Basic Electrical Engineering Units Guide
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faisal sbennaBasic Electrical Engineering Units Guide
Uploaded by
faisal sbennaBASIC ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
PREPARED BY –
Dr. Subhransu Sekhar Dash, Professor and HOD
EE Dr. Yogesh Kumar Nayak, Asst. Prof EE
1 UNITS ASSOCIATED WITH BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
Introduction
The primary objective of this chapter is to introduce the basic Units
and terms that play a vital role in electrical engineering. The definitions of
these terms have been given along with their units.
1.1 SI Units
The system of units used in engineering and science is the
International System of units, usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based
on the metric system. This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by
the majority of countries as the official system of measurement.
The basic units in the SI system are listed with their symbols, in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1.
Quantity Unit
length metre, m
mass kilogram, kg
time second, s
electric current ampere, A
thermodynamic kelvin, K
temperature
luminous intensity candela, cd
amount of substance mole, mol
Derived SI units use combinations of basic units and there are many of
them. Two examples are:
Velocity—metres per second (m/s) Acceleration
—metres per second squared (m/s2)
1
SI units may be made larger or smaller by using prefixes which denote
multiplication or division by a particular amount. The six most common
multiplier, with their meaning, are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2.
Prefix Name Meaning
M mega multiply by 1 000 000 x 106
k kilo multiply by 1000 x 103
m milli divide by 1 000 x 10-3
µ micro divide by 1 000 000 x 10-6
n nano divide by 1 000 00 0000 x 10-9
p pico divide by 1000 000 000 000 x 10-12
1.2 Charge
The unit of charge is coulomb (C) where one coulomb is one ampere
second. (1 coulomb = 6.24 x 10 18 electrons). The coulomb is defined as the
quantity of electricity which flows past a given point in an electric circuit
when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second. Thus,
Charge, Q = I t coulombs
where I is the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds.
1.3 Force
The unit of force is Newton (N) where one Newton is one kilogram metre
per second squared. The Newton is defined as the force which, when
applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per
second squared. Thus,
Force, F = ma Newton
where m is the mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in metres per
second squared. Gravitational force, or weight, is mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2
2
1.4 Work
The unit of work or energy is joule (J) where one joule is one Newton
metre. The joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred when a
force of one Newton is exerted through a distance of one metre in the
direction of the force. Thus
Work done on a body, W = Fs joules
where F is the force in Newton and s is the distance in metres moved by
the body in the direction of the force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.
1.5 Power
The unit of power is watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy. Thus,
W
Power, P watts
t
where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules and t is the time
in seconds. Thus
Energy, W Pt joules
1.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f.
The unit of electric potential is volt (V) where one volt is one joule
per coulomb. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two
points in a conductor which, when carrying a current of one ampere,
dissipates a power of one watt, i.e.
volts = watts/amperes= joules/second/amperes = joules/ampere seconds
= joules/coulombs
A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is
called a potential difference. The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a
source of energy such as a battery or a generator is measured in volts.
3
1.7 Resistance and conductance
The unit of electric resistance is ohm (Ω) where one ohm is one volt
per ampere. It is defined as the resistance between two points in a
conductor when a constant electric potential of one volt applied at the two
points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor. Thus,
V
Resistance R ohms
I
where V is the potential difference across the two points in volts and I is
the current flowing between the two points in amperes.
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured
in siemens (S) or Mho ( ). Thus,
1
Conductance, G Siemen
R
where R is the resistance in ohms.
1.8 Electrical power and energy
When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit
and the voltage across the circuit is V volts, then
Power, P = V I watts
Electrical energy = Power x time = VIt Joules
Although the unit of energy is joule, when dealing with large amounts of
energy, the unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where
1 kWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000 x 3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3 600 000 J
4
Table 1.3 Summary of terms, units and their symbols
Quantity Quantity Unit Unit
Symbol symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second S
Velocity v metres per second m/s or m
s-1
Acceleration a metres per second m/s2 or m
squared s-2
Force F Newton N
Electrical charge Q coulomb C
Electric current I ampere A
Resistance R ohm Ω
Conductance G Siemen S
Electromotive force E volt V
Potential difference V volt V
Work W joule J
Energy E (or W) joule J
Power P watt W
Solved examples
Problem 1.
If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
Solution:
Quantity of electricity Q = I t coulombs
I=5A
t = 2 x 60 = 120 s
Q = 5 x 120 = 600 C
5
Problem 2.
A mass of 5000 g is accelerated at 2 m/s2 by a force. Determine the force
needed.
Solution:
Mass = 5000 g = 5 kg
Force = mass x acceleration
= 5 kg x 2 m/s2 = 10 kg m/s2 = 10 N
Problem 3.
Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a
wire.
Solution:
Mass = 200 g = 0.2 kg
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
Force acting downwards = weight = mass x acceleration
=0.2 kg x 9.81 m/s2
=1.962 N
Problem 4.
A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is
done if the machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the
movement takes 25 s?
Solution:
Force = 200 N
Distance = 20 m
Time taken = 25 s
Work done = force x distance
= 200 N x 20 m
= 4000 Nm or 4 kJ
6
Power = work done/time taken
= 4000 J/ 25 s
= 160 J/s = 160 W
Problem 5.
A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is (a) the
work done and (b) the power developed?
Solution:
Mass = 100 kg
Distance = 10 m
Time taken = 20 s
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
(a) Work done = force x distance
Force = mass x acceleration
Work done = (1000 kg x 9.81 m/s2) x 10 m
= 98 100 Nm = 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
work done
(b) Power =
time taken = 98100 J/20 s
= 4905 J/s = 4905 W or 4.905 kW
Problem 6.
Find the conductance of a conductor having a resistance of (a) 10 Ω, (b) 5
kΩ
Solution:
1
(a) Conductance G =
R
= 1/10 Siemen = 0.1 S
1
(b) Conductance G =
R
= 1/ (5 x 103) S = 0.2 x 10-3 S = 0.2 mS
7
Problem 7.
A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much
energy is delivered in this time?
Solution:
Voltage = 5 V
Current = 3 A
time = 10 m =10 x 60 s
Energy = power x time
Power = voltage x current.
Energy = V I t = 5 x 3 x (10 x 60)
= 9000 Ws or J= 9 kJ
EXERCISES
1. What force is required to give a mass of 20 kg an acceleration of 30
m/s2? [600 N]
2. Find the accelerating force when a car having a mass of 1.7 Mg
increases its speed with a constant acceleration of 3 m/s2 [5.1 kN]
3. A force of 40 N accelerates a mass at 5 m/s2. Determine the mass.
[8 kg]
4.. Determine the force acting downwards on a mass of 1500 g
suspended on a string. [14.72 N]
5. A force of 4 N moves an object 200 cm in the direction of the force.
What amount of work is done? [8 J]
6. A force of 2.5 kN is required to lift a load. How much work is done if
the load is lifted through 500 cm? [12.5 kJ]
7. An electromagnet exerts a force of 12 N and moves a soft iron
armature through a distance of 1.5 cm in 40 ms. Find the power
consumed. [4.5 W]
8. A mass of 500 kg is raised to a height of 6 m in 30 s. Find (a) the
work done and (b) the power developed. [(a) 29.43 kNm (b) 981 W]
9. In what time would a current of 1 A transfer a charge of 30 C? [30 s]
8
10. A current of 3 A flows for 5 minutes. What charge is transferred?
[900 C]
11. How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as to transfer a charge of 30
C? [5 minutes]
12. Find the conductance of a resistor of resistance (a) 10Ώ (b) 2 kΏ (c) 2
mΏ [(a) 0.1 S (b) 0.5 mS (c) 500 S]
13. A conductor has a conductance of 50 µS. What is its resistance? [20
kΏ]
14. An e.m.f. of 250 V is connected across a resistance and the current
flowing through the resistance is 4 A. What is the power developed?
[1 kW]
15. 450 J of energy are converted into heat in 1 minute. What power is
dissipated? [7.5 W]
16. A current of 10 A flows through a conductor and 10 W is dissipated.
What p.d. exists across the ends of the conductor? [1 V]
17. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V supplies a current of 5 A for 2 minutes. How
much energy is supplied in this time? [7.2 kJ]
18. A dc electric motor consumes 36 MJ when connected to a 250 V
supply for 1 hour. Find the power rating of the motor and the current
taken from the supply. [10 kW, 40 A]
9
2 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction
This chapter explores Ohm’s law which is the fundamental law in
circuit theory. This law is discussed along with definition of basic electric
terms and resistance of the electric conductor. The concepts of conductor
and insulator are taken into consideration.
2.1 Basic Electric Circuit
Basically an electric circuit consists of four main parts.
Source – Supply electric energy to the load (Battery, generator)
Load – Consuming electric energy (Lamp, fan, motor)
Connecting lines – Transmitting electrical energy from source to
load (Wires, cables, transmission lines)
Switch – When switch is closed, the power is transferred from
source to load. When switch is opened, the current
cannot flow in the circuit. Load is disconnected from
source.
2.2 Electric current and quantity of electricity
All atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons,
which have positive electrical charges, and the neutrons, which have no
electrical charge, are contained within the nucleus. Removed from the
nucleus are minute negatively charged particles called electrons. Atoms of
different materials differ from one another by having different numbers of
protons, neutrons and electrons. An equal number of protons and
electrons exist within an atom and it is said to be electrically balanced, as
the positive and negative charges cancel out each other out. When there
are more than two electrons in an atom the electrons are arranged into
shells at various distances from the nucleus.
10
All atoms are bound together by powerful forces of attraction
existing between the nucleus and its electrons. Electrons in the outer shell
of an atom, however, are attracted to their nucleus less powerfully than are
electrons whose shells are nearer the nucleus.
It is possible for an atom to lose an electron; the atom, which is now
called an ion, is not now electrically balanced, but is positively charged and
is thus able to attract an electron to itself from another atom. Electrons that
move from one atom to another are called free electrons and such random
motion can continue indefinitely. However, if an electric pressure or
voltage is applied across any material there is a tendency for electrons to
move in a particular direction. This movement of free electrons, known as
drift, constitutes an electric current flow. Thus current is the rate of
movement of charge.
Conductors are materials that contain electrons that are loosely
connected to the nucleus and can easily move through the material from
one atom to another.
Insulators are materials whose electrons are held firmly to their
nucleus.
2.3 Conductors, insulators, and electron flow
The electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of
freedom to move around. With some types of materials, such as metals, the
outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound that they chaotically
move in the space between the atoms of that material by nothing more than
the influence of room-temperature heat energy. Because these virtually
unbound electrons are free to leave their respective atoms and they are
often called free electrons. In other types of materials such as glass, the
atoms electrons have very little freedom to move around. While external
forces such as physical rubbing can force some of these electrons to leave
their respective atoms and transfer to the atoms of another material, they
do not move between atoms within that material very easily. This relative
11
mobility of electrons within a material is known as electric conductivity.
Conductivity is determined by the types of atoms in a material (the number
of protons in each atom's nucleus, determining its chemical identity) and
how the atoms are linked together with one another. Materials with high
electron mobility (many free electrons) are called conductors, while
materials with low electron mobility (few or no free electrons) are called
insulators.
Here are a few common examples of conductors and insulators:
Conductors: silver, copper, gold, aluminum, iron steel, brass,
bronze, mercury, graphite, dirty water, concrete
Insulators: glass, rubber, oil, asphalt, porcelain, ceramic, quartz,
(dry) cotton, (dry) paper, (dry) wood, plastic, air,
diamond, pure water
2.4 Current, Potential difference and resistance
2.4.1 Current
This movement of charge is called an electric current. The more
electrons per second that pass through the circuit, the greater is the
current. It is denoted by I .The unit of current is the ampere [A].
One ampere is defined as the current in a circuit when one coulomb
of charge passes a given point in one second
2.4.2 Potential difference or Voltage
The voltage or potential difference (VAB) between two points A and B
is the amount of energy required to move a unit positive charge from B to
A. If this energy is positive that is work is done by external sources against
forces on the charges, then VAB is positive and point A is at a higher
potential with respect to B. It is denoted by V. The unit of voltage is volt [V].
Voltage between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of
energy to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
12
2.5 Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the applied voltage V across a circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing I in the circuit provided the
temperature remains constant. Thus,
VI
V IR
where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance
V
I V
R or R
I
2.6 Basic circuit components
2.6.1 Resistance (R)
The property of the material that restricts the flow of current is called
the resistance of that material. It is denoted by R. The unit of resistance is
the ohm [Ω].
One ohm is defined as the resistance which will have a current of 1
ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected across it, i.e.
The resistance of a material is depends upon several factors
(a) Type of material
(b) Length of the conductor
(c) Cross-sectional area and
(d) Temperature
The resistance of a conductor is depends upon the type of material
The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor.
The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a given temperature
may be summarized mathematically as follows
13
l
R
a
Where , - resistivity, in ohm-meters (Ω-m)
l - length, in meters (m)
a - cross-sectional area, in square meters (m2).
In the above equation the rho ( ) is the constant of proportionality
and is called the resistivity of the material. Resistivity is a physical property
of a material and is measured in ohm-meters (Ω-m) in the SI system.
2.6.2 Effect of temperature on resistance
Generally the resistance of the material changes with change in
temperature. The change in resistance per ohm per degree temperature
variation is called is temperature coefficient of resistance. It is denoted by
the symbol α.
R R0 (1 0 )
where R0 = resistance at 0°C
Rθ = resistance at temperature θ°C
α0 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C
2.6.3 Inductance (L)
If we twist a wire of certain length in the form of coil, it becomes a
basic inductor. When current passes through an inductor, an
electromagnetic field is formed. The change in current produces change in
electromagnetic field. According to Faraday’s law, a voltage is induced in
the coil. The voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the
change in current di
dt
Mathematically
di
V dt
di
L dt
14
The proportionality constant L is called the Inductance of the inductor. The
unit of Inductance is Henry [H].
2.6.3 Capacitance (C)
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating materials
exhibit the property of a capacitor. Two conducting surfaces are called as
electrodes and the insulating material is called as dielectric. Capacitor
stores the energy in the electric field that is established by the opposite
charges on the electrodes. The amount of charge per unit of voltage that a
capacitor can store is called as Capacitance of the capacitor. It is denoted
by C. The unit of capacitance is Farad [F]
Q
C
V
Where C is capacitance in Farad, Q is charge in coulomb and V is the
voltage in volt.
2.7 Basic electrical measuring instruments
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be
connected in series with the circuit. Since all the current in the circuit
passes through the ammeter it must have a very low resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage or p.d. and
must be connected in parallel with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is
required. To avoid a significant current flowing through it, a voltmeter must
have a very high resistance.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance. A
multimeter, or universal instrument, may be used to measure voltage,
current and resistance. An ‘Avometer’ is a typical example.
2.8 Electrical power and energy
2.8.1 Electrical power
Power is defined as the amount of energy spent in one second.
Power is mathematically defined as,
15
W
P
t
Where P is power in watts, W is energy in joules and t is time in seconds
W W Q
P VI
t Q t
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential
difference V and current I. The unit of power is the watt, W. Hence,
From Ohm’s law, V IR
P (IR) I
i.e. P I 2 watts
R P
Also, from Ohm’s I
law, V
P
PV
V
2
i.e. V
I watts
R
There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating
Power can be measured using a device called a wattmeter.
2.8.2 Electrical energy
If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the
unit of energy is watt-seconds or joules. If the power is measured in
kilowatts and the time in hours then the unit of energy is kilowatt-hours,
often called the ‘unit of electricity’. The ‘electricity meter’ in the home
records the number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter.
Electrical energy = power time
2.9 Main effects of electric current
The three main effects of an electric current are:
(a) Magnetic effect
(b) Chemical effect
(c) Heating effect
16
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:
17
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers,
telephones, car-ignition and lifting magnets
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles
and soldering irons
2.10 Fuses
A fuse is used to prevent overloading of electrical circuits. The fuse,
which is made of material having a low melting point, utilizes the heating
effect of an electric current. A fuse is placed in an electrical circuit and if
the current becomes too large the fuse wire melts and so breaks the circuit.
Solved problems
Problem 1.
What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms?
Since the quantity of electricity Q = It, then
Q 0.24 103
I 0.24 240
t 15 103 15 15 16 A
Problem 2.
If a current of 10 A flows for four minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
Quantity of electricity, Q = It coulombs
I 10 A : 4 240s
Hence Q 10 240 2400C
Problem 3.
The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is
applied. Determine the value of the resistance.
V 200
From Ohm’s law, resistance R 20 25
I 0.8 8
18
Problem 4.
Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2 kΩ resistor in order that a
current of 10 mA flow through it.
Resistance R 2k 2 103 2000
Current I 10mA 10 103 A or 10 10 A 0.01A
3 or 1000
10
From Ohm’s law, potential difference, V IR (0.01)(2000) 20V
Problem 5.
A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it when the applied voltage is
12 V. What is the resistance of the coil?
Resistance, V 12 103
R 12 12000 240
I 50 103 50 50
Problem 6.
A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5
mA to flow. Determine the resistance of the resistor. If the voltage is
reduced to 25 V, what will be the new value of the current flowing?
V 100 103
Resistance, R 100 20 103 20 k
I 5 103 5
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 V
V 25
I 25 103 1.25mA
R 20 10 3
20
Problem 7.
What is the resistance of a coil which draws a current of (a) 50 mA and (b)
200 µA from a 120 V supply?
a) Resistance R V 120
I 50 103
12000
120 2400 or 2.4k
0.05 5
19
b) Resistance 120 120
R 200 106 0.0002
1200000
600000 or 600k or 0.6M
2
Problem 8.
A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V supply. Determine (a)
the current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
P
Power P = V I, from which, I
current V
a) Current 100 10 2
I 0.4 A
250 25 5
b) Resistance V
R 250 2500
I 0.4 4 625
Problem 9.
Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4 mA flows through a
resistance of 5 kΩ
Power P I 2 R (4 103 )2 (5 103 )
16 106 5 103 80 103
= 0.08W or 80mV
Alternatively, since I 4 103 and R 5 103 then from Ohm’s law.
Voltage V IR 4 103 5 103 20V
Hence, power P V I 20 4 103 80mV
Problem 10.
An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 Ω. What current will flow when it is
connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
V 240
Current, I 8A
R 30
Power, P VI 240 8 1920W 1.92kW
20
= power rating of kettle
21
Problem 11.
A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the resistance of
the winding is 100 Ω. Determine (a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the
power dissipated by the coil.
a) Potential difference across winding, V IR 5 100 500V
b) Power dissipated by coil, P I 2 R 52 100
= 2500 W or 2.5kW
(Alternatively, P V I 500 52500W or 2.5 kW )
Problem 12.
The hot resistance of a 240 V filament lamp is 960 Ω. Find the current taken
by the lamp and its power rating.
V 240 24 1
From Ohm’s law, I A or 0.25A
current
R 960 96 4
Power rating 1
P VI (240) 60 W
4
Problem 13.
A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 40 Ω.
Determine the current flowing in the load, the power consumed and the
energy dissipated in 2 minutes.
V 12
Current I 0.3A
R 40
Power consumed, P VI (12)(0.3) 3.6W
Energy dissipated = power time = (3.6W)(2 60 s) = 432 J
(since 1 J = 1 Ws)
Problem 14.
A source of e.m.f. of 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for six minutes. How
much energy is provided in this time?
22
Energy = power time and power = voltage current
Hence energy = VIt = 15 2 (6 60) = 10800 W or J = 10.8kJ
Problem 15.
An Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V
supply. Estimate the cost of electricity per week if the equipment is used
for 30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7p
Power = VI watts = 240 13 = 3120W = 3.12kW
Energy used per week = power time = (3.12kW) (30h)
Total cost of electricity = 93.6 7 = 655.2p
Problem 16.
An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for
40 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from
the supply.
Power = energy 3.6 106 J
(or W ) 1500W
time 40 60 s
i.e. Power rating of heater = 1.5kW
Power P = VI, P 1500
thus I 6A
V 250
Hence the current taken from the supply is 6A
Problem 17.
Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of
resistance 20 when a current of 10 A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6
hours determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit of electricity costs
7p.
Power P = I2R=102 20 = 100 20 = 2000W or 2kW
(Alternatively, from Ohm’s law, V = IR = 10 20 = 200V, hence
Power P = V I = 200 10 = 2000 W = 2kW)
Energy used in 6 hours = power time = 2kW 6h = 12kWh
1 unit of electricity = 1kWh
23
Hence the number of units used is 12
Cost of energy = 12 7 = 84p
Problem 18.
An office uses two 3 kW heater for an average of 20 hours each per week,
and six 150 W lights for 30 hours each per week. If the cost of electricity is
7p per unit, determine the weekly cost of electricity to the business.
Energy = power time
Energy used by one 3 kW heater in 20 hours = 3kW 20 h = 60kWh
Hence, weekly energy used by two 3kW heater = 2 60 = 120kWh
Energy used by one 1.50W light for 30 hours = 150 W 30h = 4500 Wh
= 4.5kWh
Hence, weekly energy used by six 150 W lamps = 6 4.5 = 27 kWh
Total energy used per week = 120 + 27 = 147 kWh
1 unit of electricity = 1 kWh of energy
Thus weekly cost of energy at 7p per kWh = 7 147 = 1029p
Problem 19.
If 5 A, 10 A and 13 A fuses are available, state which is most appropriate for
the following appliances which are both connected to a 240 V supply (a)
Electric toaster having a power rating of 1 kW (b) Electric fire having a
power rating of 3 kW
Power P = VI, from which, P
I
current V
a) For the toaster,
current P 1000 100 1
I
4 A
V 240 24 6
Hence a 5 A fuse is most appropriate
b) For the fire,
current P 3000 300 1
I 12 A
V 240 24 2
Hence a 13A fuse is most appropriate
24
EXERCISES
1. The current flowing through a heating element is 5 A when a p.d. of
35 V is applied across it. Find the resistance of the element. [7 ]
2. A 60 W electric light bulb is connected to a 240 V supply. Determine
(a) the current flowing in the bulb and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
[(a) 0.25 A (b) 960 Ω ]
4. The hot resistance of a 250 V filament lamp is 625Ω . Determine the
current taken by the lamp and its power rating. [0.4 A, 100 W]
5. Determine the resistance of a coil connected to a 150 V supply when
a current of (a) 75 mA (b) 300 µA flows through it. [(a) 2 k (b) 0.5 M]
6. Determine the resistance of an electric fire which takes a current of
12 A from a 240 V supply. Find also the power rating of the fire and
the energy used in 20 h. [20Ω , 2.88 kW, 57.6 kWh]
7. Determine the power dissipated when a current of 10 mA flows
through an appliance having a resistance of 8 k. [0.8 W]
8. 85.5 J of energy are converted into heat in nine seconds. What power
is dissipated? [9.5 W]
9. A current of 4 A flows through a conductor and 10 W is dissipated.
What p.d. exists across the ends of the conductor? [2.5 V]
10. Find the power dissipated when:
(a) a current of 5 mA flows through a resistance of 20 kΩ
(b) a voltage of 400 V is applied across a 120 kΩ resistor
(c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10 kV and the current flow is 4
mA. [(a) 0.5 W (b) 113 W (c) 40 W]
10. A battery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for 5 min. How much
energy is supplied in this time? [9 kJ]
11. In a household during a particular week three 2 kW fires are used on
average 25 h each and eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average
35 h each. Determine the cost of electricity for the week if 1 unit of
electricity costs 7p. [Rs 12.46]
25
3 DC CIRCUITS
Introduction
This chapter introduces Kirchoff’s laws, resistances in series, parallel
reduction as well as star to delta and delta to star conversion. In addition to this,
independent and dependent voltage and current sources are analyzed with the
source transformation. Several typical problems related to Kirchoff’s laws are
solved in a simple manner.
3.1 Charged bodies
The number of protons is equal to number of electrons in a body under
normal conditions. So the resultant charge is zero.
If we remove some electrons from a neutral body, there occurs a deficit of
electrons in the body. Consequently, it attains a positive charge (more protons
and protons have positive charge)
If we supply some electrons to a neutral body, the body attains a negative
charge (more electrons and electrons have negative charge)
The charge of an electron is very small = 1.6 X 10-19 Coulombs where
coulomb is the unit of charge. Definitely, it is not convenient to measure such a
low value i.e we don’t measure how many excess or deficit of electrons is there.
Rather we measure in coulombs.
1 coulomb = charge on 6.28 X 1018 electrons.
So if we say that a body ha s positive charge of 1 coulomb, it means that it
has deficit of 6.28 X 1018 electrons i.e. 628 X 1016 electrons
3.2 Networks and circuits
Interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements is called an electric
network. A network that contains at least one closed path it is called an electric
circuit.
Figure 3.1 Network Figure 3.2 Circuit
Branch
A part of the network which connects the various points of the network
with one another is called a branch. A branch may contain one or more elements.
In the fig 3.3. AB, BC, BE and CF are the various branches
Figure 3.3
Junction point
A point at which three or more branches meet is called a junction point.
Point B and E are the Junction points in the network shown in the fig. 3.3
Node
A point at which three or more elements are joined together is called node.
In the fig 3.3 A, B, C, D, E and F are the nodes of the network.
Mesh
A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops. All meshes are loops.
But all loops are not meshes. In the fig 3.3 ABED and BCFE are the mesh of the
network.
Loop
A loop is any closed path of branches. In the fig 3.3 ABED, BCFE and
ABCFED are the loop of the network.
3.3 Classification of electrical network
Electrical network may be classified into four groups
1. Active or passive
2. Unilateral or bilateral
3. Linear or nonlinear
4. Lumped or distributed
3.3.1 Active and passive elements
Active element
The source of energy is called active element. They may be voltage or
current source. Generator and transistors are the examples.
Passive elements
These elements stores or dissipates energy. Resistor, inductor and
capacitor are the examples.
3.3.2 Unilateral and bilateral elements
Unilateral elements
Voltage current relation is not same for both the direction. Diode and
transistors are the examples.
Bilateral elements
Voltage current relation is same for both the direction. Resistor is an
example.
3.3.3 Linear and nonlinear elements
Linear element
If the element obeys super position principle and homogeneity then it is
said to be linear element.
For V-I relationship curve, if relation between V and I are linear then the
element is said to be linear. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the examples.
Nonlinear element
If the given network is not obeying super position principle and
homogeneity, then it is said to be nonlinear element. Diode and transistors are
the examples.
3.3.4 Lumped and distributed elements
Lumped element
Physically separable elements are called lumped elements. Resistor,
inductor and capacitor and voltage source are the examples.
Distributed element
A distributed element is one which is not separable for electrical purpose.
Transmission line has distributed Resistance, inductance and capacitance is the
example.
3.4 KIRCHHOFF’s LAWS
There are two Kirchhoff’s laws.
The first one is called Kirchhoff’s current law, KCL and the second one is
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL.
Kirchhoff’s current law deals with the element currents meeting at a
junction, which is a meeting point of two are more elements. Kirchhoff’s voltage
law deals with element voltages in a closed loop also called as closed circuit.
3.4.1 Kirchhoff’s current law
Kirchhoff’s currents law states that the algebraic sum of element current
meeting at a junction is zero.
Consider a junction P wherein four elements, carrying currents I1, I2, I3 and I4, are
meeting as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Currents meeting at a junction
Note that currents I1 and I4 are flowing out from the junction while the currents I2
and I3 are flowing into the junction. According to KCL,
I1 – I2 - I3 + I4 = 0
The above equation can be rearranged as
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
KCL can also be stated as at a junction, the sum of element currents that
flows out is equal to the sum of element currents that flows in.
3.4.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of element voltages
around a closed loop is zero.
Consider a closed loop in a circuit wherein four elements with voltages V1, V2, V3
and V4, are present as shown in Fig. 3.5
Figure 3.5 Voltages in a closed loop
Assigning positive sign for voltage drop and negative sign for voltage rise, when
the loop is traced in clockwise direction, according to KVL
V1 - V2 - V3 + V4 = 0
The above equation can be rearranged as
V1 + V4 = V2 + V3
KVL can also be stated as, in a closed loop, the sum of voltage drops is
equal to the sum of voltage rises in that loop.
