Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 8
Cellular Respiration
Lecture Outline

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 Outline
8.1 Cellular Respiration
8.2 Outside the Mitochondria:
Glycolysis
8.3 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
8.4 Inside the Mitochondria
8.5 Metabolic Pool
 8.1 Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration is a cellular process that breaks
down nutrient molecules with the concomitant production
of ATP
• Consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Cellular respiration is an aerobic process.

• Usually involves the breakdown of glucose to CO2 and

H2O
 Energy is extracted from the glucose molecule:
• Released step-wise
• Allows ATP to be produced efficiently
 Oxidation-reduction enzymes include NAD+ and FAD as
coenzymes
 Cellular Respiration
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Oxidation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O energy+

glucose
Reduction

 Electrons are removed from substrates and

received by oxygen, which combines with
H+ to become water.
 Glucose is oxidized and O2 is reduced
4
Cellular Respiration
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O2 and glucose enter cells,

which release H2O and
CO.
CO2

H2O

intermembrane
space
cristae Mitochondria use
energy from
glucose to form ATP
from ADP +P.

ATP
ADP + P

© E. & P. Bauer/zefa/Corbis

5
 Cellular Respiration
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
 A coenzyme of oxidation-reduction. It is:
• Oxidized when it gives up electrons
• Reduced when it accepts electrons
 Each NAD+ molecule is used over and over again
• FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
 Also a coenzyme of oxidation-reduction
 Sometimes used instead of NAD+
 Accepts two electrons and two hydrogen ions (H+) to
become FADH2
 Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration includes four phases:
 Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into
two molecules of pyruvate
• Occurs in the cytoplasm
• ATP is formed
• Does not utilize oxygen
 Preparatory (prep) reaction
• Both pyruvates are oxidized and enter the
mitochondria
• Electron energy is stored in NADH
• Two carbons are released as CO2 (one from each
pyruvate)
 Cellular Respiration
 Citric acid cycle
• Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion and
produces NADH and FADH2
• In series of reactions, it releases 4 carbons as CO2
• Turns twice per glucose molecule (once for each
pyruvate)
• Produces two immediate ATP molecules per
glucose molecule
 Electron transport chain (ETC)
• Extracts energy from NADH & FADH2
• Passes electrons from higher to lower energy
states
• Produces 32 or 34 molecules of ATP
The Four Phases of Complete
Glucose Breakdown Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

e–
NADH
NADH e–
e–
e–
NADH and
Cytoplasm e– FADH2 Mitochondrion

e–
e–

Glycolysis Electron transport

Citric acid chain and
Preparatory reaction
cycle chemiosmosis
glucose pyruvate

2 ATP
2 ATP

4 ADP 4ATP total

2 ATP net gain 2 ADP 2 ATP 32ADP 32 ATP

or 34 or 34
8.2 Outside the Mitochondria:
Glycolysis
• Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm outside mitochondria
• Energy Investment Step:
 Two ATP are used to activate glucose
 Glucose splits into two G3P molecules
• Energy Harvesting Step:
 Oxidation of G3P occurs by removal of electrons and hydrogen
ions
 Two electrons and one hydrogen ion are accepted by NAD+
resulting in two NADH
 Four ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
 Net gain of two ATP (4 ATP produced - 2 ATP consumed)
 Both G3Ps converted to pyruvates
 Outside the Mitochondria:
Glycolysis
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Glycolysis
inputs outputs
6C glucose 2 (3C) pyruvate
2NAD+ 2 NADH

2 ATP 2 ADP

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP total

2 ATP net gain

 Glycolysis
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Glycolysis

Energy-investment Step
G3P glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
glucose
BPG 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
–2 ATP ATP ATP
3PG 3-phosphoglycerate

ADP ADP

Two ATP are used to get started.

Splitting produces two

3-carbon molecules.

G3P G3P
NAD+ NAD+
Energy-harvesting Steps E1

NADH NADH Oxidation of G3P occurs as

NAD+ receives high-energy
electrons.

BPG BPG
ADP ADP
E2
Substrate-level ATP synthesis.
+2 ATP ATP ATP

3PG 3PG

E3 Oxidation of 3PG occurs by

removal of water.
H2O H2O

PEP PEP
ADP ADP
E4 Substrate-level ATP synthesis.

+2 ATP ATP ATP

Two molecules of pyruvate

2 ATP (net gain) pyruvate pyruvate are the end products of
glycolysis.
Substrate-level ATP Synthesis
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enzyme

ADP

BPG

ATP

3PG
 8.3 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
• Pyruvate is a pivotal metabolite in cellular
respiration
• If O2 is not available to the cell,
fermentation, an anaerobic process,
occurs in the cytoplasm.
 During fermentation, glucose is incompletely
metabolized to lactate, or to CO2 and alcohol
(depending on the organism).
• If O2 is available to the cell, pyruvate
enters the mitochondria for aerobic
respiration.
 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
• Fermentation is an anaerobic process that reduces
pyruvate to either lactate or alcohol and CO2
• NADH transfers its electrons to pyruvate
• Alcoholic fermentation, carried out by yeasts, produces
carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
• Used in the production of alcoholic spirits and breads.
• Lactic acid fermentation, carried out by certain bacteria
and fungi, produces lactic acid (lactate)
• Used commercially in the production of cheese, yogurt, and
sauerkraut.
• Other bacteria produce chemicals anaerobically,
including isopropanol, butyric acid, proprionic acid, and
acetic acid.
 Fermentation
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glucose

