scheme: Natural sciences,

Engineering and Technology, Education, Agriculture, Medical Sciences,

Environmental, and pure and applied sciences. The duration is for four months

2
and one year for polytechnics and colleges of education students respectively

and six months for university students.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Introduction and brief history of the company

J. Udeagbala Holdings Nigeria Limited is one of the oldest established import

and manufacturing businesses in the South Eastern part of Nigeria. It was

incorporated in the year 1992 and is run by an organized Board of Directors.

The Board has the responsibility of drawing up policies for and supervising its

Management team. They are water treatment expert and consultant company In

Nigeria, the company offers varieties of service in the water system to provide

safe and good drinkable water for Home use, companies, estates, industries,

hospitals, institutions, and rural water. Our areas of expertise are site Inspection,

water analysis, and report, water treatment plant and supply of equipment and

installations. Our goal is to help people like you remove existing components

(visible and invisible) in the water and improving it for subsequent utilization.

They are into water Treatment Plant/Water Purification System/Reverse

Osmosis Water Filter. Our Mission is to provide portable and clean water for

our clients.

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2.3 The organogram

5
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Water treatment

This collectively the industrial scale process that make acceptable for end users

domestic purposes. The term generally refers to the production of portable

water. The water treatment processes in the plant begins when water from the

dam which is about 1,300m long, with a maximum height of 45m and located

within the higher altitude areas of the territory and sited on a virgin location

where human activity is minimal, run along underground pipes into the

reservoir at the plant which has the maximum capacity of 100 million cubic

Meters; being the largest in west Africa and the second largest in west Africa.

It is from the reservoir that the water flows to the plant for treatment.

3.2 Stages of water treatment

There are five (5) stages or processes involved in the treatment of water which

results in the five types of water samples which are treated. Viz;

Raw water stages or sample: this is natural water from dam which is

untreated; at these stages the water is full of impurities and has a characteristics

dark colour and perceivable odour.

Aerated water or sample: this is water which has been exposed to air which

leads to an increase in its oxygen saturated. At these stages, divalent and

trivalent elements found in the water react with the oxygen in air.

6
Clarified water stages or sample: At these stages, mineral and organic

suspended solids and also the portion of dissolved organic matter which can be

coagulated are removed.

Filter water stages or sample: the water is made to pass through beds of

granular material (sand, gravels), this result in the removal of suspended matter

which can consist of floc, microorganisms, algae, silt, etc.

Treated water stage or sample: treated water is the consumable water that has

been properly disinfected and purified.

At each stage of water treatment, certain chemical reactions occur either

naturally or due to the addition of certain substances, these alternately lead to

the thorough treatment of water.

The processes involved are;

Aeration- this is the first stage which consists of cascading waterfall. Whereby

air is forced into the raw water. The trapped noxious gases are released to the

atmosphere and the dissolved iron oxide precipitates through oxidation and is

removed.

Pre-Liming-At the Mixing or Dosage Chamber: There is diffusion of lime

solution (calcium hydroxide) to keep the ph of the raw water within range

where coagulant are most effective.

Pre-chlorination- in order to control biological matter and organisms, chlorine

solution is applied as disinfectant.

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Coagulation- the removal of sludge is initiated by rapid diffusion and mixing of

coagulant chemicals (alum) into the aerated water to agglomerate the suspended

particles. The positively charge of the coagulant act as nucleus of attraction

coalesce and forms microflocs.

Flocculation-consequent to coagulation, the tiny agglomerates cling together to

form larger and denser floc true water pulsation in the clarifiers. As the clarified

water decant continuously above, the settled concentrated sludge discharges

periodically below.

Rapid filtration- this involves removal of suspended fine particles in the

clarified water, which remain after coagulation and flocculation. By passing

water true sand filter beds and nozzles.

Neutralization (post-limiting) – this is the addition of clear solution of lime, in

order to correct the pH level of the filtered water and improve taste.

