Ontario Envirothon Study Guide

Ontario Envirothon

WILDLIFE
This Study Guide is to be used to help Ontario Envirothon
teams prepare for the Ontario Envirothon Program.

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Wildlife Study Guide
 The Ontario Envirothon Modules have been designed to assist students and teachers in preparing
for the Ontario Envirothon program.

Every year, more than 500,000 students, teachers, and families across North America take part in
the unique learning experience of Envirothon. Through team-based competitions, Envirothon
engages high school students in learning about four main areas of the environment—soils,
aquatics, wildlife, and forests. A combination of classroom learning and interactive workshops
allows students to strengthen their scientific knowledge of natural ecosystems and develop the
foundational skills required to pursue studies and careers in the environmental sciences.
Specifically, Envirothon supports students in developing:

• A scientific understanding of natural ecosystems (soils, wildlife, forests, aquatics).

• Practical experience in resource management practices and technologies.
• The ability to apply scientific knowledge and creativity in developing innovative and
sustainable solutions to major environmental challenges.
• Stronger communication, collaboration, and problem-solving skills.

The North American Envirothon (NAE), a program of the National Conservation Foundation
who partners with 56 provinces and states to coordinate events during which students receive
training in essential resource management technologies and practices. This includes tasks such as
invasive species monitoring, habitat restoration, water and soil analysis, and forest management.
Students are then tested on their ability to apply these practices. In addition, a timely and relevant
fifth subject area is chosen each year to accompany the four main areas; a resource guide is
developed to prepare students for this subject.

Acknowledgements
Base of this study guide has been prepared in partnership with Forests Ontario and the Natural
Environment Technician and Fish and Wildlife Conservation Technician Programs at Sault
College.

Special thanks to the authors of the guide, Sault College students Miranda Aelick, Erin Budgell,
Corey Burt, Laura Dougherty, Ashley Odorizzi, Justin Pittman, and Meaghan Sutherland and
Sault College Instructor Cynthia Marcinkowski.

Reviewed and updated by Ryan Johnstone in June 2020

Updated: June 2020

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Wildlife Study Guide
Contents
Learning Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 5
Overall Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 5
Specific Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 5
Application/Analysis ................................................................................................................... 6
Evaluation/Synthesis ................................................................................................................... 6
Tools & Apps .................................................................................................................................. 7
Envirothon Guides....................................................................................................................... 7
Apps and Websites ...................................................................................................................... 7
Additional Resources: ................................................................................................................. 7
2.0 Wildlife Ecology ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Habitat Types ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Wetland Habitat .............................................................................................................. 9
2.2.2 Forest Habitat ............................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Grassland Habitat ......................................................................................................... 11
2.2.4 Riparian Habitat ............................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Biodiversity ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Food Chains and Species Interactions ................................................................................. 12
2.4.1 Species Interactions ...................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Population Dynamics .......................................................................................................... 14
Case Study – Wolves and Moose on Isle Royale ...................................................................... 16
2.6 Indicator Species ................................................................................................................. 17
2.7 Seasons and Wildlife ........................................................................................................... 18
2.7.1 Migration ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.7.2 Hibernation ................................................................................................................... 20
Discussion Questions .................................................................................................................... 23
3.0 Humans and Wildlife .............................................................................................................. 24
3.1 Global Change ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Threats to Wildlife .............................................................................................................. 26
3.2.1 Habitat loss & Degradation .......................................................................................... 26
3.2.2 Pollutants ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.2.3 Invasive Species ........................................................................................................... 28
3.2.4 Harvest and Overexploitation ....................................................................................... 28
3.2.5 Disease .......................................................................................................................... 28

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 3.3 Species at Risk .................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Why are they at Risk? ................................................................................................... 30
Discussion Questions .................................................................................................................... 31
4.0 Conservation and Management............................................................................................... 32
4 .1 Indigenous Rights and Wildlife.......................................................................................... 32
4.2 Managing Wildlife Populations .......................................................................................... 32
4.3 Monitoring and Tracking Species ....................................................................................... 33
4.3.1 Mammals ...................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.2 Amphibians ................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.3 Birds.............................................................................................................................. 35
4.3.4 Insects ........................................................................................................................... 36
4.3.5 Fish ............................................................................................................................... 37
4.4 Mitigation Measures ............................................................................................................ 38
4.4.1 Solutions for Preserving Biodiversity........................................................................... 38
4.4.2 Habitat Protection ......................................................................................................... 39
4.5 Wildlife Management, Protection and Recovery ................................................................ 39
4.5.1 Endangered Species Act (ESA) .................................................................................... 39
4.5.2 Species at Risk Act (SARA) ......................................................................................... 39
4.5.3 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and
Flora ....................................................................................................................................... 39
4.5.4 Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial
Trade Act (WAPPRIITA) ...................................................................................................... 40
4.5.5 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Species
Programme............................................................................................................................. 40
4.6 Citizen Science .................................................................................................................... 40
Discussion Questions .................................................................................................................... 41
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................ 42
References ..................................................................................................................................... 44

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Learning Objectives
Overall Objectives
Students must be able to:
A. Understand and use identification tools to identify common Ontario mammal, bird, fish,
and herptile species
B. Understand and describe the concepts and processes of wildlife ecology, including habitat
and community dynamics
C. Understand and describe the impact of humans and human development on wildlife and
wildlife ecology, and vice versa
D. Understand and describe practices involved in the conservation and management of
wildlife and wildlife resources

Specific Objectives
Students must be able to:
A. Understand and use identification tools to identify common Ontario mammal, bird, fish
and herptile species
1. Demonstrate the ability to use a field guide, dichotomous key, or index to identify a
variety of wildlife, including but not limited to: insects and larvae (aquatic and
terrestrial), reptiles, mammals (terrestrial and aquatic; large and small), birds,
amphibians, and fish
2. Identify the presence of wildlife based on a variety of indicators, including but not
limited to: scat, eggs, tracks, patterns on trees, sounds and calls, pest evidence,
feathers, and nests
B. Understand and describe the concepts and processes of wildlife ecology, including
habitat and community dynamics
1. Identify specific biotic and abiotic habitat components for common Ontario wildlife
species
2. Identify the requirements for survival for common Ontario wildlife species
3. Know and explain why a certain species’ habitat requirements might change and
describe the changes
4. Understand and describe the concept of carrying capacity with reference to a variety
of common Ontario wildlife species
5. Understand and describe succession in terrestrial (bare ground) and aquatic (pond)
environments
6. Define predator, prey, herbivore, carnivore, and omnivore, and explain how each of
them interact with each other
7. Understand and explain how predator-prey relationships and carrying capacity are
related, and provide examples
8. Compare and contrast the difference between adaptable (generalized) and non-
adaptable (specialized) wildlife
C. Understand and describe the impact of humans and human development on wildlife
and wildlife ecology, and vice versa
1. Identify and explain reasons for wildlife habitat loss in Ontario
2. Explain how a change in weather/climate, topography, or land use might modify the
process of succession

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Wildlife Study Guide
 3. Examine the factors (natural and external) that affect the survival and equilibrium of
populations in an ecosystem
4. Understand and describe the effects that climate change has on wildlife ecology
5. Identify Ontario’s rare, threatened and endangered wildlife species, as identified by
COSEWIC, and explain how selected species were reduced to those levels
6. List examples of wildlife species that are non-native to Ontario
7. Identify and explain how non-native species arrived in Ontario
8. Describe how various non-native species have naturalized to Ontario, and explain if
and how they have been harmful
D. Understand and describe practices involved in the conservation and management of
wildlife and wildlife resources
1. Identify the rights of Ontario’s First Nations with regard to wildlife resources
2. Understand and describe how the impacts of climate change on wildlife populations
are being mitigated
3. Explain how Ontario’s rare, threatened, and endangered wildlife species, as identified
by COSEWIC, are being managed to return populations to healthy levels
4. Recommend measures to remove/reduce impact of non-native species on Ontario
Ecosystems
5. Interpret a variety of laws, agreements, treaties, etc. that govern Ontario’s wildlife
resources
6. Identify a variety of major stakeholders and agencies, including federal, provincial
and municipal government bodies, that play key roles in the management of wildlife
resources in Ontario

Application/Analysis
Students must be able to:
1. Identify wildlife species common to Ontario using a field guide, dichotomous key, or
index
2. Classify wildlife as rare, threatened, or endangered species based on COSEWIC status
categories
3. Analyse and evaluate population case studies by producing population growth curves for
each of the study’s populations, and use the graphs to explain how different factors affect
population size
4. Identify wildlife signs and describe their significance
5. Identify animals as predators, prey, herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores
6. Identify an area as suitable habitat for certain wildlife species
7. Draw and explain food chains and food webs

Evaluation/Synthesis
Students must be able to:
1. Evaluate and assess a site as suitable habitat for common Ontario wildlife species
2. Describe and evaluate factors contributing to environmental resistance and the carrying
capacity of ecosystems
3. Investigate sites for evidence of common Ontario wildlife species
4. Analyse how the change in one species’ population can affect the entire ecosystem’s food
web

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Tools & Apps
The following tools are recommended resources that can help you better prepare for the
Envirothon program.

Envirothon Guides
Copies of the Ontario Envirothon Mammal and Bird Identification Guide can be found
below:
• Ontario Mammal Identification Guide:
[Link]
• Ontario Bird Identification Guide - [Link]
identification-guide

Apps and Websites

Audubon Guides provides information on the following:
[Link]
• Insects and Spiders • Mammals
• Birds • Trees
• Mushrooms • Fish
• Wildflowers • Reptiles and Amphibian
• Butterflies

Additional Resources:
• Nature Tracking – iTrack Wildlife
• The Cornell Lab – All About Birds of North America
• iNaturalist
• eBird
• Ontario Nature
• Birds Canada
• Federal - Species at Risk
• Provincial – Species at Risk

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Wildlife Study Guide
2.0 Wildlife Ecology
2.1 Introduction
Ecology is a natural science field that explores the relationship between living organisms and their
biotic and abiotic surroundings. Wildlife ecology is a branch of ecology that investigates the
relationship between anthropogenic systems and wildlife, with the goal of understanding these
interactions. In order to better manage populations, it is important that we recognize wildlife and
society are interconnected. Population management focuses on the individual within the
population and takes many forms including reduction (e.g., hunting) or re-introduction (e.g.,
captive breeding) techniques.

