GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING - II
 Soil Exploration – What is it and Why???

• The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain necessary

data regarding the soil, for proper design and successful construction
of any structure at the site are collectively called soil exploration.

• Exploration in soil- involves a site visit, quick visual inspection and

detailed tests to determine the behaviour
 Objectives of Soil Exploration
Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.

Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent
in the horizontal direction.

The location of groundwater and fluctuations in GWT.

Obtaining soil and rock samples from the various strata.

The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that
affect the performance of the structure

Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.

 Need for Soil Exploration
To determine the type of foundation required for the proposed project at the site, i.e.
shallow foundation or deep foundation.

Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.

 Determination of potential foundation problems (for example, expansive soil,

collapsible soil)

Establishment of ground water table.

Prediction of soil pressure for structures like retaining walls

Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

 SOIL SAMPLES

• Disturbed
 In situ structure not retained
 Water content, classification, compaction
• Undisturbed
 Less disturbed
 Shear strength, consolidation, permeability
Indirect methods

kg
PLATE LOAD TEST
• The test pit should be at least five times as wide as the test plate and
the bottom of the test plate should correspond to the proposed
foundation level.
• At the centre of the pit, a small square hole is made the size being that
of the test plate and the depth being such that,
(i) After excavating the pit of required size and levelling the base, the test plate is
seated over the ground.

(ii) A seating pressure of 7.0 kN/m2 (70 g/cm2) is applied and released before actual
loading is commenced.

(iii) The first increment of load, say about one-tenth of the anticipated ultimate load, is
applied. Settlements are recorded with the aid of the dial gauges after 1 min., 4 min., 10
min., 20 min., 40 min., and 60 min., and later on at hourly intervals until the rate of
settlement is less than 0.02 mm/hour, or at least for 24 hours.

(iv) The test is continued until a load of about 1.5 times the anticipated ultimate load is
applied. According to another school of thought, a settlement at which failure occurs
or at least 2.5 cm should be reached.

(v) From the results of the test, a plot should be made between pressure and settlement,
which is usually referred to as the ‘‘load-settlement curve’’,. The bearing capacity is determined
from this plot
• The plot between pressure and settlement usually consists of two straight
lines as shown in Figure. The point corresponding to the break gives the
failure point and the pressure corresponding to it is taken as the bearing
capacity.

• IS: 1888–1971 also recommends this method for use with plate load tests.
ALTERNATE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF BEARING
CAPACITY
Bearing capacity
Settlement of original foundation (S)

f
Ultimate bearing capacity (qu) for foundation
 Limitations of Plate load test
Size effects are very important. Since the size of the test plate and the size of the
prototype foundation are very different, the results of a plate load test do not
directly reflect the bearing capacity of the foundation.

Consolidation settlements in cohesive soils, which may take years, cannot be

predicted, as the plate load test is essentially a short-term test.

Results from plate load test are not recommended to be used for the design of strip
footings, since the test is conducted on a square or circular plate and shape effects
enter.

The load test results reflect the characteristics of the soil located only within a
depth of about twice the width of the plate. This zone of influence in the case of a
prototype footing will be much larger and unless the soil is essentially
homogeneous for such a depth and more, the results could be terribly misleading.
 PRESSUREMETER TEST
• The pressure meter consists of two parts, the read-out unit, which rests on the
ground surface, and the probe that is inserted into the borehole.
• The probe consists of three independent cells, a measuring cell and two guard
cells.
• The probe can be installed by pre-drilling a hole using hollow stem auger or hand
auger, or forcing the probe into the ground and displacing the soil by driving,
jacking, or vibrating.
• Once the probe is at the test depth, the guard cells are inflated to brace the probe in
place. Then the measuring cell is pressurized with water, inflating its flexible
rubber bladder, which exerts a pressure on the borehole wall.
• As the pressure in the measuring cell increases, the borehole walls deform. The
pressure within the measuring cell is held constant for approximately 60 seconds,
and the increase in volume required to maintain the constant pressure is recorded.
• A load-deformation diagram, as shown in Figure
• The pressure-volume data is plotted to determine the limit pressure
(PL), cohesion and the pressure meter deformation modulus (E). These
values are used for foundation design.
• The test is conducted in a predrilled borehole normally at intervals of
1m.

• The pressure of water in the measuring cell is increased in increments

until the soil fails.

• Usually failure is considered to have reached when the total expanded

volume of the test zone reaches twice the volume of the original
cavity.

• The asymptotic value of pressure corresponding to final point where

failure occurs is known as limit pressure (PL).
• Ultimate bearing capacity is directly proportional to the limit pressure
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑘 × 𝑃𝐿

K is bearing capacity factor depending on type of foundation, depth and

soil type (0.8-0.9)

• Cohesion C= PL/9

• Pressure meter modulus is calculated as:

SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
 Factors affecting soil disturbance while sampling

≤ 10% 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

= 0.5 to 3% 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

= 0 to 2 % 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

= 96 to 98 % 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

L is the length of the sample obtained from the sampler and H is the penetration depth
 BORING LOG/ BORE HOLE LOG
• Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the boring
operation is typically presented in the form of a boring record,
commonly known as “boring log”.