3.5 Resistors connected in series
Two resistors are said to be connected in series when there is only one
common point between them and no other element is connected in that common
point. Resistors connected in series carry same current. Consider three resisters
R1, R2 and R3 connected in series as shown in Fig. 3.6. With the supply voltage of
E, voltages across the three resistors are V1, V2 and V3.
Figure 3.6 Resistors in series
As per Ohm’s law
V1 = R1 I; V2 = R2 I ; V3 = R3 I
Applying KVL,
E = V1 + V2 + V3
= (R1 + R2 + R3) I = Re q I
Thus for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.6,
E = Re q I
where E is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current and Req is the equivalent
resistance. Here
Re q = R1 + R2 + R3
This is true when two are more resistors are connected in series. When n
numbers of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is given
by
Re q = R1 + R2 +.................+ Rn
3.6 Voltage division rule
Consider two resistors connected in series. Then
Figure 3.7 Voltage division rule
V1 = R1 I ; V2 = R2 I
E = (R1 + R2) I and hence I = E / (R1 + R2)
Total voltage of E is dropped in two resistors. Voltage across the resistors are
given by
R1
V1 = E and
R1 R
2
V2 = R2 E
R1 R 2
3.7 Resistors connected in parallel
Two resistors are said to be connected in parallel when both are connected
across same pair of nodes. Voltages across resistors connected in parallel will be
equal. Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel as shown in Fig.
3.8.
Figure 3.8 Resistors in parallel
As per Ohm’s law,
I1 = E E
; I=
R1 2
R
2
Applying KCL at node A
1 1 E
I = I1 + I2 = E ( )=
R1 R2 Re q
Thus for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.8
E
I=
Re q
where E is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current and Re q is the equivalent
resistance. Here
1
1 1
Re q R R
1 2
1 R1 R 2
From the
above Re q R1 R 2
Thus , R1 R 2
Re q
R1 R 2
When n numbers of resistors are connected in parallel, generalizing Req can be
obtained from
1 1
1 1 ................
Re q R R Rn
1 2
3.8 Current division rule
Referring to Fig. 3.8, it is noticed the total current gets divided as I1 and I2. The
branch currents are obtained as follows.
R1 R 2
E = I
R1 R 2
R2
I1 = I
R1 R 2
R1
I2 = I
R1 R 2
3.9 Star – Delta Transformation
The circuits elements may be connected in star (Y) or Delta () connection.
In star connection, one end of the three elements are connected at one common
point. In delta connection, two ends of each element are connected to other two
elements.
Consider the star circuit (fig. 3.9 (a)). Circuit is not connected to any other
circuit. All the terminals are open.
Resistance between terminals AB, RAB = RA + RB
Resistance between terminals BC, RBC = RB + RC
Resistance between terminals CA, RCA = RC + RA (i)
Similarly in delta circuit,
Resistance between
terminals AB, R || (R R ) R1 (R2 R3 )
R
AB 3 2 3
R1 R2 R3
Resistance between
terminals
BC, R || (R R ) R3 (R1 R2 )
R
BC 3 1 2
R1 R2 R3
Resistance between terminals CA,
R R || (R R ) R2 (R1 R3 ) (ii)
CA 2 1 3
R1 R2 R3
a) Star Connection b. Delta connection
Figure 3.9
If we equate equations (i) and (ii), we get
R R R1 (R2 R3 ) R1 R2 R1 R3 (a)
R R R3 R1 R2 R3
A B
12
R R
R3 (R1 R2 ) R1 R3 R2 R3 (b)
R R R3 R1 R2 R3
B C
12
R R
R2 (R1 R3 ) R1 R2 R2 R3 (c)
R R R3 R1 R2 R3
C A
12
Subtracting equation (b) from (a), we get
R R
R1 R2 R2 (d)
R
3
R R R3
A C
12
Adding equation (d) with (c), we get
R1 R2 R1 R3 R1 R2 R2 R3
2R A R1 R2 R3
2R1 R2
R R R
1 2 3
R1 R2 (e)
R A
R1 R2 R3
Similarly,
R R1 R3 (f)
B
R1 R2 R3
R2 R3 (g)
R
C
R1 R2 R3
(e) (f) + (f) (g) + (g) (e)
R2R R R2R R R2R R
⇒R R R R R R 1 2 3 3 1 2
2
2 1 3 (h)
A B B C C A
(R1 R2 R )3
Divide by RC on both sides of equation (h)
R R R R R R R2R R R2R R R2R R
A B B C C A
1 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 3
RC RC (R1 R2 R3 ) 2
Substituting the value of RC from equation (g), we get
R R R R R R R2R R R R R R
A B B C C A
1 1 3 1 3 1 2
RC (R1 R2 R3 )
R1 (R1 R2 R3 )
= R1
(R1 R2 R3 )
Similarly,
RA RB RB RC RC R A
R2
RB
RA RB RB RC RC R A
R3
RA
Star (Y) to Delta ()
Figure 3.10
Where Ra Rb Rb Rc Rc Ra
R1
Rc
Ra Rb Rb Rc Rc Ra
R2
Rb
Ra Rb Rb Rc Rc Ra
R3
Ra
Delta () to Star (Y)
Figure 3.11
Where
R1 R2
R a
R1 R2 R3
R1 R3
R b
R1 R2 R3
R2 R3
R c
R1 R2 R3
3.10 Electrical energy sources
3.10.1 Voltage source
Independent voltage source
A voltage source has a specified voltage across it’s terminals, independent
of the current flowing through it. Such a voltage source is designated as an
independent voltage source.
Figure 3.12
Dependent voltage source
Controlled sources are very much useful in electronic circuits and
networks. There are two types of voltage controlled sources.
1. Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
The output voltage across the interested component depends on some
other input voltage source.
Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
The output voltage across the interested component depends on some
other input current source.
3.10.2 Current source
Independent current source
A current source has a specified value of current through it, independent of
the voltage appearing across it. Such a current source is designated as an
independent current source.
Figure 3.13 Current source and VI Characteristics
Dependent Current source
There are two types of current controlled source.
1. Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
2. Current controlled current source (CCCS)
Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
The output current from the source is controlled by some other input
voltage source.
Current controlled current source (CCCS)
The output current from the source is controlled by some other input
current source.
3.10.3 Source Transformation
A practical voltage source is having an ideal voltage source in series with
it’s internal resistance as shown in fig 3.14 (a). A practical current source is
having an ideal current source in parallel with it’s internal resistance as shown in
fig 3.14(b).
Fig 3.14 (a) A practical voltage source (b) A practical current source
Let us consider both sources are delivering same amount of current to the load
resistor RL.
(d) Current source delivering current IL to load
(c) Voltage source delivering current IL to load
resistor RL.
resistor RL.
Fig 3.14
Current delivered by VS to load RL,
I L VS
(1)
RX RL
Current delivered by IS to load RL,
Ry
I L IS (2)
Ry RL
From (1) and (2)
VS I S Ry
RX RL Ry RL
(e) (f) Current source
Voltage source
Fig 3.14
If Rx = Ry = R
VS = ISR (or) IS VS
=
R
3.11 Open and short circuits
Open circuit:-
Consider the circuit given below (fig3.12(a))
Fig 3.15 (a)
The above circuit is having open output terminals. There won’t be any
current flow between A and B. Hence no voltage drop will occur in R3. The
voltage drop across R2 will appear as V0 across AB, i.e V0 =IR2.
Short Circuit:-
Consider the circuit given in fig 3.15 (b))
Fig 3.15(b)
The above circuit is having short circuited load terminals. Short circuited
line is having negligible resistance. Hence voltage drop across short circuited
output terminals is also negligible. Current through short circuited terminals is
same as that of I2. i.e I = I2.
Let consider the circuit given in fig 3.15 (c)
Fig 3.15 (c)
In the above circuit, the current is delivered by the voltage source Vin.
When current reaches the node ‘a’, it will follow the short circuited line since
short circuited line is having negligible resistance. No current will flow through
RL. So the circuit present after the short circuit will be omitted for analysis.
3.12 Mesh and nodal analysis
3.12.1 Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is a useful technique to find the current in each branch and
loop of the electric circuit. When the network has large number of voltage
sources, mesh analysis is applied.
Consider the circuit given in fig 3.16 (a). Let us find the current in each
loop using mesh method.
Fig 3.16 (a)
Steps:
(i) The given circuit consist of three individual loops, since it does not
have any crossovers
(ii) Current direction is marked in each loop.
Fig 3.16 (b)
Generally current direction is assumed from positive terminal of the
battery. In the middle loop, we can assume any direction for current.
Regarding polarity, the current entering point in the resistor is marked
as +ve and current leaving point is marked as –ve.
(iii) Forming loop equations
By Kirchoff’s voltage law,
Sum of the supply voltage = sum of the voltage drops.
First loop:
E1 11 R1 R4 (I1 I 2 )
E1 (R1 R4 )I1 R4 I2 (1)
Note: While writing loop equation for the first loop, go along the
direction of I1. If any current comes opposite to I1, take it as negative.
Hence the current in R4 is (I1-I2) with respect to first loop.
Second loop:
There is no voltage source in the second loop. Therefore the potential
rise in the second loop is zero.
0 I 2 R2 R5 (I 2 I 3 ) R4 (I 2 I1 )
0 I2 R4 (R2 R4 R5 ) I2 R5 (2)
I3
Note: While writing loop equation for second loop, go along the
direction of I2. If any current comes opposite to I2, take it as negative. If
any current flows in the same direction of I 2 then take it as positive.
Hence current through R5 is (I2+I3) and current through R4 is (I2+I1)
Third loop:
E2 13 R3 R5 (I 2 I 3 )
E21 R5 I 2 (R3 R5 )I 3 (3)
Note: While writing loop equation for third loop, go along the direction
of I3. If any current comes opposite to I3, take it as negative. If current
flows in the same direction I3, take it as positive. The current through R5
is (I2+I3) with respect to third loop.
(iv) Matrix method for solving the loop equations
Three loop equations (1), (2) and (3) can be written in matrix from as,
E1 R1
R4 R4 0 I1
0 R R R R R5
4 2 4 5 I 2
E 2 0 R5 R3 R5 I 3
R1 R4 R4 0
R R R R R
4 2 4 5 5
0 R5 R3 R5
E1 R4 0
0 R R R R
1
2 4 5 5
E 2 R5 R3 R5
R1 R4 E1 0
2 R4 0 R5
0 E2 R3 R5
R1 R4 R4 E1
3 R4 R2 R4 R
0
5
0 R5 E2
The loop current are given by
1 2
I ,I and I 3
1 2
3
3.12.2 Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis is a useful technique to find the voltages at each node of
the electric circuit. A node is the meeting point of two or more branches. When
the network has large number of current sources, nodal analysis is applied.
(a) Consider the circuit given in fig 3.17 (a). Let us find the node voltages
using nodal analysis
Fig 3.17 (a)
Steps
(i) Mark the nodes. Take one of the nodes as reference node. Assume the
voltages of other nodes as V1, V2, V3, ….etc. Also mark the current
directions in all the branches and name the currents as I1, I2 . . . etc.
Fig 3.17 (b)
(ii) At each node, write Kirchoff’s current law equations. The circuit
contains three nodes including the reference node (i.e. N = 3)
N – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 equations have to be written
At node 1, by Kirchoff’s current law
I1 = I2 + I4
E1 V1 V1 V2 V1 0
R1 R2 R4
E1 V1 V1 V2 V1
R1 R1 R2 R2 R4
E1 V1 V1 V1 V2
R1 R1 R2 R4 R2
E1 1 1 1 V2
R R V1 R (1)
R
1 1 2 4 2
At node 2, by Kirchoff’s current law
I2 = I3 + I5
V1
E2 V2 0
V2
V2 R5
R2 R3
V1 V2 E2 V2 V2
R2 R2 R3 R3 R5
E2 V1 V2 V2
V2
R3 R2 R2 R3 R5
E2 V1 1 1 1
R R V2 R R R (2)
3 2 2 3 5
(iii) Matrix method for solving node equations.
Equations (1) and (2) can be written in matrix form as
E1 1 1 1 1
V
R R R R
2
1 1
1
E2
2
1
4
1 1 1 V2
R R2 R3 R3 5
3 R
1 1 1 1
R R R R2
1 2 4
1 1
1 1
R R2 R3 R
2
5
E1 1
1 R1 R2
E1 1 1 1
R R R R
3 2 3 5
1 1 1 E1
R R R R
2 2 2 4 1
1 E2
R R
2 3
The node voltages are given by,
1
V ,V 2
1 2
(b) Consider the circuit given in fig. 18
Fig 3.18
Let V1 and V2 be the voltage at node 1 and 2,
At node 1, by Kirchoff’s current law
V1
I V1 V1 V1 V2
R4
V2 R4 R
2
R2
R2
1 1 V2
I V 1 (1)
R2 R4 R2
At node 2, by Kirchoff’s current law,
V1 E
V2 V2
V2 R
R3 5
R2
E V2 V1 V2 V2
R3 R5 R2 R2 R3
E V1 1 1
1
R R R R R V 2 (2)
3 2 2 3 5
Equations (1) and (2) in matrix form,
1 1 1
I R2 R4
R V
E 1 2 11
1 V 1
R 2
3 R R R R
2 2 3 5
1
1 1
R R
R2
2 4
1 1
1 1
R R2 R3 R
2 5
1
I
1 R2
E
R 1 1 1
R R R
3 2 3 5
1 1
R R I
2 2 4
R 1 E
R
2 3
Now, V1 1 ,V 2
2
Solved problems
Problem 1
In the given figure 3.19, calculate the load current IL, load voltage VL, and power
consumed by the load.
Fig 3.19
Solution:
Steps:
a) Assume current direction in each loop. Usually the current direction is
taken from positive terminal of the battery.
b) Form loop equations.
Loop (1)
By Kirchoff’s voltage law,
20 = 2 I1 + 2 (I1+ I2 )
20 = 4 I1 +2I2 (1)
Loop (2)
25 = 3 I2 + 2 (I1+ I2 )
25 = 2 I1 + 5I2 (2)
20 4 2 I1
25 2 5 I
2
Solving (1) and (2) by matrix method,
1
I and I 2
1 2
4 2
20 4 16
2 5
20 2
1 100 50 50
25 5
4 20
2 100 40 60
2 25
1 50
I 3.125A
1
16
60
I 3.75A
2
16
2
By Kirchoff’s Current law
IL=I1+I2 = 3.125 + 3.75 = 6.875 A
Load voltage, VL = IL RL = 6.875 x 2 13.75 V
Load power, P I 2 R (6.875)2 2 94.53watts
L L L
Problem 2
For a copper wire of 0.5km long and 0.5cm diameter, find the resistance. Assume
specific resistance of copper as 1.7 10-8 -m.
Solution:
Resistance R l
a
Where l = length in meter = 0.5 103m. d = diameter in m = 0.5 10-2m.
= specific resistance = 1.7 10-8 m.
d
a = area in m2 = 2
(0.5 10 2 ) 2 1.9635 105 m 2
4 4
(1.7 108 ) 0.5 103
R = 0.433
1.9635 105
Problem 3
2F capacitor is charged to a voltage of 500V. Calculate the energy stored in the
electric field of the capacitor?
Solution:
Energy stored in the capacitor,
1 1
W CV 2 2 106 5002 0.25 Joules
2 2
Problem 4
By voltage divider rule, find the voltage across each resistance connected in
series (figure 3.20)
Solution:
Voltage across 50, V50
50
= 20 25 50 100 52.62V
Voltage across 25, V25
25
= 20 25 50 100 26.316V
Voltage across 20, V20
20 Fig 3.20
= 20 25 50 100 21V
Problem 5
By current divider rule, find the current through each resistor in the circuit shown
in fig. 3.21.
Fig 3.21
Solution:
Find current through 2 resistor:-
Simplifying the circuit, we get
In the above circuit,
Req1 1 1
1.28
1 1 1 0.7823
3 4 5
Current through 2,
I 2 1.28
100 39 A
2
1.28
Find current through 3 resistor:-
Simplifying the circuit, we get
In the above circuit,
Req2 1 1
1.053
1 1 1 0.95
2 4 5
Current through 3,
I 3 1.053
100 26 A
3
1.053
Finding current through 4 resistor:-
Simplifying the circuit, we get
In the above circuit,
Req3 1 1
0.9677
1 1 1 1.033
2 3 5
Current through 4,
I 4 0.9677
19.49 A
4 0.9677
Finding current through 5 resistor
Simplifying the circuit, we get
Where
1 1 1 1
1.0833
Req 2 3 5
4
Req4 = 0.923
Current through 5,
I 5 0.923
15.6 A
5 0.923
Problem 6
All the resistances in figure 3.22 are 1 each. Find the value of current I
Fig 3.22
Solution:
The total circuit is simplified into single resistance in series with 10V
source
10
Current I 5.714 A
1.75
Problem 7
Convert the following star circuit in (figure 3.24) into delta circuit
Fig 3.24
Solution:
544335
R1 15.67
3
544335
R2 9.4
5
544335
R3 11.75
4
Delta Circuit
Problem 8
Convert the following delta circuit (figure 3.25) into star circuit
Fig 3.25
Solution:
Ra 5 10
1.43
5 10
20
10 20
Rb 5.714
5 10
20
Rc 2.86
5 20
5 10
20
Star Circuit
Problem 9
Convert the following current source (figure 3.26) into equivalent voltage source
Fig 3.26
Solution: Equivalent voltage source:
Is = 10A, R = 5
Vs = Is R = 10 5 = 50V
Problem 10
Convert the following voltage source (figure 3.27) into equivalent current source.
Fig 3.27
Solution: Equivalent current source:
Given Vs = 100V, R = 10
Vs 100
Is = 10 A
R 10
Problem 11
Calculate the effective resistances of the following contribution of resistance and
the voltage drop across each resistance when a PD of 60V is applied between
points A and B (Fig. 3.28)
Solution:
Resistance between A and C
(figure 3.28))
= 6 || 3 = 2
Resistance of branch
ACD = 18 + 2 = 20
Now, there are two parallel
paths between points A and
Fig. 3.28
D of resistances 20 and 5
Hence, resistance between A and D = 20 || 5 = 4
Resistance between A and B = 4 + 8 = 12
Total circuit current = 60/12 = 5A
20
Current through 5 resistance = 5 4A
25
5
Current in branch ACD = 5
1A
25
PD across 3 and 6 resistors =1 2 = 2A
PD across 18 resistors = 1 18 = 18V
PD across 5 resistors = 4 5 = 20V
PD across 8 resistors = 5 8 = 40V
Problem 12
Calculate the values of different current for the circuit shown in figure 3.29. What
is the total value of conductance and resistance?
figure 3.29
Solution
As seen I = I1+I2 +I3. The current division takes
place at point B.
II G1
G1 G2 G3
0.1
12 2A
0.6
I2 = 12 0.2/0.6 = 4A
GBC = 0.1+0.2+0.3 = 0.6S
1 1 1 1 1
25 1
GAC GAB GBC 0.4 0.6 6 S
1
R = 25/6 ohms
AC
GAC
Problem 13
A resistance of 10 is connected in series with two resistances each of 15
arranged in parallel. What resistance must be shunted across this parallel
combination so that the total current taken shall be 1.5A with 20V applied?
Solution:
The circuit connections are shown in
figure 3.30
Drop across 10 resistor
= 1.5 10 = 15V
Drop across parallel combination
VAB = 20 – 15 = 5V
Hence, voltage across each figure 3.30
parallel resistance is 5V.
I1 = 5/15 = 1/3A, I2 = 5/15 = 1/3A
I3 = 1.5 – (1/3+/1/3) = 5/6A
I3R = 5 or (5/6) R = 5 or R = 6
Problem 14
If 20V is applied across AB shown in figure 3.31. Calculate the total current, the
power dissipated in each resistor and the value of the series resistance to have
the total current
figure 3.31
Solution:
As seen from figure RAB = 370/199
Hence, total current = 20 + 370/199 = 10.76A
I1 = 10.76 5(5+74.25) = 6.76A, I2 = 10.76 – 6.76 = 4A
I1 = 6.76 6/9 = 4.51A; I2 = 6.76 – 4.51 = 2.25A
Voltage drop across A and M, VAM = 6.76 24/25 = 6.48V
Ia = VAM/ 2 = 6.48 /2 = 3.24A. Ib = 6.84/4 = 1.62A, Ic = 6.84/6 = 1.08A
Id = 6.48/8 = 0.81A, Ie = 20/5 = 4A
Power Dissipation
P I 2 Ra 3.242 2 21W , P 1.622 4 10.4W , 1.082 6 7W ,
a a
P
b c
P 0.812 8 5.25 W , 42 5 80 W , 4.512 3 61W ,
Pd e
P
f
P 2.252 6 30.4 W
g
The series resistance required is 370/199
Incidentally, total power dissipated = I2 RAB = 10.762370/199 = 215.3 W (as a
check)
Problem 15
Determine the branch currents in the network of figure 3.32, when the value of
each branch resistance is one ohm.
Figure 3.32 (a)
Solution:
Let the current directions be as shown in figure 3.32 (b), Apply Kirchhoff’s
second law to the closed circuit ABDA, we get
5 – x – z + y = 0 or x – y + z = 5 (i)
similarly, circuit BCDB gives
-(x-z) + 5 + (y + z) + z = 0 or x – y – 3z = 5 (ii)
Lastly, from circuit ADCEA, we get
-y-(y + z) +10 –(x + y) = 0
x + 3y + z = 10 (iii)
from equation (i) and (ii) we get z = 0
substituting z = 0 either in equation (i) or (ii)
and in equation (iii) we get
x- y = 5 (iv)
x + 3y = 10 (v)
subtracting equation (v) from (iv) we get
– 4y = -5 or y = 5/4 = 1.24A
equation (iv) gives x = 25/4A = 6.25A
Current in branch AB = current in branch BC = 6.25A
Current in branch BD = 0; current in branch AD = current in branch DC = 1.25A;
Current in branch CEA = 6.25 + 1.25 = 7.5A
Problem 16
(a) A rectangular carbon block has directions 1.0cm 1.0cm 50cm. What is the
resistance measure (i) between the two square ends? (ii) between two opposing
rectangular faces / resistivity of carbon at 20oC is 3.5 10-5 m.
(b) A current of 5A exists in a 10- resistance for 4 minutes (i) how many
coulombs and (ii) how many electrons pass through any section of the resistor in
this time “Charge of the electron = 1.6 x 10-19C
Solution:
(a) (i) R = l /A
Here, A = 1 1 = 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2; l =0.5m
R = 3.5 10-5 0.5 / 10-4 = 0.175
(ii) Here, l = 1 cm; A = 1 50 = 50 cm2 = 5 10-3
m2
R = 3.5 10-5 10-2 / 5 10-3 = 7 10-5
(b) (i) Q = l t = 5 (4 60) = 1200C
Q 1200
(ii) n c 1.6 1019 75 1020
Problem 17
Calculate the resistance of 1 km long cable composed of 19 strands of similar
copper conductors, each strand being 1.32 mm in diameter. Allow 5% increase in
length for the lay (twist) of each strand in completed cable. Resistivity of copper
may be taken as 1.72 10-8.
Solution.
Allowing for twist, the length of the strands
= 1000 m +5% of 1000 m = 1050m
Area of cross-section of 19 strands of copper conductors is
19 d2 / 4 = 19 (1.32 10-3)2 / 4 m2
Now, R 1 1.72 108 1050 4
0.694
A 19 1.322 106
Problem 18
What is the value of the unknown resistor R in figure 3.34, if the voltage drop
across the 500 resistor in 2.5 volts? All resistances are in ohm.
Fig 3.34
Solution:
By direct proportion, drop on 50 resistance = 2.5 50/500 = 0.25 V
Drop across CMD or CD = 2.5 + 0.25 = 2.75V
Drop across 550 resistance = 12 – 2.75 = 9.25V
I = 9.25/550 = 0.0168A, I2 = 2.5/500 = 0.005A
I1 = 0.0168 – 0.005 = 0.0118A
0.0118 = 2.75/R, R = 233
Problem 19
Using mesh analysis, find mesh current in each loop given in fig 3.35
Fig 3.35
Solution
(i) Write loop equations.
For loop (1),
100 = 10 I1 + 20 (I1 – I2)
100 = 10 I1 + 20 I1 – 20I2
100 = 30 I1 – 20 I2 (1)
For loop (2),
0 = 20 I2 + 30 (I2 + I3) + 20 (I2 - I1)
0 = 20I2 + 30I2 + 30I3 + 20I2 – 20I1
0 = 20I1 + 70I2 + 30I3 (2)
For loop (3)
150 = 15 I3 + 30 (I1 + I2)
150 = 30I2 + 45 I3 (3)
(ii) Arranging equations in matrix form,
100 30 20 0
I1
0 20 70 30 I
2
150 0 30 45I 3
30 0
(iii) 20 20 30
70
0 30 45
= 30 (70 45 – 30 30) + 20(-20 45)
= 30 (2250) +20 (-900) = 49500
100 20
0
1
0 70 30
150 30 45
= 100 (7045 – 30 30) + 20 (-15030)
=100 (2250)+20(-4500) = 13500
30 100
2 0
20 0 30
150 45
0
= 100 (0 45 – 150 30) - 100 (-20 45)
= 30 (-4500) - 100(-900) = -45000
30 20 100
3
20 70 0
30 150
0
= 30 (70 15 – 30 0) +20 (-20 150)+100(-2030)
= 30 (10500) - 20(-3000) +100 (-600) = 195000
(iv) The current values are
1 135000
I 2.73A
1
49500
2 45000
I 0.909 A
2 49500
3 195000 3.94 A
I 49500
3
(v) Verification of Answers:
Substitute the values of I1, I2 and I3 in equation (2)
0 = -20I1 + 70I2 + 30I3
= -20 2.73 + 70 (0.909) + 30 3.94 = 0
Problem 20
In the circuit given in fig 3.36, obtain the load current I1, and power consumed by
RL.
Fig 3.36 (a)
Solution:
Load current IL can be found by using mesh method.
(i) Assume current direction
Fig 3.36 (b)
(ii) Current I L I 3
3
(iii) Loop equations in matrix form
200 100 2
0 0 I1
100 0 3 I
4 4
2
0 0 4 5 10 4
I 3
100 2 0 0 I1
100 0 7
4I2
0 0 4 19 I 3
2 0 0
(iii)
7 4
0
4 19
0
= 2 (7 19-4 4) = 2(117) = 234
2 0 100
3
0 7 100
4 0
0
= 2 (7 0 + 4 100) +100 (0) = 800
(v) Load current IL I 800 3.418A
3
234
3
Power consumed by R I 2 R
L
L L
= 3.4182 10
= 116.9 watts
Problem 21
In the following circuit, find the values of E and I for the circuit shown in fig
3.37(a)
Fig 3.37(a)
Solution:
This problem is solved by applying nodal analysis. The circuit consists of
two nodes and one reference node. Assume node voltages as V 1 and V2 and also
assume the currents direction.
Fig 3.37 (b)
From circuit, V2 = 4 2 = 8V
By KCL,
At Node 1,
E V1 V2
1
V1 V 2
2 6
V1 V1 V1 V2
2 6 2 2
E 1 1 1 V2
V
1
2 2 6 2 2
0.5E = V1 (1.167) – 0.5V2 (1)
At Node 2,
V1 V2 V2 V2
2 4 2
V1 V2 V2 V1
0V 1 1 1
2 V
2
2 2 4 2 2
4 2
2
0 = -0.5V1 + 1.25V2 (2)
Substituting V2 = 8V in equation (2),
0 = -0.5 V1 + 1.25 8
0.5 V1 = 10
V1 = 20V
From equation (1)
0.5E = 20 1.167 -0.5 8
E = 38.68V
Current E 38.68 20
IV 2 9.34 A
1
2
Problem 22
Using nodal analysis, find all node voltages in the given fig 3.38
fig 3.38
Solution:
(i) No of nodes in the given circuit is 3 including reference node. Nodes are
marked as 1 and 2. Node voltages are assumed as V1 and V2. The
directions of branch currents are also assumed.