We define wildlife as the collection of all animals that grow and live outside of captivity in a
specific ecosystem. The species that compose this grouping can change depending on the
geographic scale being considered – the wildlife in north America is very different from the
wildlife in our own backyards. Therefore, wildlife includes vertebrates such amphibians, reptiles,
fish, mammals, birds, and invertebrates such as terrestrial or aquatic insects. Within the scientific
community the term wildlife is commonly only applied to fauna (animals) and not flora (plants),
however this has been challenged by some modern definitions which include both. In addition,
domestic animals (i.e. cows and pigs) that have become wild, or feral, are typically not considered
wildlife.

All government and non-government wildlife management agencies in Canada have an interest in
wildlife populations, however, their jurisdiction typically dictates what populations they manage.
For instance, herptiles (reptiles and amphibians), fish, and terrestrial mammal populations are often
monitored at the provincial and municipal level, whereas migratory birds and international
fisheries (i.e. The Great lakes) are managed at the federal level. Non-government agencies are
involved across jurisdictions. Regardless, all entities are committed to the conservation of wildlife
and use varying definitions of the term. As our societies evolve, we have begun to express a wider
range of perspectives and opinions regarding the value of animals, and as a result the term wildlife
has become more inclusive. The beauty of such a fluid definition allows the user to apply the term
subjectively – it can include all vertebrate and invertebrate life that is wild.

Regardless of the definition of wildlife used, it is known that all wild organisms require resources
for the persistence of their species. These resources are grouped together in areas known as
habitats. Animals are adapted to their environment and therefore have specific habitat
requirements that may be similar or different from interspecific species, resulting in overlap with

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other animal’s needs. Animals with overlapping requirements can sometimes find themselves in
competition for limited resources (i.e. interspecific competition). The resources available in a
habitat determine species abundance and distribution, and when in short supply they can be the
limiting factor (ECCC, 2013a). Habitat is comprised of four components: Food, Shelter, Water
and Space.

Food – food is a requirement to meet an animal’s energy demands for various processes,
such as growth, reproduction, predatory avoidance, and survival during long winters or
migrations. Certain species are more specific regarding what food items they invest time
into locating and consuming (i.e. specialist vs. generalist species).
Shelter – shelter is used by animals to protect themselves from the elements, avoid
predation, or raise their young. Dense vegetation is a common form of cover, but downed
woody debris, cavities, pits, mounds, and rock piles can also serve similar purposes.
Water – water is an essential requirement for all living organisms. Certain species obtain
water from their diet/food and some are required to ingest it directly. Like humans, wildlife
species are unable to survive without water as it forms the basis of their biological
functions.
Space – animals require space to survive. Overcrowding increases competition for food,
cover, and water, and can also lead to the rapid spread of disease or parasites. For example,
moose (Alces alces) require dense forests to raise and protect newborn calves, while bald
eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) require large trees to raise their young.

Ultimately, the individual is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors which cause populations
to fluctuate. Populations are typically driven by the available resources (carrying capacity),
predators, disease, and environmental stochasticity. It is important to note that constant
population size is not typically observed in the natural world without human intervention.

2.2 Habitat Types

There are various habitat types in Ontario that support a diversity of wildlife. These habitats can
be grouped into one of two categories: terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial habitats include forests
and grasslands which are characterized by various species of trees, shrubs, and grasses. Aquatic
habitats include lakes and wetlands that are characterized by surface waters which support
unique vegetation that is adapted to living in or near these inundated environments. Below are
examples of significant habitat types that are common in Ontario.

2.2.1 Wetland Habitat

Wetlands are considered transitional habitats,
forming the connection between aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems (MNRF, n.d.). They include
a variety of sub-habitats such as bogs, swamps,
marshes, and fens (Figure 1). Each of these are
unique in their own way and can be characterized
by their distinct composition of wildlife and
vegetation communities.

Wetlands are valuable habitats on the landscape

and perform many functions that improve the
quality of water. They filter suspended sediments Figure 1 – Wetland in Algonquin Park (Hands, n.d)

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from water columns, absorb nutrients, contain and mitigate harmful chemical compounds, and
drastically reduce the chances of, and damage from flooding and erosion (Minister of Public Works
and Government Services Canada, 2004). Additionally, wetlands provide essential habitat for a
number of fish and wildlife species, including many species at risk that rely on wetlands during all
or part of their lifecycles.

Wetlands of various sizes support different types of hydroperiods which are utilized by different
wildlife species. Generally, larger wetlands have several different habitats within, supporting an
increased diversity of wildlife species (Minister of Public Works and Government Services
Canada, 2004). Large wetlands can support mass amounts of migrating waterfowl in the spring
and fall, serving as staging areas. Small wetlands are used by spawning fish during the early
spring, and vernal ponds are important breeding sites for several amphibian species and resident
waterfowl. All wetlands, no matter their composition, play an important role on the landscape by
providing wildlife with essential habitat throughout their annual cycle.

For more information about wetlands refer to the Ontario Envirothon Aquatics Module.

2.2.2 Forest Habitat

Forests make up a significant portion of Canada,
covering approximately 3.5 million km2 (Dyk et al.,
2015) and are home to many species of terrestrial plants
and animals. A forest ecosystem’s ability to support
wildlife depends on the amount of forest cover, size of
individual forest patches, forest type, and linkages to
other natural landscapes. Therefore, it is important that
forest ecosystems maintain a certain level of
connectedness across the landscape.

In Ontario, there are four main forest regions, including

Figure 2 - Northern Goshawk (Delaney n.d.) the Hudson Bay Lowlands in the far north, the boreal
forest which spans across northern Ontario, the Great
Lakes-St. Lawrence region with includes southern and central Ontario, and the deciduous forests
of southern Ontario (MNRF, 2014a). These forest regions directly influence the wildlife that
inhabit them. For example, the Hudson Bay Lowlands is home to various arctic mammals
including the artic fox (Vulpes lagopus) and polar bear (Ursus maritimus), whereas the boreal
forest and Great lakes St. Lawrence regions are home to similar species such as black bears (Ursus
americanus) and gray wolves (Canis lupus). Within these forest regions there is a large diversity
of bird species, though most notably within the deciduous and boreal forest regions (MNRF,
2014a). Our understanding of the habitat requirements and distribution of forest wildlife is
considerable. Although, we have comparatively more knowledge of forest birds than any other
group of wildlife (Figure 2), which is why they are most often used as an indicator for assessing
forest health (Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2004).

For more information about forests refer to the Ontario Envirothon Forestry Module.

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Wildlife Study Guide
2.2.3 Grassland Habitat
Grasslands are complex habitats that play a vital role
on the landscape for maintaining wildlife populations
in Ontario, and across Canada. They provide animals
with a unique habitat and supply a variety of
resources. Grasslands are used by a diversity of
wildlife, including both vertebrates and invertebrates.
They provide nesting and nursery habitat for small
mammals and birds, such as the meadow vole
(Microtus pennsylvanicus) and mallard (Anas
platyrhynchos). Grasslands also provide food
resources for a variety of consumers, including
hunting grounds for red fox (Vulpes Vulpes) and
grazing habitat for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus Figure 3 - Bobolink (Wilson, 2018)
virginianus). Most notably, grasslands act as refuge for threatened species of songbirds, such as
the bobolink (Figure 3; Dolichonyx oryzivorus) and eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna;
McCracken et al., 2013) Grasslands also provide ecosystem integrity by maintaining soil microbe
communities that are important for vegetative growth, and reduce the effects of landscape erosion
(Ducks Unlimited, 2020). Unfortunately, we have seen a drastic decline in grassland habitat
following European settlement, primarily driven by intensified agricultural practices (McCracken
et al., 2013).

2.2.4 Riparian Habitat

The riparian zone is the habitat within a stream corridor or valley, particularly the interface of trees
and shrubs between the stream and land. Riparian vegetation serves a number of functions such as
bank stabilization, physical and chemical pollutant filtration, and shading to help regulate in-
stream water temperature. Riparian habitats appear in many forms such as wetlands, forests and
vegetation buffers along streams and rivers (Figure 4). The various forms of riparian zones serve
a critical role in maintaining habitat function and connectivity by providing habitat and travel
corridors for terrestrial and aquatic wildlife (Minister of Public Works and Government Services
Canada, 2004). In Ontario, there are a number of species of wildlife that benefit from riparian
habitat including river otters (Lontra canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), brown trout
(Salmo trutta), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) which utilize the water source or
vegetation community. In addition, there is a wide variety of birds and invertebrates that can be
found in riparian zones (Mayntz, 2018).

Figure 4 - (left) Satellite image of riparian corridor in agricultural dominated landscape, in St. Jacobs, Ontario (Google
Earth 2020); and riparian habitat at ground level in southwestern Ontario (DailyTrib, 2018).

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2.3 Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a measure of the variety of living species within a specific ecosystem, or the earth
and is measured in relation to species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Ontario
is home to a variety of species, and as humans we depend on high biodiversity for clean air and
water, food and fibre, tourism, and outdoor experiences. Alternatively, low biodiversity threatens
our food supplies, medicines, and energy sources. It is important we recognize that as a society,
we have the power to manipulate biodiversity, whether to our advantage or detriment. Ultimately,
it is in our own self-interest to protect biodiversity in the areas in which we live and preserve the
interconnectedness of the ecosystems that we are part of.

The preservation of biodiversity has ecological DID YOU KNOW?

benefits. Biodiverse systems experience increased Ontario is home to hundreds of
redundancy and resiliency, providing stability to the vertebrate species, including more than
ecosystem. Redundancy occurs when more than one 80 mammal species, over 470 bird
species performs the same vital ecosystem function, species, about 60 reptile and amphibian
if one species is removed there is another species to species, more than 160 fish species, and
fill the role. Resiliency is the ability of a species to over 20,000 species of insects, spiders,
recover from, or resist the impacts of, natural or and other invertebrates. There are more
anthropogenic disturbance. Biodiversity plays a than 3,380 species of plants, over 1,000
crucial role in ecosystem resiliency and redundancy species of fungus and algae, and
by supporting the reorganization of community hundreds of species of lichens and
structure following a disturbance. Ecosystems with moss. (Ontario Biodiversity Strategy,
naturally low biodiversity are not necessarily at a 2011).
disadvantage. However, when an ecosystem with
naturally high biodiversity is reduced by human disturbance the results can be disastrous. Threats
to biodiversity are discussed in section 3.2 Threats to Wildlife. The relationship between
biodiversity and ecosystem resilience and redundancy is vital for the persistence of balanced
ecosystems.

