An

Audit Course Report

on

English for Research Paper Writing

By

Bhumika Verma

Roll no. 22/709

Submitted to

Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

In Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

Master of Business Administration

Under the guidance of

Dr. Anamika Sharma

Faculty, MBA Program

University Teaching Department

Rajasthan Technical University

Session - 2023- 2024

 Table of Contents
Unit - 1

1.1 Planning & Preparation ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Steps to writing a research paper ........................................................................ 1

1.2 Word Order ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.3 Breaking Up Long Sentences .............................................................................................2

1.4 Structuring Paragraph & Sentences ................................................................................... 2

1.5 Being Concise .................................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Removing Redundancy ...................................................................................................... 5

1.7 Avoiding Ambiguity & Vagueness ................................................................................... 5

Unit - 2

2.1 Clarifying Who Did What ................................................................................................. 6

2.2 Finding Highlights ............................................................................................................. 6

2.2.1 Key points to remember while writing highlights............................................... 6

2.3 Hedging And Criticising .................................................................................................... 7

2.4 Paraphrasing and Plagiarism .............................................................................................. 8

2.4.1 Quote directly from other papers ........................................................................ 8

2.4.2 Examples of How and How Not To Paraphrase ............................................... 9

2.5 Sections of a Paper ..................................................................................................... 10-11

Unit - 3

3.1 Literature Review.............................................................................................................12

3.1.1 Purpose of a literature review ........................................................................... 12

3.1.2 Types of Literature Reviews ....................................................................... 12-14

3.2 Methods............................................................................................................................14

3.2.1 Structure of Methods.........................................................................................14

3.2.2 Ways To Write Methods ................................................................................... 15

3.3 Results .............................................................................................................................. 15

3.3.1 Results section contains .................................................................................... 15

3.3.2 The Results should answer the following questions ......................................... 16

3.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 16

3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 16-18

Unit - 4

4.1 Key skills to write a Title… ....................................................................................... 19-20

4.2 Key Skills to Write an Abstract .................................................................................. 21-23

4.3 Key skills to write an Introduction .............................................................................23-24

4.4 Key skills to write a Review of the Literature ............................................................ 24-25

Unit - 5

5.1 Key skills to write the Methods .................................................................................. 26-27

5.2 Key skills to write the Results.......................................................................................... 28

5.2.1 Structure the Results ......................................................................................... 28

5.2.2 Ways to begin the Results ................................................................................. 28

5.3 Key Skills to Write the Discussion .................................................................................. 29

5.3.1 Structure of the Discussion ............................................................................... 29

5.3.2 Ways begin the Discussion ............................................................................... 29

5.4 Key Skills to Write the Conclusions ................................................................................ 30

5.4.1 Structure of the Conclusions ............................................................................. 31

5.4.2 How to begin Conclusions & increase the impact of Conclusions ............. 31-32

Unit - 6

6.1 Useful phrases ............................................................................................................ 33-34

6.2 Ensure the paper is as good as it could possibly be the first- time submission................ 34

6.2.1 Some points to keep in mind while making sure that submission does not get
rejected 34-38
Unit-1
Unit-2
Unit-3
Unit-4
Unit-5
Unit-6
1.1 Planning & Preparation

Mastering the complex academic skill of writing a research paper will prepare the researcher
to enter a discourse community of choosing an area of study with excitement and confidence.
Writing a research paper can seem like a daunting task, but if the time has been taken in the
pages a head to learn how to break the writing process down, one will be amazed at the level
of comfort and control that can be felt when preparing the assignment.

1.1.1 Steps to writing a research paper

I. Investigate Possible Topics: Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research
assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it done correctly.
Select a topic for which a manageable amount of information is available. Do a preliminary
search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meetthe needs.

II. Evaluate the Sources: This step is especially important when using Internet resources,
many of which are regarded asless than reliable.

III. Write a thesis statement: A thesis statement is one or more sentences explaining the point
of the academic paper. It tellswhat the paper is about, the point it will make, how it will reach
this point, the methods used to prove this point, and the conclusion drawn once all the evidence
is in. The thesis statement should tell the reader what the paper is about, where it is going and
how it will get there.

IV. Keep notes on your sources information: The larger the research project the more notes
will have to keep everything organized either by source, by the paper‗s outline, or some other
method that allows to find information when it isneeded. Also keep extensive notes on the
source‗s information – author, publication date, publisher, etc., — cite information that will be
needed for your reference list at the end of the academic paper.

V. Set a date for your final edits: Finally, set a date for your final edits – ideally a few days
before the project is due.

1.2 Word Order

Word order refers to the way the words in a sentence are arranged. We should try to keep the
subject, verb, direct object and indirect object as close to each otheras possible.

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Basic Word Order is Subject + Verb + Object

Examples-

• The woman [S] built [V] a strong stone wall [O].

• The children [S] eat [V] buns, cakes, and biscuits [O].
• The professor [S] threw [V] an orange [O].
• I use smartphone daily.
• Ram eats banana.
• Seema goes to college.
• I like rice.
• She loves her job.
• He‗s eating an orange
• Lakhan drinks milk every day.

1.3 Breaking Up Long Sentences

The Effective Communicator, John Adair reports that approximately 90% of people
understandan 8-word sentence on first reading, but only about 4% understand a 27-word
sentence first time around. The longer the sentence, the greater the chance it will be
misunderstood. Examples are given below:

• It doesn't matter what kind of coffee I buy, where it's from, or if it's organic or not, I
need to have cream because I really don't like how the bitterness makes me feel.
• I add cream to my coffee because the bitter taste makes me feel unwell.

1.4 Structuring Paragraph & Sentences

This topic introduces various ways to make our writing easy to read and 100% clear for our
readers by being reader-oriented. We will learn were readers expect to find the key information
in a text, and how you can exploit this knowledge to give your writing maximum impact.

Example: The software-based fight control system is thoroughly tested in the secure facility
F67-B while the aircraft itself is tested repeatedly in the air by being exposed to weather
conditions specified in Doc 34B-5 and using Cranbolton methodology despite the fact that no
amount of testing can prepare for all eventualities to arise in real-life conditions.

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Conjunctions like ―while‖, ―and‖, ―despite‖ are good markers for splitting this compound
sentence into a set of simpler ones.

Here is one possible solution to the above compound sentence: The software-based flight
control system is thoroughly tested in the secure facility F67-B. The aircraft itself is tested
repeatedly in the air by using Cranbolton methodology. During these tests the aircraft is
exposed to weather conditions specified in Doc 34B-5. However, no amount of testing can of
course prepare us for all real-life emergencies.