• A continuous record of the various strata identified at various depths

of the boring is presented.

• Description or classification of the various soil and rock types

encountered, and data regarding ground water level have to be
necessarily given in a pictorial manner on the log.
Subsoil profile from Bore log
 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
A report is the final document of the whole exercise of soil exploration. A report
should be comprehensive, clear and to the point.

1. Introduction, which includes the scope of the investigation.

2. Description of the proposed structure, the location and the geological

conditions at the site.

3. Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the number of borings,

their location and depths.

4. Details of the methods of exploration

5. General description of the sub-soil conditions as obtained from in-situ tests,

such as standard penetration test and cone penetration test.
6. Details of the laboratory tests conducted on the soil samples collected and the results
obtained.

7. Depth of the ground water table and the changes in water levels.

8. Analysis and discussion of the test results.

9. Recommendations about the allowable bearing pressure, the type of foundation of

structure.

10. Calculations for determining safe bearing pressure, pile loads, etc.

11. Tables containing bore logs, and other field and laboratory test results.

12. Drawings which include site-plan, test results plotted in the form of charts and graphs,
soil profiles, etc.
 Geotechnical Engineering –II
Assignment No. 1
(Last date of submission- 19/01/2019)

1. Explain Standard Penetration test. Discuss the corrections applied to the observed N-
values.

2. Explain the pressure meter test with a neat sketch. Also write the limitations of this test.

3. With a neat sketch, explain the procedure for conducting a Plate load test. How do you
use the results of this test in designing foundations?

4. List the objectives of soil exploration. Describe the salient features of soil investigation
report. Explain with the neat diagram of a borelog.

5. With neat sketches explain the different boring methods.

6. Explain the factors affecting soil disturbance while sampling. During a soil exploration
programme, a soil sample of length 550mm was recovered using a split spoon sampler.
The penetration length of the sample was 610mm. Dimensions of the sampler is given
below:
Inside and outside diameter of the sample tube = 5 and 38mm respectively
Inside and outside diameter of the driving shoe = 35 and 51mm respectively
Determine inside clearance, outside clearance, area ratio and recovery ratio and make
comment about the degree of disturbance of the soil sample.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING- II
MODULE- II
STABILITY OF SLOPES
 SLOPES
• Earth slope- an unsupported, inclined surface of a soil mass

• Formed for railway formations, highway embankments, earth dams, canal banks etc.
Slope Failures
 NEED FOR STABILITY OF SLOPES
• Steepest section is the most economical section

• Very steep slopes are however not stable

• For safety and economy- slopes provided are neither too steep nor flat

• The steepest slopes which are stable and safe would be provided

• Failure of soil mass occurs along a plane or curved surface when a large mass of soil slides
w.r.t. remaining soil mass

• A downward and outward movement of soil mass occurs during failure

• Failure occurs when forces causing failure are greater than the shearing resistance developed
along a critical plane
 SLOPES OF EARTH ARE OF TWO TYPES

1. Natural slopes
 slopes exist in hilly areas

2. Man made slopes

The slopes of embankments constructed for roads railway lines, canals etc.
The slopes of earth dams constructed for storing water.
THE SLOPES WHETHER NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL
MAY BE
1. Infinite slopes
The term infinite slope is used to designate a constant slope of infinite
extent.
 Example-The long slope of the face of a mountain
2. Finite slopes

Finite slopes are limited in extent.

 The slopes of embankments and earth dams are examples of finite
slopes.
 TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE

Slope can fail due to one of the following methods

1. Rotational failures

2. Translational failures

3. Compound failures

4. Wedge failures

5. Miscellaneous failures
 1. Rotational failures
• Occurs by rotation along a slip surface by downward and outward movement of soil mass

• Slip circle formed is circular for homogeneous soil and non-circular for non-
homogeneous soils

a) Toe failure

• Occurs along surface that passes through the toe

• Most common failure

• occurs when the slope is steep and homogeneous.

Toe failure
b) Slope failure
• Failure surface intersects the slope above the toe

• This type of failure occurs when the slope angle

is large and when the soil at the toe portion is strong.

Slope failure

c)Base failure

• Failure surface passes below the toe

• Occurs when weak stratum lies beneath the toe

Base failure
 2. Translational Failure
• Occurs in infinite slopes along a long failure surface parallel to the slope
• Shape of failure surface influenced by presence of hard stratum at a shallow
depth below slope surface
• Common in slopes of layered materials
 3. Wedge Failure
• Plane failure, wedge failure or block failure

• Failure along an inclined plane

• Occurs when distinct blocks and wedges of the soil mass become
separated

• Similar to translational failure in many aspects

• Wedge failure can occur in finite slopes

• Having two different materials

• Homogeneous slopes with cracks, joints or any other specific plane of

weakness
 4. Compound Failures
• Combination of rotational and translational failures

• Failure surface is curved at both ends and is plane in the middle portion

• Occurs normally when a hard stratum is exists at a considerable depth below the toe
 Infinite Slopes: Analysis
• Infinite slopes have dimensions that extended over great distances and
the soil mass is inclined to the horizontal.