2.4 Food Chains and Species Interactions

Within an ecosystem there are food webs and food chains.
Food webs are composed of many inter-connected food chains
that interact at one or several levels. Thus, food webs can be
simplistic or extremely complex. Regardless of their
complexity, the basic operation and format of these food
systems is dependent on the organisms involved and their
trophic level (Figure 5).

Organisms that produce energy from inorganic compounds are

called primary producers and they make up the base, or the first
trophic level, of any food chain. Plants are good examples of
primary producers, utilizing carbon dioxide and energy from
the sun they produce oxygen and complex sugars using a
process known as photosynthesis. Primary consumers,
commonly known as herbivores, are animals which are
anatomically designed to feed on primary producers (e.g.
white-tailed deer consuming clover). Figure 5 - Simple Food Chain (Clipart, n.d.).

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 Figure 6 - Illustration of a complex food web that highlights ingestion/production relationships of aquatic
invertebrates in a riverine habitat. Thickness of arrows indicates proportion of prey ingested by predator (<1 to
100%). Dashed lines show direct connections to producers (Benke 2018)

As you progress along the food-chain there are secondary and tertiary consumers. Some of these
consumers are carnivores, animals which are anatomically designed to feed on other animals (e.g.
wolves). Within this category there are two classifications, carnivores can be predators that hunt
and kill other animals; or scavengers, which feed on the carcasses and remains of already dead
animals. Lastly, omnivores are animals which feed on both plant and animal matter (Schraer &
Stoltze, 1993). Omnivores can be either secondary or tertiary consumers (e.g. bears).

An ecosystem with a high level of biodiversity will consist of complex food webs with a variety
of species at all trophic levels. The many interconnected food chains are an accurate representation
of the species relationships and interactions in an ecosystem (Khan Academy, n.d.). Typically,
food webs will include a vast amount and variety of plant species, a moderate number of herbivore
or prey species, and two or three top carnivores. Ecosystems with lower biodiversity contain less
species in total, and therefore have more simplified food webs. Generally, these food webs will
consist of fewer primary producers and herbivorous species, and a single top carnivore.

2.4.1 Species Interactions

Within ecosystems and the complex food webs that compose them, animals are constantly
interacting with their habitat and each other. There are two categories of animal interactions and it
is important to differentiate between them. Intraspecific interactions occur when animals of the
same species are in contact with one another. An example of this may be territorial defense of
habitat or breeding. Alternatively, interspecific interactions occur when two different species are
in contact with one another. A common example is the predator/prey relationship.

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Within interspecific interactions there is symbiosis which is the close and long-term interaction
between animals. This is further broken down and classified by the outcomes of the relationships
observed. Three common outcomes of symbiotic relationships are mutualism, parasitism, and
commensalism (Table 1).

Mutualism: Mutualism occurs when each individual species involved in the interaction
benefits. The animals work together, directly or indirectly, and each benefit from the
relationship. An example of a mutualistic relationship is the pollination of flowers by bees.
Bees fly from flower to flower gathering nectar, which they convert into food. During this
process, they also act as a vector of transport for pollen, helping to pollinate the plant aiding
in their reproduction.

Parasitism: Parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between animals in which one

organism benefits at the expense of the host organism. During such interactions, a parasite
attacks a host and lives on or in the organism, typically causing harm to the host. One such
example is the deer tick, which feeds on the blood of deer while potentially infecting the
deer with a variety of diseases.

Commensalism: Commensalism is when one animal benefits while the other is not
affected. The benefits in a commensalism relationship for an organism may be food,
shelter, transportation, or dispersal. One example of commensalism is the attachment of
barnacles to whales. The barnacles benefit by being transported from one area to another
and are provided with access to new resources, while the whale is unaffected by their
presence.

Table 1 - Simplistic species interactions table indicating the outcome for the individuals. (+) Indicates a positive outcome, or
gain; (-) indicates a negative outcome, or loss; (0) indicates a neutral outcome, neither gain nor loss.

Interaction Species 1 Species 2

Mutualism + +

Parasitism + -

Commensalism + 0

2.5 Population Dynamics

In ecology, the term population dynamics refers to how the size and distribution of wildlife
populations change over time (Figure 7). These changes are often a reflection of intrinsic or
extrinsic factors acting on the many individuals that make up a population and alter their habitat.
An example of an intrinsic factor that affects the population is disease. An extrinsic factor that
affects the population may be increased or decreased hunting pressure, extreme variations in
climatic conditions, or anthropogenic interference. Due to these pressures, populations of wildlife
species fluctuate annually. It is important to understand these population dynamics so that we can
identify when problematic change has occurred. For instance, a dramatic drop in population size

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can indicate disease outbreak within a species.
Inversely, unusual spikes would suggest an
increase in population size, which may spark
interspecific competition. Ultimately, it is
changes in population that are not consistent
with long-term trends which require
investigation.

Investigating the carrying capacity of a habitat

is a practical approach for understanding
population dynamics as it can tell us the
maximum number of individuals that a habitat
Figure 7 – Theoretical predator-prey population
can support without collapsing. Once dynamics over time (Beals et al. 1999).
population reaches or extends beyond
capacity, we typically observe a drastic decline or “crash”. However, there are circumstances
where populations do not collapse immediately but over a prolonged period of time. This is typical
of a generalist population who can temporarily adapt or alter their resource requirements.
Fortunately, immediate collapse of populations as a result of exploiting carrying capacity is
uncommon as natural predator-prey relationships often regulate population numbers which
prevents them from exceeding carrying capacity (Figure 8). Similarly, the predator population is
also kept in check by the abundance of the prey population and fluctuates accordingly. It is evident
that predator-prey relationships are essential in regulating populations and therefore preventing
their collapse by exceeding the carrying capacity of the ecosystem (McGraw-Hill Companies,
n.d.).

Figure 8 - The alpha male of the former Chippewa Harbor wolf pack standing over a moose carcass on Isle Royale, Michigan
(Mihell 2018).

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Case Study – Wolves and Moose on Isle Royale
Diversity in wildlife populations is a common indicator of ecosystem health and is important for
all species. Therefore, understanding biodiversity and the dynamics of the underlying populations
that compose it is crucial for maintaining healthy, resilient ecosystems. A common example of
interspecific species interactions and the role it plays in population dynamics is the predator/prey
relationship observed between moose (Alces alces) and gray wolf (Canis lupis) populations on Isle
Royale during the early 20th century. This relationship highlights the interplay between populations
of different species in confined
habitats.

In 1915, Isle Royale in Lake

Superior was ideal moose habitat,
rich in aquatic vegetation and
shrubs with approximately 200
moose inhabiting the island.
Without any predators present,
the moose population grew
substantially, reaching numbers
well over 5,000 individuals by
1928. As a result, it was reported
one year later that vegetation
resources had been drastically Figure 9 - Five Decades of Fluctuating Wolf and Moose Populations
(Vucetich, 2012).
depleted. With such a large
moose population, the island was incapable of providing enough food, and starvation and disease
ensued (McGraw-Hill Companies, n.d.). By 1941, the moose population had collapsed and was
composed of 171 individuals.

Wolves are natural predators of moose and began to appear on Isle Royale in the early 1940s
(Figure 9). Both wolf and moose numbers fluctuated annually based on food supply. With
predators present though, the moose population did not drastically increase such like it had in
previous years. The wolf and moose populations fluctuated sinuously such that as wolf population
grew the moose population decreased due to predation, forcing the balance of wolf-moose
population dynamics to shift. Eventually, the wolf population dropped from 50 individuals in 1982
to only 12 by 1988. The wolf population increased once more in the late 1990s.

Scientists speculated the shift in the wolf population could be the result of a variety of factors:
1. Wolf food supply was inadequate with younger, stronger moose being more difficult to
catch;
2. Disease may have been introduced by canines from the main land; and/or
3. With a small initial population, inbreeding depression may have occurred leading to
defective genes, suppressing reproduction viability and increasing mortality.

This study highlights the many factors that influence population dynamics including genetics,
resources, disease, and the species diversity of a system. The study further highlights the
tremendous influence of symbiotic relationships, and the importance of understanding
biodiversity and population dynamics (McGraw-Hill Companies, n.d.).

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2.6 Indicator Species
An indicator species is an animal whose presence and/or abundance suggests specific
environmental conditions and ecosystem health. Indicator species serve as valuable assessment
tools and can show a change has occurred in the biological conditions of a particular ecosystem.
By studying indicator species, scientists are able to assess the health of an ecosystem (Jaffe et. al.,
2012). Examples of indicator species include:

Invertebrates: Terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates serve as valuable indicators for

ecosystem health. Their relatively short life-spans, distinctive and established life stages,
and relative abundance allows us to investigate changes in habitat structure and function.
Honeybees and butterflies are pollinators that indicate and strongly influence the health of
plant populations. They are highly sensitivity to a plethora of factors, including temperature
and weather; parasites; as well as air, water, and soil quality. Each of these factors can help
us assess the overall health of an ecosystem (Elizabeth, 2019). In addition, benthic macro-
invertebrates are heavily dependent on sediments in aquatic ecosystems and readily
accumulate pollutants and toxins through consumption (Pastorino et al. 2020).

Fish: Fish serve as unique indicators of pollution and ecosystem health, not only through
presence and abundance, but through biological sampling. Fish have predatory feeding
habits, and an entirely aquatic life cycle which makes them vulnerable to biomagnification
and bioaccumulation of toxicants and pollutants (Chovanec et al., 2003).

Amphibians: Amphibians are useful tools for assessing environmental contamination and
pollution, ecosystem health, and habitat quality (Waddle, 2006). Their soft eggs, semi
permeable skin, dependence on moist semi-aquatic environments, predatory feeding habits,
and amphibious life cycles make them vulnerable to changes on both land and in water. In
addition, they are often found in abundance. As a result, amphibians are often used to
monitor and track changes in water quality and overall environmental health (Elizabeth,
2019).

Mammals: Mammals can be used as bioindicators because they inhabit a variety of

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They are direct connections to their environment and
exhibit various behavioural strategies, providing insight into prolonged change and
contamination of their habitat (Sutherland et al., 2018). The health of individuals is
representative of their diets, which makes them vulnerable to environmental contaminants
but allows us to assess the health status of ecosystems and populations. For example, the
American mink (Neovison vison) has been used to monitor the effects of PCBs in both
terrestrial and aquatic habitats (Sutherland et al., 2018).