Final Disinfection (post-chlorination) – a solution of chlorine is added to the

filtered water to kill harmful microorganisms that survive the earlier process of

pro-chlorination and residual amount of chlorine keeps the water safe as it

transferred from storage tanks to consumption points.

3.3 Water quality criteria

These are given values of which every test or analysis carried out on the water

samples most are in conformity to.

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 NIGERIAN STANDARD FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY

(NSDQW) AND WHO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD FOR DRINKING

WATER

S/NO PARAMETER NSDWQ WHO

1 Taste Unobjectionable

2 Odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable/Odourless

3 ph (ph unit) 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

4 Temperature (OC) Ambient 30OC

5 Total alkalinity 250 100

concentration (mg/L)

6 residual chlorine 0.2-0.5 0.2

(mg/L)

7 chloride ion (mg/L) 250 250

8 total hardness (mg/L) 150 500

9 Iron (mg/L) 0.3 0.3

10 Turbidity (NTU) 5 5

11 Colour (pt Co) 15 Clear

12 methyl orange 250 100

alkalinity (mg/L)

13 phosphate (mg/L) 6.5

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14 Dissolved Oxygen 5

(mg/L)

15 nitrate (mg/L) 50 50

16 Sulphate (mg/L) 250 400

17 manganese (mg/L) 0.5

18 bacteriological result 0 Nil/100ml

19 e. coli Nil Nil/100ml

20 viable plate count 0 cfu/ml

3.4 Water analyses conducted

Various water analyses are carried out in the quality control laboratory of the

dam and I was opportuned to partake to partake in the following;

1. Physicochemical analyses

2. Test for heavy metals(Fe,Mn) and anions(so42- ,PO3-4, NO3-)

3. Plant monitoring

4. Jar test or flocculation analyses

5. Bacteriological analyses

3.5 Physicochemical analysis

Physicochemical analysis as the name implies, is a combination of physical and

chemical analysis conducted in the quality control laboratory physicochemical

10
analysis of analysis of ground water is carried out daily to study the quality of

water and suitability for domestic purposes.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

1. Chemical analysis 2.Physical analysis

I. Alkalinity analysis i. Temperature

ii. Total hardness analysis ii. Ph

iii. Chloride Ion(CI 2-) iii. Colour

iv.Turbidity

3.5.1 Chemical analysis

BF The chemical analyses are conducted on a daily basis only in the mornings,

through method Titration, testing for the chemical components of the water

samples, using their respective and indicators.

3.5.1.1 Alkalinity analysis

Alkalinity is a measure of ability of water to resist changes in Ph, which would

tend to make the more acidic. It is the acid presence of certain ions is to

carbonate (co2), bicarbonate (hco32), and hydroxides (oh) often referred to as

alkaline salts. Bicarbonates are the most common cause of alkalinity and are

found in almost in all natural sources, as are carbonates. Hydroxides are found

less often in natural water but concentrations may increase after certain

11
treatments. It is important that there is a good balance to the alkalinity of our

water. If the levels are higher or lower than this, there can be problems with

water quality. However, alkalinity levels are usually looked at together with pH

levels to get a better idea of the complete water quality. Alkalinity of water is

due to the presence of certain Ions; carbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides

(often referred to as alkaline salts).bicarbonates are the most common cause of

alkalinity and are found in almost all natural water sources ,as are

carbonates .Hydroxides are as are found less often in natural water but

concentration may increase after certain Treatments. if the alkalinity is too low,

the ability of your water to resist pH changes decreases. This means that the Ph

will fluctuate up and down, changing from acidic to basic fairly rapidly. Water

with low alkalinity can also be corrosive and can irritate the eyes, water with

high alkalinity has soda-like taste,can dry out skin and can cause scaling on

fixture and throughout water distribution water distribution systems. This

analysis is done by using alkalimetric reagent (1.12ml conc.H2 SO4 and 3.32ml

of conc. HCl dissolve in two separate conical flask containing 1000mls of water

each and then mixed together In a round bottom flask) as Titrant, various water

samples as titrant and methyl orange (100g of methyl orange reagent and

dissolve in 1000ml of distilled water)as indicator.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: Alkalinity analysis

AIM: to determine the acid neutralizing capacity of water.