1.5 Being Concise

Being concise is important not just in reducing number or words and potential mistakes, but
also in increasing readability and impact. Being concise is not an option. Many journals,
particularly widely-read ones such as Science and Nature, have severe restrictions on the
number of words per article. The space they have available is precious.

Also, certain documents have strict limits with regard to the number of words allowed, for
example Abstracts, grant proposals, CVs, posters and slides also tend to have a limited space
available. Writer should use following one words for making sentences concise. Examplesare
given below:

1. Experimentation- The process of conducting tests or trials to observe and evaluate the
outcome of a particular hypothesis or theory.

2. Analysis- The process of examining and evaluating data or information in order to draw
conclusions or insights.

3. Investigation- The process of examining a specific topic, issue, or problem to gather

information and evidence in order to uncover the facts and details.

4. Observation- The process of closely watching or monitoring a particular phenomenon or

event to gather data and information.

5. Survey- The process of gathering data and opinions from a large group of people using a
set of standardized questions.

6. Sampling- The process of selecting a representative subset from a larger population in

order to conduct research and make generalizations.

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7. Data- The facts, statistics, and other information that are collected and analysed in order to
draw conclusions or insights.

8. Hypothesis- A tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested through

experimentation or investigation.

9. Thesis- A statement or argument that is presented and supported by evidence, usuallyas

part of a formal academic paper.

10. Dissertation- A lengthy and in-depth research paper that is written as a requirement fora
doctoral degree.

11. Methodology- The set of procedures, techniques, and tools used to conduct researchand
gather data.

12. Results- The outcomes or findings of a particular research study or experiment.

13. Findings- The conclusions or discoveries that are drawn from the data and
evidencegathered during a research study.

14. Conclusions- The final insights or outcomes that are drawn from the research study,often
supported by the findings.

15. Publication- The process of releasing research results or findings to a wider

audience,usually through a journal article, book, or conference presentation.

16. Peer-review- The process of having research work evaluated and critiqued by
otherexperts in the same field before it is published or released.

17. Bibliography- A list of sources or references that are used in a research paper or project.

18. Citation- A brief reference to a specific source that is used to support a

particularargument or point in a research paper.

19. Literature- The body of written works on a particular subject, including researchstudies,
academic papers, and books.

20. Abstract- A brief summary of a research paper or project that provides an overview ofthe
main points and findings.

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1.6 Removing Redundancy

Redundancy is when the writer uses two or more words together that mean the same thing,
forexample, ‗adequate enough‗. It is also said that something is redundant when a modifier‗s
meaning is contained in the word it modifies, for example, ‗merge together‗.

Example

• Original sentence: "The two twins looked exactly alike."

• Redundant sentence: "The twins looked alike

1.7 Avoiding Ambiguity & Vagueness

A sentence or phrase is ambiguous or vague when it has more than one interpretation or its
interpretation is not obvious. If referees are not clear about what writer is saying in aparticular
sentence, this may affect their overall understanding of sentences. Examples is given below:

• Original sentence: "I saw her duck."

• Ambiguous sentence: This sentence could have two meanings depending on thecontext.
It's not clear if "duck" refers to the action of lowering the head or body quickly to avoid
something or if it refers to the water bird.
• Revised sentence: "I saw her quickly lower her head to avoid getting hit."

Vagueness-Vagueness is a state of being unclear or uncertain. It‘s examples are given below:

• I‘ll be back later.

Later (2 hours or 2 days.)
➢ Original sentence : We need to make some changes to the project.
➢ Vague sentence : This sentence is vague because it doesn't specify what changes need
to be made to the project.
➢ Revised sentence: We need to add two new sections to the project proposal,
increasethe budget by 10%, and extend the deadline by two weeks.

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2.1 Clarifying Who Did What

To clarify something means to make it easier to understand, usually by explaining it in more

detail. In various sections of our paper, we need to compare our methodology or results with
what has already been established in the literature. We must make it 100% clear to the reader
whose methodology or results we are talking about.

If we don‘t, we will make it difficult for the referee to:

• Identify your contribution

• Decide how useful the contribution is
• Make a decision about whether this contribution is worth recommending for
publication

For example, original sentence: The project was completed on time.

Unclear sentence: This sentence is unclear because it doesn't specify who completed the
project.

Revised sentence: The project team completed the project on time.

2.2 Finding Highlights

Findings are the information they get or the conclusions they come to as the result of an
investigation or some research. Our findings may be extremely valid and important. However,
if the referees are not able to see or understand our findings because we have neither highlighted
nor described them clearly enough, then our paper may not be published. Our contribution to
the community may thus vanish into oblivion.

―In the words of English botanist, Sir Francis Darwin: In science the credit goes to the man
who convinces the world, not to the man to whom the idea first occurred.‖

2.2.1 Key points to remember while writing highlights

• Ensure that referees can find and understand the importance of your contribution
• Help your findings to stand out visually on the page by beginning a new paragraph
• Make your sentences shorter than normal
• Present your key findings in a very short sentence and list the implications
• Consider using bullets and headings

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 • Use tables and figures to attract attention
• Only use specific terms when describing your key findings
• Avoid flat phrases when discussing key findings
• Be explicit about your findings, so that even a non-expert can understand them
• Convincing readers to believe your interpretation of your data
• Show your paper to a non-expert and get him / her to underline your key findings
• Beware of overstating your project‘s achievements and significance

Example

• Original text- The article discusses the impact of social media on mental health. It
covers the various ways in which social media can affect mental health, including cyber
bullying, social comparison, and addiction. The article also includes interviews with
mental health experts who provide tips on how to use social media in a healthy way.
• Highlight- The article discusses the impact of social media on mental health, covering
cyber bullying, social comparison, addiction, and including tips from mental
health experts.

2.3 Hedging And Criticising

Refers to using vague or tentative adjectives, adverbs, or verbs to lessen the impact of a
sayingor to make it less direct. Here are some examples of hedging in a research paper:

• Original sentence: "Your report is completely wrong and filled with errors."
• Critical sentence: This sentence is overly direct and could be seen as rude or offensive.
• Hedged sentence: "I'm sorry, but I noticed a few potential errors in your report. Could
we takesome time to review the information and make any necessary corrections?"
• Using words like "possibly," "likely," or "may" to indicate that a finding or conclusion
is not definitive, but rather based on a certain probability or possibility. For example:
"The results of this study may suggest a correlation between X and Y, but further
research is needed to confirm this hypothesis."