(ii) Node equations
At node 1
100 V1 V1 V2
V1 20 20
10
100 V1 V1 V1 V2
10 10 20 20 20
V1 V1
10 V V2
1
10 20 20 20
10 = 0.2V1 – 0.05V2. (1)
At node 2
V1 150 V2
V2 V2 30
20 15
V1 V2 150 V2 V2
20 20 15 15 30
150 V1 V2 V2 V2
15 20 20 15 30
10 = 0.05V1 – 0.15V2. (2)
(iii) Equations in matrix form
10 0.2 0.05 V1
10 0.05 0.15 V
2
0.2 0.05
(iv)
= 0.2 0.15 – 0.05 0.05 = 0.0275.
0.15
0.05
10 0.05
1 = 10 0.15 + 10 0.05 = 2.
10
0.15
0.2 10
2
0.05 = 0.2 10 + 10 0.05 = 2.5.
10
(v) The voltages are given as
1 2
V 72.73V ,V2 2.5 91V
1
0.0275 2
0.0275
Problem 23
Using nodal analysis, find all node voltages in the given fig 3.39
fig 3.39
Solution:
(i) Mark the node voltages and currents.
(ii) Directly write node equations in matrix form
1 1 1
10 20 20
V1
10 1 1 20
11 V
2
20 20 30 15
10 0.1 0.05 V1
10 0.05 0.15 V
2
0.1 0.05
(iii)
= 0.1 0.15 – 0.05 0.05 = 0.0125.
0.15
0.05
10 0.05
1 = 10 0.15 + 10 0.05 = 2.
10
0.15
0.1 10
2
0.05 = 0.1 10 + 10 0.05 = 1.5.
10
(iv) Voltages
1 2
V 160V 1.5 120V
2
1 0.0125 ,V2 0.0125
Exercise problems
1. A copper wire is having a specific resistance of 1.7 10-8 -m. It is 1km
long and having 2cm diameter. Find the value of resistance? Ans : 54m
2. Find the value of the current flowing in the following circuit (figure 3.40)
Figure 3.40
Ans : 0.43A
3. The current in the 5H inductor varies at the rate of 3A/sec. What is the
value of the voltage across the inductor and the energy stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor. Ans : 22.5J
4. A 3F capacitor is charged to a voltage of 600V. Calculate the energy
stored in the electric field of the capacitor.
Ans: 0.54J
5. Using voltage divider rule, find the values of Va and Vb. (figure 3.41)
Figure 3.41
Ans: Va = 66.67V, Vb = 66.67V
6. Using current divider rule, find the value of current flowing through each
element. (figure 3.42)
Figure 3.42
Ans: I1 = 12.8A, I2 = 15.96A, I3 = 21.3A
7. Find the equivalent resistance across A and B in the following circuit
Figure 3.43
Ans: 1.155
8. Using mesh analysis find loop currents in the circuit given in fig. 3.44
figure 3.44
Ans: 31.25 A, 12.5 A, 12.5 A
9. Using nodal method, find node voltages in the circuit given in fig 3.45
Also find all branch currents.
figure 3.45
Ans: 37.5 V, 2.2510-9 V
4 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Introduction
The knowledge of magnetic circuit is very important in the design,
analysis and applications of electromagnetic devices like transformer,
rotating electrical machines and electromagnetic relays. The basic concept
of magnetic circuit and electromagnetic induction are the main topics to be
explained in this chapter.
4.1 Introduction
Magnetism refers to a force that acts between magnets and magnetic
materials. We know, for example, that magnets attract pieces of iron,
deflect compass needles, attract or repel other magnets, and so on. This
force acts at a distance and without the need for direct physical contact.
The region where the force is felt is called the “field of the magnet” or
simply, magnetic field. Thus, a magnetic field is a force field.
Figure 4.1 Field of a bar magnet. Flux is denoted by
A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as
iron, nickel or cobalt) which has properties of attracting other pieces of
these materials. A permanent magnet will position itself in a north and
south direction when freely suspended. The north-seeking end of the
magnet is called the north pole, N and the south-seeking end the south
pole, S. The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in
this area that the effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can
be detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or heard and
therefore it is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday suggested that the
magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by imagining that field
consist lines of magnetic flux which enables investigation of distribution
and density of the field to be carried out.
4.2 Basic Laws of magnetism
The direction of flux lines is from the north pole to the south pole on
the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to be continued through the
magnet back to the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus such
lines of flux always form complete closed loops or paths; they never
intersect and always have a definite direction.
(a) Attraction (b) Repulsion
Figure 4.2 Field patterns due to attraction and repulsion
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated
by using two bar magnets. In Figure 4.2(a), with unlike poles adjacent,
attraction takes place. Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the
magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is strongest in between the
two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close together. In Figure
4.2(b) with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs,
i.e. the two north poles try to push each other apart, since magnetic flux
lines running side by side in the same direction repel.
4.3 Magnetic flux and flux density
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines
of force) produced by a magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is
(Greek letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is the webers, Wb
1 weber = 108 magnetic lines
= 108 maxwells
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a
defined area that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
Magnetic flux density magnetic flux
area
The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density
is the tesla, T, where 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 Hence
B webers / m2 or tesla
a
4.4 Magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength
Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of the existence of a
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. It is obtained as the product of the
current (I amps) flowing through a coil of ‘N’ turns.
mmf NI ampere turns
where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in
amperes. The unit of magneto motive force is sometimes expressed as
‘ampere-turns’. However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the SI unit of
Magneto motive force is the ampere.
Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force) is It is defined as
Magneto motive force per unit length of the magnetic flux path.
NI
H l Ampere turns / metre
where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres.
Thus mmf = NI Hl amperes.
4.5 Permeability and Reluctance
For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux
density to magnetizing force is a constant, i.e. B/H = a constant. This
constant is 0 , the permeability of free space (or the magnetic space
constant) and is equal to 4 π × 1 0 -7 H/m, i.e., for air, or any non-magnetic
medium, the ratio
Β/Η=µ0
For all media other than free space,
Β/Η=µ0µr
where µr is the relative permeability, and is defined as
r flux density in material
flux density in a vacuum
µr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio of flux
densities, it has no unit.
From its definition, µr for a vacuum is 1. µ0µr =µ , called the absolute
permeability
Reluctance is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the
presence of magnetic flux. It is defined as the ratio of Magneto motive force
to flux. The unit is AT/Wb and is denoted by ‘S’.This is identical to
resistance of electrical circuits.
reluc tan ce NI
mmf
flux
Hl Hl
BA
lI l
B / H A 0 r A
Reluctance depends on
a) Nature of material
b) Length of magnetic path
c) Area of cross section of the material
4.6 Analogy between Magnetic circuit and Electric circuits
Sl.No. Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
1. Flux = mmf/reluctance (Wb) Current = e.m.f/resistance (A)
2. mmf = Flux reluctance (AT) e.m.f = I R
3. l l
Reluctance,S= (H-1 or Resistance, R = ()
0 r a a
AT/Wb
4. Permeance = 1 1
Conductance =
Reluctance Resistance
5. Flux density, B = /a wb/m 2 I
Current density = Amp/mm2
a
6. Flux is only created & does not Current flows
flow
7. Reluctance is not constant and Resistance is practically
depends on ‘B’ value constant except for small
variations due to temperature
8. Energy is required to create flux Energy is required so long as the
and not to maintain it current flows
9. There is no perfect magnetic There are many electrical
insulator insulators
4.7 Leakage flux and fringing effect
4.7.1 Leakage flux
The flux which does not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit
is known as leakage flux.
Figure 4.3 Illustration of leakage flux and fringing effect
Usually we assume that all the flux lines take path of the magnetic
medium. But, practically, some flux lines do not confine to the specified
medium. It is because, to prevent the leakage flux, there is no perfect
magnetic insulator. Some flux lines can pass through air also. All the
magnetic flux which completes the desired magnetic circuit are called
useful flux.
To account for the leakage flux, leakage coefficient is introduced.
Leakage coefficient, denoted by is defined as follows.
total flux
'
Leakage coefficient,
useful flux
Usually, leakage factor is greater than unity.
4.7.2 Fringing effect
An air gap is often introduced in the magnetic circuit out of
necessity. When crossing an air gap, the magnetic lines of force have a
tendency to bulge out. This is because the magnetic lines of force repel
each other when they are passing through non-magnetic material. This
phenomenon is known as fringing. Fringing effect increases the effective
area of cross section of the air-gap and as a result the flux density in the
air-gap is reduced.
4.8 Magnetic Circuits
Most practical applications of magnetism use magnetic structures to
guide and shape magnetic fields by providing a well-defined path for flux.
Such structures are called magnetic circuits. Magnetic circuits are found in
motors, generators, computer disk drives, tape recorders, and so on.
Analogous to voltage (electric potential difference) in the electric circuit, in
a magnetic circuit we have the Magneto motive force (mmf), or the
magnetic Potential difference which produces a magnetic field, and which
has units of amperes or ampere turns. The two sources of mmf in magnetic
circuits are electric current and the permanent magnet (which stores
energy and is capable of maintaining a magnetic field with no expenditure
of power). The current source is commonly a coil of N turns, carrying a
current I known as the exciting current; the mmf is then said to be NI
Ampere Turns.
Properties:
1. Magnetic flux is a closed loop. The magnetic lines of flux
travel from north pole to south pole in air and back to north
pole through magnet.
2. Magnetic flux lines never intersect
3. Flux lines of same direction repel each other
4. Flux lines of opposite direction attract each other.
4.8.1 Analysis of simple magnetic circuit:
Consider a solenoid or toroidal iron ring having a magnetic path
of ‘ l ’ metres, area of cross section ‘a’ m2 and a coil of N turns carrying I
amps wound any where on it.
If Rm is the mean radius of the ring
l = 2 Rm.
Magnetic field
NI
strength, H l
i.e NI
H
2Rm
we know that B=µ0µr
NI
0 r Wb / m 2
l
Flux, Ba
0 r aNI
l
NI MMF NI
S Figure 4.3 simple magnetic circuit:
l / 0 r reluc tan
a ce
4.8.2 Analysis of Composite Magnetic Circuits
A composite magnetic circuit consists two or more different
magnetic materials of different relative permeabilities, lengths and cross
sections along with an air gap. The different magnetic circuits along with
air gap circuit form a series combination.
Each path will have its own reluctance. The total reluctance is given
by the sum of individual reluctances since they are connected in series.
i.e. it is a series composite magnetic circuit.
Given l 1 , l 2 , l 3 and a1 , a2 ,
are lengths and cross sections of the three
a3
different paths in series and r1, r 2, r 3 are their respective relative
permeabilities l g / ag are length and cross section at the air gap.
S = (S1 + S2 + S3) + Sg
Total MMF= (S1 S 2 S3 ) Sg
l1 l 2 l 2l g
= a a
1 0 r12 0 r 23 0 r 3 0 g
a a
B1 B2 B3 Bg
= l 1+ l + l 3 + l
g
µ0 µr1 µ 0µ r2 2
µ 0µ r3 µ
0
= H1l1+H2 l2 +H3 l3 +Hg lg
Figure 4.4 Composite Magnetic Circuits
4.8.3 Analysis of parallel magnetic circuits:
A magnetic circuit with more than one flux path is known as a
parallel magnetic circuit. Flux is created in the section containing exciting
coil. Then it divides into two or more parts.
Figure 4.5 parallel magnetic circuits
Let = Total flux in the circuit
1 = Flux in the path BCDA
2 = Flux in the path BEFA
Analogous electrical circuit will look like fig – ‘B’, where R, R1, R2,
EMF, I, I1 & I2 can be related to S3, S1, S2, MMF,
, 1 and 2 of magnetic
circuit.
MMF = S3 + 1 S1 (or)
S3 + 2 S2
Also MMF = H3 l
+ H1 l1 (or)
3
H3 l + H2 l 2
3
4.9 Magnetic Material
All materials posses magnetic properties to a greater or lesser
degree and these are determined by the facts that (1) a magnetic field exert
forces and torques on the bodies, (2) a body placed in a magnetic field
distorts the field. The magnetic properties of the material are characterized
by their relative permeability. In accordance with the value of relative
permeability the materials may be classified in following three ways:
4.9.1 Ferromagnetic materials.
The relative permeability the materials are much greater than unity
( µr 1) and are dependent on the field strengths. They attract the lines of
force strongly. The principles ferromagnetic elements are iron, cobalt, and
nickel. Gadolinium however also comes under this classification. These
have high susceptibility
4.9.2 Paramagnetic materials.
These have relative permeability slightly greater than unity ( µr 1)
and are magnetized slightly. They attract the lines of force weakly.
Aluminum, platinum and oxygen belong to this category.
4.9.3 Diamagnetic materials.
The relative permeability of these materials is slightly less than unity
( µr 1). They repel the lines of force slightly. The examples are Bismuth,
silver, copper and hydrogen.
For magnetic material media, the magnetic flux density B, expressed
in tesla (T) or Wb/m2, and the field intensity H, expressed in A/m or ampere-
turns per meter (At/m), are related through the relationship
B=µH Wb/m2
where µ stands for the permeability of the material expressed in henrys per
meter (H/m). The free space permeability µ0 is a constant given by 4π ×
10−7H/m in the SI system of units. The same value holds good for air as well
as for any nonmagnetic material
4.10 magnetization curve (or B–H curve)
Figure 4.6 B–H curves for magnetic materials
By plotting measured values of flux density B against magnetic field
strength H, a magnetization curve (or B–H curve) is produced. For
nonmagnetic materials this is a straight line. The variation of B with H is
depicted by the saturation curve of Figure 4.6, in which the slope of the
curve clearly depends upon the operating flux density, as classified for
convenience into regions I, II, and III.
For very low values of H, the flux density does not increase rapidly.
This is represented by curve region I. The curve is nonlinear in nature. The
point at the end of this curve is called ‘instep’. In the second region, as H
increases, the flux density increases rapidly. This portion is linear and
almost a straight line. End point of this region is called ‘knee point’ or
typical operating point. After the ‘knee point’, the rate of increase in flux
density decreases, finally the curve becomes almost parallel to X axis as
shown in region III. Any change in H is not going to cause any changes in
B. This region is called saturation region.
For a linear magnetic material which exhibits a straight-line
relationship between B and H, the permeability is a constant given by the
slope of the linear B–H characteristic, and it is related to the free-space
permeability as
µ=µr µ0
where µr is the relative permeability, which is a dimensionless
constant. If the B–H characteristic is nonlinear, as with a number of
common magnetic materials, then the permeability varies as a function of
the magnetic induction.
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is proportional
to the slope of the B–H curve and thus varies with the magnetic field
strength. The approximate ranges of values of relative permeability for
some common magnetic materials are:
Cast iron µr = 100–250; Mild steel µ = 200–800; Silicon iron µ = 1000–
r r
5000; Cast steel µr = 300–900; Mumetal µr
= 200–5000; Stalloy µr = 500–
6000;
4.11 Magnetic Hysteresis (Hysteresis loop)
The phenomenon of lagging of flux density B behind the magnetizing
force H if a magnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization is
called magnetic hysteresis. Consider a unmagnetized iron bar wound with
N number of turns as shown in figure. When an initially unmagnetized
ferromagnetic material is subjected to a varying magnetic field strength H,
(by changing the current through the coil) the flux density B produced in
the material varies as shown in Figure 4.7, the arrows indicating the
direction of the cycle. When the iron bar is subjected to one cycle of
magnetization, the resultant B-H curve makes a loop is called hysteresis
loop.
Figure 4.7 Magnetic hysteresis for magnetic materials
When the current is zero, the H value zero and hence B also zero. H
is increased by increasing the current then the flux density B also
increases until the point of maximum is reached (curve oa). The material is
saturated beyond this point. B will not increase with increase in H. Now H
is gradually decreased by decreasing current, it is found that B does not
decrease along ‘oa’, but follows the path ‘ab’. At point ‘b’, H is zero but B is
in the material is ‘ob’. It is called residual magnetism or residual flux
density. The power of retaining the residual magnetism is called Retentivity
of the material
To remove residual magnetism ob, the magnetizing force H is
reversed by reversing current. When H is gradually increased in reverse
direction, the B-H curve follows the path ‘bx’. So that when H=ox, B=0. The
value of H (to be applied in negative direction) required to remove the
residual magnetism is called coercive force. If H is further increased in the
negative direction, the material is again saturated at point c in the negative
direction. Reducing H to zero and then increasing it in positive direction
completes the curve cda. Thus, when an iron bar is subjected to a cycle of
magnetization, the B-H curve completes a closed loop (‘abxcda’). This loop
is called hysteresis loop.
4.12 Energy Losses in magnetic materials
When a magnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization,
an energy loss (core loss) takes place. Core loss consist of two losses
namely hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
4.12.1 Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy which appears as a
heating of the magnetic material. The energy loss associated with
hysteresis is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. The area of a
hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the
energy loss, is much greater for hard materials than for soft materials. If
the energy per unit volume for a cycle is taken as Eh, then
Eh = ∫ dEh = ∫ H dB = Area of hysteresis loop
If one complete cycle of magnetization, the energy loss per unit volume is
the area of hysteresis loop.
For AC-excited devices the hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle of
alternating current. Thus a hysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard
steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss would be considerable. This
loss component of the core loss can be reduced by choosing a core of
electrical steel that has a narrow hysteresis loop. Hysteresis loss is
expressed by empirical formulae (given by steinmetz)
Wh = 1.6
Bma f V.
x
where Bmax is max flux density, f is frequency of flux reversals; V is volume
of the specimen & is a constant depending on the quality of magnetic
materials and is known as Steinmetz coefficients. This shows that by
selection of proper magnetic material hysteresis loss can be reduced.
Silicon steel has a narrow hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis
loss, and is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine armatures.
4.12.2 Eddy current loss
Consider a specimen of magnetic material subjected to cyclic
magnetization. Apart from hysteresis loss, there is another loss which
occurs in such specimen.
The changing field induces an emf in the body of magnetic material,
which causes current to circulate in it. This current look like whirlpools or
eddies and hence are called eddy currents.
Due to the resistance of the material to these currents, power loss
occurs and is called eddy current loss. This is given by an empirical
formula.
2 2 2
W t f B m watts / m3
e
6
where t = thickness of the material in metres.
f = frequency of flux reversals
Bm = maximum flux density
= Resistivity or specific resistance of the material in ohm – m.
As We depends on thickness of material, it is resorted to laminate the
specimen into thin sheets of 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick and assemble them
together with insulating varnish applied between the sheets. This way‘t’ is
reduced and hence eddy current loss.
4.13 Electromagnetic Induction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut
through the lines of force (or flux), an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of a closed circuit
then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric current to flow round the
circuit. Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor as a
result of its movement across the magnetic field. This effect is known as
‘electromagnetic induction’
4.13.1 Magnetic field due to an electric current
Magnetic fields can be set up not only by permanent magnets, but
also by electric currents. Let a piece of wire be arranged to pass vertically
through a horizontal sheet of cardboard, which is placed with some iron
filings, as shown in Figure 4.8(a). If a current is now passed through the
wire, then the iron filings will form a definite circular field pattern with the
wire at the centre, when the cardboard is gently tapped. By placing a
compass in different positions the lines of flux are seen to have a definite
direction as shown in Figure 4.8(b).If the current direction is reversed, the
direction of the lines of flux is also reversed. The effect on both the iron
filings and the compass needle disappears when the current is switched
off.
Figure 4.8 Magnetic fields due to an electric current
The magnetic field is thus produced by the electric current. The
magnetic flux produced has the same properties as the flux produced by a
permanent magnet. If the current is increased the strength of the field
increases and, as for the permanent magnet, the field strength decreases
as we move away from the current carrying conductor. In Figure 4.8, the
effect of only a small part of the magnetic field is shown.
4.13.2 Cork screw rule
The screw rule states that if a normal right-hand thread screw is
placed along the axis of the solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the
current it moves in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
The direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid is from south to
north.
4.13.3 Right hand grip rule
The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped with the right hand, with
the fingers pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb,
outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid, points in the direction of
the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
4.14 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
4.14.1 First Law:
Whenever the magnetic flux linking a circuit changes an emf is
induced in it. Its magnitude is proportional to rate of change of flux.
4.14.2 Second Law:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkage.
4.14.3 Explanation for Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Consider a coil consist of N number of turns carries a current I. Due
to this current flow magnetic field ( magnetic flux) will be setup in it.
Flux linkage means the product of number of turns of the coil and
the flux linking them. Now if initial flux is 1 and final flux is 2 linking a coil
of N turns.
Initial flux linkages 1 N1
Final flux linkages
2 N 2
Change in flux linkage = N (2 - 1) & if this change is takes place in t
seconds
Then, Rate of change of flux linkages N ( 2 1 )
t
Expressing in differential form,
Induced e.m.f e N d
dt
Applying Lenz’s law to account for the nature of this induced e.m.f
d
e N volts
dt
4.14.4 Lenz’s Law
The above induced emf will circulate a current in such a direction so
as to oppose the cause producing it.
4.15 Induced e.m.f and inductance
An e.m.f is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is a change
in flux linkage. The change in flux linkages can occur in two ways.
(i) The coil is stationary and the magnetic field is changing.
(ii) The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such
a way that there is change in flux linkage.
4.15.1 Dynamically induced e.m.f
The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such
a way that there is change in flux linkage. Resulting induced e.m.f is known
as dynamic induced e.m.f. Generator works on this principle.
Consider a stationery magnetic field of flux density ‘B’ wb/m2. In this
field a conductor with circular cross section is placed. Let l be the length
of conductor.
Conductor is moved at right angles to the field through a distance of
‘dx’ metres in dt secs.
Area swept by the conductor in dt sec. = ℓ dx m2
Magnetic flux cut by the conductor = B ℓ dx Wb.
Taking the conductor has one turn, corresponding
Flux linkage, Bl Wb Turn
dx
dx
Rate of change of flux linkage = B ℓ
dt
According to Faraday’s Law, this is the induced emf, e in the conductor.
Thus induced emf, e = B ℓ v volts
emf induced is rate of flux d
linkage dt
dx
=Bl
dt
dx e=B lv
where v = linear velocity =
dt
Let the conductor be moved with velocity v m / sec. in an inclined direction,
making an angle to the direction of field. Then
Induced emf, e Blv sin volts
The direction of induced emf in the conductor will be mutually
perpendicular to both the direction of field and direction of motion of the
conductor. Fleming’s right hand rule is used for finding the direction of
induced emf and current
Fleming’s right hand rule
Fleming’s right hand rule states that when thumb, fore finger and
middle finger of right hand are stretched right angle to each other with
thumb indicating the direction of motion of conductor, fore finger
indicating the direction of field then the middle finger denotes the direction
of emf induced.
4.15.2 Statically induced emf:
The coil is stationary and the magnetic field is changing. Resulting
induced emf is known as static induced emf. Transformer works on this
principle.
In this case, the coil is held stationary and the magnetic field is
varied. The self induced emf may be self induced or mutually induced.
Self induced emf
If a single coil carries a current, flux will be set up in it. If the current
changes, the flux will change. This change in flux will induce an emf in the
coil. This kind of emf is known as self induced emf. In other words, self
induced emf is the emf induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux linking it
changes because of the current changes in the same circuit. This
phenomenon is called self induction.
d
The magnitude of this self induced emf e N
dt
4.15.2.1 Self inductance (L)
Self inductance of a coil, L is the rate of change of flux linkages with
respect to the current in it. Its unit is Henry. Thus
d d Henry
L N
dI dI
Consider a magnetic circuit shown in figure
Figure 4.9 Self inductance of a coil
With usual notations
NI
Magnetizing force, H =
AT / m
l
Flux density, B = µ 0 µ r H = µ0 µ ( NI ) Wb. / m2
r l
NI
Magnetic flux, = µ 0 µ r ( ) a Wb.
l
N2 I
Flux linkage = N = µ 0 µ r ( ) a Wb. Turns
l
d
Self inductance, L = N =N µ0 µr N 2 a
= N2
=
dI I l ( l / a µ0 µr )
= N2
Reluctance
Expression for self induced emf in terms of self inductance
d
The magnitude of self induced emf, e = N
dt
d dI
Thus self induced emf, e = N x
dI dt
dI
=L
dt
4.15.2.2 Mutually induced emf
Mutually induced emf is the emf induced in one circuit due to change
of flux linking it, the flux being produced by the current in another circuit.
When change in current though a coil occurs, the flux linking nearest
coil changes. Hence, an emf is induced in near by coil and it is called as
mutually induced emf. This phenomenon is called mutual induction.
Mutual inductance
Mutual inductance between two coils is the rate of change of flux
linkages in one coil with respect to the current in other coil. Its unit is
Henry.
When there are two are more coils, there will be mutual inductance
between any two coils. If the two coils are far apart, then the there will not
be any common flux linking both the coils and hence mutual inductance
will be zero.
Consider two air core coils having self inductances L1 and L2 that are
closer to each other as shown in Fig. 4.10. When current passes through
coil 1, flux is produced in coil 1. Only a part of this flux links with coil 1
11
and
Figure 4.10 Mutual inductance of a coil
the remaining flux links both the coils 1 and 2. Generally, the flux linking
both the coils is useful and it is called mutual flux and represented by .
21
The other part of the flux is called leakage flux represented by . When
ℓ1
the coil 2 carries current, flux produced in it is and leakage flux is
22 ℓ2
and the mutual flux is . Fluxes , , and are shown in Fig.
12 ℓ1 21 ℓ2 12
4.10. Similar to the definition of self inductance, mutual inductances can be
written as
M12 = N1 d12 d21
and M21 = N2
d I2 d I1
The operation of many useful devises which utilizes mutual
inductance phenomenon depends upon how close the coils are coupled to
each other.
4.15.2.3 Coefficient of coupling
A fraction of total flux produced by a coil links both the coils is called
coefficient of coupling and this coefficient represented by k. The coefficient
of coupling depends on the relative position of coils 1 and 2. Thus,
coefficient of coupling, k = 21 12
. It is to be noted that coefficient of
11 2 2
coupling is always ≤ 1. If both the coils are far apart, then k = 0. On the other
hand if both the coils are wound over the same core, then k = 1.
Using energy criteria, it can be proved that M12 = M21 = M
d12 d21 d2 2 d11
Then M2 = N1 N2 = N1 N2 k
d I2 d I1 d I1
k
dI2
d11 d2 2
= k 2 N1 N2 = k2 L1 L2
d I1 dI
2
Thus M = k L1 L2
4.16 Force on a current-carrying conductor
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
produced by permanent magnets, then the fields due to the current-
carrying conductor and the permanent magnets interact and cause a force
to be exerted on the conductor. The force on the current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field depends upon:
(a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
(b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
(c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic
field, l metres, and
(d) the directions of the field and the current.
When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at
right angles then:
Force F=BI l newtons
When the conductor and the field are at an angle to each other then
Force F BIl sin Newton
Since when the magnetic field, current and conductor are mutually at right
angles, F = BI l , the magnetic flux density B may be defined by B = F/I l ,
i.e. the flux density is 1 T if the force exerted on 1 m of a conductor
when the conductor carries a current of 1 A is 1 N.
Solved problems
Problem 1.
A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200 mm
by 100 mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole is 150 µWb, calculate
the flux density.
Flux =150 Wb=150 Wb
6
2
Cross sectional area A = 200 100 = 20000 mm
= 20000 6 m2
150 6
Flux density B 6
A 20000
0.0075 Wb / m2
Problem 2.