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MATERIALS: Alkalimetric reagent, methyl orange indicator, five

water samples, burette, retort stand, beaker, funnel, five conical flasks, 100ml

measuring cylinder.

PROCEDURE: - the burette was filled with the alkalinity reagent.

- 100ml of each of the five samples were measured into five conical flasks.

- 2drops of methyl orange was added to each of the samples.

- The solutions were then titrated until they reached their endpoint i.e.

changed colour from orange towards red.

PRECAUTION: it was ensured that the apparatus were properly

handled.

- It was ensured that the Titrant was not overshot or excess indicator added.

- It was ensured that the glassware’s were washed properly to avoid errors

in the readings.

OBSERVATION: it was observed that the values for the raw and aerated

water samples were similar and those for clarified and filtered were similar.

Also that the alkalinity increased from raw to filtered due to the addition of

chemicals but dropped at the treated water point because most of the

chemicals had undergone reactions with substances present in the water.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were multiplied by 20 (a standard) and

thereafter compared with The WHO standard for drinking water quality.

They were below 100mg/l, meaning that the

Alkalinity was okay

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3.5.1.2 Total hardness analysis

This is an analysis conducted to determine the level of hardness of water. This

hardness is basically generated due to the presence of calcium and magnesium

salts in the water samples.

In other words, hardness could be defined as calcium and magnesium ion

content in water. Hardness is said to occur in water due to the occurrence of

calcium and magnesium ions as stated initially, ion is also involved. The anion

associated is mainly sulphate (so-4), nitrate (no3) and chlorine (cl2). Hardness

causes water not to foam with soap.

Hardness due to co3 can easily be lost by boiling the water, but hardness caused

by anions cannot be easily lost, except through highly technical methods such as

the ions exchange resin.

When hard water comes in contact with dissolved carbonates, a precipitate of

insoluble calcium carbonates forms. This “scale” can build up on the inside of

water pipes to such a degree that the pipes become almost completely blocked,

thus leading to the bursting of pipes.

HARDNESS CHART

DEGREE OF HARDNESS Hardness of caco3

Soft 0-55

Slightly hard 56-100

Moderately hard 101-200

Very hard 201-500

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water hardness can be readily determined by titration with the chelating agent

edta – ethylene demine tetra acetic acid (7.44g.edta disodium salt, dissolved in

100ml of distilled water and 0.29g of magnesium chloride(mgcl2)added to

stabilize the reagent), water sample as the titrand, k10 buffer solution for ph

stabilization ; it brings the ph of water sample up to Ph 10, at which the

indicator can function properly (4.72g of magnesium sulphate dissolved in

200ml of distilled water, 67.2g of ammonium chloride dissolved in 70ml of

ammonia solution to make a solution, 500ml of ammonia solution is added and

200ml of distilled water), Eriochrome Black T-EBT (0.25g of EBT dissolved in

100ml of absolute ethanol) as indicator.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: total hardness analysis

AIM: to determine the level of dissolved salts in the water

MATERIALS: EDTA reagent, k10 buffer, EBT indicator, five water

samples, burette, retord stand, beaker, funnel, five conical flasks, 100ml

measuring cylinder.

PROCEDURE: - 100ml of the water samples were measured into the conical

flasks

- 20 drop of k10 buffer and then 2 drop eriochrome black T indicator were

added to each sample.

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- the samples were then titrated with EDTA until solutions changed from purple

to sky blue, with no hint of purple.

PRECAUTION: -it was ensured that the apparatus were properly

handled.

It was ensured that the titrant was not overshot or excess indicator or buffer

added.

It was ensured that the glass wares were washed thoroughly to avoid errors in

the readings.