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 • Using phrases like "to some extent," "in some cases," or "depending on" to
acknowledge that there may be exceptions or variations to a general finding or
conclusion. For example: "While this study shows a strong relationship between X and
Y, the findings may vary to some extent based on factors such as age, gender, andsocio-
economic status."
• Using qualifiers like "somewhat," "partly," or "relatively" to indicate that a finding or
conclusion is not absolute, but rather falls within a certain range or degree. For example:
"The data suggests that there is a relatively strong correlation between X and Y, but it
is important to note that this relationship may be influenced by other factors as well."

2.4 Paraphrasing and Plagiarism

Plagiarism in its simplest terms means cutting and pasting from other studies and papers. It
also means taking credit for work that others have done. Plagiarism includes plagiarizing your
own work. In fact, some journals stipulate that you cannot use more than five consecutive
words from another paper that you have written. If a referee thinks you may have plagiarized
other people‘s work or your own, then there is a very high probability that he or she will
recommend rejecting your paper. If you commit plagiarism within your university or institute
then you may risk expulsion.

• Plagiarism means using someone else's words or ideas and passing them off as your
own. Paraphrasing means putting someone else's ideas in your own words.
• Paraphrasing is plagiarism if you don't properly credit the original author.

2.4.1 Quote directly from other papers

If a writer uses any of the parts any paper that are not in italics without any
acknowledgementthis is called committing plagiarism. Let‗s imagine a writer wanted to quote
from the last line of paper, which concludes as follows: The owners of international scientific
English should be international scientists not Englishmen or Americans.

This can cite the exact phrase or sentence used by putting it in quotations marks. Then
referencethe author. It‘s example is given below:

• Original text- "The findings suggest that regular exercise can improve cardiovascular
health in individuals with a family history of heart disease."

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 • Quoted text- According to Smith and Jones (2022), "The findings suggest that regular
exercise can improve cardiovascular health in individuals with a family history of heart
disease".

In this example, the quoted text is surrounded by quotation marks and the author and date are
included in parentheses at the end of the sentence. The page number is also included for longer
quotes that span multiple pages. It's important to properly cite all sources when using direct
quotes to give credit to the original author and to avoid plagiarism.

2.4.2 Examples of How and How Not To Paraphrase

The following examples and explanations are taken from Dr Gratz‗s article Using Another‗s
Words and Ideas.

Here are three examples of unacceptable attempts to rewrite

S1- Gratz (1982) showed that bilateral vagotomy resulted in an increase in tidal volume but a
depression in respiratory frequency such that total ventilation did not change.

S2- Gratz (1982) showed that bilateral vagotomy produced an increase in tidal volume and a
depression in respiratory frequency so that total ventilation did not change.

S3- Gratz (1982) showed that following vagotomy the snakes‗ lung volume increased but
theirrespiratory rate was lowered. As a result, their breathing was unchanged.

S4- Gratz (1982) showed that following bilateral vagotomy the snakes‗ tidal volume
increasedbut their respiratory frequency was lowered. As a result, their total ventilation was
unchanged.

The sample S2 is identical to S1 except that the author is attributed. A couple of words have
been changed in S3, but this does not alter the fact that S3 is still substantially the same as S1.
S4 is more serious because the paraphrased version has attempted to find synonyms for key
technical words: lung volume is not the same as tidal volume, and breathing is not the same
as total ventilation. Moreover, dropping the adjective ―bilateral‖ alters the sense of the
experimental technique. According to Dr. Gratz S4 is the most acceptable paraphrase of a
sentence. Although the same information is presented, the sentence structure and word order
have been substantially altered.

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2.5 Sections of a Paper

There is no one right style or manner for writing an education paper. Content aside, the writing
style and presentation of papers in different educational fields vary greatly. Nevertheless,
certain parts are common to most papers, for example:

2.5.1 Title/Cover Page

Contains the paper's title, the author's name, address, phone number, e-mail, and the day's date.

2.5.2 Abstract

Not every education paper requires an abstract. However, for longer, more complex papers
abstracts are particularly useful. Often only 100 to 300 words, the abstract generally provides
a broad overview and is never more than a page. It describes the essence, the main theme of
the paper. It includes the research question posed, its significance, the methodology, and the
main results or findings. Footnotes or cited works are never listed in an abstract. Remember
to take great care in composing the abstract. It's the first part of the paper the instructor reads.
It must impress with a strong content, good style, and general aesthetic appeal. Never write it
hastily or carelessly.

2.5.3 Introduction and Statement of the Problem

A good introduction states the main research problem and thesis argument.

• What precisely are you studying and why is it important.

• How original is it.
• Will it fill a gap in other studies.
• Never provide a lengthy justification for your topic before it has been explicitly
stated.

2.5.4 Limitations of Study

Indicate as soon as possible what you intend to do, and what you are not going to attempt. You
may limit the scope of your paper by any number of factors, for example, time, personnel,
gender, age, geographic location, nationality, and so on.

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2.5.5 Methodology

Discuss your research methodology. Did you employ qualitative or quantitative research
methods or Did you administer a questionnaire or interview people or Any field research
conducted or How did you collect data or Did you utilize other libraries or archives and so on.

2.5.6 Literature Review

The research process uncovers what other writers have written about our topic. Our education
paper should include a discussion or review of what is known about the subject and how that
knowledge was acquired.

2.5.7 Main Body of Paper/Argument

This is generally the longest part of the paper. It's where the author supports the thesis and
builds the argument. It contains most of the citations and analysis. This section should focus
on a rational development of the thesis with clear reasoning and solid argumentation at all
points. A clear focus, avoiding meaningless digressions, provides the essential unity that
characterizes a strong education paper.

2.5.8 Conclusion

After spending a great deal of time and energy introducing and arguing the points in the main
body of the paper, the conclusion brings everything together and underscores what it all means.
A stimulating and informative conclusion leaves the reader informed and well- satisfied. A
conclusion that makes sense, when read independently from the rest of the paper, will win
praise.

2.5.9 Works Cited/Bibliography

A bibliography is the list of sources a work's author used to create the work. It accompanies
just about every type of academic writing, like essays, research papers, and reports.

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3.1 Literature Review

A literature review is an overview of the previously published works on a topic. A literature

review survey books, scholarly articles and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area
of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation
of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are
designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researchinga particular
topic and to demonstrate to the leaders how the research fit within a larger fieldof study.