A magnetizing force of 8000 A/m is applied to a circular magnetic circuit of
mean diameter 30 cm by passing a current through a coil wound on the
circuit. If the coil is uniformly
H 8000 A / m; l d 2 m; N 750 turns
NI Hl
H ; I
l N
8000 2
I 10.05 A
750
current I 10.05 A
Problem 3.
A mild steel ring has a radius of 50 mm and a cross sectional area of 400
mm2. A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring
and the flux produced is 0.1 mWb. If the relative permeability at this value
of current is 200 find (a) the reluctance of the mild steel and (b) the number
of turns on the coil.
l 2r 2 3 m
A 400 6 m 2 ; I 0.5A; 0.13 Wb; 200
r
l 2 3
(a) Reluctance S =
0 A (47 ) 6 )
3.1256 AT / Wb
mmf
(b) S ; mmf S; NI S
S 3.1256 0.13
N
I 0.5
625 turns
Problem 4.
A section through a magnetic circuit of uniform cross-sectional area 2 cm 2
is shown in Figure 4.11. The cast steel core has a mean length of 25 cm.
The air gap is 1 mm wide and the coil has 5000 turns. Determine the current
in the coil to produce a flux density of 0.80 T in the air gap, assuming that
all the flux passes through both parts of the magnetic circuit.
S1 l1
0r A1
l1 l1 H
B
( )A BA 1
0 H 1
0
2 ) 750
Figure 4.11 0.8 2
1172000 AT / Wb
l2
S2 A lA
2
0 r 2 0 2
3
(47 ) 4 )
3979000 Wb / m2
Total reluc tan ce S1+S2=1172000+3979000
5151000 Wb / m2
Flux BA 0.80 2 4
1.6 4 Wb
mmf
S ; mmf S
Hence NI S
S
current 5151000 1.6 4
N 5000
0.165 A
Problem 5.
A toroidal air cored coil with 2000 turns has a mean radius of 25 cm.
Diameter of each turn is 6 cm. Current in the coil is 10 amps. Find (a) MMF
(b) Flux (c) Flux density. Find the magnetic field strength and verify B = H
relation is satisfied.
Rm, Mean radium of circular coil = 25 cm = 0.25m
Mean circumference i.e. length of flux path, l = 2Rm
= 2 x 0.25 = 1.57m
d 2 (6 10 )
2 2
a, area of cross section
= 2.8 103 m 2
4 4
= 0 r
= 4 x 10-7 x 1 (Air cured r =1)
S, Reluctance l 1.57
= = 4.46 108 AT / wb
4 10 2.8 103
7
a
MMF = NI = 2000 x 10 = 200000 AT
FLUX , MMF 200000 4.48 105 wb
= S 4.46 108
Flux Density , B 4.48 10
5
1.6 102 wb/m2 (Tesla)
= a 2.8 10 3
H, Magnetic field strength MMF 20000 12739 AT / m
=
l 1.57
B=H
= 4 x 10-7 x 12739
= 1.6 x 10-2 wb /m2
Relationship verified.
Problem 6.
A ring has mean diameter of 15cm, a cross section 1.7cm 2 and a radial gap
of 0.5 mm cut in it. It is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of insulated wire
and a current of 1 ampere produces a flux of 0.1 mwb at the gap. Calculate
relative permeability of iron. Assume no leakage.
B,
104 1 Tesla (wb/m2) = 0.588 tesla
= at air gap 4
a 1.7 10 1.7
H, at air gap B 1
4.681105 AT / m
= 1.7 4 10 7
0
At required at air gap = H. l g
= (4.681 x 105) x (0.5 x 10-3)
= 234.1
Total MMF or ampere turns = NI = 1500 x 1 = 1500
Length of iron path = (D) - l g
= ( x 15 x 10-2) – (0.5 x 10-3)
= 47.074 x 10-2m
At available for iron path = 1500 – 234.1
= 1265.9
H for iron path MMF for iron path
=
Length of iron pat
1265.9
= 47.074 102
= 2689.17AT/m
B = H
H (2689.17) B B 0.588
=
0 r 4 107 r
r = 174
Relative permeability of iron = 174
Problem 7.
An iron rod of 1cm radius is bent to a ring of mean diameter 30cm and
wound with 250 turns of wire. Assume relative permeability of iron as 800.
An air gap of 0.1cm is cut across the bent ring. Calculate the current
required to produce a useful flux of 20,000 lines. Assume leakage factor of
1.1. Also find the magnetizing current.
Reluctance of air gap = l g l g
0 a
=
0 r a 0.001
4 107 ( 110 4 )
= 2533029.59 AT/wb.
Useful flux is available at the air gap = 20000 lines = 20000 x 10-8 wb.
MMF is air gap = Flux x Reluctance of air gap
= 20000 x 10-8 x 2533029.59
= 506.606AT
i, flux in iron path = Total flux
= (L.F) x useful flux
= 1.1 x 20000 x 10-8 wb
l i , Length of iron path = ( D) - l g
= ( x 0.3) – 0.001
l
S , Reluctance of iron path = li
i
0 r
a
( 0.3) 0.001
= 4 107 800 ( 110 4 )
= 2980988.896 AT/mb
MMF for iron path = i X Si
= 655.82 AT
Total MMf = (MMF for air gap) + (MMF for iron path)
= 506.606 + 655.82
= 1162.426 AT
Magnetizing current
= Total MMF NI 1162.426
No. of Turns N 250
= 4.65 amperes
Problem 8.
The magnetic circuit shown in figure 4.12 is made up of cast steel bar of
cross section 5 sq cm. The middle link has 200 turns of wire wound over it.
The flux path in the central link is 20 cm long. The flux path in the other
link sections on the LHS and RHS to central limb is 50 cm each. Find the
current required to produce a flux of 2m wb. Take relative permeability of
the material as 1000.
Figure 4.12
Central limb length of flux path = 0.2 m
LHS / RHS limbs length of flux path = 0.5m each.
Area of C.S. = 5 x 10-4 m2
S1 , reluctance of flux path in central limb = l 1
0 r a
0.2
= 5 104 4 107 1000
= 318309.9 AT/wb
reluctance in any side limb, S2 = l 2
0 r a
= 0.5
4 107 1000 5 104
= 795774.72 AT/wb
Effective reluctance, S =
S S2
1
+
2
= 716197.25
MMF = S = (2 x 10 ) (716197.25)
-3
= 1432.4 AT
Magnetising current MMF NI 1432.4 7.162 Amps.
= Turns N 200
Problem 9.
A coil of resistance 150 ohms is placed in a magnetic field of flux 0.1 mwb.
The coil has 500 turns. A galvanometer of 450 ohms resistance is
connected in series with it. The coil is moved in 0.1 seconds from the
given field to another field of 0.3 mwb. Find the average induced emf and
the average current through the coil.
d = change in flux = (0.3 – 0.1) = 0.2 mwb.
d t = 0.1 second
e = N d 0.2 103
500 =1
0.1 volt
Current, I =
dt 0.0017 amps.
1
emf
Total Re sis tan ce 150 450
Problem 10.
A conductor 10 cm long and carrying a current of 60A lies perpendicular to
a field of strength 1000 AT/m. Calculate (a) the force acting on the
conductor (b) mechanical power required to move the conductor against
the force with a speed of 1 m / sec. (c) emf induced in the conductor (d)
electrical power developed.
Force, F = BI l Newton
& B = 0H (because magnetic field is in the air / free space)
= 4 x 10-7 x 1000
= 4 x 10-4
F = 4 x 10-4 x 60 x 0.1 = 7.5 x 10-3 x 1
= 7.5 x 10-3 Newton.
Mechanical Power required, P = force x velocity = 7.5 x 10-3 x 1
= 7.5 x 10-3 watts
Emf induced, e = B l v = 4 x 10-4 x 0.1 x 1 = 4 x 10-5
Power developed, P = e x I = 4 x 10-5 x 60
=7.5 x 10-3 watts
Problem 11.
An air cored toroidal coil has 480 turns. Its mean length is 30cm. Cross
sectional area = 5cm2. Find (a) self inductance of the coil (b) average emf
induced if a current of 4A is reversed in 60 milli secs.
N 2
N
L= (Another formula is L = )
S I
l l
S= (because air cored coil & hence = 1)
0 r a 0 a r
N 2 a (480)2 (4 107 ) (5 104 )
L= 0
l 0.3
= 483 x 10 H (i.e. 483 H)
-6
change in current di = (4) - (-4) = 8 amps.
(because current is reversed)
Time dt = 60 m sec = 60 x 10-3 sec.
emf induced, e = di 8
= 483 x 10-6 x
L dt 60 103
= 0.064 V
Problem 12.
Self inductance of a coil of 500 turns is 0.25 H. If 60% of the flux is linked
with a second coil of 10500 turns, calculate (i) mutual inductance between
the two coils, (ii) emf induced in second coil when the current in the first
coil is changed at the rate of 100A/sec.
N11 500 5001
L1, self inductance of coil – 1 =
I 1 I1
I1
Mutual inductance, M N N 2 (k1 )
=
2 2
I1
I1 1
= 10500 x (0.6)
I1
L
= 10500 x 0.6 1
0.25
500
= 10500 x 0.6
500
= 3.15 Henrys.
Emf induced in second coil em21 = M d1i / dt = 3.15 x 100 = 315 volts.
Problem 13.
The number of turns in a coil is 250. When a current of 2 amps flows in this
coil the flux in the coil is 0.3 mwb. When this current is reduced to zero in
2 mill seconds the voltage induced in the coil lying in the vicinity of first
coil is 63.75 V. Find L1, L2 and M and also N2. Assume coefficient of
coupling as 0.75
N1 250 0.3 103
L1 = = 37.5mH
1
2
I1
em21 d1i
=M
dt
63.75 = M (2 0)
2 103
M = 63.75mH
we know that M = K L1 L2
63.75 = 0.75 37.5 L2
L2 = 193mH
Initially when 1 = 0.3 mwb 🡪 2 = K 1 = 0.75 x 0.3 = 0.225 mwb
When current is made zero 1 = 0 🡪 2 = 0
d2 = (0.225 – 0) = 0.225 mwb
d2 3
e =N N 2 0.225 10
m21 dt 2 103
N2 = 567 turns
EXERCISES
1. Find the ampere turns required to produce a flux of 0.4 mwb in
the air gap of a magnetic circuit which has an air gap of 0.5mm.
The iron ring has 4 cm 2 cross section and 63 cm mean length.
Take r = 1800 and leakage coefficient = 1.15 (Ans : 718)
2. A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over an iron ring having
a mean circumference of 400 mm and a cross section of 500 mm 2.
If the coil has a resistance of 8 and is connected across a 20V
DC supply, calculate.
a) the mmf of the coil
b) magnetic field strength
c) total flux
d) reluctance of the ring
Assume r = 900
3. A coil of 800 turns is wound on a wooden former and a current of
5A produces a magnetic flux of 200 x 10-6 wb. Calculate
inductance of coil and induced emf when current is reversed in
0.2 sec. (Ans: 0.032H, 1.6 volts)
4. Two coupled coils have a coefficient of coupling of 0.85, N 1 = 100
turns and N2 = 800 turns. With coil 1 open and a current of 5A in
coil 2 the flux 2 is 0.35 mwb. Find L1, L2 and M.
(Ans: 0.875 x 10-3H, 56mH, 5.95mH).
5 Alternating Current Fundamentals and Single phase AC circuits
Introduction
In ac circuits, voltage and current vary sinusoidally. The passive
parameters of AC circuits are resistance R, inductance L and capacitance
C. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the effect of each passive
parameter, series and parallel AC circuit and resonance circuits.
5.1 Alternating quantity
An alternating quantity is one which has a varying magnitude and
angle with respect to time. Since it is time varying in nature, at any time it
can be represented in three ways: By it’s a) effective value, b) average
value and c) peak value.
To illustrate, consider the voltage at the wall outlet in your home. It is
called a sine wave or sinusoidal ac waveform. This voltage has the shape
shown in Figure 5.1. Starting at zero, the voltage increases to a positive
maximum, decreases to zero, changes polarity, increases to a negative
maximum, then returns again to zero. One complete variation is referred to
as a cycle. Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals as in (b), it
is called a periodic waveform.
Fig 5.1
5.2 Generating AC Voltages
One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at
constant angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field, Figure 5.2. (Slip rings
and brushes connect the coil to the load.) The magnitude of the resulting
voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut and its polarity
is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. Since
the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary
with time. For example in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the
field, no flux lines are being cut and the induced voltage at this instant (and
hence the current) is zero. This is considered as the 0° position of the coil.
As the coil rotates from the 0° position, coil sides AA’ and BB’ cut across
flux lines; hence, voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the
maximum rate in the 90° position as in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage
and the direction of current. As the coil rotates further, voltage decreases,
reaching zero at the 180° position when the coil sides again move parallel
to the field as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone through a half-
revolution. During the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in
directions opposite to that which they did in the first half revolution; hence,
the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As indicated in (d), voltage
reaches a peak at the 270° point, and, since the polarity of the voltage has
changed, so has the direction of current. When the coil reaches the 360°
position, voltage is again zero and the cycle starts over. Figure 5.3 shows
One cycle of the resulting waveform.
Fig 5.2 generating an ac voltage
Fig 5.3 Coil voltage versus angular position
5.3 Basic Terminology
Sinusoidal Waveform
It is an alternating waveform in which sine law is followed.
Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative halves constitute a cycle
Frequency
The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined as its
frequency. Frequency is denoted by the lowercase letter f. In the SI system,
its unit is the hertz (Hz).
Fig 5.4 Fig 5.5
Period (T)
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one full cycle
is called Time period. It is the inverse of frequency.
1
T (s)
f
1
f
(Hz)
T
Instantaneous values
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at
any instant of time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, etc.
Peak value
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or
the maximum value or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.
Such values are represented by Vm , Im . Peak-to-peak value is measured
between minimum and maximum peaks.
Fig 5.6
5.4 Introduction to Phasor
A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be
used to represent sinusoidally varying quantities.
Fig 5.7 Phasor representation
Consider the phasor line of length Vm shown in Figure 5.7 (a). (It is
the phasor). The vertical projection of this line (indicated in dotted) is
Vm sin α. Now, assume that the phasor rotates at angular velocity of ω rad/s
in the counterclockwise direction. Then, α = ωt, and its vertical projection is
Vm sinαt. . If we designate this projection (height) as v, we get v= Vm sinωt,
which is the familiar sinusoidal voltage equation.
A sinusoidal waveform can be created by plotting the vertical
projection of a phasor that rotates in the counterclockwise direction at
constant angular velocity ω. If the phasor has a length of Vm, the waveform
represents voltage; if the phasor has a length of Im, it represents current.
Note carefully: Phasors apply only to sinusoidal waveforms.
5.4.1 Phase Difference
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between
different waveforms of the same frequency. Consider Figure 5.8. If the
angular displacement is 0°as in (a), the waveforms are said to be in phase;
otherwise, they are out of phase. When describing a phase difference,
select one waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in
phase with this reference. For example, in (b), the current waveform is said
to lead the voltage waveform, while in (c) the current waveform is said to
lag.
Fig 5.8 Phasor representation
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency reach their
maximum / minimum at the same instant of time they are said to be in-
phase. Otherwise they are out of phase. The difference in angular
displacement by which they reach their maximum / minimum is the phase
difference.
Lagging quantity is one which starts and progresses behind the
quantity under reference. Leading quantity is one which starts and
progresses ahead of quantity under reference.
If ‘v’ and ‘i’ are voltage and current of same frequency having
maximum values Vm, Im respectively.
v = Vm sin t, i = Im sin (t -) i.e If v is taken as reference i is lagging v by ‘’
i = Im sin t, vA = Vm sin (t + ) } i.e If i is taken as reference v is leading i by
‘’
5.5 Average Value
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity,
(such as a sine wave) is the average value measured over a half cycle,
since over a complete cycle the average value is zero.
It is defined as that value of steady DC current which transfers
across a circuit the same charge as would be transferred by the AC across
the same circuit for the same time.
It is the arithmetical average of all the alternating quantities over a
cycle i.e. if i1, i2, i3, . . . . , in are n instantaneous values of current over a
cycle. then
Iav = i1 i2 i3 .....in
n
A better way of finding the average value is to find the area over the
curve for a small interval of time and integrate over the curve and divide it
by ‘T’
1 T
Iav = i dt
T0
Also, Iav = Area under the curve over one complete cycle
Base ( period )
For symmetrical haves, the integration over a complete cycle and
hence average value over one complete cycle is always zero (the positive
half is similar to negative half and the two areas cancel).
Hence for symmetrical waves, the average value is taken over a half
cycle only. For unsymmetrical waves it is taken over a complete cycle.
5.5.1 Average value for sinusoidal quantities
Consider i= Im sin t = Im sin
Iav = Area of hal cycle
f
base
= 1 i d
0
1
=
0
∫I m Sin d
Im
= cos
0
2
= I
m
i.e. average value for a sine quantity is 2 times (63.6%) of maximum
value.
5.6 Root mean square (RMS) value or effective value
RMS value of an alternating current is that value of steady DC
current which produces the same heat as produced by the alternating
current when passed through same resistance for the same time.
If i1, i2, i3, ….. in are n instantaneous values, then i 2 , i 2 , i 2..., i are n
2
1 2 3 n
instantaneous values of the squared wave.
Take their mean value and square root it to get rms value
IRMS =2 i 2 i 2 in2
i123
n
A better way of finding it is to find the area over the squared curve
for a small interval of time, and integrate over the curve and divide it by ‘T’
and take square root of the whole.
1T
IRMS =
T
∫ i 2 (t)dt
0
Area under squared curve over one complete cycle
Also IRMS = Base ( period )
5.6.1 RMS Value of a sine quantity
Consider i = Im sin t = Im sin
Area under squared curve
IRMS = period
2
Area under squared curve = i 2 d
∫ 0
2
= ∫ (I
0
m sin )2 d
2
= I2 sin 2 d
∫ 1 cos
m
0
2 2
m 2
= I2 d
0
sin 2 2
= Im2
2 2 0
Im2
= 2 0
2
= I2
m
Im2 I
IRMS = = m
2 2
For sine quantities RMS value 1
times or 0.707 time maximum value
is 2
RMS value can be found by considering only one half cycle for
symmetrical waveforms.
5.7 Form Factor
It is the ratio of RMS value to Average value.
2
For a sine wave RMS value = 1 max value & Average value =
2
max value
RMS value
Form factor =
Average value
= Max value
2
2 Max value
=
21.11
5.8 Peak Factor 2
It is the ratio of max or peak value of any AC quantity to its RMS
value for a sine wave
Peak factor = Max value
RMS value
= Max value
Max value /2
= 2 1.414
R, L, and C Circuits with Sinusoidal Excitation
R, L, and C circuit elements each have quite different electrical
properties. For example, Resistance opposes current, while inductance
opposes changes in current, and capacitance opposes changes in voltage.
First let us study the behavior of AC circuits containing pure resistance
only, pure inductance only & pure capacitance only and then their
combinations.
5.9 Resistance and Sinusoidal AC
In a purely resistive circuit, current iR and voltage vR are in phase.
Since voltage and current waveforms coincide, their phasors also coincide
as in Figure 5.9 (b)
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagrams
Figure 5.9 Pure resistance circuit with ac
Applied sinusoidal voltage, v = VVm sin t
v sin t I
i
m
sin t
m
R R
v Vm sin t Vm
Impedance, ' z' R
i I m sin t Vm / R
Power at any instant = v i
= Vm Im sin2 (because t = )
5.9.1 Power
Vm Im
Average power over a P Sin2 d
cycle, 0
∫
V I
= m m
(1 cos 2
) 2 0∫
V I Sin2
= m
m
2 2
0
V I
= m m [ ]
2
Vm I m V I
= 2 m2 m2
= V I watts
5.9.2 Power Factor:
It is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and
current
cos = cos 0 = 1 ( = 0, because V & I are in phase)
5.10 Inductance and Sinusoidal AC
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current iL lags the applied
voltage vL by 90 °(π/2 rads). See Figure 5.10
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagrams
Figure 5.10 Pure inductance circuit with ac
Let the value of self inductance of a pure inductor = L Henrys
The applied voltage v = Vm sin t
v = L di
dt
v = L di i.e. i = 1 v dt
dt L ∫
1
= V sin t
L
∫ m
Vm
= ( cost)
L
= Im sin (t-/2)
Vm
Where Im = & L = XL inductive reactance in ohms
L
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current
is called the inductive reactance, XL
VL
X
L
IL
XL L 2fL
Hence for v = Vm sint in a pure inductive circuit, we get i = Im sin (t - /2)
i.e. i lags behind v by /2 radians in pure ‘L’ circuit
5.10.1 Phasor Representation and Power
V I
V = m 0o and I = m -90o
2 2
Instantaneous power or power at any instant = v i
= Vm sin Im sin ( - /2)
= -Vm Im sin cos
Vm I m
Average power = (sin cos d )
0
∫
V I
= m m
(sin 2 d )
2 0∫
V I cos 2 )
m m
=
2 2 0
V I
= m m (cos 2 cos 0) 0
4
Thus a pure inductor does not consume any real power.
Power factor = cos = cos 90 = 0
Power factor is zero lagging
5.11 Capacitance and Sinusoidal AC
In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current iC leads the applied
voltage vC by 90°(i.e. π/2 rads). See Figure 5.11.
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagrams
Figure 5.11 Pure capacitance circuit with ac
Let the value of capacitor of a pure capacitance circuit = ‘C’ farads
v = Vm sin t
The characteristic equation of a capacitor is
1
v i dt
c ∫
d
ic (V sin t)
dt m
= Vm c cos t
Vm
= 1/ wc cost
= Im cos t
= Im sin (t + 90)
where Im = Vm
Vm i.e. Xc = 1/c 🡪 capacitive reactance in ohms
1/ c X
c
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating
current is called the capacitive reactance
V
X C
C
IC
1 1
X
C
C 2fC
So, for given v = Vm sint in a pure capacitive circuit i = Im sin (t + 90o), the
current is leading voltage by /2 radians in a pure capacitive circuit.
5.11.1 Phasor Representation and power
Vm Im
V 0o & I 90o
2 2
Power factor = cos 90 = 0 🡪 zero leading
Instantaneous power = v i = Vm sin t Im sin (t + 90o)
V I
Average power = m m sin cos d
0∫
Vm Im
= sin 2 d
2 0∫
V I cos 2
m m
=
2 2 0
=0
Thus a pure capacitor does not consume any real power
5.12 R–L series AC circuit
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
and VL (see Figure 5.12), and thus the
current I lags the applied voltage by an angle lying between 0° and 90°
(depending on the values of
and VL ), shown as angle .
VR
(a) circuit (b) Phasor diagram (c) Voltage triangle (d) Impedance triangle
Figure 5.12 RL series AC circuit
In any a.c. series circuit the current is common to each component and is
thus taken as the reference phasor.
From the phasor diagram of Figure 5.12 (b), the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
For the R–L circuit: V VR 2 VL 2 (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
VL
and tan
VR
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the
impedance Z,
V
Z
I
If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 5.12 (c) is divided by current I ,
then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.
For the R–L circuit: Z R2 XL 2
XL X R
tan sin L ; cos
; Z Z
R
5.13 R–C series AC circuit
In an a.c. circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
and VC (see Figure 5.13), and thus the
current I leads the applied voltage by an angle lying between 0° and 90°
(depending on the values of
and VC ), shown as angle .
VR
(a) circuit (b) Phasor diagram (c) Voltage triangle (d) Impedance
triangle Figure 5.13 RC series ac circuit
From the phasor diagram of Figure 5.13 (b), the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.
For the R–C circuit: V VR 2 VC 2 (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
VC
and tan
VR
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is called the
impedance Z,
V
Z
I
If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 5.13 (c) is divided by current I ,
then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.
For the R–C circuit: Z R2 XC 2
XC
tan ; sin XC ; cos R
R Z Z
5.14 R–L–C series AC circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and
capacitance C, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC
(see Figure 5.14). and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there
VL
are three phasor diagrams possible—each depending on the relative values
of VL and VC
When, XL XC , (Figure 5.14(b)), Z R2 (X X )2
LC
and (XL XC )
tan R
When, XC XL (Figure 5.14(c)), Z R2 (XCL X )2
and (XC XL )
tan R
(a) circuit (b) XL XC (c) XC XL (d) XC = XL
Figure 5.14 RLC series ac circuit
When XL =XC , (Figure 5.14(d)), the applied voltage V and the current are in
phase. This effect is called series resonance
5.15 Summary for RLC series circuits
Circuit V Z P.F
RL V2 V2 R2 X2 Lagging
R L L
RC V2 V2 R2 X2 Leading
R C C
RLC V 2 (V V ) 2 R 2 ( X X )2 Lagging (if XL > XC)
R L C L C
Leading (if XC > XL)
5.16 Parallel ac circuits
Admittance of a circuit is defined as reciprocal of impedance. It is
denoted by ‘Y’. In general impedance in complex form is
Z = R jX
Assuming Z = R + jX
1
1 R jX R jX
Z R R2 X
2 Z2
jX
R X
= j
2 2
Z Z
=G–jB
R
where G is called conductance and =
Z2
X
& B is called susceptance and =
Z2
i.e Z = R + jX ⇒ Y = G – jB
Similarly Z = R – jX ⇒ Y = G + jB
i.e Inductive reactance is expressed as +jX and inductive susceptance as
–jB and capacitive reactance is expressed as –jX and capacitive
susceptance as +jB
i.e. Z = R jX ⇒ Y = G jB
consider 3 impedances Z1, Z2 & Z3 in parallel and let ‘Z’ be its equivalent
Figure 5.15 Parallel circuits
then 1 1 1 1
Z Z1 Z 2 Z 3
i.e Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
i.e when two or more impedances (say of the form R+jX)are in parallel, their
equivalent admittance is sum of the individual admittances
Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
= (G1 – jB1) + (G2 – jB2) + (G3 – jB3)
= (G1 + G2 + G3) – J (B1 + B2 + B3)
= G – jB
i.e. sum of individual conductance of parallel branches is equal to
equivalent conductance and sum of individual susceptance of parallel
branches is equal to equivalent susceptance. Admittance triangle for
G – jB is as below.
Figure 5.16 Admittance triangle
Power Factor
G
Cos =
Y
Admittance triangle for G + jB is as below.
Figure 5.16 Admittance triangle
Unit of conductance, susceptance and admittance is mho.
It may be noted that power factor of individual branch is different from that
of overall circuit (because G and Y for individual branch is different from
overall circuit)
Current through a branch, I1
voltage across the branch
= impedance of the branch
V
=Z
1
= V1
Similarly I2 = VY2 & I3 = VY3 etc.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = V (Y1 + Y2 + Y3)
= VY
i.e Total current through the circuit is the product of voltage applied and
equivalent admittance. Also power factor of various parallel branches are
cos 1 = G1 / Y1, cos 2 = G2 / Y2, cos 3 = G3 / Y3 and
Power factor of overall circuit is cos = G / Y
5.17 Power triangle and power factor
Figure 5.17(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags the
applied voltage V by angle . The horizontal component of V is V cos and
the vertical component of V is V sin. If each of the voltage phasors is
multiplied by I, Figure 5.17(b) is obtained and is known as the ‘power
triangle’.
(a) Phasor diagram (b) Power triangle
Figure 5.17
Power factor
It is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and
current. If is the angle between voltage and current, p.f = cos. The lagging
power factor occurs for inductive load and leading power factor occurs for
capacitive load.
Active or Real or True Power
The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current with the cosine of
the angle between them is called the real power P. Mathematically
P = VrIr cos
Its unit is watt (W)
Reactive Power
The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current with the sine of the
angle between them is called the reactive power Q. Mathematically
Q = VrIr sin
Its unit is reactive volt amperes (var)
Apparent Power
The product of r.m.s value of voltage and current is called apparent power
S.