OBSERVATION: it was observed that the raw water and aerated water

values were similar and the clarified and filtered were similar too. The values

decreased from raw water to treated water, as purification processes were

undergone at each stage,

CONCLUSION: results gotten were multiplied by 20 (standard) and thereafter

compared with the values from the hardness chart. They were slightly hard and

so the level of hardness was okay.

3.5.1.3 Chloride ion (cl2) analysis

Chloride ion occurs as a result of the treatment of water with chlorine and also

originated from the dissociation of salts, such as sodium chloride (cacl2) in

water.

In drinking water the salty taste produced by chloride depends upon the

concentration of the chloride ion and it may also cause corrosion in the

distribution system.

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Chloride ion is determined by titration using silver nitrate as titrant (7g of silver

nitrate crystal is weighed and dried in an oven at 110oc, allow to cool and then

6.79g of its weighed and dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water); as the titrant is

slowly added, a precipitate of silver chloride forms,

2g+(aq) + cl (aq) – agcl(s)

The end of the titration occurs when the chlorides ions are precipitated, then

additional ions chloride react with the chromate ions of the indicator-potassium

chromate to form a red-brown silver chromate.

2ag+(aq)+ cro42-(aq) – ag2cro4(s)

The five different water samples are the titrant and potassium dichromate (100g

of potassium dichromate solid dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water) is

indicator.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: chloride ion (cl2-) analysis

AIM: to determine the amount of cl2- present in the water

MATERIALS: Silver Nitrate Reagent, Potassium Dichromate Indicator,

Five Water Samples, Burette, Retort Stand, Beaker, Funnel, Five Conical

Flasks, 100ml Measuring Cylinder

PROCEDURE: - The burette was filled with silver nitrate

- 100gls of each of the water samples to be tested were measured into

conical flask

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 - 5 drops of potassium dichromate indicator was added to each of the

samples

- The samples were titrated with silver nitrate until their colours changed

from yellow to brick red i.e. their end point.

PRECAUTION: it was observed that the apparatus were properly

handled.

- It was ensured that the titrant was not overshot or excess indicator or

buffer added.

OBSERVATION: it was observed that the values increased from the raw

water samples to the treated water samples, with the treated water having the

highest value due to post chlorination.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were multiplied by 14 (a standard) and

thereafter compared with the WHO standard for drinking water quality. They

were below 250mg/l, meaning that the cl2- level was okay.

3.5.2 Physical analyses

The physical are conducted on a daily basis, both morning and afternoon, using

their respective test instruments.

3.5.2.1 Temperature analysis

This is a measure of coldness or hotness of a body, in this case, the water

samples being analysed. It is measured using a thermometer.

It is necessary to check the temperature of the water as the chemicals function

better at certain temperatures favour microbial growth.

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According to the WHO standard, the permissible limit for the temperature

of the water is 30oc

The average temperature of surface water usually ranges from 25oc-27oc.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: Temperature

AIM: To determine the degree of hotness or coldness of the water

samples

MATERIALS: Thermometer, 50ml beaker, cotton wool and the water samples

PROCEDURE: - the water sample was poured into a beaker

- The thermometer was then dipped into the water sample in the beaker

- It was left for sometime in the water sample, and then the reading was

taken. Same was done for all the water samples.

- Afterwards, the thermometer was cleaned with cotton wool, kept in its

pack and placed carefully on the rack.

OBSERVATION: when the thermometer was placed in the water samples, the

mercury ring in the thermometer started to either drop or go up, depending on

the temperature of the water sample. It got to point where it remained steady

and the reading was taken.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were compared with the WHO standard for

drinking water quality. They were below 30oc, meaning that the temperature

was okay.

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3.5.2.2 PH analysis

PH is an index of the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) that are present in a

substance. The ph is a value given to indicate how acidic or basic a substance is.

The ph scale runs from 0-14, with 7.0 being neutral, 7.1-14.0 being basic or

alkaline and 0.69 being acidic.