3.1.1 Purpose of a literature review

When we write a research paper, we will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate
our research within existing knowledge. The literature review used to:

• Demonstrate our familiarity with the topic

• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the
debatesaround your topic.
• Identify new ways to interpret the prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Locate the research within the context of existing literature.

3.1.2 Types of Literature Reviews

Based on their structure and formulation, literature reviews are broadly classified as-

I. Argumentative Review: This form examines literature selectively in order to support or

refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, philosophical problem already established
in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian view
point. Given the value- laden nature of some social science research (example educational
reform; immigration control), argumentative approaches to analysing the literature can be a
legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can

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also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found
in systematic reviews.

II. Integrative review: Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrated bay such that new framework and
perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address
related or identical hypothesis or research problem. A well-done integrative review meets the
same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, replication. This is most common
form of review in the social sciences.

III. Historical review: Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical
literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting
with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then
tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in
a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the
likely directions for future research.

IV. Methodological review: A review does not always focus on what someone said
[findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing
methods of analysis providesa framework of understanding at different levels [i.e., those of
theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques],
how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to
practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological
consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection,
and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you shouldbe aware of
and consider as you go through your own study.

V. Narrative or Traditional Literature Reviews: A narrative or traditional literaturereview

is a comprehensive, critical, and objective analysis of existing knowledge of the topic.
Literature review is an essential part of the research process because it helps establish
theoretical framework and context for research study.

VI. Scoping Reviews: A scoping review aims to identify the nature and extent of research
evidence. As its name suggests, a scoping review is an ideal tool to determine the scope of
literature on a given research topic.

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VII. Systematic Literature Reviews: A systematic literature review identifies and helps
select research in order to answer a clearly formulated research question. Furthermore, a
systematic review follows a defined protocol or plan where the criteria is clearly stated before
the review is conducted.

VIII. Theoretical review: The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has
accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature
review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what
degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested.
Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current
theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unitof analysis
can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

3.2 Methods

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study's validity
is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done,
and why specific experimental procedures were chosen.

3.2.1 Structure of Methods

The Methods section should answer most of the following questions:-

• What / Who did I study.

• What hypotheses was I testing.
• Where did I carry out this study and what characteristics did this location have.
• How did I design my experiment / sampling and what assumptions did I make.
• What variable was I measuring and why.
• How did I handle / house / treat my materials / subjects. What kind of care /
precautions were taken.
• What equipment did I use and where did this equipment come from .
• What protocol did I use for collecting my data.
• How did I analyze the data. Statistical procedures. Mathematical equations. Software.
• What probability did I use to decide significance.
• What references to the literature could I give to save me having to describe something
in detail.

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 • What difficulties did I encounter.

We should provide enough quantitative information (concentration, temperature, weight, size,

length, time, duration etc.) so that other researchers can replicate what you did. Describe
everything in a logical order to enable readers to easily follow what you did.

This will usually be chronological i.e., the order in which you conducted the phases of your
tests.

3.2.2 Ways To Write Methods

Typical ways include:

(a) Making a general statement about your method.

Ex. The method described here is simple, rapid, sensitive and ...

(b) Referring to another paper.

Ex. The materials used for isolation and culture are described elsewhere. Materials were
obtained in accordance with Burgess et al.‘s method.

(c) Indicating where (i.e. a geographical region) your investigation was focused.

Ex. Our empirical investigation focused on Rajasthan.

3.3 Results

The Results (also sometimes called Findings) section in an research paper describes what the
researcher(s) found when they analysed their data. Its primary purpose is to use the data
collected to answer the research question(s) posed in the introduction.

3.3.1 Results section contains

The Results section should include the findings of your study and only the findings of your
study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures

• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

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3.3.2 The Results should answer the following questions

i. What did I find.

ii. What did I not find.
iii. What did I find that I was not expecting to find. (e.g. that contradicts my hypotheses)

3.4 Discussion

The discussion section is one of the final parts of a research paper, in which an author
describes, analyses, and interprets their findings.

3.4.1 Structure of the Discussion

The Discussion should answer the following questions, and possibly in the following order.

i. Do my data support what I set out to demonstrate at the beginning of the paper.
ii. How do my findings compare with what others have found & How consistent are
they.
iii. What is my personal interpretation of my findings.
iv. What other possible interpretations are there.
v. What are the limitations of my study.
vi. What other factors could have influenced my findings.
vii. Have I reported everything that could make my findings invalid.
viii. Do any of the interpretations reveal a possible defect/error in my experiment.
ix. Do my interpretations contribute some new understanding of the problem that I have
investigated.
x. What external validity do my findings have.
xi. What possible implications or applications do my findings have.
xii. What further research would be needed to explain the issues raised by my findings.

3.5 Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper restates the research problem, summarizes the arguments
or findings, and discusses the implications.

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3.5.1 Structure of the Conclusions

The Conclusions section is not just a summary. Don‘t merely repeat what you said in the
Abstract and Introduction. It is generally not more than one or two paragraphs long.

A Conclusions section typically incorporates one or more of the following

i. A very brief revisit of the most important findings pointing out how these advance
thefield from the present state of knowledge
ii. A final judgment on the importance and significance those findings in term of
theirimplications and impact, along with possible applications to other areas
iii. An indication of the limitations of the study
iv. Suggestions for improvements (in relation to the limitations)
v. Recommendations for future work
vi. Recommendations for policy changes

Here are some tips for conducting a final check of the literature review

I. Ensure that the literature review is focused on the research question or topic: Double-
check that every article and reference included in the literature review directly relates to the
research question or topic.

II. Check for accuracy and credibility: Verify that all sources are accurate, up-to-date, and
from credible sources. Use academic databases and peer-reviewed sources to ensure the highest
level of credibility.

III. Check for relevance: Verify that all sources included in the literature review arerelevant
and add value to the research question or topic. Check for overlapping information and remove
any redundant sources.

IV. Ensure that the literature review is well-organized: Check that the literature review is
well-organized and easy to follow. Use headings, subheadings, and topic sentences to help
guide the reader through the review.

V. Check for completeness: Verify that the literature review includes all relevant studies and
research related to the research question or topic. Check for any gaps in the literature and make
recommendations for future research.

17
VI. Check for formatting and referencing: Verify that the literature review follows the
required formatting guidelines, such as APA or MLA, and that all references are correctly cited
and formatted.