S = VrIr
S P 2 Q 2 (from power triangle)
Power factor also expressed as
Powerfactor
True Power P VIcos
Apparent Power S VI
R
Powerfactor cos
(from impedance triangle)
Z
5.17 Rectangular and polar representations
Impedance of a circuit can be expressed in rectangular or polar form.
Representation in complex form is called rectangular form
(a) Consider an RLC series combination of R = 3 ohms, XL = 9 ohms & XC =
5 ohms.
Z = R + jXL – jXC is rectangular form
= 3 + j9 – j5
= 3 + j4
|Z| = R 2 X 2 32 42 = 5
‘Z’ in polar form is represented in terms of magnitude and direction
🡪 i.e. angular displacement from zero reference.
3
Cos = = 0.6 ; = 53.1
o
5
Z = 5 53.1o is polar form.
(b) Now consider an RLC series combination of R = 6 ohms, XL = 7 ohms &
XC = 10 ohms
Z = R + jXL = jXC
= 6 + j7 – J10
= 6 – j3
|Z| = 62 32 = 6.7
= cos-1 R/Z = cos-1 6/6.7 = 26.4o
Z = 6.7 26.4
(c) Convert (-6 +j8) into polar form
Z = R jX
= 6 + j8
|Z| = R 2 X 2 62 82 10
= cos-1 6/10 = cos-1 0.6 = 53.1o
, angle with reference to zero reference = (180o – 53.1o)
= 126.9 o
Z = 10 126.9o
(d) Convert (-6 –j8) into polar form
Z = R jX
= -6 –j8
|Z| = R 2 X 2 62 82 10
= cos-1 6/10 = cos-1 0.6 = 53.1o
, angle with reference to zero reference = (180o – 53.1o)
= 233.1o or -126.9o
= 10 233.1o or 10 -126.9o
5.18 Conversions from polar to rectangular form
Represent the phasor in magnitude and direction in the diagram.
Draw its obsisca and ordinate. The obsisca represents resistance value
and ordinate represents the reactance value. Now seeing their directions,
mark the sign.
(a) Example : 20 120o
Value of R = 20 cos 60o = 10
Value of X = 20 sin 60 = 17.32
20120o = -10 + j17.32
Rectangular form is useful in addition & subtraction of vectors. Polar form
is useful in multiplication and division of vectors. Hence convert into polar
form or rectangular form as per need.
Examples:
1) 10 30o + 8 60o
10 30o = 8.66 + j5
8 60o = 4 + j6.93
1030o + 8 60o = 12.66 + j11.93 = 17.4 43.3o
2) (8+j6) (3 – j4)
= 1036.9 5 -53.1
= (10 5) (36.9 + (-53.1))
= 50-16.2
= (48 – j14)
5.19 Resonance
An a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance, if the current in the circuit
is in phase with applied voltage. At resonance, the circuit behaves like a
pure resistive circuit. Hence the power factor of the circuit is unity.
Voltage and current amplification in circuit will occur under resonance.
At resonance, inductive reactance of the circuit is equal to capacitive
reactance.
5.19.1 Series RLC circuit
Consider the RLC circuit (fig.5.18)
Figure 5.18 RLC series circuit
Impedance of the RLC circuit,
Z = R+j (XL - XC)
At resonance,
XL = XC and Z = R
If r is angular resonance frequency,
1 1
r ⇒2 ⇒ 1 ⇒ 2f
1
r C LC r
r LC r LC
Resonance 1
frequency f r
2LC
5.19.2 Frequency response of RLC circuit
Impedance of the RLC circuit
Z = R +j (XL – XC)
Resistance remains at one particular value with all variation of .
Inductive reactance XL = L. Inductive reactance is varying linearly with
frequency
When, = 0, XL = 0
= , XL =
1
Capacitive reactance X . Capacitive reactance is inversely
C
C
proportional to angular frequency.
When, = 0, XC =
=, XC = 0
based on the values or R, XL and XC, impedance Z is varying
Current in RLC circuit, I V
Z
Where V = Source voltage independent of
Z = Impedance of the circuit dependent of
When angular frequency is increased from zero, the difference
between XL and XC getting decreased. It decreases the value of impedance
Z and hence increases the value of current I. When XL and XC are become
equal, the circuit will become pure resistive circuit. The current reaches
V
peak value
R
When angular frequency is increased above resonance frequency
r, the difference between XC and XL is getting increased. It increases the
value of impedance Z and hence decreases the value of current I.
5.20 Quality Factor (Q)
When RLC circuit is excited by sinusoidal source, resistor dissipates
the energy in the form of heat; the inductor stores the energy in the form of
magnetic field and capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field.
5.19 (a) frequency response of RLC series Circuit
5.19 (b) Variation of Z, XL and XC with angular frequency
Quality factor of a circuit is defined as
Q 2 Maximum energy stored
Energy dissipated per cycle
Consider RLC circuit,
Figure 5.20 Series RLC circuit
Let i(t) = Im sin t
1 1
Voltage across capacitor, VC idt
∫ t C ∫IImmsin t dt
I m C cos
cos t
C C
Li 2 L (I
Energy stored in the inductor 2
2 sin t) 2
m
Im2 L 2
sin t
2
CV 2 CI
2
Energy stored in the m
cost
capacitor C
2 2 C
C I 2m I 2m
cos 2 t cos2 t
2 C
2
2 2C 2
I2
L I2
Total energy stored in the RLC circuit m
sin t
2 m
cos2 t
2 2 C 2
I m2 sin 2 t 1 cos 2 (i)
2 2 t
2
C
1
At resonance 2 , maximum energy is stored
LC
1
Substitute in equation (i) 2
LC
2
LC
Maximum energy stored in RLC circuit Im L sin 2 t cos 2 t
I2 2 C
2 m L sin 2 t L cos2 t
I m2 L
2
sin 2 t cos 2 t
2
I L I2L
m
[1] m
2 2
Energy dissipated per cycle
= I2RT
where I = I m
= RMS value of current
2
T = 1/f = Time period for one cycle
Now energy dissipated per cycle
2
Im
RT
2
Im2 R 1
2 f
At resonance, f = fr
Quality factor Q = 2 Maximum energy stored
Energy dissipated per cycle
2
Im
2 2
I m2 R 1
2 fr
L 2fr L r L
2 R R
R 1
fr
1 1
(Since at resonance r L )
r CR Cr
5.20 Half power frequencies and bandwidth
At half power frequencies, power is half of the power at resonance.
At resonance frequency, XL = XC. But at half power frequency XL – XC = R.
Impedance of the RLC circuit at half power frequencies,
Z R j( X L X C ) R 2 ( X
LC X
)2 R2 R2
2R 2 2R
Current in RLC circuit at half power frequencies,
V V
i V
Z 2R2 0.707R
V 2 1 V 2
V
Power P I 2 R R R
2R 2R 2 R
2
In fig 5.21,
f1 = Lower half power frequency.
f2 = Upper half power frequency
The range of frequency between f2 and f1 is called bandwidth of RLC
circuit. Current response is appreciable over the bandwidth. The current
value varies from 0.707 V/R to V/R. Sharpness of the tuning of RLC circuit is
decided by the bandwidth (f2 – f1).
At lower cut off frequency,
XL – XC = R (At lower frequencies XC > XL)
1 2 LC
1 L 1
1C R
⇒ 1
1C
LC 1 RC
2
1 1
2 LC RC 1 0
1 1
f1 fr f2
Figure 5.21 Frequency response of RLC series
RC (RC) 2 4 LC
1
2LC
RC R 2C 2 4LC
2LC 4L2C 24L2C 2
R
R2 1
2L 4L2LC
R 2 1
2f1 R
2L 2L LC
R 1
R 2 1
4L 2
2L LC
Similarly at upper half power frequency,
XL – XC = R (At upper frequencies XL > XC)
1
2 L R
2C
2 LC 1
2
R
2C
2 LC 1 RC
2 2
2 LC RC 1 0
2 2
RC (RC) 2 4LC
2
2LC
RC R 2C 2 4LC
2LC 4L2C 24L2C
2
R
R2 1
2L LC
R 4L2
R 2 1
2f 2
2L 2L LC
f 2 R 1 R
2
1
4L 2 2L LC
Bandwidth ( f 2 R 2 2
f1 ) 1 R 1R 1 R 1
4L 2 2L LC4L 2 2L LC
2R
4L
(f2 R
f1 )
2L
The ratio of resonance frequency fr to bandwidth ( f2 f1) is called the
quality factor of coil Q.
fr
Q
f 2 f1
fr
R
2L
2fr L
R
1
L
r L LC
Q 1 L
R R R C
5.21 Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of the RLC circuit to select particular signal
frequency from a group of signals and pass it from one part of the circuit to
other. Tuning circuit in TV/Radio is basically RLC circuit with variable
capacitance. By varying capacitance, circuit is made to resonate at
frequency of the desired TV/Radio station. At resonance frequency, the
response will be maximum.
Selectivity is the ratio of band ( f2 f1 ) and resonant frequency fr.
width
Selectivity = f 2 f1 1
fr Q.
Selectivity is inverse of the quality factor. When bandwidth is small,
selectivity is poor. When bandwidth is more, the circuit is highly selective.
5.22 Parallel Resonance
Consider the parallel RLC circuit (fig5.22)
Figure 5.22 Parallel RLC circuit
Admittance of the parallel circuit
1 1 1 1 1 j j 1 1 1
Y j
jX jX R XL XC R XC X L
Z R L
C
At resonance, susceptance part is zero
1 1
1 1 0⇒ ⇒ X XC
XC X XC X L
L
r L 1 1 1
⇒2 ⇒
r C r LC r LC
1 1
2fr ⇒ f
LC r 2LC
Problem 1.
Find the average value, rms value, peak factor and form factor of the
following waveforms
(a) Unsymmetrical Saw Tooth
(b) Unsymmetrical rectangular
(c) Symmetrical rectangular
(d) Symmetrical Trapesoidal Waveform
(e) Half Wave Rectified sine wave
(f) Full wave rectified sine wave
(a) Saw Tooth Waveform
(i) Area under one cycle 1 bl
= 2
1
= 255
2
Period or base = 2 secs.
Average value of I
5
= 2.5amps
2 Figure 5.23
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared average 1
25 2 50 / 3
= Period or base = 2 3
50
RMS value of I = 2.887 amps
32
Form factor RMS value 2.887
1.155
=
2.5
=
Average value
Peak factor 5
peak value 1.732
=
rms value 2.887
(b) Unsymmetrical Rectangular Waveform
(i) Area under one cycle
= (100 T/2) + (-50 x T/2)
= 25T
Period or base = T
Average value
25T
== T 25 volts
(ii) Area under one cycle of
squared curve
= 1002 x T/2+(-50)2xT/2
12500T
= 2
Period or base =T
RMS value
12500T Figure 5.24
= 2 79.06 volts
Form factor RMS 79.06 3.16
=
Average 25
Peak factor Peak 100 1.26
= RMS 79.06
(c) Symmetrical Rectangular wave
form
(i) Area under one half cycle
= 100 T/2
Period or base = T/2
Average value
100T / 2
= 100 volts
T/2
(ii) Area under one cycle =
1002 x T/2
period or base = T/2
Figure 5.25
1002 T /
RMS value of V 100 volts
2
=
T/2
Form factor RMS 100
= Average 100 1
Peak factor Peak 100
= RMS 100 1
(d) Symmetrical Trapesoidal Waveform
i) Area under half cycle
1 1
= V + V
m
+ Vm m
2 3 3 2 3
2
= V
m
3
Period or base =
Figure 5.26
2/3 2
Average value of V Vm volts
Vm 3
=
(ii) Area under
1 cycle of squared
one 1
curve
= V 2 V 2 / 3 V 2
m m m
3 3 3 3
5
= V 2
m
9
Period or base =
5 Vm2
RMS value of V volts
= 9
0.745Vm
0.745V
Form factor m
1.11
= 2 / 3Vm
Vm 1.342
Peak factor = 0.745V
m
(e) Half Wave Rectified sine wave
(i) Area under one cycle
2
= ∫ I m sin d ∫ 0 d
0
= I m (cos )
0
= Im (-cos + cos 0) Figure 5.27
= Im (1+1)
= 2Im
Period or base = 2
Average value 2I m
= Im /
2
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared wave
2
= ∫ I 2msin 2 d
0 ∫
d
1 cos 2
= I2 d
m0 2
sin 2
2
= I m
2 2 0
= I m sin 2 0 sin 2 0
2
2 2 2
I 2
= m
2
Period or base = 2
Im2
2 I m2 Im
RMS value = =
= 2 4 2
Form factor RMS value Im / 2 1.57
=
Average value Im / 2
Im
Peak factor Peak value 2
=
RMS value Im / 2
(f) Full wave rectified sine wave
(i) Area under one cycle
= ∫I
0
m sin d
= I m (cos ) 0
= 2Im
Period or base =
Figure 5.28
Average value
2I
= m 2I m /
(ii) Area under one cycle of squared wave
∫m
= I 2 sin 2 d
0
1 cos 2
= I2 d
m
0 2
sin 2
2
= I m
2 2 0
= I m sin 2 0 sin 2 0
2
2 2 2
I 2
= m
2
Period or base =
I m2
2 I m2 Im
RMS value = =
= 2
2
RMS value Im /
Form factor 1.11
Average value 2
=
2I m / 2 2
Peak factor Peak value Im
= RMS value I m /2 2
Problem 2
For a series RL circuit (Fig. 5.29), determine the source voltage and phase
angle if the voltage across the resistance is 50V and the voltage across the
inductor is 30V.
Figure 5.29
Solution:
Given : VR = 50V, VL = 30V
Source voltage VS = VR + jVL = 50 + j30 = 58.3 30.96oV
Phase angle between source voltage VS and source current Is is
tan 1
VL
tan 1 30
VR 50
30.96 o
Problem 3
In an AC circuit, resistor R and inductor L are connected in series. Voltage
and current equations are given as e(t) = 200 sin 314t and i(t) = 20 sin (314t –
30o). Calculate
(i) RMS value of the voltage and current
(ii) Frequency
(iii) The power factor
(iv) Power
(v) Values of R and L
Solution:
Given:
e(t) = 200 sin 314t
i(t) = 20 sin (314t – 30o)
(i) Peak value of the voltage, Vm = 200V
Peak value of the current, Im = 20A
RMS value of the voltage, Vrm Vm 200 141.42V
s
2
2
RMS value of Im 20
current, I rms 2 14.142 A
2
(ii) Frequency
Given: = 2f = 314 rad / sec.
f = 50Hz
(iii) Phase angle between e(t) and i(t), is
= 30o
Power factor, cos = cos30o = 0.866
(iv) Power P = VI cos = 141.42 14.142 0.866 = 1732 Watts
(v) Power P = I2R
1732 = 14.1422 R
1732
R 14.1422 8.66
Impedance Z V 141.42
I 14.142 10
Z R 2 XL 2
10 8.662 XL2
Squaring on both side,
100 8.662 X 2
L
X 2 100 8.662
L
= 25
XL = 5
X 5
L L 15.923mH
314
Problem 4
For the circuit shown in figure 5.30, determine the total impedance Z,
current I, phase angle, voltage across the capacitor and voltage across
the resistor.
Figure 5.30
Solution:
Impedance Z = R –jXc
Where 1
Xc 1 1 1.591k
2fC 2 50 2
C 106
Z (2 j1.591)k
Current V
I 100 (30.62 j24.36)mA
Z (2 j1.591) 103
= 39.1238.492omA
Phase angle between source voltage and source current i(t) is
= 38.492o
Voltage across resistor R,
VR = I R = 39.12 10-3 2 103 = 78.24V
Voltage across capacitor,
I Xc = 39.12 10-3 1.591 103 = 62.23V
Problem 5
In an a.c circuit, resistor R and capacitor C are connected in series.
Voltage and current equations are given as e(t) = 100 sin (100t – 30o)V and i(t)
= 10 sin (1000t + 10o)A. Calculate (a) RMS value of the voltage and current
(b) frequency (c) the power factor (d) power (e) values of R and C.
Solution:
a) Peak value of the voltage, Vm = 100V
Peak value of the current, Im = 10A
Vm 100
RMS value of the voltage, Vrm
s 70.71V 2
2
RMS value of the I
current, I rms m 10 7.071V
2 2
b) Frequency
Given, = 2f = 1000 rad / sec.
1000
f 159Hz(or)Cycles / sec.
2
c) Phase angle between e(t) and i(t)
The phasor diagram for the given RC circuit is shown in figure
Figure 5.31
From phasor diagram,
= 10o + 30o = 40o
Power factor = cos = cos40o
d) Power P = VI cos =70.71 7.071 0.766 = 383 Watts
e) Power P = I2R
383 = 7.0712 R
383
R 7.0712 7.66
f) Impedance V
Z 70.71
I 7.071 10
Z R 2 XC 2
10 7.662 X 2
C
Squaring on both sides,
100 7.662 X 2
C
X C 100 7.66 41.32
2 2 2
Xc = 6.43
1
X
C
C
1
6.43
1000 C
1
C 0.1555mF
1000 6.43
Problem 6
Find the current through impedance Z of the following circuit (figure 5.32)
connected to the a.c voltage source.
Figure 5.32
Solution:
V
Current I
Z
Impedance Z = R+j (XL – XC)
R = Resistance = 50
XL = Reactance of the inductor
= L = 2fL = 2 505010-3=15.7
1
1 1 63.66
XC 2fC 2 50 50
C
106
Now, Z = 50 + j (15.7-63.66)
Z = (50-47.96j)
V
I 100 (1.042 0.999 j) A
Z (50 j47.96
j)
= 1.443 43.8oA
Problem 7
For the following fig 5.33, determine total impedance Z, source current I
and phase angle
Figure 5.33
Solution:
Total current I = IR + IL
Current through resistor
R,
V
I 100
R 2A
R 50
Current through inductor
I L V 100 j5 A
jX L j20
Total current I = (2-5j) A = 5.385 -68.19oA
Impedance Z V 100 (6.896 17.24 j) 18.5968.19o
I (2 5 j)
The phase angle difference between source voltage V and current I is
= 68.19o
Problem 8
For the following circuit in figure 5.34, determine total current IT, phase
angle and total impedance Z in the circuit.
Figure 5.34
Solution:
Total current IT = IR + IC
Current through resistance V
I 50 / 20 2.5A
R, R
R
V
Current through capacitor IC
C, jX C
Capacitive reactance 1 1
XC 795.77
2fC 2 2 10 0.110
3 6
Now,
IC 50
0.063 jA
j795.77
Total current IT = (2.5 + 0.063j) A = 2.5 1.443oA
The phase angle difference between source voltage V and source current I
is = 1.443o
Total impedance Z V 50
2.51.443o 20 1.443
o
IT
= (19.99-0.5j)
Problem 9
In the given figure 5.35, find the value of current under resonance and also
find resonant frequency, power, voltage drops across R, L and C.
Figure 5.35
Solution:
At resonance impedance Z = R
Current E E 100
I A
Z R 50
1 1
Resonant frequency f r 80Hz
2LC 240 103 100 106
Power P = I2R = 22 50 = 200 Watts
Voltage across R, ER = I R= 2 50 = 100V
Voltage across L, EL = I XL = IL = I 2fL = 2 2 80 40 10-3
= 40V
Voltage across capacitor C,
1 1 1
EC IX C 1 1 2 6 40V
C 2fC 2 80 100 10
Problem 10
In the given circuit figure 5.36, find frequency, current and voltages across
R, L and C. Also find the quality factor (Q) and bandwidth at resonance.
Figure 5.36
Solution
1
Resonance fr
frequency 2LC
1
1.838 kHz
2 15 103 0.5 106
At resonance, impedance Z =R.
V V 250
Current I 12.5 A
Z R 20
Voltage across
R1 , ER IR 12.5 20 250 V
Voltage across L, EL = IL = I (2 f) L
= 12.5 2 1.838 103 15 10-3
= 2165 V
1 1
Voltage across C, EC = I XC = I
C I 2fC
1
12.5
2 1.838 10 0.5 10
3 6
= 2165 V
L 2 1.838 103 5 103
Quality factor Q 2fL
R R 20
= 8.66
Quality factor Q fr
f 2 f1
fr
1.838 10 212.2 Hz
3
Bandwidth (f – f ),
2 Q 8.66
Problem 11
A RLC circuit consists of R = 10, L = 10mH and C = 2.5F. Calculate the
value of half power frequencies and also bandwidth.
Solution:
1 R R 2 1
Lower cut off f1
frequency, 2 2L 2L LC
2
1 10 10 1
2 10 103 10 103 2.5 106
2 2 10 103
1
500 (500) 0.04 10
2 9
2
= 930Hz 1 R
R 2 1
Upper cut off frequency f 2
2L LC
2 2L
1 10
2
10 1
2 2 10 103 2 10 103 10 103 2.5 106
= 1089Hz
Bandwidth (f2 – f1) = 1089 – 930 = 159Hz.
Problem 12
In figure 5.37, determine the value of RC for resonance.
Figure 5.37
Solution:
1 1
Admittance Y
Z1 Z2
1 1 1 (2 2 j) 1 RC 3 j
22j RC 3 j 2 2 j (2 2 RC 3 j RC 3 j
j)
22j RC 3 2 2 j RC 3 j
j
22 j 2 22 R 2C j 2 44 R2 9
2
3
j
82 R R2 C 9 R 23 9 28
C
C C
At resonance, susceptance part of admittance is zero
3 1
R2 0⇒ 2
3 1
C 4 R 9 4
9 C
12 R 2 9 ⇒ R 2 3
C C
RC 3 1.732
Problem 13
In figure 5.38, determine the value of C under resonance frequency 1000
rad/secs (
RC 4 ).
Figure 5.38
Solution:
1 1
Admittance Y
Z1 Z2
1 1 1 (4 j4) 1 4 jX C
4 j4 4 jX C 4 j4 (4 j4) 4 jX C 4 jX C
4 j4 4 jX 4 j4 4 jX C
C
42 j 2 42 42 j 2 X 2C 32 4 X2
4 4 X 4 C
j C
32 4 X 2 32
C
4 X C
2 2
At resonance susceptance part is zero
XC 4
4 X 2 2 0 ⇒ XC 4
2
C 32 16 X 32
C
XC 1
⇒ 8X X 2 16
X 2 16 C C
C 8
0 X 8X 16
2
(i)
C C
Solving eqn (i)
X C 8 64 4 16
2 4
Radian frequency = 1000 rad/sec
1 1
X 4⇒ 4
C
C 1000 C
1
C 0.25F
4000
Problem 14
In the circuit given in figure 5.39, determine the value of L under resonance
frequency 160Hz.
Figure 5.39 Parallel RLC circuit
Solution :
1 1
Admittance Y
Z1 Z2
1 1 1 3 jX L1 1 44j
3 jX L1 4 4 j 3 jX L1 3 jX L1 4 4 j 4 4 j
3 jX L1 44j 3 jX L1 44j
32 j 2 X 2 42 j 2 42 9 jX 2 42 j 2 42
L L
3 jX L1 4 4 j 3 4 4 X L1
j
9X 2
32 9X 2
32 32 9 X 2
L1 L1 L1
At resonance susceptance part of admittance zero
4 X L1 1 X L1
32 0⇒
9X 2 8 9X2
L L
9 8X
2
X 2L L
8X 9 0 (i)
XL L
Solving eqn (i),
X L1 8 64 4 8 28 6.646(or)1.354
9 2
2
when XL1 = 6.646,
X L1
L
6.646
2 160 6.61mH
when XL1 = 1.354,
X L1
L 1.354
2 160 1.347mH
Exercise problems
1. For the following circuit figure, calculate impedance Z, current I,
phase angle , voltage across resistance and voltage across
inductance.
Figure 5.40
Ans: Z = (1000 + 377j) , I = 0.187 -20.66o, = 20.66o,
VR = 187V, VL = 70.5V.
2. For the following circuit figure, determine the total impedance Z,
current I, phase angle , and voltage across capacitor and voltage
across resistor.
Figure 5.41
Ans: Z = (1000 - 3183j), I = 0.15 72.53oA, = 72.53o,
VR = 15V, VC = 47.745V
3. For the following circuit, figure determine the impedance Z and
source current I, and phase angle .
Figure 5.42
Ans: Z = 20 + 40j, I = 2.236 -63.43oA, = 63.43o
4. For the following circuit, determine the total current IT, the angle
and total impedance Z of the circuit.
Figure 5.43
Ans: I = 2 3.6oA, Z = (49.8 – 3.14j) ,
= 3.6o.
6 AC three phase circuits
Introduction
Basics of single phase AC circuits have been discussed in chapter 5.
Different types of three phase ac circuits and power measurements for ac three
phase circuits are main topics in this chapter
6.1 Three phase system
Three phase system is a combination of three single phase systems. In a
balanced three phase system, three voltages (currents) differ in phase by 120 o
electrical from each other in a particular sequence and also they have equal
magnitudes.
6.2 Advantages of three phase system
i) For a given frame size, the power rating of three phase motor or
three phase generator is more than single phase motor or generator.
ii) Three phase motors are self starting but single phase motors are not
self starting
iii) For the transmission of same power, three phase circuits require
less conductor material than single phase circuit.
iv) Single phase motor produces pulsating torque but three phase
motor produces uniform torque.
6.3 Three phase system
Three phase system has three independent voltage sources. Three voltage
sources may be connected in star or delta connection. Each independent voltage
source form separate phase. They are named as R-phase, Y-phase and B-phase
EMF generated by each source is represented as follows.
VR = Vm sint
Vy = Vm sin (t - 120o)
VB = Vm sin (t – 240o)
Fig 6.1(a) Three phase star connected system Fig 6.1(b) Three phase delta connected system
Meeting point of three voltage sources in star(Y) connection is called
neutral. Delta () connection does not have any such neutral point.
In Y, the voltage between line and neutral is called phase voltage (Vph) and
the voltage between any two lines is called line voltage (VL). The relation between
phase voltage and line voltage in star connected system is given by
VL
Vph 3
In delta connection, the voltage across each phase called phase voltage is
equal to line voltage (VL) between two lines.
Vph = VL
In star connection, the current flowing through phase is same as line
current. The relation between line current and phase current given by,
Iph = IL
In delta connection, the current through phase is not equal to line current.
The relation between line current and phase current is given by,
IL
I ph 3
6.4 Phasor representation of three phase emfs
Three voltages of three phase system are represented by three rotating
phasors. They have equal magnitude and maintaining a phase difference of 120 o
with respect to each other. Phasor rotation in RYB sequence and RBY sequence
are given in fig 6.2(a) and 6.2 (b)
Fig 6.2 (a) RYB Phase sequence Fig 6.2 (b) RBY Phase sequence
In RYB sequence, the phasor voltages are represented by,
V | V | 0o (reference), V | V | 120o , V | V | 240o
R R y B B
In RBY sequence, the phasor voltages are represented by,
V | V | 0o (reference), V | V | 120o , V | V | 240o
R R B B y
As three phase voltages, three phase currents are represented by three
rotating phasors. Magnitudes of them are same and they differ each other by
phase angle of 120o. Phasor rotation in RYB sequence and RBY sequence are
given in fig 6.3(a) and 6.3(b).
Fig 6.3 (a) RYB Phase sequence Fig 6.3 (b) RBY Phase sequence
In RYB sequence, the phasor currents are represented by,
I | I | 0o (reference), I | I | 120o , I | I | 240o
R R y B B
In RBY sequence, the phasor currents are represented by,
I | I | 0o (reference), I | I | 120o , I | I | 240o
R R B B y
6.5 Voltage relations in three phase circuits
6.5.1 Star connection:
A balanced star connected 3-phase system is given in fig 6.4 and phasor
representation of its 3-phase voltages is also shown in fig 6.5
Fig 6.4 A balanced 3 phase star connected system
Fig 6.5 Phasor representation of 3 phase star connected system
Line voltage VRY = Phasor difference between VRN and VYN
RN | V
VRN VYN | V|2 |2 2 | V
YN
|| V| cos 60o
RNYN
where = 60o ➔ phase difference between VRN and –VYN.