The ph of water is a measure of a acid-base the equilibrium and in most neutral

water, ph is controlling the carbon dioxide- bicarbonate-carbonate equilibrium

system.

According to WHO standard, the permissible limit for the ph of water is from

ph 6.5-8.5.

3.5.2.2.1 Importance of PH

Ph is the one of the most important operational water quality test parameter.

Careful attention to ph control is necessary at all stages of water treatment to

ensure satisfactory of water clarification and disinfection. For effective

disinfection with chlorine, the ph should preferably not be over 7.2 or below

6.8, alum used for coagulation work best at ph range of 5.8-8.5.

When the water ph is low it will lead corrosion and pitting of pipes in plumbing

and distribution system. This can be lead to health problems if metal particles

are leached into the water system from the corroded pipes. Low the ph also

impart a metallic taste that some may find objectionable.

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When the water ph is high it begins to leave scale deposits of the plumbing

which decreases the efficiency of the plumbing system and it also impart a

slightly bitter taste that some may find objectionable.

3.5.2.2.2 Analytical determination PH of water

The ph of water can be measure either by using a glass electrode PH meter or

alternatively using bromothymol blue indicator.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: PH ANALYSIS

AIM: to determine the level of acidity of bascity of the water samples;

i. Using Bromothymol blue indicator.

MATERIALS: bromothymol blue indicator (0.32g of bromothymol

blue reagent weighed and added to 1000ml of ethanol), the five water samples,

a PH comparator, and the test tubes.

Procedure: - 10ml of the water samples were measured into test tubes

- 10 drops of bromothymol blue indicator was added into the samples

- A ph comparator was used to take the value

This analytical method is not as accurate as the electrometrical electrode

method.

ii. Using an electrometrical glass electrode PH meter

MATERIALS: PH meter, water samples, 50mls beaker, cotton, distilled water,

buffer 7.0

PROCEDURE: -buffer solution was poured into beaker

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 - Ph meter was turned on and placed in the beaker with the buffer solution

and then the calibrate button was pressed

- After a while initialization of the ph meter stability occurred (esc

appeared on the display screen of the PH meter) and then it was removed

and rinsed with distilled water

- The water samples were poured into the beaker in turns and the ph metre

dipped into them, when the value on the display screen became steady,

the readings were taken.

- The beaker and ph meter’s electrode were rinsed with distilled water and

then the water sample to be tested after testing each samples

OBSERVATION: within the limits of experimental error, it was

observed that the values of the ph were slightly similar and were subject to

weather changes, e.g whenever it rained, the ph became high.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were compared with the who standard for

drinking water quality. They were within the range of 6.5-8.5, meaning that the

ph was okay.

3.5.2.3 Colour analysis

Colour analysis water is caused by dissolved and colloidal particles as a result

of organic materials or inorganic contaminants such as iron, manganese and

highly coloured industrial waste.

Generally colour is classified into two types which are true and apparent colour;

true colour is mostly caused by decaying organic materials, while apparent

22
colour is caused by inorganic materials, usually ion, manganese, the true colour

of water can be distinguished from the apparent colour by filtering or

centrifuging out the suspended materials.

Since colour is a physical parameter consumers will be able to detect the colour

by metre viewing the water but in the laboratory we make use of the

spectrophotometer to measure the colour at a specific wavelength (445-465nm)

and the unit of colour is platinum- cobalt (pt-co).

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: COLOUR ANALYSIS

AIM: To determine the Colour of the water

MATERIALS: spectrophotometer (Dr 5000), cavette, cotton wool, water

samples, distilled water.

PROCEDURE: -the spectrophotometer was turned on and allowed to boot

- Favorite program was selected from saved programs and the colour was

selected, after which start was selected

- 10ml of distilled water was poured into the cuvette, put in the

spectrophotometer and then distilled selected (this is to tar or zero the

system)

- 10ml of the water sample was then put in and read selected. The value

was taken

- The system was then zeroed with distilled water before putting in the next

sample. Same was done before putting in any new sample

23
- After the values of all the samples had been read, exit was selected

followed by cancel and then the system was turned off.