VII. Proofread: Finally, proofread the literature review for any errors in grammar, spelling,
or punctuation. A well-written and error-free literature review is crucial for conveying the
credibility and professionalism of the research.

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4.1 Key skills to write a Title

Every word in title is important. So, a title should

• Immediately make sense to the referee.

• Easily be found by a search engine or indexing system.
• Attract the right kind of readers rather than discouraging them, and will also catch the
attention of browsers. Note ‗attraction‘ does not mean resorting to newspaper-like
headlines, but simply containing those words that readers in field would expect to
find.
• Not consist of a string of nouns and will be immediately comprehensible to anyone in
general field.
• Has a definite and concise indication of what it is written in the paper itself. It is neither
unjustifiably specific nor too vague or generic.

4.1.1 Ways to Generate A Title

Think about the following questions:

• My findings that will attract attention.

• New, different and interesting about my findings.
• The 3–5 key words that highlight what makes my research and my findings unique.

Using above points should be able to formulate a title.

4.1.2 Points to Consider When Writing a Title

Writing a title for a research paper can be a challenging task, as it needs to accurately convey
the focus of the study while also being attention-grabbing and concise. Here are some key skills
to keep in mind when writing a title for a research paper

• Clarity- The title should clearly and accurately convey the focus of the study. It
should be easily understandable to the reader and avoid any ambiguity.
• Conciseness- The title should be concise and to the point, ideally no more than 12-
15words. Avoid lengthy titles that can be difficult to read and comprehend.
• Specificity- The title should be specific and avoid using vague or general terms. Use
keywords that accurately represent the topic or subject matter of the research.

19
 • Creativity- While it's important to be clear and specific, the title should also be
attention-grabbing and creative. Use language that is interesting and engaging, but
avoid using puns or jokes that may detract from the professionalism of the paper.
• Relevance- The title should be relevant to the current literature and research trends. It
should accurately reflect the current state of knowledge in the field and the contribution
the study makes to the research.

4.1.3 Questions in Titles to Attract Attention

The titles below highlight that a question can be formulated using an auxiliary (e.g. does,
would, can, will) and using question words (e.g. why, when, what, which, why, who).

Example

• Does the ocean-atmosphere system have more than one stable mode of operation.
• Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output Per Worker Than Others.
• What do bosses do.

Titles with questions also work particularly well for abstracts submitted to conferences. They
are generally much more informal and because of their question form they immediately get
readers thinking about what the answer might be. They can also be original and fun, as
highlighted by the last title. They thus tend to stand out from other titles and are more likely
to attract attention.

4.1.4 Ways to punctuate my title

• The two parts of the titles are separated by a colon.

• Some journals require a capital letter after a colon.
• Titles never end with a period (.), but if they are questions, then there should be a
question mark at the end.

4.1.5 Words that should capitalize

There are basically two ways to capitalize a title.

• The first is to capitalize each initial letter, apart from articles (a, an, the) and
prepositions (e.g. on, by, in, of).

20
 • The other is just to capitalize the first letter of the first word, and then to have all the
other words in lower case.

4.2 Key Skills to Write an Abstract

Abstract- An Abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference

proceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader
quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning
of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic paper or
patent application. Abstracting and indexing services for various academic disciplines are
aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject.

Writing an effective abstract for a literature review requires several key skills. Here are some
important skills to keep in mind:

I. Summarizing- The abstract should provide a concise summary of the literature review. This
requires the ability to identify the main findings and conclusions of the review and to
summarize them in a clear and concise manner.

II. Clarity- The abstract should be clear and easy to understand, even for readers who are not
experts in the field. This requires the ability to communicate complex ideas in a simple and
straightforward way.

III. Accuracy- The abstract should accurately reflect the content of the literature review. This
requires the ability to identify the most important information and to present it in a way that is
both accurate and unbiased.

IV. Conciseness- The abstract should be brief and to the point. This requires the ability to
eliminate unnecessary details and to focus on the most important information.

V. Organization- The abstract should be well-organized and structured in a logical manner.

This requires the ability to identify the key sections of the literature review and to summarize
them in a clear and organized way.

VI. Tone- The tone of the abstract should be appropriate for the intended audience. This
requires the ability to adjust the tone and style of writing to match the needs of the reader.

21
VII. Formatting- The abstract should follow the formatting guidelines of the specific journal
or publication in which it will be published. This requires the ability to understand and follow
the specific guidelines for formatting abstracts.

4.2.1 Types of abstract

There are four main types of abstracts, all of which summarize the highlights of the research
and all of which will be judged in isolation from the accompanying paper. Abstracts are
sometimes called Summaries.

Abstracts are found before a full article in a journal, standalone in databases of abstracts, and
in conference programs.

I. Unstructured abstract: A single paragraph of between 100–250 words containing a very

brief summary of each of the main sections of paper.

II. Structured abstract: The same as unstructured but divided into several short sections.

III. Extended abstract: A mini paper organized in the same way as a full paper (e.g.,
Introduction, Methods, Discussion), but substantially shorter (two to four pages). Depending
on the journal, conference or competition, the extended abstract may or may not include an
abstract for example, it may begin directly with an introduction.

IV. Conference abstract: Normally a standalone abstract (sometimes up to 500 words),

designed to help conference organizers to decide whether they would like to make an oral
presentation at their conference.

The type of abstract chooses and the format to use will depend on the journal or conference.
Make sure to read the instructions to authors before begin writing.

4.2.2 When to write the Abstract

The abstract in a research paper should be written after the main body of the paper has been
completed. This allows the writer to accurately summarize the main points and findings of
the research, as well as any analysis or evaluation that may be included in the abstract. It is
important to note that the abstract should be a standalone document that provides a
comprehensive overview of the research paper, and should not include any information that is
not included in the main body of the paper. Once the abstract has been written, it should be

22
reviewed and edited carefully to ensure that it accurately reflects the content of the research
paper and meets the requirements of the journal or publication in which it will be published.

4.2.3 Structure of an Abstract

An Abstract generally answers at least the first three of the following questions, and generally
in the following order. We can use the answers to these questions to structure Abstract.

• Why did we carry out this project?

• The purpose of writing this paper
• What did the writer do, and how?
• What were the results?
• What was new compared to previous research?
• What are the implications of the findings?
• What are conclusions and/or recommendations?

