Developing your vocabulary

Non- Academic Texts

• maybe considered that writing which is personal, emotional, impressionistic, or subjective in nature.
Examples
Poems, Skits, Letters

• It can be more informal in tone, and may even rely more on emotional appeal or the opinions of the
author
Academic Texts

• defined as critical, objective, specialized texts written by experts or professionals in a given field using
formal language.
Examples
book review, reaction paper, thesis

• This means that academic texts are based on facts and evidences with solid basis.
• Objective-you are to focus on facts and evidences.
Some academic disciplines:
Business, Social Studies, Humanities, Natural and Applied Sciences
Examples of Academic Text
Literary Texts, Research Paper, Dissertation
LITERARY TEXTS
it examines, evaluates, and make an argument about a literary work.
- as the name suggest it goes beyond mere summarization
-it requires careful close reading of one or multiple texts and often focuses on a specific characteristic, theme
or motif.
RESEARCH PAPER
it uses outside information to support a thesis or make an argument
-research papers are written in all disciplines and may be evaluative, analytical, or critical in nature
-common research sources include data, primary source, secondary sources,
-it involves synthesizing this external information with your own ideas
DISSERTATION
it is a document submitted at the conclusion of a Ph.D. program
-a book-length summarization of the doctoral candidate's research
JARGON-SPECIAL WORDS OR TERMS USED BY A SPECIFIC PROFESSION OR GROUP
Other examples of Academic texts
Books, book reports, translations, conference paper, academic journal, abstract, explication

AIDS IN DEVELOPING YOUR VOCABULARY

Building your vocabulary can increase your chance to understand a text better.
AMELIORATE
Sentence: Education can ameliorate one's poor living conditions.
Definition: make something better
1. Bilk to defraud; cheat
2. Inane lacking sense, significance, or ideas; silly
3. Laconic using few words; expressing much in few words; concise
4. Trite not interesting or effective because of being used too often: not fresh or original
5. Surreptitious obtained, done, made, etc., by stealth; secret or unauthorized
6. Blandishment something, as an action or speech, that tends to flatter, coax, entice, etc.
Be careful with your inheritance because there are a lot of schemes designed to bilk novice investors with
claims of easy money.
She started asking me inane questions.
The valedictorian delivered a laconic speech, contrast to the salutatorian's lengthy speech
The senator's response to the unemployment question was trite and unconvincing
I feel very surreptitious walking around this place; it is a very catholic hospital.
As Derek waited for Missy to come to the phone, he tried to think of a suitable blandishment to provide before
he asked her to go out with him.
CONTEXT CLUES
are the words or sentences surrounding the unfamiliar word that give hints on its meaning.
1. Carbohydrates such as pasta, bread, and rice may contribute to weight again.
2. When the storm subsided, the residents came out to clean the mess on their yard.
3. Grace had no choice but to acquiesce to the orders of her boss; otherwise, she might get fired.
4. A theory is futile when it is not practiced.
5. A hushed and mournful milieu dawned inside the church as relatives viewed the deceased politician for the
last time.

Four Types of Context Clues

1. Example Clues
author will mention the word and then give examples that either describe or explain it.
Words or phrases indicating that example clues are on their way such as, like, for example, for instance and as
illustration.
Example clues
Carbohydrates such as pasta, bread, and rice may contribute to weight again.
Celestial, bodies including the sun, moon, and stars have fascinated man through the centuries.
Try this!
Among college freshmen, what happened in EDSA last 1986 seems to be a recondite part of the Philippine
history. For example, when you ask them the name one thing EDSA is famous for, they will say, “Heavy traffic!”
After losing all her loved ones in a tragedy, Marife tried to quell her negative emotions by reading books about
forgiveness, being more sociable in her church and community and joining charitable events that focus on
orphans.
2. Synonym or Definition Clues
the meaning is usually right after the unfamiliar word and often separated from the rest of the sentence with
commas, dashes, or parenthesis; sometimes or that is or in other words, known as is used
Example
1: The mountain pass was a tortuous road, winding and twisting like a snake around the trees of the
mountainside.
tortuous - "winding and twisting"
2: Flooded with spotlight - the focus of attention- the new Miss America began her year-long reign. She was
the cynosure of all eyes for the rest of the evening.
cynosure- the focus of attention
Try this !
I cannot bear working with preposterous, that is to say, unreasonable colleague.
The project was meant to ameliorate the living conditions of the people in the community, that is to make their
lives better.
I miss the halcyon, in other words, peaceful and undisturbed college days at the province.
3. Contrast/ Antonym Clues
an opposite meaning context clue contrasts the meaning of an unfamiliar word with the meaning of a familiar
term
-but, however, although, otherwise, unless, instead, on the other hand, while, never, no or not may signal the
contrast.
Example
1: He tried to because the mood of the party was not somber, but happy.
somber- sad, dreary
2: David was very outgoing as oppose to his coy older sister.
coy- shy
Try this !
Contrary to the inane project that you first proposed, this one is so sensible and remarkable.
When Frustine speaks, it is often very encouraging and inspiring. On the other hand, when Justine, his twin
brother speaks, it is almost always pejorative in nature.
I am often reticent when I am around new acquaintances and strangers. However, I am open and talkative
when I am around my old buddies.
4. Inference/ General Context Clues HINTS
The meaning of an unfamiliar word can be inferred from the description of a situation or experience
1: Dementia almost overcome Lou when she stepped off the train at Rainwater Ridge and felt as crazy as a
Betsy bug as she realized how different her new life would be.
Dementia- being insane because the phrase " as crazy as Betsy bug" indicates insanity.
2: She told her friend, " I'm through with blind dates forever. What a dull evening! I was bored every minute.
The conversation was absolutely vapid."
vapid- uninteresting
Paul knew he just made a cultural faux pas when he kissed a Muslim women on the cheek and he was met
with a dead, stunned stare!