VRN = VYN = Vph and VRY = VL
Now,
VL V
1
3VPh
22 2
V 2V
2
phph ph
6.5.2 Delta Connected System
In delta connected system, line voltage between any two lines is equal to
phase voltage. A delta connected system is shown in fig 6.6
Fig 6.6 A delta connected 3 phase system
From fig 6.6, VRY = VYB = VBR = VL = Vph
6.6 Current Relations in three phase circuits
6.6.1 Star connected system
In star connected system, the same current flowing through phase and line
as shown in fig 6.7. Hence, in star connected system, line current is equal to
phase current.
In fig 6.7, Iph = IL
Fig 6.7 A star connected system
6.6.2 Delta connected system
A balanced delta connected 3-phase system is given in fig 6.8 and phasor
representation of it’s currents is also shown in fig 6.9
Fig 6.8 A balanced delta connected system
Fig 6.9 Phasor representation of 3 phase delta connected system
In fig 6.9
Line current IL1 = phasor difference of IYR and IRB
= IYR - IRB
= IYR + (-IRB)
I YRRBYR
2 I 2 2IIcos 60o
RB
Where = 60 ➔ phase difference between IYR and –IRB and
o
IYR = IRB = IBY = Iph
IL1 = IL2 = IL3 = IL
Now,
IL 2 I 2 2I 2 I cos 60o 3
I phph ph ph
I ph
6.7 Power in three phase system
In 3-phase balanced load, the power consumed by each phase is same.
Total power is equal to three times the power consumed in single phase.
3-phase power = 3 power consumed per phase
P = 3 Vph Iph cos
Where is phase angle difference between phase voltage (Vph) and phase current
(Iph).
In star connection, Vph VL and I I L
3
ph
Now,
V
P 3 L I cos 3VL I cos
3 L L
In delta connected system, VL IL
Vph and I ph 3
Now, I
P3 L
cos 3VL I cos
VL L
3
VBY V 120o
I V 120o
Z 2 2 Z 2 2 Z2
BY
2
VYR
V 240 V 240o
o
I
Z3
Z 33 Z33
YR 3
Three line currents are,
IL1 = IRB - IYR, IL2 = IBY – IRB, IL3 = IYR – IBY
6.8 Power measurement using wattmeters
Wattmeters are power measuring devices commonly used in ac circuits.
Wattmeter consists of two coils. One is called current coil connected in the line
carrying line current. Another one is called pressure coil connected between two
lines or line and neutral. The voltage is applied across pressure coil. Hence
termed as voltage coil.
Consider wattmeter connected in single phase circuit as shown in fig 6.10
Fig 6.10 wattmeter connection
C.C. – Current coil
P.C – Pressure coil
In wattmeter terminals, M denotes main supply side, L denotes load side, C
denotes common point of current coil and pressure coil and V denotes voltage,
generally the load voltage in the circuit.
Let P be the power read by wattmeter. Then,
P = VI cos
Where, V – Voltage across pressure coil (RMS)
I – Current through current coil (RMS)
- Phase angle between V and I.
6.9 Power measurement in three phase circuit
6.9.1 Three wattmeter method
Power can be measured in three phase system by connecting three
wattmeters in each phase. The total power is the algebraic sum of the readings of
three wattmeter. By this method, we can measure power in both balanced and
unbalanced loads. Let us consider power measurement in 3-phase balanced star
connected loads not having neutral wire as given in fig. 6.11
Let be the phase angle between each phase voltage and phase current.
Relation between phase voltages and phase currents are given in phasor diagram
(Fig 6.12)
Fig 6.11 Power measurement using three wattmeters
Fig 6.12 Relation between phase voltage and phase current
Total power (P) consumed by the 3 phase load is equal to algebraic sum of
the average power consumed by each load.
Now,
P = W1 + W2 + W3 = VRN IR cos + VYN IY cos + VBN IB cos
= Vph Iph cos + Vph Iph cos + Vph Iph cos = 3Vph Iph cos
6.9.2 Two wattmeter method
Let consider the circuit, measuring power in balanced three phase star
connected load using two wattmeters.
Fig 6.13 Power measurement using two wattmeters
In each wattmeter, pressure coils are connected between two lines. Hence
line voltage is applied across pressure coils. The relation between line voltages
and line currents are given in phasor diagram in fig 6.14.
Fig 6.14 Relationship between line voltage and line current
Power
The current flowing through current coil of wattmeter (W 1) is IR and voltage
across pressure coil is VRB. Phase angle between VRB and IR is (30-) (from phasor
diagram given in fig (6.14))
First wattmeter reading,
W1 = VRB IR cos (30-) = VL IL cos (30-)
The current flowing through current coil of wattmeter W 2 is IY and voltage across
pressure coil is VYB. Phase angle between VYB and IY is (30 + ) (see phasor
diagram)
Now, second wattmeter reading,
W2 = VYB IY cos (30+) = VL IL cos (30+)
Now, total power consumed by three phase load,
P = W1 + W2 = VL IL [cos (30-) + cos (30+)]
=VL IL (cos 30 cos + sin 30 sin + cos 30 cos - sin 30 sin)
= VL IL (2 cos 30 cos) = VL I L 2
3 cos
2
= 3VL I L cos
Wattmeter will indicate down scale reading when phase angle between line
voltage and line current is greater than 90o. To get upscale reading either current
coil connection or voltage coil connection is interchanged. Reading taken from
particular wattmeter is taken as negative after reversal of coil connection.
Power factor:
Power factor is calculated for 3-phase circuit from the reading of the two
wattmeters. Power factor is cosine of phase angle between phase voltage and
phase current. For a balanced load each phase has same power factor. But
power factor of every phase differs in case of unbalanced 3 phase load.
From two wattmeters reading.
W1 W2 3VL I L cos
W1 W2 VL I L cos(30 ) VL I L cos(30 ) VL I L cos(30 ) cos(30 )
VL I L (cos 30 cos sin 30 sin cos 30 cos sin 30 sin )
VL I L 1 1
(sin 30 sin sin 30 sin ) sin sin
VL I 2
L
2
VL I L sin
Now, W1 W2 VL I L sin 1
tan
3VL I L cos
W1 W2 3
tan 1 3 W1 W2
W1 W2
Power factor = cos
6.9.3 Reactive power measurement with wattmeter
Reactive power of 3-phase balanced is 3VL I L sin. This is obtained by
connecting current coil of the wattmeter in one line and pressure coil across
other two lines as shown in fig.6.15
Fig 6.15 Reactive power measurement
Current through current coil of wattmeter = IR
Voltage across pressure coil = VYB
Phase angle between VYB and IR is (90-)
Now, reading of the wattmeter = VYB IR cos (90-)
= VLIL sin VAR
If we multiply this value with 3 , we will get total reactive power in 3-phase load.
Solved Problems
Problem 1
Each phase of a 3 phase star connected alternator produces a voltage of 11000V
and current of 1000A at power factor 0.9. Find line voltage, line current and total
capacity of the alternator.
Solution
For star connected system,
Line voltage VL 3V ph 3 11000 19053V
Line current I I 1000 A
L ph
Capacity of alternator 3 VL I L cos 3 19053 1000 0.9
=
= 29.7 Mwatts
Problem 2
Each phase of 3 phase delta connected alternator produces a voltage of 11000V
and current of 1000A at power factor 0.9. Find line voltage, line current and total
capacity of the alternator.
Solution:
For delta connected system.
Line voltage VL Vph 11000 V
Line current I L 3 I ph 3 1000 1732 A
Alternator capacity = 3 11000 1732 0.9 29.7 M watts
Problem 3
A 3-phase, 440V, star connected alternator is connected to a balanced star
connected load. Each phase having load of (10+j10). Find (a) Active power (b)
Reactive power (c) Apparent power.
Solution:
Given: VL 440V , Z ph (10 j10)
Vph VL 440
254V
3
3
I ph Vph 254
(12.7 12.7 j) A 17.96 45o A
Z ph (10
j10)
Fig 6.16
Phase angle between Vph and Iph, = 45o
a) Active power = 3 Vph Iph cos = 3 254 17.96 cos 45o
= 9677 watts
b) Reactive power = 3 Vph Iph sin = 3 254 17.96 sin 45o
= 9677 VAR
c) Apparent power = 3 Vph Iph = 3 254 17.96
= 13.7 KVA
Problem 4
A 3-phase, 440V, delta connected alternator is connected to three phase load.
Each phase is having load impedance (20+j20). Find (i) Active power (ii) Reactive
power (iii) Apparent power.
Solution:
Given:
VL 440V , Z ph 20 20 j
Phase voltage Vph = VL = 440V
Vph 400
Phase current I 11 11 j 15.56 45o A
ph
Z ph (20 j20)
Phase angle between Vph and Iph, = 45o
Fig 6.17
a) Active power = 3 Vph Iph cos = 3 400 15.56 cos 45o
= 14.523 K watts
b) Reactive power = 3 Vph Iph sin
= 14.523 KVAR
c) Apparent power = 3 Vph Iph = 3 400 15.56 = 20.539 KVA
Problem 5
In two wattmeter method, for three phase load, the wattmeter readings are 500W
and 40W. Calculate (i) Active power (ii) Phase lag (iii) Power factor (iv) Reactive
power
Solution:
(i) Active power = W1 W2 500 40 460 Watts
W W
(ii) Phase lag tan 1
3 1 2
tan 500 (40) o
1 3 63.8
W W 500 40
1 2
(iii) Power factor = cos = cos 63.8o = 0.441
(iv) Reactive power = 3VL I L sin 3 (W1 W2 ) 3(500 (40))
= 935.3VAR.
Problem 6
A three phase load consumes power of 12kW at 0.9 power factor. If two
wattmeter method is applied to measure the power, what are the individual
readings of the wattmeters?
Solution:
Let, W1 be the reading of the first wattmeter,
W2 be the reading of the second wattmeter.
Total power P = 12kW (given)
= W1 + W2 (1)
Phase angle = cos-1 0.9 = 25.84o.
Now, tan = tan 25.84o = 0.4843
W1 W2 W1 W23
3 W W 3 12 10
1 2
W1 – W2 = 3.355kW (2)
From (i) and (ii),
W1 + W2 = 12 103
W1 – W2 = 3.355 103
2W1 = 15.355 103
W1 =7.6775 103 watts
From (i) ➔ W2 = 12 103 – 7.677 103
W2 = 4.322 kW
Exercise problems
1. A 3 phase, 415V, star connected alternator is connected to balanced star
connected load. Each phase is having load of (15+15j). Find (a) Active
power (b) Reactive power (c) Apparent power.
Ans: 5740W, 5740VAR, 8.117 KVA
2. A 3 phase, 415V, delta connected alternator is connected to three phase
load. Each phase is having load impedance (5+5j). Find (i) Active power (ii)
Reactive power (iii) Apparent power.
Ans: 51.67 kW, 51.67kVAR, 73.1 KVA
3. In two wattmeter method, for three phase load, the wattmeter readings are
600W and -60W. Calculate (i) Active power (ii) Phase lag , (iii) Power
factor (iv) Reactive power
Ans: 540W, 64.7o, 0.427, 1143 VAR.
4. A three phase load consumes power of 10kW at 0.8 pf. If two wattmeter
method is applied to measure the power, what are the individual readings
of the wattmeter?
Ans: 7165W, 2835W.
7 ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Introduction
In this chapter construction and principles of operation of ac and dc
electromechanical energy conversion devices such as dc generator, motor,
transformer and ac machines, with their applications will be discussed in details.
7.1 DC machines
DC machines are broadly classified as DC generators and DC motors.
Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and motors vice
versa. Electrical Machines work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. The basic requirements are a magnetic field,
conductor and relative motion between them. In DC machines the field is
stationary and the conductors are revolving. So is produced an induced emf
directly proportional to rate of change of flux.
7.2 DC Generator
7.2.1 Working principle of DC Generator
The dc generator is rotating electrical machine which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator is usually driven by a
steam turbine or water turbine which is called as prime mover.
The dc generator operates on the principle based on the Faraday’s Law
of electromagnetic induction. The generator should have (i) magnetic field (ii)
conductors capable of carrying current (iii) movement of conductors in the
magnetic field. Necessary magnetic field is produced by field coil. The set of
conductors is called the armature.
Imagine an elementary set up with just two poles ‘N’ and ‘S’ and a single
turn coil placed in between them on a rotor. When the rotor with the coil (called
armature) is rotated, the two conductors, i.e. coil sides, ‘aa’ and ‘bb’ will come
under the influence of north pole and south pole alternatively. So the emf
induced in each conductor will be reversing when coming under N and S poles
repeatedly. If we terminate each conductor i.e coil side on a separate ring and
collect the current through brushes touching the two rings the current collected
would be alternating (a.c).
To make the current collected unidirectional or D.C. the coil sides are
soldered to split copper blocks as shown. Now the currents coming out of
brushes will be unidirectional (d.c) because the brushes alternately contact
different coil sides. Such an arrangement of split copper block is called
commutator that helps getting D.C. outside.
So we need to have three main parts namely field system (poles & pole
winding or field winding), armature and commutator.
7.2.2 Construction of DC Generator:
Figure 7.1 Construction of DC Generator
Yoke or Frame:
It serves two purposes.
a) It acts as a protective enclosure for the whole machine and supports the
poles.
b) If forms part of the magnetic flux path and carries half the flux per pole.
It is made of cast iron in small machines and cast steel or rolled steel for
large machines.
Poles:
These are made up of silicon steel laminations. Silicon steel is used to
reduce hysteresis losses and it is laminated to reduce eddy current losses. The
ends of the poles are expanded in the form of horse shoe to ensure uniform flux
distribution in the air gap between the poles and rotating armature.
Field Winding:
Field coil is placed over each pole and are connected in series to form field
winding. Again the field winding is so arranged on the different poles that when a
direct current is passed through this winding the poles get magnetized to N and S
polarities alternately. Thus the field system comprising poles & field winding is
responsible for producing the required working flux in the air gap.
Armature:
It consists of laminated silicon steel core supported on a solid shaft. The
core surface is slotted to house conductors. The conductors are connected to
form armature winding. They are classified as wave and lap winding.
Commutator:
This is an extension of rotating armature and is of smaller diameter. It
consists of segments of hard drawn copper separated by mica insulation.
Brushes:
Brushes of carbon or graphite remain in gentle touch with the commutator.
Brushes are housed in brush holders and held pressed against the commutator
by a spring. Brush holders are assembled in brush arms. The assembly of brush
arms in called brush gear. The brush gear with brushes is a stationary part.
7.2.3 E.M.F Equation of DC Generator
Let
= flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armature conductors = No. of slots x No. of conductors/slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E.
Average e.m.f generated /conductor = d/dt volt (n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P
Wb No. of revolutions/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction,
E.M.F generated/conductor is
d PN
dt 60
For a simplex wave-wound generator
No. of parallel paths = 2
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2
E.M.F. generated/path is
PN Z ZPN
volt
60 2 120
For a simplex lap-wound generator
No. of parallel paths = P
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
E.M.F. Generated/path
PN Z ZN
volt
60 P 120
In general generated e.m.f
PN P
Eg 60 A volt
Where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding
= P - for simplex lap-winding
7.2.4 Types of DC generator
The magnetic field in a DC generator is normally produced by
electromagnets rather than permanent magnets. Generators are generally
classified according to their methods of field excitation. On this basis, DC.
generators are divided into the following two classes:
(i) Separately excited DC. generators
(ii) Self – excited DC generators
The behaviour of a DC. Generator on load depends upon the method
of field excitation adopted.
(i) Separately Excited DC. Generators
A DC. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an
independent external DC. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately
excited generator. Fig. (7.2) shows the connections of a separately excited
generator. The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature
and the field current (Eg =P ZN/60 A). The greater the speed and field current,
greater is the generated e.m.f. It may be noted that separately excited DC.
generators are rarely used in practice. The DC. generators are normally of self-
excited type.
Armature current Ia = IL
Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra
Electric power developed = EgIa
2
Power delivered to load = EgIa – I
a
= Ia (Eg-IaRa) = VIa
Figure 7.2
(ii) Self-Excited DC. Generators
A DC. Generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the
output of the generator itself is called a self-excited generator. There are three
types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner in which the field
winding is connected to the armature, namely;
(a) Series generator;
(b) Shunt generator;
(c) Compound generator
(a) Series generator
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with
armature winding so that whole armature current flows through the field winding
as well as the load. Fig. (7.3) shows the connections of a series wound generator.
Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of
thick wire having low resistance. Series generators are rarely used except for
special purposes e.g., as boosters.
Armature current Ia = Ise = IL
Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia(Ra+Rse)
Electric power developed in armature
= EgIa
Power delivered to load
= EgIa – Iaaseag
2(R +R )=I [E – I(Rase+R )]
= VIa or VIa
Figure 7.3
(b) Shunt generator
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it.
The shunt field winding has many turns of fine wire having high resistance.
Therefore, only a part of armature current flows through shunt field winding and
the rest flows through the load. Fig. (7.4) shows the connections of a shunt-
wound generator.
Shunt field current , Ish = V/ Rsh Armature current, Ia = IL+ Ish Terminal voltage V = Eg – IRa
Electric power developed in armature
= EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL
Figure 7.4
(c) Compound generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on
each pole—one is in series and the other in parallel with the armature. A
compound wound generator may be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the
armature winding [See Fig. 7.5 (i)].
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series
field and armature winding [See Fig. 7.5 (ii)].
Figure 7.5
Short shunt Long shunt
Series field current , Ise = IL Series field current , Ise = Ia =IL +Ish
Shunt field current, Ish=(V+IseRse )/Rsh Shunt field current, Ish=V/Rsh
Terminal voltage V = Eg – IaRa –IseRse Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia(Ra+Rse )
Power developed in armature = EgIa Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL Power delivered to load = VIL
7.3 DC Motor
7.3.1 Working principle, construction of DC motor
The dc motor is rotating electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Construction of dc motor is exactly similar to dc generator.
Whenever a current carrying conductor is kept in a
stationary magnetic field, an electromotive force is produced. This force is
exerted on the conductor and hence is moved away from the field. This is the
principle used in dc motors.
In a dc motor, both the armature and the field windings are connected
to a dc supply. Thus, we have current carrying armature conductors placed in a
stationary magnetic field. Due to electromagnetic torque exerted on the armature
conductors, the armature starts revolving. Thus, electrical energy is converted
into mechanical energy in the armature.
When the armature is in motion, we have revolving conductors in a
stationary magnetic field. As per Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, an
emf is induced in the armature conductors. As per Lenz’s law, this induced emf
opposes the voltage applied to the armature. Hence it is called back emf. There
will be small voltage drop due to armature resistance. Thus, the applied voltage
has to overcome the back emf in addition to supplying the armature voltage drop.
The input power is used to produce necessary torque for the continuous rotation
of the armature.
7.3.2 Types of DC motor
Like generators, there are three types of DC motors characterized by the
connections of field winding in relation to the armature viz.:
(i) Shunt-wound motor
Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with
the armature [See Fig. 7.6 ]. The current through the shunt field winding is not the
same as the armature current. Shunt field windings are designed to produce the
necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large number of turns of wire having
high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively small compared with
the armature current.
Figure 7.6 Figure 7.7
(ii) Series-wound motor
Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with
the armature [See Fig. 7.7]. Therefore, series field winding carries the armature
current. Since the current passing through a series field winding is the same as
the armature current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer
turns than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f. Therefore, a series field
winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will
possess a low resistance.
(iii) Compound-wound motor
Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of
compound motor connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is
directly connected across the armature terminals [See Fig. 7.8], it is called short-
shunt connection. When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the
series combination of armature and series field [See Fig. 7.9], it is called long-
shunt connection
Figure 7.8 Figure 7.9
The compound machines (generators or motors) are always designed so
that the flux produced by shunt field winding is considerably larger than the flux
produced by the series field winding. Therefore, shunt field in compound
machines is the basic dominant factor in the production of the magnetic field in
the machine.
7.3.3 Application of DC machines
(a) Application of dc generators
1. Shunt generators are used in supplying nearly constant loads. They are
used for charging batteries and supplying the fields of synchronous
machines.
2. Series generators are used to boosters for adding voltage to
transmission lines to compensate for the line drop.
3. Cumulative compound generators are used for drives which require
constant dc voltage supply.
4. Differential compound generators are used in arc welding.
(b) Application of dc motors
1. DC series motors are used in electric trains, cranes, hoists, conveyors
etc. where high starting torque is required.
2. Shunt motors are used where the speed has to remain constant under
loaded condition.
3. Compound motors are used for driving heavy tools for intermittent
heavy loads such as rolling mills, printing machines etc.
7.4 Transformer
The Transformer is a static device used to transfer electrical energy form
one circuit to another with increase or decrease in voltage without changing the
frequency of its supply. The increase or decrease in voltage is associated with
corresponding decrease or increase in current.
7.4.1 Working Principle:
The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. In
this case the coils are stationary. The magnetic flux is produced by ac voltage
and hence it varies with respect to time. Thus the induced emf comes under the
classification of statically induced emf.
The transformer mainly consists of two windings placed on a
laminated silicon steel core. The winding which is connected to supply is called
primary and that which is connected to load is called secondary. When there, is
increase from primary to secondary voltage it is called step up transformer and
the other way is called step down transformer. The two windings are
electrically isolated but magnetically linked through the core.
When the primary winding is connected to ac supply an alternating current
flows through it. This forms alternating flux in the core of same frequency as
supply voltage. This flux links the secondary coil and mutually induced emf of
same frequency is produced in it. If load is connected to the secondary coil
current flows through it and power is delivered to the load.
EMF induced in primary side E1 d
= N1
dt
Since same flux is linking both the primary and secondary coils
EMF induced in primary side E2 d
= N2
dt
7.4.2 E.M.F equation of a Transformer
N1= No. of turns in primary
N2= No.of turns in secondary
m = Maximum flux in core
f =frequency of supply
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.10 shows the variation of flux in the core. Since is zero at t=0 and =m at
T 1
t , i.e t .
4 4f
m
Therefore, average rate of change of flux 4 volt
f
m
1/ 4 f
Now, rate of change of flux per turn = average e.m.f/turn
Average e.m.f per turn 4 fm volt
If flux varies sinusoidally, then rms value of induced e.m.f is obtained by
multiplying the average value with form factor.
Form rms value
factor 1.11
average value
rms value of emf per turn 1.11 4 f 4.44 f volt
m m
rms value of emf induced in the primary winding, E 4.44 f N 4.44 fN B A volt
1 m 1 1 m
rms value of emf induced in the sec ondary winding, E 4.44 f N 4.44 fN B A volt
2 m 2 2 m
From eqs. E1 and E2, we have
E 1 N1
E2 N
2
Thus,
(i) If N1 N2, E1 E2, it is called step down transformer. i.e., secondary
voltage less as compared to primary voltage
(ii) If N1 N2, E1 E2, it is called step up transformer. i.e., secondary
voltage greater as compared to primary voltage
7.4..3 Transformation ratio
E1
Voltage ratio N1
E2 N2
Since losses in the transformer are very less
E 1 I1 = E 2 I2
I1
Then the current ratio
I 2 E2 N2
E1 N1
The ratio of secondary to primary voltage is called transformation ratio, K.
K = V2 / V1 = E2 / E1 = I1/ I2
7.4.4 Types of Transformers:
(a) Core Type:
The core is built up of ‘L’ shaped stampings (Laminations). The core has 2
vertical limbs and 2 Horizontal limbs. The coils are placed on vertical limbs.
Figure 7.11 Construction of core type and shell type transformer
(b) Shell Type:
The core is made up of ‘E’ shaped and ‘I’ shaped stampings. Both the coils
are placed on central limb and flux is produced in the central limb. This flux
divides into two paths through the side limbs.
7.4.5 Construction of single phase transformer
Figure 7.12 Construction of single phase transformer
Laminated Core:
Laminated silicon steel core is made up of ‘L’, ‘E’ & ‘I’ shaped stampings
depending on the type of transformer. Silicon steel ensures reduced hysteresis
loss and laminated core results in reduction of eddy current loss.
Winding:
The primary and secondary windings of copper are placed on the vertical
limbs of the core. They are electrically isolated and magnetically linked through
core.
Transformer Tank:
The transformer assembly with core and windings is placed in an
aluminum tank. This tank acts as an enclosure and cooling surface.
Transformer oil:
This is mineral oil obtained by refining crude petroleum. This is filled in the
tank. It serves two purposes.
a) acts as a cooling medium
b) acts as an insulator between tank and transformer assembly.
Conservator:
This is a cylindrical tank placed over the main tank. It is connected
through pipe to transformer tank. The transformer tank is filled with the oil while
conservator is partially filled. It acts as a reservoir to take in and let out oil as the
oil in the main tank expands or contracts with increase or decrease in load.
Breather:
As the oil expands the level in the conservator raises and the air is
released. Air is breathed in when the level goes down. This breathing in and out
of air by conservator is through breather. Breather is a small vessel containing
drying agent ‘silica gel’. This ensures presence of only dry air devoid of moisture.
Buchholz Relay:
Moisture ingress affects the insulating property of oil and hence is
detrimental. Buchholz relay is provided to sense this condition and protect
transformer by taking it out of service.
7.4.6 Application of transformers
The transformers are classified as Step-up transformers and Step-down
transformers. When the secondary voltage is more than the primary voltage,
transformer is called a step-up transformer. In step-down transformer, the
secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage.
Transformers are used in the following applications:
(i) Power transformers located in Power Plants are used to step-up the
generated voltage to a high transmission voltage.
(ii) Transformers are used in distribution circuit to step-down voltages to
the desired level.
(iii) Almost all electronic circuits use transformers.
(iv) Potential transformers are used to measure high voltages and current
transformers are used to measure high currents.
(v) Furnace transformers and welding transformers are some special
applications of transformers.
7.5 Three phase induction motor
Similar to a DC machine an induction motor consists of a stator and a
rotor. However there is no need for commutator.
7.5.1 Working Principle of three phase induction motor
When a three phase balanced voltage is applied to a three phase balanced
winding of the stator a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced.
The field rotates at the synchronous speed, Ns 120 f where ‘f’ is the frequency of
= P
supply and ‘P’ is the number of poles for which the stator is wound.
This rotating magnetic field cuts across the stationery rotor conductors
and emf is induced. By keeping the rotor winding internally closed circuit, current
flows through it. Now the current carrying rotor conductors placed in magnetic
field experience a force. As per Lenz’s law the direction of induced emf, current
and force is in such direction as to oppose the cause of producing it, which in
this case is relative speed between rotating magnetic field and stationery
conductors. Hence the force produced rotates the rotor in the direction of
rotating magnetic field so as to reduce relative velocity. The rotor, however
cannot catch up and rotate at synchronous speed of field, because if it does so,
the relative speed would become zero and then there is no induced emf, no
current and hence no torque. The rotor therefore runs at a speed, N, slightly less
than synchronous speed. This Ns Ns N
– N is called slip speed and is called slip
Ns
Ns N
and 100 is percentage slip.
Ns
7.5.2 Construction of three phase induction motor
The important parts of a three phase induction motor are schematically
represented in Fig 7.13. Broadly classified, they are stator and rotor which are
described below.
Figure 7.13 Stator and Rotor of three phase induction motor
Stator:
Stator is the stationary part of the motor. The stator cores consist of high
grade, low loss electrical sheet-steel stampings assembled in the frame. Slots are
provided on the inner periphery of the stator to accommodate the stator
conductors. Required numbers of stator conductors are housed in the slots.
These conductors are arranged to form a balanced three phase winding. The
stator winding may be connected in star or delta.
It consists of laminated silicon steel core to reduce hysteresis and eddy
current losses. The core at the surface is slotted. The slots accommodate
conductors which are connected to form a balanced 3 phase star or delta
winding. The stator is wound for a definite number of poles as per the
requirement of speed.