4.2.4 Points not to mention in Abstract

Writer should try to avoid

• Background information that is too generalist for readers

• Claims that are not supported in the paper
• Terms that are too technical or too generic - this will depend on audience
• Definitions of key terms
• Mathematical equations
• Generic quantifications (e.g., many, several, few, a wide variety) and the overuse or
unjustified use of subjective adjectives (e.g., innovative, interesting, fundamental).
• Unnecessary details that would be better located in Introduction, such as the name of
institute, place names that readers will not have heard of
• References to other papers. However, if whole paper is based on an extending orrefuting
a finding given by one specific author, then we will need to mention thisauthor‘s name

4.3 Key skills to write an Introduction

The Introduction presents the background knowledge that readers need so that they can
appreciate how the findings of the paper are an advance on current knowledge in the field. A

23
key skill is to be able to say the same things that have been said many times before but in a
different, interesting, intriguing way.

We need to have a deep knowledge about everything that has been previously written on the
topic and decide what is important for the reader to know.

4.3.1 Structure of the Introduction

An Introduction generally answers the following questions. We can use the answers to these
questions to structure Introduction.

• What is the problem.

• Are there any existing solutions (i.e. in the literature).
• Which solution is the best.
• What is its main limitation. (i.e. What gap am I hoping to fill.)
• What do I hope to achieve.
• Have I achieved what I set out to do?

4.4 Key skills to write a Review of the Literature

The key skill is to provide readers with just the right amount of literature regarding the sequence
of events leading up to the current situation - not too much to make it tedious, nor too little so
that the context of research is not meaningful to them.

The background information is useful because it allows to:

• Systematically elaborate the achievements and limitations of other studies

• Relate new facts and data to these studies

The amount of detail needed to give varies immensely from discipline to discipline. In some
disciplines may be required to have a very strong theoretical framework for study, thus
requiring two or more pages. In other disciplines just one paragraph may be enough.

4.4.1 How to structure Review of the Literature

A Literature Review generally answers the following questions, and generally in the following
order. we can use the answers to these questions to structure Literature Review.

i. What are the seminal works on my topic. Do I need to mention these.

24
ii. What progress has been made since these seminal works.
iii. What are the most relevant recent works. What is the best order to mention these
works.
iv. What are the achievements and limitations of these recent works.
v. What gap do these limitations reveal.
vi. How does my work intend to fill this gap.

25
5.1 Key skills to write the Methods

This section has several different names including: ‗Methods‘, ‗Methods and Materials‘,
‗Experimental‘, ‗Method Description and Validation‘. In most journals the Methods section
follows the Literature Review, in others it follows the Conclusions.

The secret of writing this section is to be able to describe the materials used in experiments
and/or the methods used to carry out research, in a way that is sufficiently detailed to enable
others in field to easily follow method and, if desired, even replicate work. A key skill is to
make sure the descriptions are complete and yet are also as concise as possible, for example by
referring to other works in the literature, including own, that make use of the same or similar
methods.

Another key skill is to write extremely clearly, with generally not more than two steps described
in one sentence, and in a logical order. This will then enable readers to easily follow
description. Researchers generally agree that the Methods the easiest section to write because
methods are likely to be clear in mind, so it may be a good point for to begin writing.

5.1.1 How to structure the Methods

The Methods section should answer most of the following questions, obviously depending on
discipline:

• What / Who did the study. What hypotheses are to be tested.

• Where did we carry out this study and what characteristics did this location have.
• How did we design my experiment / sampling and what assumptions did we make.
• What variable was we measuring and why.
• How did we handle / house / treat my materials / subjects. What kind of care /
precautions were taken.
• What equipment did we use (plus modifications) and where did this equipment come
from.
• What protocol did we use for collecting my data.
• How did we analyze the data. Statistical procedures. Mathematical equations.
Software.
• What probability did we use to decide significance.

26
 • What references to the literature could we give to save me having to describe
something in detail.
• What difficulties did we encounter.
• How does methodology compare with previously reported methods, and what
significant advances does it make.

We should provide enough quantitative information (concentration, temperature, weight, size,

length, time, duration etc.) so that other researchers can replicate what we did. Describe
everything in a logical order to enable readers to easily follow what we did. This will usually
be chronological, i.e. the order in which we conducted the phases of tests. It may also help the
reader if we use subheadings to explain the various stages of the procedure, which we can then
use again (perhaps with modifications) in the Results. Experiments, sampling procedures,
selection criteria etc. may have more than one step. It helps our readers if description of each
step follows the same logical order.

5.1.2 How to begin the Methods

Typical ways to write methods:

(a) Making a general statement about our method.

• The method described here is simple, rapid, & sensitive.

(b) Referring to another paper.

• The materials used for isolation and culture are described elsewhere.
• Materials were obtained in accordance with Burgess et al.‘s method.

(c) Stating where we obtained our materials from.

(d) Indicating where (i.e. a geographical region) our investigation was focused.

• Our empirical investigation focused on Tuscany, a central region of Italy.

• The study was carried out in four boulevards in Athens (Greece)

(e) Referring the reader to a figure which shows the experimental setup.

• To highlight the advantages of the system.

27
5.2 Key skills to write the Results

Not all journals require a separate Results section, often it is integrated with the Discussion,
under the section title Results and Discussion. This means that the Results is generally the
shortest section in a paper.

The key skill is first to decide what results are representative, and then to organize them in a
sequence that highlights the answers to the aims, hypotheses or questions that we set ourself
at the beginning of the paper. In many disciplines this involves the use of figures and tables. In
other disciplines, findings are only reported in text form. We should also mention any important
negative results here.

5.2.1 Structure the Results

The Results should answer the following questions.

i. What did we find.

ii. What did we not find.

iii. What did we find that we were not expecting to find. (e.g. that contradicts my hypotheses)

5.2.2 Ways to begin the Results

There are two typical ways to begin the Results.

The first is to give a general panorama of our surveys, experiments etc. without repeating the
details we gave in the Methods section, as in the three examples below:

• Overall, the results presented below show that

• The three key results of this empirical study are:
• The following emergent themes were identified from the analysis:

The most common way is to simply go directly to our results, often by inviting readers to
look at one of our figures or tables, either in the first sentence or very shortly after.

28
5.3 Key Skills to Write the Discussion

People read papers in different ways. Readers in a hurry, may read the title and then just look
at the figures. Many begin from the part that they find the most interesting, which is often the
Discussion.