WORD STRUCTURE-NEED TO BE ANALYZED TO UNDERSTAND ENG WORDS.

THREE PARTS: PREFIX, ROOT WORD, SUFFIX
Prefix
Pre- means “before” and fix means “to attach before a word”
There are negative prefixes that can help you in figuring out the meaning of the word with the prefix such as
“un -, non-, in-,
Prefixes that show location such as tele-, sub-, inter-, and trans-,
Prefixes can show numbers or amount such as mono-, bi-, and multi-
Negative words
Disappeared
Incorrect
Unhappy
Incompetent
Nonsense
Words that tell location
International
Transatlantic
Transnational
Words that connote numbers
Bicycle
 Decagon
Octagon
tricycle

Suffixes
suffixes usually change a word from one form or part of speech (e. g, noun, verb and adjective) to another
form.
Noun suffixes
ance - Importance
- ence - Dependence
-ess - Actress
-ment - Accomplishment
-ship -Relationship
-ist - Chemist
Verb suffixes
- ify - simplify
-en - darken
Adjective suffixes
ful - hopeful
-ous - dangerous
-able - comfortable
-ish - yellowish
-ive - attractive
-al - professional
ROOT WORDS
A root word is a basic word with no prefix or suffix added to it
Examples of roots words in modern English are aim in aimless, love in unloved, joy in joyful and happy in
happiness.
DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
When we say denotation, we are referring to the real meaning of the word.
When we say connotation, we referring to the implied meaning of the word.
DETERMINING THE AUTHOR’S PURPOSE AND INTENDED AUDIENCE
Three general types of purposes an author has when writing:
▪ Persuasive
▪ Informative
▪ Expressive
Purpose: To Persuade
▪ The main goal here is to convince you
▪ Make you change your mind on something
▪ Make you do a certain action
Example: Article talks about the importance of having proper nutrition every day as a good way to prevent.
This article may convince you to stop eating junk food and change your eating habits into healthy one.
What are the three things you need to consider in persuasion?
▪ What is the author trying to tell me?
▪ What is the motivation of the author for telling me such?
▪ If I do what the author says, who will benefit the most: the author or me?
Purpose: To Inform
▪ Aim to give information only, but not necessarily to convince the reader to believe or to do something.
▪ Requires a lot of research
▪ Information are valid and reliable
▪ RELEVANCE
▪ The challenge is how to make them interested, how to get their attention.
Purpose: To Express
▪ These are the texts that are more creative in nature, and the goal of the author could be to engage the
reader’s emotion such as joy, anger, and frustrations.
▪ Main goal is to draw the reader into the story or make them interested.
▪ Have more opinions than facts.
▪ One less-known form of expressive text is satire.
Satire
▪ It is a form of writing that uses humor to scorn and/ or expose follies of a person, an organization, or
politics in government
THE AUTHOR’S INTENDED AUDIENCE
A reader can tell to whom the text is written based on different factors:
▪ Vocabulary word used
The younger the audience, the shorter the texts and simpler the vocabulary
The older the audience, the longer the texts and the more complicated the vocabulary levels.
▪ Length of the sentences
▪ Nature of the topic
▪ The way the topic is presented
Here are a few things that you should consider when you assess a text for its intended audience.
1. Gender The author’s main goal is to reach a specific gender (females, males, homosexuals)
There are blog articles written most especially for women and their empowerment.
Online articles for males encouraging them to “man up” and live responsible in the areas of finance,
family and career.
Articles for gay community that discuss their rights and issues.
2. Age level
▪ Some texts are written for young children, for teenagers, and some for adults.
▪ In academe, textbooks are classified according to the Grade level
3. Grade level