Birds: Avian species can serve as indictors of ecosystem health in a variety of ways,
including presence/absence, abundance and density, and reproduction rates (Chambers,
2008). The presence of particular species is used as an indicator of forest health and
maturity (Egwumah et al., 2017). Similarly, the overall health of a system may be
interpreted as a result of nesting success. In addition, birds can be used to monitor the health
of systems that are inaccessible or too large. For example, plastic waste levels have been
assessed in the Great Lakes by exploring consumption of plastics in aquatic foraging birds
(Sigler 2014, Krantzberg, 2019).

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2.7 Seasons and Wildlife
In North America, wildlife are exposed to annual, seasonal changes commonly referred to as the
four seasons. These annual changes can have significant impacts on wildlife behaviours. Across
species, we see many adaptations to account for extreme changes in local climate. Two very
common behavioural adjustments that animals have adopted in response to seasonal climatic
change are migration and hibernation. There are several variations within these two major
behavioural responses that are observed among and between different species.

2.7.1 Migration
Migration has been adopted by individuals and populations with the ability to temporarily relocate.
Migration is commonly defined as the annual or seasonal movement of animals from one area to
another. Migration takes many forms (e.g. direct vs indirect) and does not always include every
individual in a population. Typically, individuals or populations are migrating to avoid harsh
environmental conditions, to find resources (food and shelter), or travelling to safer breeding
grounds (Parry, 2010). A variety of species from all animal groups throughout North America
exhibit migratory behaviour. We observe migration via flight, water, and land; and these patterns
may be latitudinal (north to south), longitudinal (east to west), or altitudinal (up to down) to varying
distances.
Bird Migration
Approximately 450 bird species in Canada are considered to be 'migratory' (ECCC, 2014a). The
general trend observed among migratory birds is a latitudinal, long-distance migration. Many of
these birds migrate south in the early fall towards more favourable environmental conditions and
abundant food supplies. The individuals will return in the spring to breed and raise their offspring.
However, not all birds conform to this habituation. Some species of birds are short distance
migrants or do not migrate at all such as the Canada goose (Branta canadensis). This population
exhibits short distance migrations, or no migration depending on the sub-species. Other species
exhibit extremely long-distance migration, such as the arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea), whose
journey often spans from the North Pole to the South Pole (The Arctic Tern Migration Project,
n.d.). In addition, various songbirds, waterfowl, and shorebirds will overwinter as far as South
America, and as north as New York State. Examples of Ontario migratory birds include:

• Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) – Circumnavigation

• Canada warbler (Wilsonia canadensis) – Latitudinal, long distance
• Canada (Gray) Jay (Perisoreus canadaensis) – Non-migratory
• Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) – Longitudinal, short distance
• Black-capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) – Latitudinal, short distance

For a complete list of Ontario’s migratory birds, check out Birds Canada’s Migratory
Landbird report at [Link]

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North American Flyways
No two bird species travel the exact same migration
route or distance, and many migration routes have
varying levels of complexity. However, bird
migrations are often restricted to land masses and
follow landscape features such as coast lines, mountain
ranges, and large river systems. In North America, we
track and monitor migration using various
technologies because understanding where and when
birds are migrating is crucial for their conservation.
The conventional approach used for managing
migratory waterfowl populations are the North
American Flyways (Figure 10). The flyways were
defined using traditional mark-recapture techniques
and now characterize waterfowl migration travel
routes (Ducks Unlimited n.d.). There are four distinct
flyways: the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central and Pacific
flyway. These routes vary in landscape characteristics, Figure 10 - North American Flyway delineation map
habitat, and food requirements. (Ducks Unlimited, n.d.).

Ontario’s Mississippi Flyway

The province of Ontario is often considered part of the Mississippi Flyway This flyway is abundant
in waterbird species, as Ontario provides valuable nesting habitat and stopover sites. The general
landscape composition of this flyway is flat with no significant ridges, mountains, or hills (The
Nutty Birdwatcher, 2001). This flyway encompasses all of Ontario including the entirety of the
Great Lakes, and the Canadian segment of the Mississippi river system (Ducks Unlimited, n.d.).
Nearly half of all North American bird species spend some time on the Mississippi flyway,
including the mottled duck (Anas fulvigula), little blue heron (Egretta caerulea), and brown
pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis; Audubon, 2015). Common Ontario waterfowl species in the
Mississippi Flyway are mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus) and
common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula).
Mammal Migration
Migration is not only observed in birds – many mammal species migrate as well. This includes
marine mammals such as seals and whales, flying mammals such as bats, and terrestrial mammals
such as caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) and polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Many arctic
mammals are forced to migrate due to the seasonal melting and forming of ice (Ontario Parks,
2014). The migration of bats in Canada is triggered by cool fall temperatures, which forces them
to travel to either caves, warm tree cavities, or further south in order to pass the winter months
(Hinterland, 2005). Some common examples of Ontario’s migratory mammals include:

• Hudson Bay Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)

• Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus leucas)
• Barren-ground Caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus)
• Little Brown Bat (Myotis lucifugus)

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Invertebrate Migration
While many invertebrate species found in Ontario have developed strategies to withstand the cold
including dormancy, adaptive cellular-level ‘antifreeze', or die-offs leaving dormant larval stages
over the winter (McDonough, 2011) some have found avoiding the winter entirely to be the most
effective strategy. Migratory invertebrates include beetles, dragonflies, butterflies, and moths.
Migratory invertebrates often travel by flight from Canada to the southern United States. One well
known example, the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), makes long distance migrations
travelling as far south as Mexico (NCC, 2019).

Some common examples of Ontario’s migratory invertebrates include:

• Green Darner (Anax junius)
• Giant Swallowtail Butterfly (Papilio cresphontes)
• Black Saddlebag (Tramea lacerata)
Fish Migration
A common aspect of fish phenology that is often overlooked is migration. Similar to other classes
of vertebrates and invertebrates, migration plays an important role in fish population dynamics.
There are several different stages of fish migration that are characterized as long or short distance
movements, though all of which are required for successful completion of their life cycle (Smith,
2012). Catadromous and anadromous migrations are two common types of fish migration
observed during spring and fall spawning periods. Another type of migration to consider is the
movement of fish from shallow to deep water, and vice versa. This can occur during the winter
when the dissolved oxygen levels become depleted due to high biological oxygen demand in
shallow areas, or during the summer when shallow waters become warm.

Salmonid Migration
In Ontario, several of our native salmonid populations migrate in the fall to spawn, including brook
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Non-native established populations
of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) migrate upstream in the spring to spawn. This annual
migration is not only vital for maintaining the fisheries population, but it also holds a social and
traditional values in the hearts of many outdoors enthusiasts and Indigenous communities.

2.7.2 Hibernation
Animals that cannot migrate have adopted their own strategies for survival during the changing
seasons. Hibernation is a practical alternative in which animals enter a state of highly reduced
metabolic activity and lowered body temperature (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). In Ontario,
and the northern hemisphere, animals that have adopted hibernation as their tactic for combatting
relatively extreme seasonal variations in temperature and weather can slow their metabolism and
use only stored energy sources to survive the winter (Scientific American, 1997). They remain in
their dormant state in a microhabitat known as a hibernaculum. We often use the term
hibernation very generally and apply it to all types of winter dormancy observed in herptiles, fish,
mammals and invertebrates. However, there are many different types of hibernation, and
depending on the species, there are variations of these methods. Most commonly we observe true
hibernation and torpor in mammals, brumation in herptiles, and diapause in insects.
Hibernation and Torpor
The incorrect use of the term hibernation results in confusion and makes understanding this
concept more challenging than necessary. In ecology, we less frequently use the term torpor. These

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two words describe similar patterns exhibited by animals, though they are distinct in and of
themselves. Torpor is when an individual intentionally reduces their metabolic activity process
and lowers their body temperature. Daily torpor is characterized by a reduced metabolism and low
body temperatures with continued, intermittent foraging and activity. Conversely, true hibernation
is a prolonged state of torpor lasting up to several weeks in which the animals do not forage and
rely on energy reserves and food caches within their hibernacula (Ruff and Gesier, 2015). Based
on these accepted definitions, the only Ontario mammals that are true hibernators are our bat
species and the woodchuck (Marmota monax). Bears are not considered true hibernators because
they exhibit characteristics of daily torpor. A comparable adaptation to hibernation is estivation,
in which animals enter prolonged dormancy during extremely dry and summer months.
Brumation
In general, herptile species have a similar strategy for winter survival as they too enter a period of
prolonged dormancy known as brumation. However, this strategy is characteristically different
because they are ectotherms, or cold blooded. Therefore, herptiles cannot regulate their body heat
and rely entirely on the ambient temperature of their surroundings during dormancy. Unlike the
occasional arousal observed in true hibernating mammals, this tactic forces herptiles to remain
completely dormant, or torpid, for the entire length of the winter (Wilkinson et al., 2017).

Figure 11 - Eastern garter snake (Crowley n.d.)

In Ontario, we have both terrestrial and aquatic reptiles and amphibians such as the common
snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), and eastern
garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). All of these species have very different strategies for winter
survival. Snapping turtles, and many other turtles will burrow into the mud at the bottom of
wetlands. Inversely, the spotted salamander will brumate in small burrows under decomposing
organic material. Garter snakes (Figure 11) will congregate at hibernacula burrows where they will
brumate in large groups to maintain body temperatures and avoid freezing. These different tactics
provide the herptile with a warm, moist microhabitat that helps them maintain their body
temperature and avoid desiccation.

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Wood frog
The wood frog (Figure 12; Lithobates sylvaticus) is
an endemic woodland frog species in North America
whose populations range from northern Alaska to the
east coast of Canada and the United States.

The wood frog, and many other temperate woodland

frogs though to a lesser extent, has a unique
adaptation – their bodies produce antifreeze. Wood
frogs freeze-tolerance is associated with their ability
to produce high concentrations of cryoprotectants,
glucose, and/or glycerol, and urea which are
produced in and mobilized from glycogen in the liver
(Costanzo et al., 2014). These compounds limit Figure 12 - Wood frog (DeWay, 2020).
freezing injury by lowering the equilibrium
freezing/melting point of body fluids which preserves the integrity of cell membranes, reducing
ice formation and avoiding cell rupture due to expansion (Costanzo et al., 2014).
Diapause
Insects and other invertebrates are often left out during discussions of hibernation; however, they
too undergo periods of dormancy. Though there are various types of inactivity observed in insects,
dormant behaviours known as diapause are used as a survival technique in response to seasonal
variation (Hadley, 2020). Diapause, similar to hibernation and brumation, is an insect’s natural
response to changes in environmental factors (e.g. day length, food, temperature) in which the
insect enters a prolonged period of dormancy (Hadley, 2020). Ultimately, this adaptation helps the
individuals survive extended periods of unfavorable conditions.