• Being positive about own limitations, and constructive when discussing what writer
believe to be the limitations of others.
• Another skill is to interpret the results without repeating them.

5.3.1 Structure of the Discussion

The Discussion should answer the following questions, and possibly in the following order.
We can thus use the answers to structure the Discussion. This gives a relatively easy template
to follow:

i. Does the data support what was set out to demonstrate at the beginning of the paper?
ii. How do the findings compare with what others have found? How consistent are they?
iii. What is our personal interpretation of my findings.
iv. What other possible interpretations are there.
v. What are the limitations of our study. What other factors could have influenced our
findings. Have we reported everything that could make my findings invalid.
vi. Do any of the interpretations reveal a possible flaw (i.e. defect, error) in our experiment.
vii. Do our interpretations contribute some new understanding of the problem that we have
investigated. In which case do they suggest a shortcoming in, or an advance on, the
work of others.
viii. What external validity do our findings have. How could our findings be generalized to
other areas.
ix. What possible implications or applications do our findings have. What support can we
give for such implications.
x. What further research would be needed to explain the issues raised by our findings.
Will we do this research by ourself or do we want to throw it open to the community.

5.3.2 Ways begin the Discussion

Below are four possible beginnings for the paper

29
(1). Remind readers of the goals, preferably in a single sentence

One of the main goals of this experiment was to attempt to find a way to predict who shows
more task persistence.

(2). Refer back to the questions (hypotheses, predictions etc.) that was posed in the
introduction

These results both negate and support some of the hypotheses. It was predicted that greater
perfectionism scores would result in greater task persistence, but this turned out not to be the
case.

(3). Refer back papers researcher cited in the Review of the Literature

Previous studies conflict with the data presented in the Results: it was more common for any
type of feedback to impact participants than no feedback (Shanab et al., 1981; Elawar & Corno,
1985).

(4). Briefly restate the most important points from the Results

While not all the results were significant, the overall direction of results showed trends that
could be helpful to learning about who is more likely to persist and what could influence
persistence.

Writer could begin with any of 1–4 above, or perhaps use them all in combination. Next, we
give readers a very brief statement of what we can be concluded from the findings. Writer
can then use this statement as a starting point for interpreting the findings and comparing them
to what is already known in the literature. Some experts recommend that we tell a story to help
the build-up the theory, where the variables, data or findings are like characters in a book. Our
job as the author is to explain how these ‗characters‘ relate to each other, and how each one
has (or has not) its logical place.

5.4 Key Skills to Write the Conclusions

Although the Conclusions may not be the last section that readers read, there is a strong
probability that they will be the last thing that the referee reads. Consequently, they must be
clear and concise, and leave the referee with a good impression. If the structure and English
are poor here then this will have a negative impact on the referees and may affect the final
decision as to whether to accept the paper or not.

30
The key skills are in knowing what referees and readers expect to find in Conclusions, not
repeating exactly the same phrases and information from the Abstract and Introduction, and in
providing a clear and high-impact take-home message for readers.

5.4.1 Structure of the Conclusions

The Conclusions section is not just a summary. Don‘t merely repeat what was said in the
Abstract and Introduction. It is generally not more than one or two paragraphs long. A
Conclusions section typically incorporates one or more of the following:

1. A very brief revisit of the most important findings pointing out how these advance the
fieldfrom the present state of knowledge

2. A final judgment on the importance and significance those findings in term of

theimplications and impact, along with possible applications to other areas

3. An indication of the limitations of the study (though the Discussion may be a

moreappropriate place to do this)

4. Suggestions for improvements

5. Recommendations for future work (either for the author, and/or the community)

6. Recommendations for policy changes

The order these items appear is likely to be the same as suggested above. It differs from the
Abstract and Introduction as it is for a more informed reader. In fact, researcher is making a
summary for readers who hopefully have read the rest of the paper, and thus should already
have a strong sense of the key concepts. Unlike the Abstract and Conclusions, it

• Does not provide background details

• Gives more emphasis to the findings
• Talks about limitations, which are not normally mentioned outside the Discussion and
Conclusions

5.4.2 How to begin Conclusions & increase the impact of Conclusions.

Here are some beginnings for the Conclusions section.

31
S1- We have here described a linear model with an error specification that is considered
appropriate for the estimation of … We have found significant evidence of …

S2- In this paper we have presented a statistical study of the nature of … We have shown that
it is possible to reason about …

S3- In this paper it has been shown how X can be applied to a wide range of … A novel
approach has been introduced to …

S4- In this work it has been attempted to analyze simple feedback loops with … It has been
shown that for ...

32
6.1 Useful phrases

Many non-native researchers begin their writing career by reading extensively about their topic
in English, and noting down useful generic phrases that they can then ‗paste‘ into their own
work. We can use such phrases as a template/ structure for our paper into which we insert our
own data. We at least know that these ready-made phrases are in correct English or not. We do
not risk being accused of plagiarism because of the very generic nature of the phrases.

Here are some examples of useful phrases that can be used in a research paper:

1. To introduce the topic

• This paper aims to...

• The purpose of this study is to...
• In this paper, we investigate/analyze/examine...

2. To review the literature

• According to previous research...

• Previous studies have shown that...
• A number of studies have suggested that...
• This topic has been widely debated/discussed/explored in the literature.

3. To present the methodology

• This study adopts a quantitative/qualitative/mixed-methods approach.

• We used a sample of.../Participants were recruited from...
• Data was collected through surveys/interviews/observations...
• We employed a multivariate regression analysis to...

4. To present the results

• The findings reveal that...

• The data indicates that...
• The analysis shows that...
• The results suggest that...

33
5. To discuss the implications

• These findings have important implications for...

• This study contributes to the understanding of...
• Our results shed new light on...
• The implications of these findings extend to...

6. To conclude the paper

• In conclusion, this study has shown that...

• Overall, this study highlights the importance of...
• Future research could further explore...
• This paper provides valuable insights into...

6.2 Ensure the paper is as good as it could possibly be the first- time
submission

Many researchers finish their manuscripts just before (and often after!) the deadline. Due to
such pressures of time, they often send their manuscript to the editor without doing a final
check. Most manuscripts are written by multiple authors. This involves a lot of exchanges of
versions of the manuscripts, with a consequent increase in the possibility of mistakes being
introduced. Lots of changes are made at the last minute, and often no one checks them for
accuracy in terms of English. One author needs to be responsible for the final check. Final
check will increase the chances of the paper being accepted. Referees are famous for asking
for revisions before acceptance, which often involve what writer might consider as trivial
details, such as typos and spelling mistakes.