4. Social position or status

Glossy expensive magazines target the wealthy, while tabloids target the masses

5. Specific professions
Publications cater for specific group of people and discipline (hospitality industry, communication
specialist, for businessmen, politicians, academicians, scientist.)

Identifying the Author’s Tone and Point of view

What is tone?
▪ The attitude that an author takes toward the audience, the subject, or the character.
▪ Tone is not an action. It is an attitude
Real-life example
Try saying “Come here, Sally” using the following tones:
commanding -Secretive
- Angry -Loving
Excited - Playful

Words that describe tone

POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEUTRAL

Optimistic Pessimistic Detached

Formal Informal Objective

Amused Sarcastic Authoritative

Joyful Critical Matter of fact

Complimentary Ominous Straightforward

Delighted Agonized Asked
Rejoiced Refused Remarked
Agreed Yelled Tell
Valued Declined Relayed
Wondered Retorted

▪ When an author takes side of an issue, the author is said to be biased. There are many factors that
may affect an author’s point of view: personal experience and cultural exposures.
How do personal experiences affect one’s point of view?
▪ When you read academic text or any article for this matter, it pays to always think of the author’s
background and personal experiences.
▪ Ask the yourself if the author’s personal experiences in life reflects his / her tone and point of view.
How do cultural exposures affect one’s point of view?
▪ So when you read academic texts or any articles, especially those coming from personal blogs, keep in
mind that the author’s perspective is based on the lens he or she is originally wearing, plus all she or he
had acquired over the course of his cultural exposures and personal experiences.
MODULE 5: Sound Reasoning (Logical reasoning)
- is simply reasoning that makes sense and follows some sort of logic that can be easily understood by readers
or an audience.
- it requires an explanation or rationale and it is a reasoning that follows logic and.
Two types of Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
- is a type of logical thinking that starts with a general idea and reaches a specific conclusion. It's sometimes is
referred to as top- down thinking or moving from the general to the specific.
Example:
Your prior knowledge tells that Muslims do not eat pork, Your boss is a Muslim. You will not take him to a
restaurant that serves only lechon because you know that eating pork is not allowed in his faith.
You can present the statements in the following way:
Muslims do not eat pork...
My boss is a Muslim.
Therefore, he does not eat pork.
Other examples
Example 1:
All dolphins are mammals.
All mammals have kidneys
Therefore: All dolphins have kidneys.
Example 2:
All birds have feathers.
All robins are birds.
Therefore: Robins have feathers.
Example 3:
All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat.
Therefore: Fluffy has a keen sense of smell.
Example 4:
Red meat has iron in it. And beef is red meat.
Therefore: Beef has iron in it.

Invalid Deductive Reasoning

When it comes to deductive reasoning, you can overgeneralize. In these cases, even with two solid and true
premises, deductive reasoning goes wrong.
Examples:
All swans are white. Jane is white. Therefore, Jane is a swan.
All farmers like burgers. Jethro likes chicken wings. Therefore, Jethro is not a farmer.
All actors are handsome. Tom Cruise is handsome. Therefore, Tom Cruise is an actor.

Inductive Reasoning
- involves drawing a general conclusion from a set of specific observations. Some people think of inductive
reasoning as "bottom-up" logic, because it involves widening specific premises out into broader generalization.
-refers to reasoning that takes specific information and makes a broader generalization that's considered
probable while still remaining open to the fact that the conclusion may not be 100% guaranteed.
-In other words, you're making an educated or informed guess based on the information or data that you have.
It might sound right, but that doesn't mean it is right
Example:
You are sick with influenza, you just stayed home and didn't go to school. You texted your classmate and
asked him to tell your teacher that you are sick with flu. Your classmate texted back and told you that he has
the flu. You logged in to your social media account. You saw that most people are complaining of getting sick
with the flu. From these similar incidences, you concluded that there's an outbreak of the flu.
You can present the statements in the following way:
I am sick with influenza.
My classmate is also sick with influenza. Most of my friends in social media are complaining of getting sick with
influenza.
Therefore: There is an influenza outbreak.