OBSERVATION: The colour present in the water kept on reducing from

the raw water to the treated water which was a good indication that treatment

processes were effective.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were compared with the WHO standard

for drinking water quality. The treated water value was below range (BR),

meaning that the colour was okay.

3.5.2.4 Turbidity analysis

Turbidity is a measure of the relative clarity or cloudiness of water.

Turbidity can be caused by various sources and are influenced by the

physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of the water.

Turbidity-causing particles in water can range in size from colloidal

dimensions (0.001-1.0 um) up to diameters on the order of 100um. In natural

waters, particulate material arises mostly from the weathering of rocks and

soils. Significant contributions also come from human activities (e.g.,

sewage and waster releases). Inorganic clays and silts and natural organic

matter (decomposed plant and animal substances) make up the most

common particulate constituents of water.

Turbidity can be measured using an electronic turbidity meter or a turbidity

tube.

Turbidity is measured in Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU).

24
Where water is chlorinated, turbidity should be less than 5 NTU and

preferably less than 1 ntu for chlorination to be effective.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: turbidity analysis

AIM: to determine the level of turbidity of the water

MATERIALS:turbidity meter (camlab turbidirect), cuvette, cotton wool,

beaker, 50ml conical flasks

PROCEDURE: -turbidity meter was turned on and then zeroed by

clicking the tar button

- 10mls of each of the samples were measured respectively into the cuvette,

put in the turbidity metre and close

- The read button was then pressed and after a while the results were

displayed on the screen

- The results were taken and then the turbidity meter was turned off

OBSERVATION: the turbidity of the water kept on reducing from the

raw water to the treated water which was a good indication that treatment

processes were effective.

CONCLUSION: results gotten were compared with the WHO standard

for drinking water quality. The values were below 5NTU, meaning that the

colour was okay.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Test for heavy metals (FE, MN) AND ANIONS (SO42-, PO3-4, NO3)

The term “heavy metals” applies to a group of metals with similar chemical

properties. They hare elements with high densities which could be poisonous at

certain level with most of them being poisonous or toxic even in the tiniest

levels.

Heavy metals normally occurring in nature are not harmful because they are

present in only very small amounts. However, if the levels of these metals are

higher than the recommended limits, their roles change to negative dimension.

There are many heavy metals in our environment occurring both naturally and

from pollution some of which play important roles in the body and others have

no known benefits.

Anions on the other hand are atom or radicals which are a group of atoms that

have gained electrons. Since they now have more electrons than protons, anions

have a negative charge.

Characteristically, anions also have its important role in drinking water, also

affecting the human health.

Toxicity level depends on the type of metal, its biological role and the type of

organisms that are exposed to it. Heavy metals in water most often linked to

human poisoning are lead, iron, cadmium, copper, zinc.

These metals could have so many adverse health effects ranging from damaged

or reduced mental and central nervous function and lower energy level, to

26
neurological degenerative process which could result in Alzheimer’s disease,

Parkinson’s disease and eventually could result in death.

Here at Usuma dam, by Virture of the dam’s location not being close to any

major industries, we have low incidence of these heavy metals and anions being

present in our water. Though occasionally, the levels come up when industrial

activities around the dam peak up.

We test for these heavy metals; iron (fe) and manganese (mn) and these anions;

sulphate (so42-), phosphate (po34-) and nitrate (no3-), using a HACH DR 5000

spectrophotometer. Each of them has pillows unique to them which are used to

boost the radical or ion that is being tested for, whilst serving as buffers.

EXPERIMENT

TITLE: test for heavy metals (Fe, Mn) and anions (so42-, po3-4, no3)

AIM: to determine the levels or concentration of these heavy metals and

anions in the treated water in order to ascertain if they are within limits of the

who standard.

MATERIALS: HACH Dr 5000 Uv spectrophotometer, cuvette, distilled water,

cotton wool, treated water sample.