Such delays cost time and money and may also mean that another paper on the same topic gets
published before.

6.2.1 Some points to keep in mind while making sure that submission does not get
rejected

1. Print out the paper

Don‘t just correct it directly on computer. It is good practice to print out paper. Writer is
more likely to find mistakes connected with grammar, word order, and structure. Convert the
document into a font that is easy to read (e.g., Arial) and use ‗double space‘ line spacing. On

34
screen reader have much less perception of how the paper will look visually, and may not even
notice that a paragraph is more than a page long. In a printed version, such long paragraphs are
instantly visible. Writer thus have the opportunity to break them up into shorter paragraphs
that are easier on the eye. Breaking up paragraphs is quick and easy to do.

Also, ask a colleague to read the printed version. He or she will very likely find mistakes that
was overlooked - in fact, familiarity with own work makes it quite difficult to spot errors.

Finally, read the manuscript aloud. Reader will find mistakes that are hard to find by reading
silently – particularly with regard to how a sentence flow and whether there are words missing.

2. Always have the referee in mind

The key factor when revising paper is to have the referee in mind. Here are two quite typical
comments related to poor writing skills. This paper could be improved considerably if the
authors gave more consideration to their readers. At times it was difficult to follow the logical
connection of the authors‘ ideas, and on several occasions, were tempted to stop reading
completely.

3. Check the paper for readability

Writers of technical manuals focus on presenting information in an orderly straight forward

fashion that requires minimal intellectual efforts on the part of the reader – they want the
readers to assimilate the information in a relaxed way, they do not want to make their readers
tired and stressed. Readability is also affected by the following factors:

• Poor layout; large blocks of text are hard to read, while short paragraph with
whitespace in between them are much easier.
• Lack of structure; within a sentence, paragraph or section
• Too much abstraction; the reader is not given concrete explanation or examples.
• Lack of consistency

4. Check for clarity in the logical order of the argumentation

In English it is considered good practice to state upfront what will be argued in an article and
how. As reader re-read the manuscript, make sure there is a logical progression of theargument.
Don‘t be influenced by how a paper might be written in own language.

35
5. Do a ‘quality control’ on the paper

A full 94% of college professors state that they do ‗above average‘ work, although it is
statistically impossible for virtually everybody to be above average. Writer may consider
written paper to be above average work, but it is worth checking the coverage and quality of
each section. If writer have time, it is a good idea to get colleagues to review our manuscript
(including the title). Often it is much easier to spot mistakes (grammatical, stylistic, structural
etc.) in other people‘s work than in own work.

6. Be careful with cut and pastes

If writer write the paper in conjunction with other authors, the chances of mistakes and
ambiguity increases. Words such as it, that, this, one, former, latter and which are potentially
dangerous if the words they refer to are subsequently changed by another author.

For example, imagine Author 1 writes

... Russia, Canada and the United States.

Then, in order to put the countries in alphabetical order, Author 2 modifies it as follows:

... Canada, Russia and the United States.

The problem is that the former in Author 1‘s sentence refers to Russia. But in Author 2‘s
sentence the former refers to Canada. To avoid such mistakes, it is always best to repeat the
key word rather than using it, that, this, one, former, latter and which. In any case, if it is editor‘s
job to read the final version of the manuscript it is worth taking such problems into
consideration.

7. Researcher should check that the journal’s style guide is being followed

It is highly irritating for referees and editors when authors submit papers that do not respect the
stylistic requirements of the journal. This is particularly true with regard to how readercite
the literature both within the body of the paper and in the Literature Cited section.

8. Make sure that everything is completely accurate

This avoids referees from having to include in their report lists of small things that need
changing. A paper for publication in a journal is very different from a thesis.

36
When researcher write thesis, they may not have been too worried about being completely
accurate in the way writer presented references and reader may not have proofread it very
carefully – ―in any case‖ it is thought ―no one is ever going to read it‖.

9. Take editorial comments seriously

There is a tendency to only take into account referees‘ comments that writer agree with and to
discount everything else. However, if a referee says that he/she cannot understand what the
paper means, there is a very good chance that readers will have the same problem.

10. Consider using a professional editing service

Consider having the paper corrected through a professional agency or native speaking peer
(i.e., someone in the same field as writer who has also had papers published). Having the paper
revised is certainly a cost, but the cost involved is likely to be far less than 1% of the cost of
actually carrying out the research. Yet a good revision will massively increase the chances of
the paper being published.

It is wise not to entrust paper simply into the hands of a local English teacher or the English-
speaking husband/wife of a colleague. The fact of speaking or even teaching a language rarely
qualifies a person to carry out the difficult task of proofreading and editing a scientific text.

11. Final check

Spelling. Don‘t underestimate the importance of spelling mistakes. Writer cannot overestimate
the importance of doing a final spell check as the very last thing do before submit the
manuscript. Poor spelling is considered to be a huge embarrassment in the English-speaking
world. Children spend many years learning correct spelling, and adultshave been humiliated
because of incorrect spelling. Consequently, rightly or wrongly spelling is a major issue in
international journals. Referees have been known to initially reject a manuscript on the basis
of incorrect spelling alone.

In any case, referees do not like to see spelling mistakes, and some may think that there is an
implicit relation between not taking time to check out spelling and possibly not checking out
data. Make sure to choose the correct version of English - US or UK - corresponding to the
chosen journal. Their style guide for authors should in any case tells which spelling system is
required.

37
Spelling checkers only pick up words that are not contained in their dictionaries. Mistakes and
typos like the ones below would not normally be found because they are words that are in the
dictionary (though not with the meaning that the author intended).

For example

• The company was founded in 2010. (founded)

• The samples were weighted and founded to be 100 g. (weighed, found)
• It was different from what was expected. (from)

Be careful of: choose / chose / choice, filed / field / filled, then / than, through / trough,

use / sue, with / whit.

There is a tendency to ignore Word‘s (and other software‘s) red underlining of technical words.
Just because such words are not in the software‘s dictionary, does not necessarilymean
that we have spelt them correctly. Spell checkers may not be perfect, but they are very useful.
Grammar checkers are also likely to find a few mistakes that we may not have noticed. They
will help us find errors connected with subject verb agreement, word order, punctuation,
unnecessary passive forms etc.

Obviously, the grammar check can only make suggestions, but Word‘s grammar check found
several mistakes in the draft of this book.

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