Duration Example Species

Daily Torpor • Short, intermittent periods of dormancy • Bears

with activity and foraging bouts
• Self-regulated body temperature

Hibernation • Prolonged dormancy with no activity or • Woodchuck

(Prolonged Torpor) foraging • Bats
• Self-regulated body temperature

Brumation • Prolonged dormancy with no foraging • Turtle

• Ambient temperature regulation • Snakes

Diapause • Prolonged dormancy with no foraging • Insects

• Ambient temperature regulation

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Discussion Questions
1. How is wildlife defined in this guide? Do you agree with this definition? If not, how would
you change it?
2. List and describe the four components of habitat.
3. Why might species be managed based on physiological capabilities?
4. How can population dynamics be used to monitor wildlife populations?
5. Explain the terms “redundancy’ and “resiliency” in relation to biodiversity. How do these
concepts contribute to ecosystem stability?
6. Describe the characteristics of hibernation, torpor, brumation & diapause.

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3.0 Humans and Wildlife
3.1 Global Change
Humankind is a significant geologic force that is driving the conversion of landscapes and
manufacturing products that are not produced naturally (Crutzen, 2006). As a global society we
are consuming resources at rates which exceed the earth’s natural ability to replenish, and
impeding ecosystem function in the process. As a result of these behaviours this recent era of
industrialization has been named the “Anthropocene” (Crutzen, 2006).

If our current habits continue, five major changes are expected to occur around the globe (Table
2). These changes will not only impact Ontario’s biodiversity, but biodiversity at global scales,
potentially leading to a massive decline in the number of plant and animal species. However, there
is hope for the future of biodiversity. Vast improvements in technology, paired with careful use
and management of natural resources, and effective restoration of the natural environment are
some of many ways to counter the progression of impacts that Anthropocene activities have on
our natural world.

Table 2 - Impacts of Global Change on Biodiversity (Sage 2019)

Expected Changes Impacts of Changes

1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide • increased photosynthesis

Enrichment • faster plant growth
• reduced transpiration
• increased occurrence and intensity of fire
• increased competition for water, food, and
nutrients. Changes in forage quality
• ocean acidification and decrease in
calcification
2. Climate Change • drier soils
Forecasted warming of 7-8°C in • warmer winters
Ontario in the long-term • disruptions of natural cycles
• increased frequency & intensity of storms
• altered photosynthesis

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 3. Land Use Change • changes in agricultural production
• reduced diversity of crops
• increased occurrence and intensity of fire

4. Terrestrial Eutrophication • increased growth of weeds

An expected increase in the amount • reduced biodiversity due to the lack of ability
of terrestrial nitrogen through use of to compete with weeds
fertilizers

5. Invasive species • infection and/or consumption of natives

species
• loss of species
• altered hydrology of an area
• altered soil properties
• altered regional climate
• altered disturbance regimes

The impacts of global change and the current state of the Anthropocene could ultimately have
devastating effects on biodiversity. It is important for an ecosystem to maintain key functions and
processes after being subjected to damage caused by ecological disturbances (NCC, n.d). Reduced
resiliency of an area results in increased vulnerability, and with fewer species contributing to the
overall function of the ecosystem, the redundancy of the system is impacted. For this reason,
current concerns regarding the impacts of the Anthropocene and global change have a focus on
biodiversity.

One common example, and a pressing concern is climate change. Increasing global temperatures
will result in variable seasons and drastically alter the floral and faunal composition of landscapes.
In turn, this will result in habitat changes for many plant and animal species. Climate change is
expected to specifically impact biodiversity in the following ways:

• Insect and/or disease breakout patterns may change, becoming more prevalent and severe
• Plant distribution will change, resulting in different types of vegetation communities
• Animal distributions will continue to change which may result in extirpation or extinction
• An increase in the frequency of extreme events and variable seasons may affect plant and
animal communities, resulting in changes to abundance and distribution.

Specific to Ontario’s biodiversity, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry
(MNRF) has identified several impacts of climate change:

• Alterations to migration timing and routes

• Changes in breeding seasons and affects to wildlife reproduction
• Altered food availability
• Decreased ice cover, changes in lake freeze-up, and earlier snowmelt
• Changes in air and water temperatures
• Non-seasonal migration to more favourable habitats
• Altered relationships between predators and prey

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 • Potential decline in specialist species with narrow habitat requirements
• Hybridization

For more information regarding the impacts of Climate Change on Ontario’s biodiversity, visit:
[Link]

3.2 Threats to Wildlife

Of the growing threats facing Ontario’s plant and animal species, there are 5 which are particularly
impactful:

1. Habitat loss and degradation

2. Pollutants
3. Invasive species
4. Overexploitation
5. Disease

The variability of these threats is what makes them so problematic. Habitat loss can occur at many
different scales and takes many different forms, negatively affecting the individual and
subsequently the population. Pollutants are a constant struggle for animals and their impacts are
influenced by their toxicity and density. Invasive species and disease are a growing concern that
have the ability to outcompete or negatively impact native species. Overexploitation has been a
constant battle for particular species, though not all wildlife species or populations are subject to
it. Overarching all of these threats is climate change, which has the potential to increase the effects
of each one of these threats, and also presents its own array of problems.

For more information regarding the impacts of Climate Change refer to the Ontario Envirothon
Climate Change Guide.

3.2.1 Habitat loss & Degradation

Habitat loss and degradation are perhaps the greatest concern for Ontario’s wildlife. Certain types
of habitats are disappearing at a tremendous rate. In particular wetlands are being filled-in for
agricultural and industrial development; forests are being clear cut or fragmented for development
and natural resource extraction; and grasslands are being ploughed, fenced or converted to pasture
for high densities of livestock (Champagne, 2005). These alterations are driven by human demand
and are a result of direct human land-use alterations.

One of the greatest contributors to habitat loss is population expansion and urbanization. Our
increase in population has resulted in heightened demands for industrial facilities, housing
complexes, urban centres and natural resources. As a result, urbanization has converted many
wildlife habitats into neighbourhoods, factories, airports, and shopping malls (Champagne, 2005).
Although urbanization has destroyed many species’ habitats, it has not removed species altogether.
Many generalist species, such as black bears and raccoons (Procyon lotor), have adapted to live
amongst human obstructions, resulting in an increased volume of human-wildlife interactions.

3.2.2 Pollutants
In addition to the effects of urbanization on habitat loss, the by-products of our daily lives such as
sewage, exhaust, trash, agricultural/lawn chemicals and industrial emissions infiltrate the natural
environment through air and water (National Wildlife Federation, 2015). These products are used
in different industries, around the house, and in agriculture operations. Common pollutants that

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affect aquatic and terrestrial wildlife, even with their limited or discontinued use, are Mercury,
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, herbicides and insecticides. Pollutants enter natural
systems and make their way through the food webs and ecosystems, eventually ending in the
wildlife species living in the affected or connected habitats. Unfortunately, these products can pose
serious direct and indirect health risks to exposed species (Champagne, 2005).

Many pollutants are hydrophobic (water-hating) and lipophilic (fat-loving), meaning they are not
easily diluted in water and readily bond to fatty tissues of organisms. As a result, pollutants can
cause serious problems when introduced to terrestrial and aquatic systems because they are
persistent and cannot be - or are very slowly, broken down by natural processes. These persistent
pollutants are transferred along food chains and among food webs faster than they are broken down
or excreted (Van Der Hoop, 2013). There are two routes that pollutants can enter these systems,
bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Figure 13), both of which are a direct representation of the
animal’s habitat and diet. Bioaccumulation is the buildup of contaminants in an organism’s system
from pollutants they have encountered in their environment and diet. The concentration of
persistent pollutants accumulates in an individual over extended periods of time (i.e. lifetime).

Figure 13 - Bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Van Der Hoop, 2013).

Biomagnification refers to an increase in the concentration of substances as you progress along a

food chain. The concentration of the pollutant is often greater across the top of food webs and
among the individuals at higher trophic levels.

Both bioaccumulation and biomagnification refer to very similar, converse concepts regarding the
build-up of pollutants within a system or individual. A top predator will bioaccumulate large
amounts of pollutants in its lifetime as a result of the biomagnification of pollutants within their
diet. This can have acute or chronic affects depending on the substance.

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3.2.3 Invasive Species
Non-native species or “alien species” are a species or subspecies which are intentionally or
unintentionally introduced, often by human activity, to an environment which is outside of their
natural distribution. Non-native species can be non-invasive or invasive. Invasive non-native
species are characterized by their tendency to spread and cause damage to the introduced
ecosystem and can also impact the economy and human health. Invasive species pose a significant
threat to biodiversity, as they are able to out-compete native species and alter ecosystems, resulting
in a reduction of native flora and fauna (OFAH & OMNR, n.d.).
One example of such a species is the zebra mussel (Figure 14;
Dreissena polymorpha). This freshwater mussel was introduced
into Ontario’s lakes, and has disrupted ecosystem composition,
clogged water intake pipes and has negatively affected public
beaches (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2016). Other examples
of non-native invasive species include the Asian carp (Cyprinus
carpio), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), sea lamprey
(Petromyzon marinus), emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis),
didymo (Didymosphenia geminate), Mute swan (Cygnus olor),
Figure 14 - Zebra mussel (Fisheries and
European Starling (Sturnus vulgarus) and round goby (Neogobius Oceans Canada, 2019).
melanostormus).

For more information on invasive species refer to the Ontario Envirothon Invasive Species Guide.

3.2.4 Harvest and Overexploitation

In Ontario, and across Canada, wildlife managers regulate harvest rates through permitting and
licensing for game species, which allows managers to effectively control populations through
regulated harvest. The allowable harvest is based on current estimates of the populations – if
populations are low, there is limited or no harvest – if populations are high, harvest limitations are
liberal. This approach has a proven track record and is the pinnacle of North American wildlife
management framework. However, this method does not work when overexploitation and
unregulated harvest take place. Overexploitation is the harvest of individuals at a rate higher than
can be sustained by the natural reproductive capacity of the species. All populations are subject to
annual reductions, whether natural or anthropogenic. However, reductions due to unregulated or
overharvest can have dramatic impacts on the persistence of a population, ranging from reduced
genetic variability to complete collapse.