PROCEDURE: -select the test program (iron, manganese, sulphate,

phosphate and nitrate) from the stored programs and press start

- Insert the multi-cell adapter with the 1-inch square cell holder facing the

user

27
- Fill the square cell (cuvette) with 10ml of the sample (treated water

sample)

- Poured in the buffer powder pillow into the cuvette; iron phenanthroline

for iron, sodium periodate and then manganese citrate for manganese,

phosphate reagent for phosphate, sulphate pillow for sulphate and then

nitrate lr for nitrate

- Mix contents thoroughly

- Press timer and then ok, set timer; 8minutes for mn, 5minutes for

sulphate, 3 minutes for iron, 4 minutes for nitrate and phosphate. A five

minutes reaction period will begin. Do not disturb the cell during this

time

- Fill a second square sample cell with 10ml of distilled water

- When the timer expires, insert the blank into the cell holder with the fill

line facing the user

- Press zero, the display will show 0.00mg/l of ion or radical being checked

for e.g. 0.00mg/l fe2+

- Insert the prepared sample into the cell holder with the fill line facing the

user. Results are in mg/l of the ion or radical being checked for e.g.

0.32mg/l

4.2Plant monitoring

These involve various physical check of the plant to ensure its proper

functioning.

28
 4.2.1 Inspection of plant

Plant monitoring involves the general inspection of the plant every morning

and afternoon to ensure the efficiency of the various chemical dosing pumps,

as well as to make sure that they are functional and that the right amount of

chemicals are being dosed, at the right time and for the right amount of time.

Also to deserve the physical states of the clarifiers, filters, aeration chambers

and chemical room.

4.2.2 Monitoring of ph and temperature in the clarifiers (CW2B)

Residual to this we carry out plant monitoring analysis on the clarifier waters

(cw2a and cw2b), which involves checking for the temperature and ph and is

done both morning and afternoon. It is necessary so as to ensure that the

conditions are fit or right for the chemicals to function effectively.

4.3 Test for residual chlorine in treated water

Residual chlorine is the amount of chlorine remaining after total disinfection of

the water. The availability of this free chlorine remaining in water indicates that

all disease causing organisms (pathogens) in the water has been killed.

The importance of residual chlorine is to disinfect the water when post-

treatment contamination occurs due to microorganisms present in the pipes and

micro-organisms entering the water distribution system through burst water

pipes.

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4.4 Jar test or flocculation analysis

Generally we encounter very fine and charged clay like particles in water

treatment which should be removed before further treatment processes .these

impurities do not settle by gravity as they are too small, and also commonly

posses negative surface charge, causing them to repel themselves due to

possession of like charges.

Such colloidal system are termed as ‘’stable’’ the process of causing the

colloidal particles to settled is called “destabilasation ‘’.

The presence of these particles increase the turbidity of water which is

undesirable and hence these impurities most be removed or

destabilised .therefore a chemical which dissociates when put into water and

which help in process of coagulation is required. It is coagulant and clarifying

agent.

Our coagulant here at the dam is aluminium sulphate, or simply alum with a

molecular formula of Al2 (SO4)3. 18H2O.The alum is made into a stock or

solution whit 10gm of alum added into 100ml of distilled water and then sitired

using a magnetic stirrer, to ensure complete dissolution of alum particles.

When the alum solution is added to the water samples, the molecules

dissociated to yield 3so4-2 anda13+. These charged species combine with the

charged colloidal particles to neutralism then in step of clarification, so that they

can be easily removed.

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The clarification steps are;

i. COAGULATION: occurs during flash or fast mixing where the

coagulation is added to the water samples and speed is set at 250rpm

for 3minutes, this causes the stock to immediately mix up whit the

water sample destablising the colloidal particles by neutralizing their

charges. Once neutralised’, the particles get coagulated as the can now

attract them.

ii. FLOCCULATION: this is the process of bringing together the

coagulant particles to form larger agglomeration called “flocs”. This

occurs during the slow mixing take place at 25rpm for 17 minute

allowing the floc particles to grow larger in size and so settle faster.

iii. Sedimentation: this is the settling down of the floc particles and

consequent decantation of the now clear upper layer of the water,

leaving the floc particles behind.