Other examples
Example 1:
Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust in the distance. A new
windstorm is coming from the north.
Example 2:
The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny.
Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.
Example 3:
Every year we get a thunderstorm in May. Since it is May, We will get a thunderstorm.

Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false.
Example 4:
Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald.
Therefore, all grandfathers are bald."

Fallacy
- is a misleading argument or belief based on a falsehood; any false statement or idea; or a misconception
resulting from incorrect reasoning.
-it is intentional or unintentional used which misleads a person in taking, action, and/or behaving in a certain
way

• A fallacy uses invalid or faulty reasoning (wrong moves) in the construction of an argument.
• A fallacious argument may be deceptive by appearing to be better than it really is.
Two Categories of Fallacy
FORMAL
- a defect in an argument's STRUCTURE or FORM is observed.
- It exemplifies invalid inference patterns.
INFORMAL
- it shows a defect in an argument's CONTENT.

Types of Fallacy
1. Bandwagon
a reasoning based on popularity rather than scientific evidence or facts.
-sometimes called the appeal to common belief or appeal to the masses because makes people to do or
think something because "everyone else is doing it" or "everything else thinks this
Example:
Everyone is going to get the new smart phone when it comes out this weekend.
Other examples
1. "Everyone is doing it!"
2. Fashion trends
3. Sports
4. Weight loss
5. Social media challenges
6. Advertising
7. Television shows and Movies
8. FOMO (The fear of missing out)
9. Best sellers
10. Political propaganda
2. Hasty Generalization
- refers to reaching a conclusion without enough evidence or further studies.
- is sometimes called the over- generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it
just too small.
Examples:
My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until age sixty-nine. Therefore,
smoking really can't be that bad for you.
Four out of five dentists recommend Happy Glossy Smiley toothpaste brand. Therefore, it must be great.

3. Red Herring
a fallacy argument that distracts from the original topic.
- some refer to this type of argument as a "smoke screen."
Red herrings are frequently used in mystery, thriller and dramatic novels.
Until 2008, the figurative sense of "red herring" was thought to originate from a supposed technique of training
young scent hounds.
There are variations of the story, but according to one version: The pungent red herring would be dragged
along a trail until a puppy learned to follow the scent. Later, when the dog was being trained to follow the faint
odor of a fax or a badger, the trainer would drag a red herring (whose strong scent confuses the animal)
perpendicular to the animal's trail to confuse the dog. The dog eventually learned to follow the original scent
rather than the stronger scent.
Logical Form:
Argument A is presented by person 1.
Person 2 introduces argument B.
Argument A is abandoned.
Example:
Jo: It is morally wrong to cheat on your spouse, why on earth would you have done that?
Felip: But what is morality exactly? Jo: It's a code of conduct shared by cultures.
Felip: But who creates this code?....
4. Attack on a Person
- this reasoning attacks the person instead of the issue; also known as ad hominem (against the man).
[Link]-or Reasoning- this reasoning only presents two choices.
6. Appeal to pity-
7. Tu QuoQue Fallacy Who are you to talk
8. Appeal to ignorance
9. Appeal to Authority
MODULE 6: Evaluating The AUTHOR'S ARGUMENT
Author's Argument
An author's argument is the opinion or belief that he or she wants to persuade readers to believe.
When you evaluate an author's argument, you look closely at the evidence that supports the author's position.
An effective argument is backed up by facts and sound ideas. Look for a clear statement of the author's
argument and note supporting information.

Checklist for Evaluating an Author's Argument

• Does the author present a clear argument? Is the argument supported by evidence?
• Is the evidence believable?
• Does the author use sound reasoning to develop the argument?
• Do I agree with the message? Why or why not?

2 MAIN IMPORTANT PRACTICE WHEN EVALUATING ARGUMENTS

1. IDENTIFY THE ISSUE
Issue means the controversial topic the author is discussing.
Ask yourself, "Is the author writing about a controversial issue?"
2. DETERMINE THE AUTHOR'S ARGUMENT
The author's argument is his or her point of view on an issue.
Ask yourself, "What is the author's position on the issue?"
Step 1: Identify Argument and Audience/ Identifying who is the intended audience
Identify or restate the author' thesis or main argument
Consider the person's audience.
Step 2: Identify the Types of Support
Types of support refers to the kind of evidence the author uses to back up the argument.
Ask yourself, "What kind of support does the author present to back the argument?"
Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support
Relevance means the support is directly related to the argument.
Ask yourself, "Is the support directly related to the argument?"
Step 4: Determine the Author's Objectivity
The author's argument has objectivity when the support consists of facts and other clear evidence.
Ask yourself. "Does the author present facts and clear evidence as support?"
Step 5: Determine the Argument's Completeness
An argument is complete if the author presents adequate support and overcomes opposing points.
Sometimes authors do not give enough support.
Step 6: Determine if the Argument Is Valid
An argument is valid if it is logical. Ask yourself, "Is the argument logical?"
Step 7: Decide if the Argument Is Credible
An argument has credibility if it is believable.
Ask yourself, "Is the author's argument believable?"

SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION

Things to keep in mind in investigating sources of information:

• The Author
• The pieces of evidence to
• the claims
• The publisher or Sponsors
Internet SOURCES
Internet
a massive and comprehensive sources of information.
Internet Sources: Domain name
a massive and comprehensive sources of information
1. .com
2. .edu
3. .gov
4. .net
5. .org
MODULE 7: JOURNAL ARTICLES
Topic
o A topic is simply who or what is being talked or written about.
o Never stated in a complete sentence.
o It can be stated as a word or as a phrase but never as a complete sentence.
The Main Idea
o What is the whole point of this write up?”
The whole point is the main idea
Two Types of Main Ideas
o Stated Main Idea
o Implied Main Idea
SOUND REASONING

• sound reasoning is used every day. In fact, we make decisions and judgments based on sound
reasoning, even in the most insignificant thing we do for the day.
• 'Sound reasoning' is reasoning that follows logic and can be easily understood by readers or an
audience.
Types of Sound Reasoning
o Deductive Reasoning- from general statement to a specific one.
Moslems do not eat pork.
My boss is a Moslem.
Therefore, he does not eat pork.
o Inductive Reasoning-from specific to general statement.
I am sick with influenza.
My classmate is also sick with influenza.
Most of my friends in social media are complaining of getting sick with influenza.
There is an influenza outbreak.
FALLACIES IN REASONING
Here are a few most common fallacies in reasoning.
1. Bandwagon

• This is a reasoning based on popularity rather than on scientific evidence or facts.

• This gives one feeling of “you are the only one not doing it ( using it ), so why not join now?”
2. Hasty generalization

• This is searching a conclusion without enough pieces of evidence or further studies.

• You should not use an isolated experience to make a general statement or judgment on something or
someone.
3. Red herring

• term originated from the legend that criminals in England during the 17th century would use red herring
( a fish ) to confuse the bloodhounds on the trail to pursue them.
• an argument that distracts the opponent away from the real issue leads them to irrelevant issue.
4. Attack on a person

• This reasoning attacks the person instead of the issue.

• This happens a lot in politics. (if you hear a politicians attacking their opponents instead the issue,
beware!)
5. Either – or reasoning

• This presents only two alternatives and acts as if there no other choices.
EVALUATING AUTHOR’S ARGUMENT
Author’s Argument
an author’s argument is the opinion or belief that he or she wants to persuade readers to believe.
1. Identify the issue
issue means the controversial topic the authors is discussing.
2. Determine the Author’s Argument
The author’s argument is his or her point or view on an issue.
Step 1: Identify the Author’s Assumptions

• an author assumption consist of things the authors take for granted without presenting any proof
Step 2: Identify the Types of Support

• types of support refer to the kind of evidence the author uses to back up the argument
Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support
Relevance means the support directly related to the argument.
Step 4: Determine the Author’s Objectivity
The author’s argument has objectivity when the support consists of facts and other clear evidence.
Step 5: Determine the Argument’s Completeness
An argument is complete if the author presents adequate support and overcomes opposing points.
Step 6: Determine if the Argument is Valid
o An argument is valid ( has validity ) if it is logical.
Step 7: Decide if the Argument is Credible
An argument is has credibility if it is believable (convincing)
Sources of Data or Information
Three things you need to keep in mind when investigating sources of information

• The author
• The pieces of evidence to the claims of the author
• The publisher or sponsor
Internet Sources
Internet
a massive and comprehensive sources of information.
Internet Sources: Domain name
a massive and comprehensive sources of information
6. .com
7. .edu
8. .gov
 9. .net
10. .org
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Topic
o A topic is simply who or what is being talked or written about.
o Never stated in a complete sentence.
o It can be stated as a word or as a phrase but never as a complete sentence.
The Main Idea
o What is the whole point of this write up?”
The whole point is the main idea
Two Types of Main Ideas
o Stated Main Idea
o Implied Main Idea