–2 ATP 2 ATP
E1
2ADP

G3P

2NAD;

E2
2 NADH

BPG
4ADP
E3
+4 ATP 4 ATP

pyruvate

E4
or

2 ATP (net gain) 2CO 2

2 lactate or 2 alcohol
Animals Plants
Fermentation Helps Produce
Numerous Food Products
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© The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc./Bruce M. Johnson, photographer

Fermentation Helps Produce
Numerous Food Products
Fermentation Helps Produce
Numerous Food Products
 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
• Advantages
 Provides a quick burst of ATP energy for muscular activity.
• Disadvantages
 Lactate and alcohol are toxic to cells.
 Lactate changes pH and causes muscles to fatigue.
• Oxygen debt
 Yeast die from the alcohol they produce by fermentation
• Efficiency of Fermentation
 Two ATP produced per glucose of molecule during fermentation
is equivalent to 14.6 kcal.
 Complete oxidation of glucose can yield 686 kcal.
 Only 2 ATP per glucose are produced, compared to 36 or 38
ATP molecules per glucose produced by cellular respiration.
Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
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Fermentation
inputs outputs
glucose 2 lactate or
2 alcohol and 2 CO2

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP net gain

 8.4 Inside the Mitochondria
• The Preparatory )prep) Reaction
 Connects glycolysis to the citric acid cycle

 End product of glycolysis, pyruvate, enters the

mitochondrial matrix

 Pyruvate is converted to a -2carbon acetyl group

• Attached to Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA

• Electrons are picked up (as hydrogen atom) by NAD+

• CO2 is released and transported out of mitochondria into the

cytoplasm
Inside the Mitochondria

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2 NAD+ 2 NADH
O OH
C CoA
2 C O + 2 CoA 2 C O + 2 CO2
CH CH 3 carbon
py3ruvate acetyl CoA dioxide

2 pyruvate + 2 CoA 2 acetyl CoA + 2 carbon

dioxide
Mitochondrion Structure and Function
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Cristae: location
of the electron
transportchain
(ETC)

Matrix: location
of the prep
reaction and the
outer citric acid cycle
membrane
inner
membrane

cristae
intermembrane matrix
space

45,0003X
© Dr. Donald Fawcett and Dr. Porter/Visuals Unlimited
 Inside the Mitochondria

Citric Acid Cycle

 Also called the Krebs cycle
 Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
 Begins with the addition of a two-carbon acetyl
group (from acetyl-CoA) to a four-carbon molecule
(oxaloacetate), forming a six-carbon molecule (citric
acid)
 NADH and FADH2 capture energy rich electrons
 ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation
 Turns twice for one glucose molecule (once for
each pyruvate)
 Produces 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 per
glucose molecule
 Citric Acid Cycle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
e–
NADH
NADH e–

e – e–
NADHand
FADH2
e–
e–
e–
Glycolysis Electron transport
Citric acid
Preparatory reaction chain and
cycle
glucose pyruvate chemiosmosis
Matrix

2 ATP

2 ADP

4 ADP 4 ATP total

2 ATP net 2ADP 2 ATP 32ADP 32 ATP

1. The cycle begins when a
or 34
or 34 C2 acetyl group carried by
CoA combines with a C4
CoA molecule to form citrate.
acetyl CoA
C2
citrate NAD
C6

oxaloacetate NADH
NADH C2
2. Twice over, substrates
5. Once again a substrate are oxidized as NAD+ is
is oxidized, and NAD+ Reduced to NADH,
is reduced to NADH. Citric acid and CO2 is released.
NAD+ cycle
CO2
fumarate
C4 ketoglutarate
C5
NAD+
succinate
4. Again a substrate is C4
oxidized, but this time FAD
FAD is reduced to FADH2
CO2 NADH
FADH
ATP
3. ATP is produced as an
energized phosphate is
transferred from a
substrate to ADP.
 Inside the Mitochondria
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Citric acid cycle