Rotor:
It consists of cylindrical laminated core. It is of two types.
(a) Squirrel cage rotor:
It consists of laminated cylindrical silicon steel core. A number of slots are
provided. Each slot accommodates one heavy conductor, called bar. The
conductors are shorted at both ends by metal rings called end rings. Thus the
rotor resembles a squirrel cage. Almost 90 percent rotors are of this type, as it
gives a simple & rugged construction.
Figure 7.14 (a) Squirrel cage rotor of three phase induction motor
(b) Slip ring rotor
It consists of laminated cylindrical silicon steel core. A number of slots are
provided. Each slot carries many conductors. These conductors are connected
to form a three phase star winding for the same number of poles as stator
windings. The three ends of the winding are brought out and connected to three
slip rings mounted in the rotor shaft. Brushes mounted on the slip rings connect
the rotor windings to star connected external resistances for the purpose of
improving starting torque and reducing starting current. As the rotor picks up
speed the external resistances are fully cut and the rotor winding remains
shorted similar to squirrel cage rotors.
Figure 7.14 (b) Rotor of slip-ring induction motor
7.5.3 Applications of three phase induction motor
Three phase induction motors are extensively used as electric drives.
The squirrel cage induction motor finds extensive use wherever there is a
load requiring fairly constant speed and moderate starting torque – like.
a) Fans & Blowers
b) Agricultural pump sets
c) Machine tools such as lathes, shearing, milling and grinding machines
etc.
d) Compressors etc.
Slip ring motors with improved starting torque are useful for driving
cranes, winches hoists and conveyors.
7.6 Alternator
Alternator is an ac generator. It works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. Unlike DC generator there is no need for commutator. Another major
difference is that unlike DC machines alternator has stator as armature and rotor
as filed. This is to facilitate lighter field winding on rotating mass and ease of
tapping 3 phase supply from stationery armature winding.
7.6.1 Construction of alternator
An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on
the rotor.
(a) Stator
It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel
laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is placed in
these slots and serves as the armature winding of the alternator. The armature
winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to ground.
(b) Rotor
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called exciter)
is generally a small d.c. shunt or compound generator mounted on the shaft of
the alternator. Rotor construction is of two types, namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type
(i) Salient pole type
In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on large circular steel
frame which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in Fig. (15). the
individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when
the field winding is energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite
polarities. Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 r.p.m.) such as those
driven by diesel engines or water turbines have salient pole type rotors due to the
following reasons:
(a) The salient field poles would cause .an excessive windage loss if
driven at high speed and would tend to produce noise.
(b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to
withstand the mechanical stresses to which they may be
subjected at higher speeds.
Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of
poles on the rotor of slow-speed alternators. Low-speed rotors always possess a
large diameter to provide the necessary spate for the poles. Consequently,
salient-pole type rotors have large diameters and short axial lengths.
(ii) Non Salient or Smooth Cylindrical rotor:
In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder
having a number of slots along the outer periphery. The field windings are
embedded in these slots and are connected in series to the slip rings through
which they are energized by the DC exciter. The regions forming the poles are
usually left unslotted as shown in Fig. (16). It is clear that the poles formed are
non-salient i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines
and use non-salient type rotors due to the following reasons:
(a) This type of construction has mechanical robustness and
gives noiseless operation at high speeds.
(b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave
and hence a better e.m.f. waveform is obtained than in the case
of salient-pole type.
Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is
required, we need a small number of poles on the rotor of high-speed alternators
(also called Turbo alternators). We can use not less than 2 poles and this fixes
the highest possible speed. For a frequency of 50 Hz, it is 3000 r.p.m. The next
lower speed is 1500 r.p.m. for a 4-pole machine. Consequently, turbo alternators
possess 2 or 4 poles and have small diameters and very long axial lengths.
7.6.2 Working Principle of alternator
The rotor winding is energized from the DC exciter and alternate N and S
poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-clockwise
direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors are cut by the
magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the armature
conductors due to electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. is alternating
since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass the armature conductors. The
direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule and
frequency is given by
PN
f 120 ; where P = number of poles & N = speed of rotor in rpm.
The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the
rotor flux, the number and position of the conductors in the phase and the speed
of the rotor.
Figure 7.17
Fig. (7.17(i)) shows star-connected armature winding and d.c. field winding.
When the rotor is rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature winding.
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends upon the speed of rotation and the d.c.
exciting current. The magnitude of e.m.f. in each phase of the armature winding is
the same. However, they differ in phase by 120°electrical as shown in the phasor
diagram in Fig. (7.15 (ii)).
7.6.3 Application of alternator:
Major application is power generation. Non salient pole machine with
cylindrical rotors are used in thermal power generation & salient pole machines
with less speed are used in hydro and other forms of power generation.
7.7 Single phase induction motor
Single phase induction motors are used in variety of applications at home,
factory, office and business establishments. Single phase induction motor is not
self starting. Additional arrangement has to be made to make it self-starting. This
could be achieved by using two windings, main winding and starting winding,
with large phase difference between the currents carried by them. This kind of
split-phase motor produces a revolving flux and hence makes the motor self
starting. Depending on the circuit element connected in series with the starting
winding, the split-phase motors are classified into
1. Split Phase Induction Motor
2. Capacitor Start Induction run Motors
3. Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motors
7.7.1 Split Phase Induction Motor
Figure 7.18 Split Phase Induction Motor
To make single phase motor self starting it is converted temporarily to two
phase winding with introduction of auxiliary winding displaced at 90 o (Electrical)
in space. The main winding is called running winding and the auxiliary winding is
called starting winding. The main winding is selected highly inductive and
auxiliary winding highly resistive if necessary by introduction of additional
resistance in the auxiliary winding circuit.
When single phase supply is given to the two windings which are in
parallel the currents through the two windings are displaced by an angle ‘’. This
angle should be kept high, ideal being 90o. The starting torque provided is
proportional to sin.
When the motor attains 75% of rated speed the centrifugal switch opens
and cuts off auxiliary winding.
7.7.2 Capacitor Start Induction run Motor
The splitting of the phase can be achieved by connecting a capacitor in series
with the auxiliary winding. The angle is increased and hence the torque.
Figure 7.19 Capacitor Start Induction run Motor
The centrifugal switch disconnects the capacitor and auxiliary winding as the
rotor accelerates.
The following are the advantages of capacitor-start induction motor:
(i) Increase in starting torque
(ii) Better starting power factor
7.7.3 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
Figure 7.20 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
Capacitor start capacitor run motor is similar to that of the capacitor-start
motor except that the capacitor in the starting winding circuit remains there
throughout the operation of the motor. The advantages of this type of motor are
(i) Low noise in the motor while running
(ii) Higher power factor
(iii) Higher efficiency
(iv) Improved over-load capacity
7.7.4 Applications of single phase induction motor
Fans, Pumps, Refrigerators, Air conditioners, Blowers, Washing machines
and many domestic appliances.
Problem 1
A 220-V d.c machine has on armature resistance of 0.5. If the full-load armature
current is 20A, find the induced emf when the machine acts as (i) generator (ii)
motor.
Figure 7.21
Solution:
As shown in figure 7.21, the d.c. machine is assumed to be shunt-
connected in each case, shunt current is considered negligible because its value
is not given
(a) As generator (figure (a)) Eg = V + IaRa = 220 + 0.5 20 = 230V
(b) As motor (figure(b)) Eb = V – IaRa = 220 – 0.5 20 = 210V
Problem 2
A dc motor takes an armature current of 110A at 480V. The armature circuit resistance is
0.2. The machine has 6-poles and the armature is lap connected with 864 conductors.
The flux per pole is 0.05Wb. Calculate (i) the speed and (ii) the gross torque developed
by the armature
Solution Eb = 480 – 110 0.2 = 458V, = 0.05W, Z = 864
Now, b ZN P 0.05 864 N 6
E 60 A or458
60 6
N = 636 rpm
T = 0.159 0.05 864 110 (6/6) = 756.3 N-m,
Problem 3
A 250V, 4-pole, wave-wound dc series motor has 782 conductors on its armature.
It has armature and series field resistance of 0.75 ohm. The motor takes a current
of 40A. Estimate its speed and gross torque developed if it has a flux per pole of
25 mWb.
Solution Eb = ZN (P/A)
Now, Eb – V – IaRa = 50 – 40 0.75 = 220V
220 = 25 10-3 782 N 0.75 = 220V
220 = 0.159 ZIa (P/A)
= 0.159 25 10-3 782 40 (4/2) = 249 N-m
Problem 4
The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000 volts, 50Hz single – phase
transformer is 1.2 Wb/m2. If the emf per turn is 8 volt, determine (i) primary
and secondary turns (ii) area of the core
Solution
(i) E1 = N1 emf induced / turn
N1 = 250/8 = 32, N2 = 3000/8 = 375
(ii) We may use E2 = 4.44 f N2 Bm A
3000 = 4.44 50 375 1.2
A A = 0.03 m2 .
Problem 5
A 25kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary
winding. The primary is connected to 3000-V, 50Hz supply. Find the full-load
primary and secondary currents, the secondary emf and the maximum flux in the
core. Neglect leakage drops and no-load primary current
Solution:
N
K = 50 1
2
500 10
N1
Now, full-load I1 = 25,000/3000 = 8.33A,
Full load I2 = I1 / K = 10 8.33 = 83.3 A
Emf per turn on primary side = 3000/500 = 6V
Secondary emf = 6 50 = 300 V (or E2 = KE1 = 3000 1/10 = 300V)
Also, E1 = 4.44 f N1m; 3000 = 4.44 50 500 m = 27 mWb
Problem 6
A 25kVA single-phase transformer has 250 turns on the primary and 40 turns on
the secondary winding. The primary is connected to 1500 volt, 50Hz mains.
Calculate (i) Primary and Secondary currents on full-load (ii) Secondary emf (iii)
maximum flux in the core.
Solution: (i) If V2 = Secondary voltage rating = secondary emf
V2 40
, given V2 = 240 volts
250
1500
(ii) Primary current = 25000/1500 = 16.67 amp
secondary current = 25000/240 = 104.2 amp
(iii) If m is the maximum core-flux in Wb.
1500 = 4.4 4 50 m 250,
m = 0.027 Wb or 27mWb.
Problem 7
An 8 pole dc shunt generator with 778 wave connected armature conductors and
running at 500 rpm supplies a load of 12.5 resistance at terminal voltage of 50V.
The armature resistance is 0.24 and the field resistance is 250. Find the
armature current, the induced emf and the flux per pole
Figure 7.22
The circuit is shown in figure 7.22
Load current = V/R = 250/12.5 = 20A
Shunt current = 250/250 = 1A
Armature current = 20 + 1 = 21A
Induced emf = 250 + (21 0.24) = 255.04V
Now, E g ZN P
60 A
778 500 8
255.04
60 2
= 9.83 mWb
8 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is to explore the electrical
measurement and measuring instruments. Different types of these
instruments have been discussed in details
8.1 Introduction
Tests and measurements are important in designing, evaluating,
maintaining and servicing electrical circuits and equipment. In order to
detect electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or power, it
is necessary to transform an electrical quantity or condition into a visible
indication. This is done with the aid of instruments (or meters) that indicate
the magnitude of quantities either by the position of a pointer moving over
a graduated scale (called an analogue instrument) or in the form of a
decimal number (called a digital instrument).
8.2 Classification of measuring instruments
Basic classification of measuring instruments are
(a) Indicating instrument:- These are those which indicates the
magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when it is being measured.
The indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated
dial. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters are example of it.
(b) Recording instrument:- These are those which keep a continuous
record of the variation of magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed
over a definite period of time. Such instruments are generally used in
power houses where the current, voltage and power etc. are to be
maintained within certain specified values.
(c) Integrating instruments:- These are those which measure the total
amount of either quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied over a
period of time. The solution given by such an instrument is the product of
time and an electrical quantity under measurement.
Measuring instruments are also classified based on the quantity
measured by the instrument and the principle of operation. Three general
principles of operation are available:
(a) electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric
currents.
(b) electrostatic, which utilizes the forces between electrically-
charged conductors.
(c) electro thermic, which utilizes the heating effect.
Electrical measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate
directly the value of current, voltage, power or energy. In this lesson, we
will consider an electromechanical meter (input is given as an electrical
signal resulting in mechanical force or torque as an output) that can be
connected with additional suitable components in order to act as an
ammeters or a voltmeter. The most common analogue instrument or meter
is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is used for
measuring a dc current or voltage of an electric circuit. On the other hand,
the indications of alternating current ammeters and voltmeters must
represent the rms values of the current, or voltage, respectively, applied to
the instrument.
8.3 Various forces/torques required in measuring instruments
8.3.1 Deflecting torque/force:
The deflection of any instrument is determined by the combined
effect of the deflecting torque/force, control torque/force and damping
torque/force. The value of deflecting torque must depend on the electrical
signal to be measured; this torque/force causes the instrument movement
to rotate from its zero position.
8.3.2 Controlling torque/force:
This torque/force must act in the opposite sense to the deflecting
torque/force, and the movement will take up an equilibrium or definite
position when the deflecting and controlling torque are equal in magnitude.
Spiral springs or gravity usually provides the controlling torque.
8.3.2 Damping torque/force:
A damping force is required to act in a direction opposite to the
movement of the moving system. This brings the moving system to rest at
the deflected position reasonably quickly without any oscillation or very
small oscillation. This is provided by i) air friction ii) fluid friction iii) eddy
current. It should be pointed out that any damping force shall not influence
the steady state deflection produced by a given deflecting force or torque.
Damping force increases with the angular velocity of the moving system,
so that its effect is greatest when the rotation is rapid and zero when the
system rotation is zero. Details of mathematical expressions for the above
torques are considered in the description of various types of instruments.
8.4 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments
8.4.1 Construction of operating principle
The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with
considering a rectangular coil of N turns, free to rotate about a vertical
axis.
Figure 8.1 (a) Construction of PMMC Figure 8.1 (b) Spring control
instrument
Fig. 8.1(a) shows the basic construction of a PMMC instrument. A
moving coil instrument consists basically of a permanent magnet to
provide a magnetic field and a small light weight coil is wound on a
rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate around its vertical axis.
When a current is passed through the coil windings, a torque is developed
on the coil by the interaction of the magnetic field and the field set up by
the current in the coil. The aluminum pointer attached to rotating coil and
the pointer moves around the calibrated scale indicating the deflection of
the coil. To reduce parallax error a mirror is usually placed along with the
scale. A balance weight is also attached to the pointer to counteract its
weight (see Fig. 8.1(b)). To use PMMC device as a meter, two problems
must be solved. First, a way must be found to return the coil to its original
position when there is no current through the coil. Second, a method is
needed to indicate the amount of coil movement. The first problem is
solved by the use of hairsprings attached to each end of the coil as shown
in Fig. 8.1(a). These hairsprings are not only supplying a restoring torque
but also provide an electric connection to the rotating coil. With the use of
hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when no current is
flowing though the coil. The springs will also resist the movement of coil
when there is current through coil. When the developing force between the
magnetic fields (from permanent magnet and electro magnet) is exactly
equal to the force of the springs, the coil rotation will stop. The coil set up
is supported on jeweled bearings in order to achieve free movement. Two
other features are considered to increase the accuracy and efficiency of
this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to
concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, the curved pole faces ensure that
the turning force on the coil increases as the current increases.
It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform radial
magnetic field of flux densityB ( wb/m2 ) , let the length of a coil side (within
the magnetic field) be l (meter), and the distance from each coil side to the
axis be r (meter).
Principle of operation: It has been mentioned that the interaction between
the induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a
deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil.
Controlling Torque: The value of control torque depends on the mechanical
design of the control device. For spiral springs and strip suspensions, the
controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the
coil.
Damping Torque: It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former
or core on which the coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself. As the
coil moves in the field of the permanent magnet, eddy currents are set up
in the metal former or core. The magnetic field produced by the eddy
currents opposes the motion of the coil. The pointer will therefore swing
more slowly to its proper position and come to rest quickly with very little
oscillation. Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in
the moving coil as it rotates in magnetic field, provided the coil forms part
of closed electric circuit.
8.5 Electromagnetic instruments
We have mentioned earlier that the instruments are classified
according to the principles of operation. Furthermore, each class may be
subdivided according to the nature of the movable system and method by
which the operating torque is produced. Specifically, the electromagnetic
instruments are sub classified as
(i) Moving-iron instruments
(ii) Electro-dynamic or dynamometer instruments
(iii) Induction instruments
In this section, we will discuss briefly the basic principle of
moving-iron instruments that are generally used to measure alternating
voltages and currents.
8.5.1 Moving iron instruments
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely
(i) Repulsion (or double iron) type
(ii) Attraction (or single-iron) type.
Construction and Basic principle of operation of Moving-iron Instruments
(a) Repulsion type moving–iron instrument
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces
on a small piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil
carrying the operating current. Repulsion (Fig.8.2) type moving–iron
instrument consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a
fixed current-carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and
other is free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the
magnetic field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns if the
instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter.
Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and
repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional
rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current
in the coil, making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity (Rotation
is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring torque). Only the
fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high
transient current. Moving iron instruments, having scales that are nonlinear
and somewhat crowded in the lower range of calibration.
(b) Attraction type moving–iron instrument
Another type of instrument that is usually classified as attraction
type instrument is shown in Fig.8.3.
Figure 8.3 attraction type
Figure 8.2 repulsion type
This instrument consists of a few soft iron discs (B) that are fixed to
the spindle (D), pivoted in jeweled bearings. The spindle (D) also carries a
pointer (P), a balance weight (W), a controlling weight (W) and a damping
piston (E), which moves in a curved fixed cylinder (F). The special shape of
the moving-iron discs is for obtaining a scale of suitable form.
Basic principle of operation
In moving iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more
pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted
upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
The brief description of different components of a moving-iron
instrument is given below.
Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or
rod
Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it
and also to magnetize the iron pieces.
In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized
with the same polarity.
Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity)
Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device
consisting of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument
spindle.
Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a
graduated scale.
Advantages:
1. The instruments are suitable for use in ac and dc circuits.
2. The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
3. The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
4. Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
5. Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
Errors:
1. Errors due to temperature variation.
2. Errors due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving-iron instruments.
3. Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force
produced by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to
reduce this effect.
4. Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of
the coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighboring
metal.
5. Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the
current due to non-linear characteristics of iron material.
8.6 Electrodynamic type instruments (or Dynamometer type)
Electrodynamic type instruments are similar to the PMMC-type
elements except that the magnet is replaced by two serially connected
fixed coils that produce the magnetic field when energized (see Fig.8.4).
The fixed coils are spaced far enough apart to allow passage of the shaft of
the movable coil. The movable coil carries a pointer, which is balanced by
counter weights. Its rotation is controlled by springs. The motor torque is
proportional to the product of the currents in the moving and fixed coils. If
the current is reversed, the field polarity and the polarity of the moving coil
reverse at the same time, and the turning force continues in the original
direction. Since the reversing the current direction does not reverse the
turning force, this type of instruments can be used to measure AC or DC
current, voltage, or its major application as a wattmeter for power
measurement. In the first two cases, the moving and fixed are serially
connected. For power measurement, one of the coils (usually the fixed
coils) passes the load current and other coil passes a current proportional
to the load voltage. Air friction damping is employed for these instruments
and is provided by a pair of Aluminum-vanes attached to the spindle at the
bottom. These vanes move in a sector shaped chamber. Cost and
performance compared with the other types of instruments restrict the use
of this design to AC or DC power measurement. Electro-dynamic meters
are typically expensive but have the advantage of being more accurate than
moving coil and moving iron instrument but its sensitivity is low. Similar to
moving iron vane instruments, the electro dynamic instruments are true
RMS responding meters. When electro dynamic instruments used for
power measurement its scale is linear because it predicts the average
power delivered to the load and it is calibrated in average values for AC.
Voltage, current and power can all be measured if the fixed and moving
coils are connected appropriately. Other parts of the instruments are
described briefly below:
Figure 8.4 Electrodynamic type instruments
Fixed coil: The magnetic field is produced by the fixed coil which is
divided into two sections to give more uniform field near the centre and to
allow passage of the instrument shaft.
Moving coil: The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil
or else on a non-magnetic former. A metallic former cannot be used, as
eddy currents would be induced in it by alternating field. Light but rigid
construction is used for the moving coil. It should be noted that both fixed
and moving coils are air cored.
Springs: The controlling torque is provided by two control springs.
These hairsprings also act as leads of current to the moving coil.
Dampers: Air friction damping is employed for these instruments
and is provided by a pair of Aluminum-vanes attached to the spindle at the
bottom. These vanes move in a sector shaped chamber.
Shielding: Since the magnetic field produced by fixed coils is weaker
than that in other types of instruments, these meters need a special
magnetic shielding. Electro-dynamic instruments are effectively shielded
from the effects of external magnetic fields by enclosing the mechanism in
a laminated iron hollow cylinder with closed ends.
Operating Principle
Let us consider the currents in the fixed and moving coils are if and im
respectively. The action of electrodynamic instrument depends upon the
force exerted between fixed and moving coils. The flux density B ( wb/m2 )
produced by the fixed coil is proportional to if (fixed coil current). The force
on the conductors of the moving coil, for a given strength field, will be
proportional to im (moving coil current) and the number of turns ‘N’ of the
moving coil. In case of ammeter and voltmeter fixed and moving coils are
connected in series and the developed torque is due to the interaction of
the magnetic fields produced by currents in the fixed and moving coils and
thus it will be proportional to i2 (if = im =i). Thus, dynamic instruments can
be used for dc and ac measurements.
A.C operation: The dynamometer instrument is used to measure
alternating current or voltage, the moving coil due to its inertia takes up a
position where the average deflecting torque over a complete cycle is
balanced by the restoring torque of the spiral spring. The deflecting torque
is proportional to the mean value of the square of the current or voltage
(note both coils are connected in series for ammeters or voltmeters), and
the instrument scale can therefore be calibrated to read rms values of
alternating current or voltage.
Advantages and disadvantages of electro-dynamic instruments
Advantages:
1. Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
2. Applicable to both dc and ac circuits.
3. Precision grade accuracy for 40 Hz to 500 Hz.
4. Electro-dynamic voltmeters give accurate rms values of voltage
irrespective of waveforms.
Disadvantages:
1. Low torque/weight ratio, hence more frictional errors.
2. More expensive than PMMC or MI instruments.
3. Power consumption higher than PMMC but less than MI instruments.
For these reasons, dynamometer ammeters and voltmeters are not in
common use (except for calibration purpose) especially in dc circuits. The
most important application of the dynamometer type instruments is
dynamometer wattmeter.
8.7 Induction instruments
8.7.1 Induction type energy meter
An instrument that is used to measure either quantity of electricity or
energy, over a period of time is known as energy meter or watt-hour meter.
The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (KWh). For
measurement of energy in ac circuit, the meter used is based on “electro-
magnetic induction” principle. They are known as induction type
instruments. Basically, the induction energy meter may be derived from the
induction watt-meter by substituting for the spring control and pointer an
eddy current brake and a counting train, respectively. For the meter to read
correctly, the speed of the moving system must be proportional to the
power in the circuit in which the meter is connected.
Construction
Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following components
(a) Driving system
(b) Moving system
(c) Braking system and
(d) Registering system.
Driving system: The construction of the electro magnet system is
shown in Fig. 8.5 (a) and it consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt”
magnet and “series” magnet, of laminated construction. A coil having large
number of turns of fine wire is wound on the middle limb of the shunt
magnet. This coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected
across the supply mains. This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged
to be as highly inductive as possible. In other words, the voltage coil
produces a high ratio of inductance to resistance. This causes the current,
and therefore the flux, to lag the supply voltage by nearly 900. An
adjustable copper shading ring are provided on the central limb of the
shunt magnet to make the phase angle displacement between magnetic
field set up by shunt magnet and supply voltage is approximately 90 0. The
copper shading bands are also called the power factor compensator or
compensating loop. The series electromagnet is energized by a coil, known
as “current” coil, which is connected in series with the load so that it
carries the load current. The flux produced by this magnet is proportional
to, and in phase with the load current.
Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light
rotating aluminium disk mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft
that supports the aluminium disk is connected by a gear arrangement to
the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information about
the energy consumed by the load. The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes
produced by shunt and series magnet induce eddy currents in the
aluminium disc. The interaction between these two magnetic fields and
eddy currents set up a driving torque in the disc. The number of rotations
of the disk is therefore proportional to the energy consumed by the load in
a certain time interval and is commonly measured in kilowatt-hours (Kwh).
Figure 8.5 (a) induction type energy meter
Braking system: Damping of the disk is provided by a small
permanent magnet, located diametrically opposite to the ac magnets. The
disk passes between the magnet gaps. The movement of rotating disc
through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the
disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque. By
changing the position of the brake magnet, the speed of the rotating disc
can be controlled.
Registering or counting system: The registering or counting system
essentially consists of gear train, driven either by worm or pinion gear on
the disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials the number of
times the disc has turned. The energy meter thus determines and adds
together or integrates all the instantaneous power values so that total
energy used over a period is thus known. Therefore, this type of meter is
also called an “integrating” meter.
Basic operation
Induction instruments operate in alternating-current circuits and they
are useful only when the frequency and the supply voltage are
approximately constant. The most commonly used technique is the shaded
pole induction watt-hour meter, shown in fig.8.5 (b).
Figure 8.5 (b) induction type energy meter
The rotating element is an aluminium disc, and the torque is
produced by the interaction of eddy currents generated in the disc with the
imposed magnetic fields that are produced by the voltage and current coils
of the energy meter. So, in all induction instruments, we have two fluxes
produced by currents flowing in the windings of the instrument. These
fluxes are alternating in nature and so they induce emfs in a aluminium
disc or a drum provided for the purpose. These emfs in turn circulate eddy
currents in the disc. As in an energy meter instrument, we have two fluxes
and two eddy currents and therefore two torques are produced by
i) first flux(1) interacting with the eddy currents (Ie2) generated by
the second flux (2), and
ii) second flux (2) interacting with the eddy currents (Ie1) induced
by the first flux (1).
In the induction type single phase energy meter, the flux produced by
shunt magnet (pressure or voltage coil current) sh lags behind the applied
voltage V by almost 90°. The flux is produced by the load current I and
se
is in the direction of I
se
Where sh is the flux generated by the voltage coil,
se is flux generated
by the current coil, ish is the eddy current produced in the disc by the
voltage coil, and ise is the eddy current produced in the disc by the current
coil.
The flux generated by the current coil is in phase with the current and
flux generated by the voltage coil is adjusted to be exactly in quadrature
with the applied voltage by means of the copper shading ring on the
voltage or shunt magnet.
The breaking torque is produced by the eddy currents induced in the
disc by its rotation in a magnetic field of constant intensity, the constant
field being provided by the permanent magnet The eddy current produced
in the aluminium–disc by the brake magnet flux is proportional to the
b
speed (N) of rotation of the disc
Therefore, speed of the disc is proportional to the power consumed by
the load. i.e.VI cos N . This means that the speed of rotation of the disc
is proportional to the average power. The integral of the number of
revolutions of the disc is proportional to the total energy supplied. The disc
is connected via a gearing mechanism to a mechanical counter that can be
read directly in watt-hours.
8.8 Induction type wattmeter
Induction type wattmeter consists of two laminated electromagnets
known as shunt electromagnet and series electromagnet respectively.
Shunt magnet is excited by the current proportional to the voltage across
load flowing through the pressure coil and series magnet is excited by the
current, proportional to the voltage across the load flowing through the
pressure coil and series magnet is excited by the load current flowing
through the current coil. A thin disc made of Cu or Al, pivoted at its centre,
is placed between the shunt and series magnets so that it cuts the flux
from both of the magnets.