There are many case studies of the impacts of overharvest in Ontario. For example, wild turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo) populations has previously collapsed due to unregulated harvest, though
are now a provincial success story for reintroduction programs. Similarly, Lake Ontario’s native
Atlantic salmon population is deemed extirpated as a result of over-fishing. This population has
since been re-introduced through hatchery stocking programs from various government and non-
government agencies. In addition, many other fish species of Ontario are susceptible to the effects
of unsustainable use through overfishing, examples include the shortnose Cisco (Coregonus
reighardi), shortjaw Cisco (Coregonus zenithicus) and the Lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens)
(Ministry of Natural Resources, 2016).

3.2.5 Disease
Disease plays an essential role in controlling populations. However, despite being a normal
occurrence, factors such as climate change can influence the distribution, occurrence and increase

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the impact of disease felt by a population. Most ecosystems include disease-causing organisms
such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites.

A healthy ecosystem with greater genetic and species diversity is more resilient to the impacts of
disease for several reasons. First, greater genetic diversity increases resistance to battle a particular
disease, and the probability of transmission of this trait. Second, diversity and resiliency imply that
an array of species exist to fulfill overlapping roles. The loss of one species to disease may be less
impactful when there are numerous other species that are able to withstand that disease. Unhealthy
ecosystems or those with lower biodiversity can be more vulnerable to the impacts of disease, as
the loss or decline of a species can cause immediate impacts to which the ecosystem cannot quickly
adapt.

Chronic wasting disease (Spongiform encephalopathy)

Chronic wasting disease is a highly contagious, chronically fatal disease that infects cervids such
as white-tailed deer, moose and elk. A prion, which is a modified protein, causes the disease
(National Wildlife Federation, 2015) which attacks the central nervous system and affects the
infected animals’ behaviour and overall health. This can be problematic for Ontario wildlife
managers as it directly impacts a game species which can have cascading problems for population
management and regional economies.

Whirling disease
Whirling disease is a parasite, Myxobolus cerebralis, that
can infect trout, salmon, and whitefish. This disease
damages nerves and cartilage of developed and
developing fish, leading to mortalities in juveniles and
causing adult fish to swim in a repetitive, whirling
(circular) motions (Figure 15). This behaviour makes it
difficult for the individual to forage and increases their
vulnerability to predation (National Wildlife Federation,
2015). This is problematic as whirling disease has the
potential to directly affect the population dynamics of
desirable game species in the province of Ontario and Figure 15 - Brown Trout infected with Whirling
Disease (Trout Unlimited Canada n.d.)
beyond.

White-nose Syndrome
White-nose Syndrome is a disease which impacts
Ontario’s native bat populations. Hundreds of thousands
of bats have been infected since the disease was first
observed. The fungus (Pseudogymnoascus destructans)
effects bats by infecting the skin of their muzzles, ears,
and wings causing irritation and arousal from hibernation
(National Wildlife Federation, 2015). Infected bats can
display erratic behaviour such as daytime flying and
movement towards the cave entrances during winter Figure 16 - Ontario bat showing fungus associated
months. This unnecessary additional activity consumes with White Nose Syndrome (MNRF, 2010).
their limited fat stores, leading to starvation.

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3.3 Species at Risk
Species at risk refers to any wildlife species that is in danger of becoming extirpated or extinct
(COSEWIC, n.d). The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)
is the organization that assesses the status of species believed to be at risk throughout Canada.
COSEWIC was established in 1977 and is composed of members representing experts from the
scientific community; specialists in community and Indigenous traditional knowledge; and federal,
provincial, and territorial agencies responsible for managing wildlife (COSEWIC, n.d). Within
Ontario the Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO) is responsible for
determining which species should be listed as a Species at Risk (MNRF, 2014b).

COSSARO and COSEWIC use the best available scientific information, community knowledge,
and traditional Indigenous knowledge to determine which species should be listed ‘at risk’.
Members of both organizations also assess reports on the status of wildlife species that are believed
to currently be at risk. Based off the reports they then assign these species to one of the following
five categories:

1. Extinct: a wildlife species that no longer exists.

2. Extirpated: a wildlife species no longer existing in the wild in Canada or in a specific
geographic range but occurring elsewhere.
3. Endangered: a wildlife species facing imminent extirpation or extinction.
4. Threatened: a wildlife species likely to become endangered if threats are not addressed.
5. Special concern: a wildlife species that may become a threatened or an endangered species
because of a combination of biological characteristics and identified threats.

Not included in the Species at Risk status, but still an important category to consider:

Rare Species: an organism that exists in low numbers in a defined area or in a very
restricted area, as a result of its biological characteristics or because it is at the edge of its
range, but these numbers are not threatened.

For an official and up-to-date list of Species at Risk in Canada under any of the above statuses,
please visit the Government of Canada’s Species at Risk Registry here:
[Link]

For an official and up-to-date list of Species at Risk in Ontario with any of the above statuses
please visit: [Link]

3.3.1 Why are they at Risk?

The number of native Canadian plant and animal species that are at risk of disappearing is growing.
Species face a number of ongoing threats that vary in complexity, although habitat destruction and
environmental contamination as a result of human impact are the most prevalent stressors (ECCC,
2014b). Other factors contributing to the decline of species populations include the spread of
disease, invasive species infringement on natural habitats, and overexploitation of already
exhausted species (Hogan, 2014).

The international trade of plants and animals is estimated to be worth billions of dollars annually.
The global wildlife trade is diverse and is comprised of live plants and animals as well as a vast
array of other animal products (e.g. bones, organs, hides, etc.). Some species have become heavily

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exploited, and as a result have gained higher trading values; this increased value in combination
with other factors (e.g. habitat loss) is enough to severely deplete at-risk populations, bringing
these species closer to extinction.

Plants and Animals at Risk in Ontario

• 6 extinct species (no longer exist in the wild anywhere).

• 16 extirpated species (no longer exist in Ontario but are found elsewhere in the wild).
• 115 endangered species (facing imminent extinction or extirpation in Ontario).
• 56 threatened species (at risk of becoming endangered if threats are not addressed).
• 50 species of special concern (species with characteristics that make them sensitive to human
activities and/or natural events).
(Updated as of May 2020)

Discussion Questions
1. Are there any Species at Risk in your area? What is the main reason for the decline of this
species? How can your school or community aid in recovery efforts?
2. How have humans impacted local plant and wildlife populations in your region? List both
the positive and negative impacts.
3. Can you think of any major or minor disturbances/natural disasters that have occurred in
Ontario in your lifetime? What were the resulting impacts on biodiversity?
4. Compare and contrast bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Describe the process for
both concepts and how they intersect.
5. Select a wildlife disease to research. Is it impacting wildlife in your area? How?

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4.0 Conservation and Management
4 .1 Indigenous Rights and Wildlife
Indigenous peoples have directly relied on natural resources for centuries. Their peoples have a
rich tradition of hunting, trapping, and fishing which continues today. As a result, Indigenous
communities have developed an intimate knowledge and connection to their territorial lands, its
wildlife and the natural forces that shape it. This respect for the land is depicted in many of their
traditional songs, dances, festivals, and ceremonies. For example, among the Woodlands First
Nations, a hunter would talk or sing to a bear before it died, thanking the animal for providing
much-needed food (Government of Canada, 2017).

A “Treaty Right” is another classification that protects the traditional rights of Indigenous peoples.
More specifically, a treaty is an agreement between an Indigenous group and the British Crown.
For example, in the Robinson Treaties of 1850, Indigenous leaders of the Ojibway communities
living along the northern shores of Lake Huron and Lake Superior agreed to cede 50,000 square
miles of land to the British Crown in exchange for various payments and the promise that
Indigenous peoples could continue hunting and fishing throughout the ceded territory
(Government of Ontario, 2015).

These traditions and customs that were practiced prior to European colonization are referred to as
Indigenous rights. Although these rights vary from group to group depending on their distinctive
cultures, they generally designate rights to specific land for cultural purposes. Additionally,
hunting for food, community, or ceremonial traditions is also a protected right, and these activities
may be carried out in a modern way with contemporary equipment. However, the commercial
trade of game and furs is viewed by the courts as a product of European influence rather than
integral to Indigenous societies prior to contact, and thus is not a protected right (The Canadian
Encyclopedia, 2019).

4.2 Managing Wildlife Populations

Wildlife are monitored to ensure their populations remain stable and that access to adequate habitat
and resources is unobstructed. Wildlife is also monitored to understand life cycles and behaviour
so we can better manage populations. Wildlife managers serve many roles including maintaining
landscape and habitat, directly controlling populations (e.g. culling), conducting research and
communicating their findings. In addition, wildlife managers analyze the interactions between

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wildlife and a variety of different factors such as habitat loss, humans, and invasive species, of
which all may contribute to a decline or increase in population numbers. Understanding the drivers
behind population dynamics provide valuable insight that can ultimately help mangers control
population dynamics.

There are two fundamental ethics that guide wildlife management: conservation and preservation.
Conservation allows for the mindful use of a resource (e.g. seasonal hunting, trapping, and fishing)
under careful supervision by wildlife managers and enforcement officers who implement
regulations defined in Acts to avoid the overexploitation or mistreatment of species or habitats.
Alternatively, preservation removes humans from the system, prohibiting consumption of
resources and minimizing human impacts within existing ecosystems or populations. This practice
is often used when species and/or ecosystems are sensitive to human disturbance. There are various
degrees of wildlife management, from complete population control (stocked fisheries) to indirect
managed (stocked, self-sustaining populations). Deciding on the most appropriate degree of
wildlife management for an ecosystem depends on the goal of the management and must account
for all factors involving the environment, economy, and society. Techniques for managing wildlife
populations vary by species and project, however, the overall goal and reasons for management
remain largely the same – managing the resources to ensure its persistence.

4.3 Monitoring and Tracking Species

Radio Telemetry and GPS Tracking
There are multiple techniques and tools that wildlife managers use for tracking species movement
and exploring habitat use. Radio Telemetry is an active tracking technique that uses the
transmission of very high frequency (VHF) radio signals to locate a transmitter that is placed on
the animal of interest. For this technique the animal is captured, and the transmitters are attached
using various styles of collars, backpack harness’ or implants. Radio telemetry allows biologists
to monitor large mammals such as wolves, elk, and bear, as well as smaller mammals such as
martens and shrews (Ministry of Environment, 1998).