inputs outputs
2 (2c) acetyl groups 4 CO2

6 NAD+ 6 NADH

2 FAD 2 FADH2

2ADP +2 P
2 ATP
 Inside the Mitochondria
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
• Location:
 Eukaryotes: cristae of the mitochondria
 Aerobic prokaryotes: plasma membrane
• Series of carrier molecules:
 Pass energy-rich electrons successively from one to another
 Complex arrays of protein and cytochrome
• Cytochromes are proteins with heme groups with central iron atoms
• The electron transport chain
 Receives electrons from NADH & FADH2
 Produces ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
• Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor
 Oxygen combines with hydrogen ions to form water
 Inside the Mitochondria
• The fate of the hydrogens:
 Hydrogens from NADH deliver enough energy to
make 3 ATPs
 Those from FADH2 have only enough for 2 ATPs
 “Spent” hydrogens combine with oxygen
• Recycling of coenzymes increases efficiency
 Once NADH delivers hydrogens, it returns (as NAD+)
to pick up more hydrogens
 However, hydrogens must be combined with oxygen
to make water
 If O2 is not present, NADH cannot release H+
 No longer recycled back to NAD+
 Inside the Mitochondria
• The electron transport chain complexes pump H+ from the
matrix into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion
• H+ therefore becomes more concentrated in the
intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical
gradient.
• ATP synthase allows H+ to flow down its gradient.
• Flow of H+ drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate by ATP synthase.
• This process is called chemiosmosis
 ATP production is linked to the establishment of the H+ gradient
• ATP moves out of mitochondria and is used for cellular
work
 It can be broken down to ADP and inorganic phosphate
 These molecules are returned to the mitochondria for more ATP
production
Organization and Function of the
Electron Transport Chain Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

e-
NADH
NADH e-

e- e-
NADH and
FADH2
e-
e-
e-

Glycolysis Electron transport

Citric acid chain and
Preparatory reaction
glucose pyruvate cycle chemiosmosis

2ATP

2ADP

4 ADP 4 ATP total

2ATP net 2 ADP 32ADP 32or ATP

or 34 34

H+
Electron transport chain

NADH-Q
H+
H+ reductase H+
H+
H+
cytochrome
H+
H+ reductase
cytochrome c
H +
H+
coenzyme Q cytochrome
oxidase
H+

H+
e:
H+

low energy
FADH2 e: electron
FAD
high energy H+ + H+ H+
electron 2 H+ 2 H+
NAD+ H+
NADH H+

H2O 1 O2 H+ H+
H+ 2
ATP ADP + P

H+

Matrix
H+
Intermembrane
space H+
H+

H+ H+ H+
H+
ATP
synthase
complex H+
ATP H+ H+
channel
protein Chemiosmosis
H+
ATP
H+
 Inside the Mitochondria
Energy yield from glucose metabolism:
 Net yield per glucose:
• From glycolysis – 2 ATP
• From citric acid cycle – 2 ATP
• From electron transport chain – 32 or 34 ATP
 Energy content:
• Reactant (glucose) 686 kcal
• Energy yield (36 ATP) 263 kcal
• Efficiency is 39%
• The rest of the energy from glucose is lost as heat
Accounting of Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown
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glucose
Accounting of Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

glucose
Cytoplasm

glycolysis
2 ATP
net 4 or 6
2 NADH ATP
2 pyruvate

Electron transport chain

2 NADH 6 ATP
2 acetyl CoA
Mitochondrion

2 CO2
6 NADH 18 ATP

Citric acid
cycle
2 ATP
2 FADH2 4 ATP
4 CO2

6 O2 6 H2O

subtotal subtotal
4 ATP 32 ATP
or 34

36 or 38 ATP
total
 8.5 Metabolic Pool
• Foods:
 Sources of energy rich molecules
 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
• Degradative reactions (Catabolism) break down
molecules
 Tend to be exergonic (release energy)
• Synthetic reactions (anabolism) build molecules
 Tend to be endergonic (consume energy)
The Metabolic Pool Concept
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proteins carbohydrates fats

amino glucose glycerol fatty

acids acids

Glycolysis ATP

pyruvate

acetyl CoA

Citric
acid ATP
cycle

Electron
transport ATP
chain

© C Squared Studios/Getty Images.

 Metabolic Pool
• Glucose is broken down in cellular respiration.
• Fat breaks down into glycerol and three fatty
acids.
• Amino acids break down into carbon chains and
amino groups
 Deamination (NH2 removed) occurs in the liver
• Results in poisonous ammonia (NH3)
• Quickly converted to urea
 Different R-groups from amino acids are processed
differently
 Fragments enter respiratory pathways at many
different points
 Metabolic Pool
• All metabolic compounds are part of the
metabolic pool
• Intermediates from respiratory pathways can be
used for anabolism
• Anabolism )synthetic reactions of metabolism)
 Carbohydrates
• Start with acetyl-CoA
• Basically reverses glycolysis (but different pathway)
 Fats
• G3P converted to glycerol
• Acetyl groups are connected in pairs to form fatty acids
 Metabolic Pool
• Anabolism (cont.):
 Proteins:
• Made up of combinations of 20 different amino
acids
• Some amino acids (11) can be synthesized by
adult humans
• However, other amino acids (9) cannot be
synthesized by humans
– Essential amino acids
– Must be present in the diet
Photosynthesis vs. Cellular
Respiration
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Photosynthesis
grana enzymes

membrane

NADPH NADP+
H2O O2
CO2 CH2O

ATP production enzyme-catalyzed

via chemiosmosis reactions

ADP ATP

NAD+ NADH
O2 H2O Cellular Respiration
CH2O CO2
membrane cristae

enzymes