Figure 8.6 Induction type wattmeter
The deflection torque is produced by interaction of eddy current
induced in the disc and the inducing flux in order to cause the resultant
flux in shunt magnet to lag in phase by exactly 90° behind the applied
voltage, one or more copper rings, known as copper shading bands are
provided on one limb at the shunt magnet. Correct disappointed between
shunt and series magnet fluxes may be attained by adjusting the position
of copper shading bands. The pressure coil circuit of induction type
instrument is made as inductive as possible so that the flux of the shunt
magnet may lag by 90°behind the applied voltage.
8.9 Comparison between moving iron type instruments and
dynamometer type instruments.
1. Torque height ratio:- dynamometer type instruments have small
torque height ratio.
2. Friction error:- dynamometer type instruments have considerable
friction error.
3. Friction loss:- owing to heavy moving system, dynamometer type
instruments have more friction losses.
4. Cost and sensitivity to overload:- as a result of measures to
reduce the frictional error, the dynamometer type instruments are
more sensitive to overloads and mechanical impact as compared
to moving iron type instruments.
5. Sensitivity:- the sensitivity of dynamometer instrument is
typically very poor due to poor deflecting torque.
6. Power consumption:- dynamometer type instrument have
comparatively higher power consumption.
7. Effect of stray magnetic field:- there is no effect of stray magnetic
field on moving iron type while dynamometer type are most
sensitive towards it.
8. Hysteresis and eddy current errors:- dynamometer type
instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors
while moving iron have these errors.
9. Calibration:- dynamometer type instruments have same
calibration for ac and dc measurements while moving iron type
have a different ac and dc calibration.
9 HOUSE WIRING AND EARTHING
Introduction
In this chapter, different types of wiring used for domestic
applications along with wiring accessories and materials are discussed.
Additionally, different types of gas discharged lamps and earthing are also
introduced in details.
9.1 House wiring
House wiring deals with the distribution system arranged within the
domestic premises. Wiring requirement varies with customer to customer.
House wiring generally done on either 230 V single phase or 440 V three
phase supply. In the latter case, total load is divided among the three
phases. An earth wire will also run connecting all the power plugs from
where large quantity of electrical energy is tapped by using electrical
appliances like heater, electric iron, hot plate, air conditioner etc.
9.2 Wiring materials and accessories
The following are the wiring materials used for house wiring:
Switches, Lamp holders, Ceiling roses, Mounting blocks, Socket out-
lets, Wires and cables and Fuse units
Switches
Apart from main switch which is an iron clad switch with fuses, we
have flush type, pull cord, door bell switches. Flush type switches are
used in switch boards. Pull cord switches are used in commercial
establishments and also as bed switch. Most of the switches are single
way. Double way switches are used in some applications like stair case
wiring.
Switches are to make ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ the supply to a load. They are
provided only in the lines and not in neutrals.
Lamp Holders
As the name shows, a lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required
for lighting purposes. These holders can be classified as
a) Bayonet cap lamp holders
i) Pendent holder – Used for hanging lights upto 250W.
ii) Batton holder – Used for wall fixed lights upto 250W.
b) Screwed Lamp holders – These type of holders are used with
screwed type lamps upto 1000W, 250V.
c) Fluorescent Lamp holders – These are either bi-pin type or of
bayonet type, but pin type holders are generally used.
Ceiling roses
These are used as tapping points for supply to fans, pendent
holders, tube lights etc. A flexible cord connects the supply from
ceiling rose to the load. These are two types (i) two plate type and
(ii) three plate type
Fuses
Fuse is a safety device put in series with the line wire. It melts when
abnormal current passes through it thus cutting off the circuit. It is of
copper, tin or lead.
Plug & Socket
These are used for connecting electrical devices like electric irons,
hot plates, mixies, grinders, refrigerator etc. They form the male – female
joint with 3 pins. The bottom two small pins are for connecting line and
neutral and the third larger and longer pin is for earth connection.
Wires and cables
There are four best conductors which can be used for conducting
electrical energy. They are silver, copper, aluminium and iron
The accessories used for house wiring are:
Screw driver, cutting pliers, Nose pliers, Wire stripper, Knife,
Hammer Drilling machine, Test lamp, Wood saw and Hack
saw
9.3 Types of wiring
There are several wiring systems in use. Each system of wiring has
its own particular advantages, but a single wiring system will not be
suitable for all installation. Great care must, therefore, be taken in the
selection of system which depends upon following
a) Working voltages
b) Atmosphere
c) Class of building or size of installation
d) Environment, durability, safety, appearance and cost.
Various systems of wiring are
1. Cleat wiring
2. C.T.S. (T.R.S) wiring
3. Wooden casing and capping wiring
4. Lead - sheathed wiring
5. Conduit wiring
a) Surface conduit wiring
b) Concealed conduit wiring
Cleat Wiring: This type of wiring is not used practically for permanent
wiring and is only suitable for temporary wiring purposes such as for
marriages with advantages of saving in labour and overall cost. The
porcelain or wooden cleats are very easy to erect and fixed at a distance of
4.5 cm to 15 cm apart. V.I.R or P.V.C wires are normally used in this
system, though T.R.S wires can also be installed in special cleats for
certain types of installations.
C.T.S. (T.R.S) wiring (Batten Wiring): The wires used in such a wiring are
sheathed in tough rubber of P.V.C. wires and they are carried on wooden
batten with clips. This wiring is suitable for damp climate, but cannot
withstand much heat and so is not suitable for places of very hot weather
and there is also danger of mechanical damage and fire hazard. C.T.S wires
are not suitable for outdoor use. Therefore they should not be exposed to
direct sunlight and where there are corrosive acids fumes. At such places,
now P.V.C. wires can be easily used.
Casing and capping wiring: This is most common type of wiring used for
indoor and domestic installations. This system was introduced 60 years
ago when it was considered necessary to provide some protection to
conductors. V.I.R. wires are carried in two or triple channel of wooden
casing and closed by wooden capping.
The obvious objections to the wooden casing and capping system
are that wood is very inflammable, even though with a coating of paints of
shellac varnish, it is not damp-proof. This type of wiring should not be
used where there is danger of mechanical damage or fire hazards
according to I.E Rules. Due to defects in wood and high cost of wood now-
a-days P.V.C. casing capping is used. These are cheaper in cost and easy
to handle. The wiring look is also fine-looking and no paint coating is
required.
Lead- sheathed Wiring: In lead-sheathed system the conductor, either twin
core or three cores, each being separately insulated and covered with the
common lead sheath is used. The lead-sheathed wires are easily fixed by
means of metal clips on wooden batten and form a good surface system.
Wherever the wires are broken for connections to switch or light point, a
junction box can be used. The junction boxes are usually of metal and
provided with some means of earthing so that continuity of the sheath is
obtained. Being very costly, these wires are not in use now-a-days.
Conduit Wiring: In this system V.I.R. wires or P.V.C wires are carried
through steel or iron pipes giving protection from mechanical injury or fire
risks. For workshops and public buildings, this is the best and most
desirable system of wiring. It gives very good appearance when concealed.
Now-a-days, P.V.C. conduit pipes are also available which do not require
any threading. These are flexible and can be bent easily. For concealed
wiring, the pipes are directly buried in the wall and roofs and then wires are
drawn through them.
9.4 Staircase Wiring
In staircase wiring a single lamp is controlled by switches at two
places, one at the beginning of the staircase and the other at the end of the
staircase. For this purpose, two-way switches are required. The wiring
circuit is shown below.
Figure 9.1 wiring diagram for Staircase wiring
9.5 Corridor Wiring
In a long corridor with many lamps, a person may require to put a
lamp on as he passes that section and simultaneously put off the lamp of
the section already passed.
As seen in the diagram, when a person switches on ‘S 1’, lamp ‘L1’, is
on. When he reaches ‘S2’ and operates it ‘L2’ is on and simultaneously ‘L1’,
is off. As he reaches ‘S3’ and operates it ‘L3’ is on and simultaneously ‘L2’
is off.
When going through the corridor in the reverse direction, whole
procedure can be repeated in the reverse manner.
It may be noted that corridor wiring employs single way switches at
the two ends of the corridor and only two way switches in between. The
diagram for corridor wiring is shown below.
Figure 9.2 Wiring diagram for Corridor wiring
9.6 Incandescent Lamps
It is based on the principle that when electric current is passed
through fine metallic wire it gets heated and as temperature rises & it
radiates light energy.
The material of wire selected should have high melting point, low
temperature co-efficient and high resistivity. Tungsten is usually preferred
as it has melting temperature of 3500oC and other preferable factors.
Construction and working
Figure 9.3 Incandescent lamp
It is formed of a glass globe completely evacuated. The globe has a cap at
the top. A tungsten filament remains suspended and supported from the
cap. The cap is provided with holding pins and power contact points for
fixing up with lamp holder.
The glass bulb is evacuated to prevent oxidation of filament.
However a vacuum filled (evacuated) bulb can work only upto 2000oC
without evaporation of filament. Evaporation of filament blackens the
inside of bulb and reduces efficiency. The lamp suffers ageing problem as
the diameter of filament reduces. To overcome this, bulb (shown in figure
9.3) is filled with inert gas – argon or a mixture of helium and hydrogen.
With this the evaporation of filament is controlled upto 2700 oC thus getting
better heating and light energy.
The inert gas however leads to some heat loss due to convection.
This heat loss is dependent on exposed surface of filament. To contain
this, coiled-coil filament is used. With this the whole length of filament is
more while exposed length is less.
Incandescent lamps have low luminous efficiency of 10 lumens per
watt. They have poor life of about 1000 hours. They are good in colour
rendering. The disadvantage with these lamps is that they radiate heat
outside. Also the glare from the filament irritates eyes. With milky white
bulbs the filaments are not visible and hence the glare is avoided.
Incandescent lamps are voltage sensitive. A 5 percent increase in voltage
leads to about 20% more light but about 50% reduction in life. Similarly 5%
decrease in voltage gives 20% less life but with no appreciable increase in
life.
9.7 Fluorescent Lamp
Construction and working
Fluorescent lamp contains a tube inside of which is coated with
fluorescent powder like phosphor. There are different powders for giving
different coloured lights.
Figure 9.4 Fluorescent lamp
The tube is filled with argon gas and a drop of mercury. Oxide
coated tungsten filaments are used as electrodes at the two ends of the
long tube. The circuit is completed through choke or ballast and a starter
as shown in figure 9.4. Glow starters are commonly used. It is a voltage
operated device and has two bi metallic contacts (electrodes) enclosed in a
glass tube filled with argon or mixture of helium and hydrogen.
When the supply voltage is applied, discharge takes place in the
glow starter as their electrodes are closer. The gas inside gets heated and
this closes the bi metallic contacts. Current flows through the closed
circuit of choke, main electrodes and starter and the main electrodes are
heated with this current. Now with closed contacts in the glow starter, no
more voltage exists between the bi metallic contacts and the discharge
ceases. The gas cools down and the contacts open. The circuit is now
open and the current does not flow. This making and breaking of circuit
momentarily induces high voltage of the order of 1000 volts in the choke
which added with supply voltage initiates discharge between the main
electrodes through argon gas and the fluorescent lamp starts giving light.
Once the discharge is initiated a much lower voltage than normal voltage is
sufficient to maintain the discharge. Thereafter the choke acts only to
reduce voltage available across the main electrodes. The capacitor
connected across the starter helps to suppress electromagnetic waves
generated at the gap due to sparking which may have radio interference
with other device connected.
Fluorescent lamp produces white light. The average life is 7500
hours. The light output is 70 lumens per watt. They have poor colour
rendering especially for red colour.
9.8 Sodium Vapour Lamp:
Construction and working
Sodium lamp is a double glass container, the inner glass tube filled
with neon gas and some metallic sodium drops. The wiring diagram for a
sodium lamp is shown in figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5 Sodium vapour lamp
When the supply is switched on, the lamp would not start as the
supply voltage is too low to start the discharge. The leak transformer
connected across the mains produces a starting voltage of about 400V.
The neon gas starts the discharge, and afterwards the sodium vapourises
and the discharge continues. The discharge in neon gas gives red-orange
glow. Once the metallic sodium vapourises, it produces mono-chromatic
yellow light. The lamp will come up to its rated light output in
approximately 15 minutes.
The power factor is very low, about 0.3; hence a capacitor is used to
raise it. The efficiency is approximately 75 lumens per watt and the lamp
has an average life of 6000 hrs.
The lamp must be operated horizontally, or nearly so, to keep the
sodium well spread out along the tube.
The major application of this type of lamp is for high way and general
out door lighting where colour discrimination is not required, such as
street lighting, parks, railway yards, storage yards etc. They have very
poor colour rendering characteristic.
9.9 High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp:
Construction and working
High pressure mercury vapour lamps consist of an inner discharge
tube and an outer evacuated tube. The inner tube is provided with two
main electrodes and an auxiliary electrode. It contains a small amount of
argon and a little mercury. The wiring diagram of mercury vapour lamps is
shown in figure 9.6.
Figure 9.6 High pressure mercury vapour lamp
When the supply is switched on, the supply voltage is applied across
the electrodes, but is not sufficient enough to cause discharge between the
two main electrodes. But this voltage is high enough for initiating a
discharge over the very short distance between the main electrode and the
auxiliary electrode. This discharge then spreads rapidly and sets up
discharge between the main electrodes. The argon initiates the discharge,
vapourises the mercury and after some time the mercury vapourises and
the discharge continues.
The choke is provided to limit the current to a safe value. This choke
lowers the power factor. So a capacitor is connected across the circuit to
improve power factor. The lamp gives greenish blue colour light. It takes 3
to 4 minutes for the full light output to appear. When the supply is
interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapour pressure be reduced
for it to be restarted.
The efficiency of mercury vapour lamp is about 40 lumens per watt.
These lamps must be operated vertically, since if they are used
horizontally convection will cause the discharge to touch the glass bulb,
which will fail. Lamps of this type are used for general industrial lighting,
railway yards, ports, work areas, shopping centres etc. They are used flood
lights to improve the architectural beauty of buildings, hoardings etc.
9.10 Earthing
A wire coming from the ground 2.5 to 3 meters deep from an
electrode is called earthing.
The earth’s potential is always taken as zero for all purposes. The
electrical appliances or machines when connected with earth attain zero
potential and are said to be earthed.
All metal bodies of electrical equipments like motors, water heaters
etc are to be connected to earth. By earthing we mean a metallic
connection (by copper or GI wire) of the body to the earth mass for the
safety of the human being from electric shock. Earth is considered to be at
zero potential and it is a low resistance path. This low resistance path
allows the current from the supply line to flow through it whenever there is
risk of some live wire accidentally coming into contact with the body. Thus
the user is protected in case of any accidental touch with such facility
equipment.
9.10.1 Objective of earthing
1. To save human life from danger or shock or death by
blowing fuse of any apparatus which becomes leaky.
2. To protect large buildings from atmospheric lightning.
3. To protect all machines fed from O.H lines through
lighting arresters.
4. To maintain the line voltage constant ( neutral of every
alternator, transformer is earthed)
9.10.2 Good earthing
Good earthing is that earthing which gives very low resistance to the
flow of heavy current (short circuit current) of a circuit. The earth
resistance for copper wire is 1 ohm and for G.I wire it should not be more
than 3 ohms.
Steps should be taken to reduce earth resistance
1. By pouring water
2. Increase in plate area
3. Increase in depth
4. Electrodes in parallel
9.11 Types of earthing
1. Plate earthing 2. Pipe earthing
9.11.1 Plate earthing
In plate earthing, the looping earth wire is bolted effectively with the
earth plate made up of copper size 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 mm (2’ x 2’ x ¼ ’)
and embedded 3 metres in ground. Copper plates are found to be most
effective earth electrodes and are not affected by the soil moisture. But on
account of its high material cost, galvanized iron plates are preferred and
usually used for normal work.
Figure 9.7 Plate earthing
In case the soil resistivity is high, the plate should be placed
vertically in ground at high depth. A line diagram showing the plate
earthing system is shown in fig.
The plate is kept with its face vertical and is so arranged that it
embedded in an alternate layer of coal and salt for a minimum thickness of
about 15 cm. The coal salt decreases the earth resistance. It should be
remembered that the nuts and bolts must be of copper for copper plate and
should be of G.I for G.I plates. Usually, the earth wire is drawn through a G.I
pipe fitted with a tunnel on the top through which salty water is poured in
the pit of earth plate from time to time in summer season when the
moisture of the soil will decrease to larger extent, which will increase the
earth resistance.
9.11.2 Pipe earthing
In this system of earthing a G.I pipe of 38 mm diameter and 2 metres
(7 feet) length is embedded vertically in ground to work as earth electrode
but the depth depends upon the soil conditions. The earth wires are
fastened to the top section of the pipe with nut bolts. The pit area around
the G.I. pipes is filled with salt and coal mixture for improving the soil
condition and efficiency of the earthing system.
Figure 9.8 Pipe earthing
The contact surface area of G.I pipe with soil is more in comparison
to the plate because of its circular sections and hence can take up heavy
leakage current for the same electrode size. The earth wire connection with
the G.I. pipe being above the ground level can be checked for carrying out
continuity test as and when desired while in plate earthing it is difficult also
It is an advantage over the plate earthing.
9.12 Precaution to be observed to prevent Electric Shock
1. Care in handling all electrical apparatus and equipments is the only
effective safeguard against injury and death.
2. Never use appliances that have damaged.
3. Replace immediately broken switches and plugs, etc
4. Check that all metallic parts of electrical equipments are effectively
earthed.
5. Never place bare wires of leads in plug.
6. Check for proper working of safety devices.
7. Maintain proper condition of electrical hand tools.
8. Use correct rating of fuses.
9. Never tamper unnecessarily with any live apparatus.
10 INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM
Introduction
In this lesson a brief idea of modern power system is outlined.
Emphasis is given to create a clear mental picture of a power system to a
beginner of the course Electrical Technology.
10.1 Needs of Electricity
As consumers, we use electricity for various purposes such as:
1. Lighting, heating, cooling and other domestic electrical appliances
used in home.
2. Street lighting, flood lighting of sporting arena, office building
lighting, powering PCs etc.
3. Irrigating vast agricultural lands using pumps and operating cold
storages for various agricultural products.
4. Running motors, furnaces of various kinds, in industries.
5. Running locomotives (electric trains) of railways.
The list above is obviously not exhaustive and could be
expanded and categorized in detail further. The point is that, without
electricity, modern day life will simply come to a stop. In fact, the
advancement of a country is measured by the index per capita
consumption of electricity – more it is more advanced the country is.
10.2 Basic idea of generation, Transmission and Distribution
The transmission of electric power from a power station to
consumers’ premises is known as electric supply system. Consider a
typical AC power supply system with generated voltage 11 kV. This voltage
is stepped up to 132 kV by a step up transformer for primary transmission
to reduce the loss. After primary transmission, this voltage (132 kV) is
stepped down by a step down transformer for secondary transmission.
This is further stepped down to 11 kV before substation. From substation
primary distribution is carried out. Further, this is stepped down to 440 V
for secondary distribution. Consumers’ supply is given by three-phase,
four-wire line.
10.3 Changeover from D.C to A.C
In later half of nineteenth century, it was proposed to have a
power system with 3-phase, 50 Hz A.C generation, transmission and
distribution networks. Once ac system was adopted, transmission of large
power (MW) at higher transmission voltage becomes a reality by using
transformers. Level of voltage could be changed virtually to any other
desired level with help of a transformer – which was hitherto impossible
with D.C system. Nicola Tesla suggested that constructionally simpler
electrical motors (induction motors, without the complexity of commutator
segments of D.C motors) operating from 3-phase ac supply could be
manufactured. In fact, his arguments in favour of A.C supply system own
the debate on switching over from D.C to A.C system.
10.4 A.C generator
A.C power can be generated as a single phase or as a balanced poly-
phase system. However, it was found that 3-phase power generation at 50
Hz will be economical and most suitable.
Figure 10.1 (a) Salient pole type
Figure 10.1 (b) Non Salient pole type
three phase generator
three phase generator
Present day three phase generator used to generate 3-phase power are
called alternator (synchronous generators). An alternator has a balanced
three phase winding on the stator and called the armature. The three coils
are so placed in space that their axes are mutually 120° apart as shown in
figure 10.1. From the terminals of the armature, 3-phase power is obtained.
Rotor houses a field coil which is being excited by D.C. The field coil
produces flux and electromagnetic poles on the rotor surface. If the rotor is
driven by an external agency, the flux linkages with three stator coils
become sinusoidal function of time and sinusoidal voltage is induced in
them. However, the induced voltages in the three coils (or phases) will
differ in phase by 120° because the present value of flux linkage with R-
phase coil will take place after 120°with Y-phase coil and further 120°after,
with B-phase coil. A salient pole alternator has projected poles as shown in
figure 10.1(a). It has non uniform air gap and is generally used where speed
is low. On the other hand a non salient pole alternator has uniform air gap
(figure 10.1(b)) and used when speed is high.
Frequency, voltage & interconnected system
The frequency of the generated emf for a p polar generator is given
p p
f=
b where n is speed of the generator in rps or f= n when n is in
n2 120
rpm. Frequency of the generated voltage is standardized to 50 Hz in India
and several European countries. In USA and Canada, it is 60 Hz. The
following table gives the rpm at which the generators with different number
of poles are to be driven in order to generate 50 Hz voltage.
Number of Poles (P) 2 4 6 8 10
Speed in rpm (N) 3000 1500 1000 750 600
10.5 Thermal, hydro & nuclear power stations
In this section we briefly outline the basics of the three most widely
found generating stations – thermal, hydro and nuclear plants in our
country and elsewhere.
10.5.1 Thermal plant
We have seen in the previous content, that to generate a voltage at 50
Hz we have to run the generator at some fixed rpm through some external
agency. A turbine is used to rotate the generator. Turbine may be of two
types, namely steam turbine and water turbine. In a thermal power station
coal is burnt to produce steam which in turn, drives the steam turbine
hence the generator (turbo set). In figure 10.2 the elementary features of a
thermal power plant is shown.
In a thermal power plant coil is burnt to produce high temperature and
high pressure steam in a boiler. The steam is made to pass through a
steam turbine to produce rotational motion. The generator, mechanically
coupled to the turbine, is forced to thus rotate producing electricity.
Chemical energy stored in coal after a couple of transformations produces
an electrical energy at the generator terminals as depicted in the figure
10.2.
Figure 10.2 Basic components of a thermal generating unit.
Thus proximity of a generating station nearer to a coal reserve and
water sources will be most economical as the cost of transporting coal
gets reduced. In India as coal is available in abundance and naturally,
thermal power plants were most popular. However, these plants pollute the
atmosphere because of burning coals. Stringent conditions (such as use of
more chimneys at tall height along with the compulsory use of electrostatic
precipitators) are put by regulatory authorities to see that the effects of
pollution were minimized. A large amount of ash is produced every day in a
thermal plant and effective handling of the ash adds to the running cost of
the plant. About 57% of the power generated in India is from the thermal
plants. The speed of alternator used in thermal plants is 3000 rpm which
means 2-pole alternators are used in such plants.
10.5.2 Hydro power plant
In a hydro power station, water head is used to drive water turbine
coupled to the generator. Water head may be available in hilly region
naturally in the form of water reservoir (lakes etc.) at the hill tops. The
potential energy of water can be used to drive the turbo generator set
installed at the base of the hills through piping called pen stock. Water
head may also be created artificially by constructing dams on a suitable
river. In contrast to a thermal plant, hydro power plants are eco-friendly,
neat and clean as no fuel is to be burnt to produce electricity. While
running cost of such plants are low, the initial installation cost is rather
high compared to a thermal plant due to massive civil construction
necessary. Also sites to be selected for such plants depend upon natural
availability of water reservoirs at hill tops or availability of suitable rivers
for constructing dams. Water turbines generally operate at low rpm, so
numbers of poles of the alternator are high. For example a 20-pole
alternator the rpm of the turbine is only 300 rpm.
Figure 10.3 Basic components of a hydro generating unit
10.5.3 Nuclear plants
As coal reserve is not unlimited, there is natural threat to thermal
power plants based on coal. It is estimated that within next 30 to 40 years,
coal reserve will exhaust if it is consumed at the present rate. Nuclear
power plants are thought to be the solution for bulk power generation. At
present the installed capacity of nuclear power plant is about 4300 MW and
expected to expand it further in India. The present day atomic power plants
235 235
work under principle of nuclear fission of U. In the natural uranium, U
238
constitutes only 0.72% and remaining parts is constituted by 99.27% of U
234 235
and only about 0.05% of U. The concentration of U may be increased
235 235
to 90% by gas diffusion process to obtain enriched U. When U is
bombarded by neutrons a lot of heat energy along with additional neutrons
235
are produced. These new neutrons further bombard U producing more
heat and more neutrons. Thus a chain reaction sets up. However this
reaction is allowed to take place in a controlled manner inside a closed
chamber called nuclear reactor. To ensure sustainable chain reaction,
moderator and control rods are used. Moderators such as heavy water
12
(deuterium) or very pure carbon C are used to reduce the speed of
neutrons. To control the number of neutrons, control rods made of
cadmium or boron steel were inserted inside the reactor. The control rods
can absorb neutrons. If we want to decrease the number neutrons, the
control rods are lowered down further and vice versa. The heat generated
inside the reactor is taken out of the chamber with the help of a coolant
such as liquid sodium or some gaseous fluids. The coolant gives up the
heat to water in heat exchanger to convert it to steam as shown in figure
10.4. The steam then drives the turbo set and the exhaust steam from the
turbine is cooled and fed back to the heat exchanger with the help of water
feed pump. Calculation shows that to produce 1000 MW of electrical power
in coal based thermal plant, about 6 × 106 Kg of coal is to be burnt daily
while for the same amount of power, only about 2.5 Kg of 235U is to be used
per day in a nuclear power stations.
Figure 10.4 Basic components of a nuclear generating unit
The initial investment required to install a nuclear power station is quite
high but running cost is low. Although, nuclear plants produce electricity
without causing air pollution, it remains a dormant source of radiation
hazards due to leakage in the reactor. Also the used fuel rods are to be
carefully handled and disposed off as they still remain radioactive.
235
The reserve of U is also limited and can not last longer if its consumption
continues at the present rate. Naturally search for alternative fissionable
239 233
material continues. For example, plutonium Pu and U are fissionable.
238
Although they are not directly available. Absorbing neutrons, U gets
239
converted to fissionable plutonium Pu in the atomic reactor described
239
above. The used fuel rods can be further processed to extract Pu from it
indirectly increasing the availability of fissionable fuel. Effort is also on to
233
convert thorium into fissionable U. Incidentally, India has very large
reserve of thorium in the world.
Total approximate generation capacity and contribution by thermal,
hydro and nuclear generation in India are given below.
Method of generation Power generation (MW) Percentage contribution
Thermal 77 340 69.4
Hydro 29 800 26.74
Nuclear 2 720 3.85
Total generation 1 11 440 --
10.6 Non conventional sources of energy
The bulk generations of power by thermal, hydro and nuclear plants are
called conventional methods for producing electricity. Search for newer
avenues for harnessing eco friendly electrical power has already begun to
meet the future challenges of meeting growing power demand. Compared
to conventional methods, the capacity in terms of MW of each non-
conventional plant is rather low, but most of them are eco friendly and self
sustainable. Wind power, solar power, MHD generation, fuel cell and power
from tidal waves are some of the promising alternative sources of energy
for the future.
10.7 Single line representation of power system
Trying to represent a practical power system with a lot of
interconnections between several generating stations involving a large
number of transformers using three lines corresponding to R, Y and B
phase will become unnecessary clumsy and complicated.
Figure 10.5 Single line representation of power systems
To avoid this, a single line along with some symbolical representations
for generator, transformers substation buses are used to represent a power
system rather neatly. For example, the system shown in 10.6 with three
lines will be simplified to figure 10.5 using single line.
Figure 10.6 Single line representation of power systems
As another example, an interconnected power system is represented
in the self explained figure 10.6 – it is hoped that you understand the
important features communicated about the system through this figure.
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