4.4.1 The chemistry of alum coagulation

When alum is added to water, it reacts with bicarbonate to form aluminium

hydroxide, a coagulant.

AL2(SO4)3*18H2O+3CA(HCO3)2 – 2AL(OH)3+6CO2+3CASO4+18H2O

The jar test or flocculation analysis was carried out using a stuart flocculator

SW6 and is carried out on only aerated water samples.

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EXPERIMENT

TITLE: FLOCCULATION ANALYSIS

AIM: to determine the quantity of alum required for the treatment of

lower usuma dam water.

MATERIALS: stock solution (10g alum in 100ml distilled water), aerated

water sample, dropping pipette, crucible, weighing balance, magnetic stirred.

PROCEDURES: -put 1000ml of sample into six jars in increasing order of

0.05, i.e. 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, and 0.30

- Place the jars on the flocculator and insert the paddles

- Put on the machine, set the time to 3 minute and the speed to 250

revolution per minute (rpm), i.e. flash mixing and then press start

- After the time elapses for the flash mixing, reset the time to 17 minutes

and the speed to 25rpm and then press start, i.e. the slow mixing

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Problems encountered and relevance of the SIWES programme

Some problems encountered during my SIWES programme are;

1. Lack of raw materials in the factory

2. Lack of payment of staffs in some cases, which leads to strike and affects

the industry

3. Sometimes power shortage slows down the rate of production

4. Some of the machines are too dangerous to handle

5. Sometimes the raw materials are imported into the country so it takes

more than a week to reach the industry. That also makes production slow.

5.2 Relevance of the programme

1. It is an avenue for students to acquire industrial knowledge

2. It is designed to expose and prepare students in higher institution for

the work they are likely to meet after their programme

3. It is aimed at exposing students to machines and equipment,

professional work methods and way of safeguarding the work are and

workers in the industries

4. It helps students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical

knowledge in real work situation

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 5. It strengthens link between the employers, universities and industrial

training fund

6. It prepares the students for the labour market after graduation

7. It exposes students to more practical work methods and techniques

Above all, as a microbiologist, this experience has helped me to learn the

process involved in water production, purification and treatment of micro-

organisms found in water.

Lastly the SIWES programme does not only try to produce better graduates but

also produces better entrepreneurs with high level of credibility.

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 CHAPTER SIX

Conclusion and general appraisal of the programme, advice for future

participants and advice for SIWES manager

6.1 General appraisal of the programme

My experience during the course of my training has been of immense benefits

to me because I was able to avail myself the opportunity of not only seeing but

working with machines like reverse osmosis tank, ultra-violet light machine,

extruding machine, cutting and sealing machine, punching machine, distilling

machine, injection machine etc. thereby exposing me to some of the practical

knowledge about the principles governing the microbial field, blending me with

other courses of study like polymer and marketing.

6.2 Ways of improving the SIWES programme

1. Securing I.T placement for students; the commitment of the officials has

dwindled in this aspect. We students sometimes find it difficult and very

challenging to secure a place of attachment since our names are no longer

sent to companies for recommendation. I suggest that the federal government

should make it necessary for all companies to accept I.T students every year.

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2. Regular visit paid to I.T students at place of their placement. The officials

responsible for the visit should be encouraged. This will enable the student

to be serious with their work.

6.3 Advice for the future participants

1. The students should apply early to the companies of their choice

2. Students should be obedient to their superiors

3. Students should not focus on money first but gain the experience

4. Students should be good in conducting themselves, dressing properly and

not defile themselves among staffs.

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 REFERENCES

SHAMRAS water lab, adjacent university of Abuja, 2014

SHAMRAS poly lab, adjacent university of Abuja, 2014

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