Another, more contemporary technique for

tracking animal movement and habitat
preference is the use of GPS (Global Positioning
System) transmitters. GPS tracking is a passive
technique that relies on communication between
the transmitter and satellites through
communication networks. Within the last decade
this technology has become more advanced, and
wildlife managers and research scientists are
capable of deploying GPS transmitters on a
variety of species from large mammals to small
migratory birds. GPS technology is commonly
attached to the captured animal using a collar or
backpack harness (Figure 17). The technique Figure 17 – Female mallard with a backpack harness GPS
provides researchers with high resolution transmitter used to invesitgate habitat use and movement
patterns (Dyson 2019)
information regarding the location and
movement behaviour of the animal relative to
landscape features.

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4.3.1 Mammals
In Ontario, the MNRF is largely responsible for the monitoring and management of terrestrial
mammal populations. Monitoring programs include radio telemetry and GPS tracking, large and
small mammal trapping, furbearer management and harvest reports which assist decision making
regarding the extent of management required for populations. Radio telemetry and GPS tracking
provides mangers with valuable insight into how species are using the landscape and allows them
to further hypothesize reasons why animals behave in such ways. Like many other class-specific
monitoring programs (e.g. birds), trapping is an effective approach for estimating population size,
abundance and density. It is important to understand, though, that each of these programs relies on
a suite of additional support from external data sources and statistical modelling.

Harvest Reporting and Furbearer management: In Ontario and across Canada,

provincial level natural resource agencies rely on harvest reporting to track the number of
individuals removed from a population through hunting and trapping. This information is
vital for the conservation of species. Harvest reports include information regarding spatial,
temporal and biological data such as date, time, location, species, age, and sex. Harvest
reporting surveys in Ontario include moose, white-tailed deer, wild turkey, and bear. In
addition to hunter harvest, there is furbearer trapping. Monitoring furbearer populations is
completed through data collection from trappers. Critical information includes trend data
such as the amount of time spent trapping, the number of animals harvested, and the
number of pelts sold.

4.3.2 Amphibians
In Ontario, amphibian populations are monitored by provincial government agencies and regional
conservation authorities. Due to the nature of these surveys, they are also dependent on community
volunteers. Monitoring frogs and toads throughout Ontario relies on call recognition surveys
during the spring breeding periods. Each species has a unique call, allowing surveyors to detect a
particular species presence, location, and timing. This help researchers assess species abundance
and distribution. This is a cost efficient and user-friendly method making it a valuable approach
for monitoring frog populations.

There are many ways for the community to get involved in amphibian monitoring in Ontario such
as backyard surveys and road call counts. In addition, the FrogWatch program, an affiliate of the
Toronto Zoo Adopt-a-Pond program, is a way to involve volunteers in frog monitoring. It was
implemented to encourage community involvement in monitoring frogs and protecting local
wetlands. Additionally, volunteers can get involved with the Great Lakes Marsh Monitoring
Program, an affiliate of Bird Studies Canada (Toronto Zoo, n.d.; Bird Studies Canada, n.d.).

Backyard Surveys: Volunteers have the opportunity to conduct a backyard survey by

listening for three minutes in their backyards each night between April and August.
Volunteers are asked to record species observed/heard, relative humidity, air temperature,
and time of night. Information provided is useful in detecting changes in population, calling
dates and emergence of amphibians.

Amphibian Road Call Counts: During an amphibian road call count, surveyors are to
identify and estimate number of species by sight and sound. Volunteers are assigned a
designated survey route where traffic, aircraft, or other man-made noises are not of
concern. This allows surveyors to identify and estimate species without noise obstructions.

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 Data collected over the years indicates annual amphibian breeding sites and density
estimates.

4.3.3 Birds
Birds provide many important ecological services throughout their annual cycle, serving as vectors
for plant dispersal and acting in multiple roles in various food webs. Due to their important
relationship with various ecosystems, changes in bird populations can be investigated to gage
ecosystem health. In Ontario, bird populations are monitored by federal, provincial and municipal
authorities. Federal entities include the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS), which acts as a
provincial extension of the government of Canada; NGOs like Birds Canada and Ducks Unlimited
Canada are key contributors to research and funding; and the Ontario MNRF.

Birds are relatively abundant and easy to observe through sight and sound, and there are many
different species of birds with diverse habitat requirements for breeding, migrating, and over-
wintering. Therefore, bird surveys tend to be cost effective and user-friendly for assessing
population status. Some of the many ways we can monitor bird populations include:

Christmas Bird Count: The Christmas Bird Count is North America’s longest-running
citizen science project. Information is collected by thousands of volunteers who watch and
count birds in the field or at feeders for portions of the day. The results are used to assess
population trends and distribution of birds. The count is done one day in the winter in
various locations across North America.

Bird Banding: Bird banding is a capture-mark-recapture (or re-sight) method in which

birds are captured using various techniques and affixed with aluminum leg bands and then
released (Figure 18). This method relies on
recapture, re-sighting, or harvest reporting
of the aluminum leg band identification
numbers. This provides researchers with a
starting point and an end point, with the
possibility of multiple re-sights and
recaptures in between. These banding data
are useful in both research and
management projects, as it helps identify
individuals and keep track of species or
subspecies, and most importantly estimate
population size. In addition, banding can
assist in monitoring migration patterns,
within-season movements, survival and Figure 18 - Male tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor)
harvest rates, reproductive success, and receiving an aluminum leg band (Unknown, n.d.)
population growth (Government of Canada, 2020).

Breeding Bird Survey (BBS): The BBS is a continent-wide volunteer based roadside
survey designed to measure long-term changes in breeding bird populations (Konze and
McLearen, 1997). Canadian participants survey assigned routes during the spring with the
during peak breeding season. The starting point and direction of routes are selected
randomly in order to sample a range of habitats. Each of the participants surveys their

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 individual route for as many consecutive years as possible; routes consist of 50 stops
spaced 0.8 km apart along a 39.4 km route. The participants record the total number of
individual bird species heard or seen within 0.4 km of each stop during a three-minute
observation. Data on starting and finishing times, as well as weather conditions, are also
recorded (ECCC, n.d.).

4.3.4 Insects
The depletion of natural resources and collapse of ecosystems as a result of extensive agriculture,
forestry and urbanization has immediate, negative impacts on many important terrestrial and
aquatic invertebrate populations. These insects are vital components for thousands of food chains
providing the foundation for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem food webs, through direct
consumption and pollination (McCarthy, 2017). In Ontario, there are a variety of researchers who
monitor terrestrial insect populations including NGOs and academia; and provincial and municipal
authorities who also study aquatic insects.

In recent years, there has been a large push for terrestrial

insect population management as our understanding of
the cascading effects of pesticides and insecticides has
drastically increased. Two prime examples are bumble
bees and the monarch butterfly (Figure 19). In Canada,
some of our native bumble bee species have received
federal designations for endangered, special concern,
and threatened, including the rusty-patched bumble bee
(Bombus affinis), yellow-banded bumble bee (Bombus
terricola) and the western bumble bee (Bombus
occidentalis occidentalis) respectively (Environment
Canada 2014b, COSEWIC, 2015). Of the many species Figure 19 - Tagged Monarch Butterfly
found in in Ontario, the yellow banded and the rusty- (Entomologist David James, Washington State
University, 2013).
patched bumble bee are monitored and managed
individually. Similarly, monarchs are a federally protected insect that are monitored in Ontario and
across the country, using a variety of techniques (Environment Canada 2014c), including:

• Habitat assessments
• Breeding and population monitoring
• Population censuses
• Monitoring migration
• Individual monarch assessments

These techniques are used to monitor and assess local densities of breeding monarchs throughout
their range, numbers of individuals passing through migratory stop over sites, and size of area
occupied in their winter range. One specific program, the Monarch Larva Monitoring Project
(MLMP) assesses the timing and location of fall and spring migratory cycles. However, it is often
difficult to assess population dynamics due to the large area of the Monarchs annual migratory
cycle. The goal for the MLMP is to understand how and why monarch populations vary in time
and space (Oberhauser et al., 2009).

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4.3.5 Fish
Fisheries are active in 24% of Canada’s 250,000 freshwater inland lakes, the Canadian portion of
the four Great Lakes, and countless rivers and streams (MNRF, 2006). Monitoring fisheries
populations in the province is very important not only for ecosystem structure and function, but
also because fisheries provide commercial and recreational economic benefit, all of which is
redirected back into the fishery. In the province, fisheries are managed at the federal, provincial
and municipal level of governments and also with help from NGOs. There are several measures in
place to ensure the health of freshwater ecosystems. Fisheries habitats are regularly monitored,
maintained and repaired; and native species are actively protected from disease and invasive
species. Additionally, fish populations are routinely monitored through techniques such as electro-
fishing, tagging and marking as well as trap netting.

Electro-fishing: Electro-fishing employs an electrical current which momentarily stuns

fish or forces them to involuntarily swim towards an electrical field for collection (EPA,
2014). Electrofishing is a common technique used by fisheries biologists and conservation
authorities to sample fish populations in bodies of freshwater including lakes, rivers,
streams and ponds (Figure 20). Fisheries managers use this method to learn details about
fish populations such as species composition, age and sex distribution, and presence of
invasive species (Smith-Root International, 2015).

Figure 20 - Participants learning how to use Back-pack Electrofishing Equipment in a training workshop (Smith-Root
International, 2015).

Tagging and Marking: Information gathered through tagging and mark-recapture can aid
researchers in the evaluation of abundance, migration patterns, birth rates, mortality rates,
and harvest levels of different aquatic populations. The mark-recapture method is the most
commonly used technique; this is where a fish is captured, marked with a tag and then
released. Upon re-sampling, any previously marked individuals are recorded. Tags can be
applied using various methods including anchor tags, passive integrated transponders (PIT)
tags, and suture tags depending on the species and the research goal.

Netting and Trapping: In Ontario, there are several methods for netting and trapping
species. End of spring trap netting (ESTN) is a standard live release passive capture
program designed to estimate the relative abundance and biological measures to assess the
status of Walleye (Sander vitreus) populations in Ontario during the spring. In the fall, fall
walleye index netting (FWIN) can also be completed. In addition, other passive netting
techniques include modified fyke netting (MFN) and near shore community index netting

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 (NSCIN) which are not specifically focused on species capture but instead provide insight
into fisheries populations that use the littoral zone. The data collected can be used to
investigate fisheries population dynamics, fishing pressure, and generalized comparisons
with other lakes in Ontario. These program takes place year-round, with modifications
made for trapping through the ice during the winter.

4.4 Mitigation Measures

4.4.1 Solutions for Preserving Biodiversity
Habitat loss is one of the greatest threats’ species are confronted with throughout Ontario and
across Canada. Therefore, reducing habitat loss is one of the most effective ways of preserving
biodiversity in any given ecosystem. Increased development and road construction have led to
declines in, and fragmentation of, contiguous habitats. Regional planners can be proactive when
developing communities, ensuring a thorough habitat assessment is completed prior to
construction with the goal of maintaining the best quality habitat. In addition, planners can
consider developing with animal movement behaviours and habitat use in mind. For example,
reducing the amount of fragmentation by maintaining travel corridors and naturalized green spaces
(i.e. forests and grasslands) provides optimal habitat for animals in developed areas. In addition,
increasing public awareness of biodiversity loss is just as important for maintaining the local
biodiversity in our communities.

The Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility provides some tips on how to increase
biodiversity:

• Develop a community-based monitoring program

• Transform an empty lot into wildlife habitat
• Create natural spaces around buildings
• Join a conservation group
• Fish sustainably
• Assist in completing a wildlife survey or bird count
• Take part in an endangered species recovery project

Governments must also do their part. Implementing

FUN FACT legislation to protect species that are currently, or are
expected to become, at risk is a powerful way to
Canada was the first industrialized conserve biological diversity. In Ontario, legislation
nation to ratify an international such as the provincial Endangered Species Act and
agreement to conserve the world’s the federal Species at Risk Act help to protect species
biological diversity. The treaty, by developing management plans that aim to increase
known as the “Convention on their population size and protect necessary resources
Biological Diversity,” took effect in such as food, shelter, and general habitat. In addition,
December 1993 (Government of recovery plans identify ways to improve the status of
Canada, n.d.). species that are designated as threatened, endangered,
or extirpated, and provide suggested methods on how
best to do so.

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4.4.2 Habitat Protection
Governments and other stakeholders (i.e. Indigenous groups, private organization, non-
government organizations, the public, etc.) have a joint interest in the protection and wise use of
Canada’s wildlife and ecosystems. In particular, Environment and Climate Change Canada
oversees a network of protected areas, National Wildlife Areas (NWA) and Migratory Bird
Sanctuaries (MBS), with the intent of conserving ecosystems that support a diversity of healthy
wildlife populations (ECCC, 2013b). There are laws and policies in place to prevent harm from
being done to habitats that fall within these protected areas, including:

• Canada Wildlife Act

• Migratory Birds Convention Act
• Species at Risk Act
• Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
• Wildlife Policy for Canada
• Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation

The CWS oversees much of the on-the-ground protection of wildlife habitats under instruction
from Environment and Climate Change Canada. CWS is responsible for protecting and managing
deteriorating habitats of migratory birds, federal species at risk, and other species of national
interest (ECCC, 2013b). Provincial parks and local conservation areas are managed provincially
and regionally and serve similar functions to those of NWAs.

4.5 Wildlife Management, Protection and Recovery

4.5.1 Endangered Species Act (ESA)
In Ontario, the ESA is the primary provincial legislation protecting listed wildlife species. The
ESA provides broad protection provisions for species at risk and their habitats, enhanced support
for volunteer participation from private landowners and partners and effective enforcement
provisions. This legislation demands strong protection measures for species at risk and their
habitats, as well as the creation of stewardship programs to assist in the protection of species at
risk. Furthermore, when a species is listed as endangered or threatened, the MNRF engages
individuals and agencies with expertise on the species to write recovery strategies and management
plans.

4.5.2 Species at Risk Act (SARA)

Under SARA, the Government of Canada must take into consideration the designations made by
the Species at Risk Advisory Committee when establishing the federal list of Wildlife Species at
Risk. Passed in 2002, this Act requires federal organizations to provide guidelines on appropriate
recovery strategies for listed species. All governments and stakeholders must utilize and follow
these strategies to protect species at risk and the natural habitats essential to their survival. The
legislations within SARA encourage people to balance their needs with the needs of species at
risk.

4.5.3 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of

Wild Fauna and Flora
CITES is an international agreement between governments, with the objective to ensure that the
international trade of wild plant and animals does not threaten their survival. Since coming into
effect in 1974, 183 parties have joined the convention, with Canada being the 10th country.
Although many internationally traded wildlife species are not endangered, CITES helps to protect

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the future use of these resources by serving as an additional level of protection (CITES, n.d.).
Participation in the Convention is voluntarily, though many countries have used the CITES
framework to help implement national laws.

4.5.4 Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and
Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA)
WAPPRIITA’s role is to protect both Canadian and foreign plant and animal species which are at
risk of overexploitation through illegal trade. This Act also protects Canadian ecosystems from the
introduction of invasive species considered to be harmful by regulating international trade of
wildlife species and derived products (ECCC, 2014d).

4.5.5 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Species
Programme
The IUCN Global Species Programme together with the IUCN Species Survival Commission
(SSC) is responsible for assessing the conservation status of species on a global scale (IUCN, n.d).
Their responsibility is to provide scientifically based and objective information regarding the
current status of globally threatened flora and fauna. Conservation status information is essential
to inform decisions regarding the conservation of biodiversity at both local and global levels
(IUCN, n.d). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species was created to globally identify individual
species at risk of extinction. It is universally recognized as the most in-depth global approach for
the evaluation of the conservation status of plants and animals (IUCN, n.d).

4.6 Citizen Science

Citizen science is a practice in which members of the general public collect and share data relating
to various topics, with the overall goal of increasing the collective knowledge of the natural world.
The increasing interest in this practice can be attributed to the advancement of technology which
allows researchers and scientist to collaborate with public participants and provides a convenient
platform for data sharing (Adler et al. 2020). Moreover, this approach is becoming more appealing
to researchers as the data provided by citizen scientists is increasingly available and applicable for
effective management and conservation initiatives. In addition, and one key aspect of any research
project is cost – data collection is expensive. Citizen science is volunteer based; therefore, data
collection is very cost efficient, which in turn may allow researchers to allocate funds to projects
that are unattainable through citizen science.

Citizen science-based projects play an important role in understanding wildlife ecology, both in
the province of Ontario and around the globe. Many of these projects have common scientific goals
which can be met using citizen science data. Citizens have collected both regional and local data
regarding species distribution and population dynamics, habitat loss, effects of climate change on
species distribution, and the spread of biological invasions (e.g. invasive species and disease; Adler
et al., 2020). This vast array of species- and population-specific data, which may otherwise be
unattainable, provides additional insight into many of the notions of wildlife ecology.

In Ontario, there are various organizations that offer citizen science programs including Ontario
Nature and Birds Canada. These organizations rely on dedicated and involved nature enthusiasts
to contribute their knowledge and understanding of the natural environment. Projects aim to
provide people of all age groups and abilities with opportunities to contribute and to learn from
others. Examples of citizen science programs include the Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas, Bumble
Bee Watch, EDD Maps Ontario (invasive species mapping) and MilkWeedWatch. Additionally,

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individuals can get involved through online resources such as eBird, iNaturalist, and Project Feeder
Watch.

Discussion Questions
1. What are the two fundamental ethics that guide wildlife management? Describe each.
2. Select one of the species types listed in this section of the guide and describe how their
populations are monitored.
3. The Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility provides suggestions for increasing
biodiversity which are listed in this section of the guide. What additional activities could
you suggest which would increase or protect biodiversity in your area?
4. Within Ontario the ESA is the primary legislation protecting listed wildlife species, do
you feel this legislation provides enough protection? If not how would you propose
changing it?
5. How can citizen science help inform wildlife management and protection?

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Glossary
Abiotic – non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms and the
functioning of ecosystems (i.e. light, humidity, pH, temperature).

Adapt (ed/ation) - the process by which an organism makes adjustments to suit their environment.
Adaptations be generic (inherited) or behavioural.

Anadromous – the movement of migratory fish from the sea to freshwater spawning sites.

Bioaccumulation - the storing and building up of contaminants in the tissues of organisms.

Biomagnification – the process by which increased levels of contaminants occur in a top predator due to
eating prey who have themselves consumed contaminants at a lower level.

Biotic –living components that shape an ecosystem (i.e. predators, prey, diseases).

Carnivore(s) - a meat eater.

Carrying Capacity – the maximum population of a species that an ecosystem can support without
experiencing environmental degradation.

Catadromous – the movement of migratory fish from freshwater to marine spawning sites.

Crypto protectants – Biologically produced substance the protects biological tissues from freezing
damage (i.e. cell rupture).

Desiccation - drying out; the loss of water content.

Ectotherm – an organism which relies external sources to generate body heat; cold-blooded

Endemic – species which are restricted to limited, specific geographic locations (i.e. ecological region,
province, country).

Environmental Stochasticity – See Stochastic – Unpredictable fluctuations of environmental patterns in

space and time.

Food chain – liner representation of energy transfer from plants through a series of animals, with
repeated eating and being eaten.

Food web – Illustrated representation of interconnected food chains for an ecological community,
demonstrates energy transfer between organisms.

Furbearer – A mammal that has fur, or a pelt, of commercial value.

Game species - legal designation for animals that may be managed and hunted only under regulation.

Generalist – Animals that are capable of surviving in a wide range of environmental conditions and
habitats with limited and variable resources.

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Habitat - the food, water, shelter and space necessary for the survival of a species.

Herbivore - a plant eater.

Hibernacula – a place where a species seeks refuge during hibernation.

Hibernation - the act of passing the winter in a state of torpor, which may include sleep, lowered
metabolism and lowered body temperature.

Hydroperiod – seasonal pattern of water levels in a wetland, incudes flooding and/or soil saturation.

Interspecific – occurring between different species.

Invasive - a species that encroaches upon and pushes out the native species.

Limiting factor(s) - environmental conditions that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an
organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem.

Mark-recapture – a method used to monitor animals’ population size. A sample of the population is
captured, marked, and released. Re-sighting and recaptures are used to generate population estimates.

Microhabitat – A small habitat with different characteristics than thee surrounding, larger habitat.
Differences can be biotic and abiotic.

Omnivore - eats both plants & animals.

Phenology – The study and understanding of seasonal variation in plant and animal cycles and
behaviours.

Population(s) - the number of a particular species in a defined area.

Primary consumer – an organism that feeds on primary producers.

Specialist – animals that has very specific habitat and feeding requirements.

Staging Area – a location for rest or foraging used by migrating animals.

Stochastic – random probability of occurrence; cannot be precisely predicted.

Subspecies – a rank of taxonomic classification below species that can be determine by genes,
appearance, or geographic location.

Trophic level – the position an organism occupies in a food chain.

Urbanization – the process of making an area or landscape more urban.

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Wildlife Study Guide
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