• Failure is assumed to occur along a plane parallel to the surface.

• Analysis cases
Case (i) Cohesionless soil
Case (ii) Cohesive soil
Case (iii) Cohesive-frictional soil
Infinite slopes in Cohesionless soils

Consider an infinite slope in

a cohesionless soil inclined
at an angle to the horizontal
as shown.

Consider an element ‘abcd’

of the soil mass.
“The maximum inclination of an infinite slope in a cohesionless soil for stability
is equal to the angle of internal friction of the soil”.
Infinite slope in pure cohesive soil
Infinite slope in cohesive frictional soil (C and φ)
 Finite Slopes: Analysis

1. Swedish Circle/Arc Method/Method of slices/Standard

method

2. Bishop’s Simplified method

3. Taylor’s stability Number Method

 Swedish method of slices

• Adopted for a cohesive – frictional (c-Ø ) soil

• The total stress analysis can be adopted.

W

T
T

α
• Bishop’s simplified method (BSM) considers the inter slice normal
forces but neglects the inter slice shear forces. It further satisfies
vertical force equilibrium to determine the effective base normal
force(N’).
 TAYLOR STABILITY NUMBER METHOD

• If the slope angle β , height of embankment H, the effective unit

weight of material ɣ, angle of internal friction φ and unit cohesion c
are known, the factor of safety may be determined.

• Taylor (1937) conceived the idea of analyzing the stability of a large

number of slopes through a wide range of slope angles and angles of
internal friction, and then representing the results by an abstract
number which he called the "stability number". This number is
designated as N
 TAYLOR STABILITY NUMBER AND CHART

• Stability Number is defined as Sn = c / (FcγH) =cm / (γH)

• Mobilized cohesion cm = c / Fc

• Reciprocal of Stability Number- Stability factor

• Stability number- dimensionless quantity

• For analysis of simple of simple sections and of homogeneous soils

• Charts prepared indicating Stability Number and slope angle β for different values of Φ

50
TAYLOR STABILITY NUMBER AND CHART

51
TAYLOR STABILITY NUMBER AND CHART

52
• For cohesive soils, the stability number is related to parameter D
• D = Depth of hard stratum below the top of slope / Height of slope
 TAYLOR STABILITY NUMBER AND CHART

• Stability number can be used to determine the factor of safety

Fc = c / cm = c / (Sn * γ * H)

• Stability charts can be used to determine the steepest slope for a given factor of safety

54
Critical height of slope Hc
• It is the maximum height a slope can have assuming activation of full
cohesion

• Height after applying a certain factor of Safety

𝑯𝒄 = 𝑭𝒄 × 𝑯
Question-
What is the maximum unsupported height of a
vertical-cut in pure clay???
Submerged and sudden drawdown condition of slope

𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
An embankment is 5.4 m high with side slopes of 1.5 H : 1V. The
soil has C= 20kPa, φ=50 and γ=15kN/m3. If the Fellenius angles
are α=260 and β=350, determine the factor of safety of the slope
using Swedish method of slices.
 Geotechnical Engineering –II
Assignment No. 2
(Last date of submission- 25/01/2019)

1. How a slope is analyzed using Swedish circle method and Bishop’s method of slices?
Derive an expression for the factor of safety for both?

2. An embankment is 5.4m high with side slopes of 1.5 H : 1V. The soil has C= 20kPa,
φ=50 and γ=15kN/m3. If the Fellenius angles are α=260 and β=350, determine the factor
of safety of the slope using Swedish method of slices.
3. Explain the Taylor’s stability Number method to Analyze finite slopes. Determine the
factor of safety with respect to cohesion for a submerged embankment 10 m high and
having a slope of 400. The properties of the soil are c = 40kN/m2, φ = 100 and γsat=18
kN/m3. Given stability numbers for different slope angles are as follows. Also find the
critical height of slope.

4. Explain different types of slope failures with sketches

5. An embankment of 10m high is inclined at an angle of 36°, to the horizontal. A stability
analysis by the method of slices gives following forces per meter.
Sum of Shearing forces=450kN
Sum of Normal forces=900kN
Sum of Neutral forces=216kN
The length of the failure arc is 27 m. Laboratory tests on the soil indicate the effective
values c′ and φ′ as 20 kN/m2 and 18° respectively. Determine the factor of safety with
respect to a) Shear strength and b) Cohesion

6. A 5m deep canal has side slopes of 1:1. The properties of soil are C = 30kN/m2, φ =
20°, e = 0.7 and G =2.7. If Taylor’s stability number is 0.11, determine the factor of
safety with respect to cohesion when the canal runs full. Also find the same in case of
sudden drawdown, if Taylor’s stability number for this condition is 0.125.

7. Distinguish between finite and infinite slopes. Write the equation of factor of safety of
an infinite slope in a) Cohesionless soil b) Cohesive and Frictional soil (C-ɸ) soil.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING- II
MODULE- III
EARTH PRESSURE
 Lateral earth pressure
Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in
the horizontal direction
Why We Study Lateral Earth Pressure?

• The lateral earth pressure is important because it is considered in the

design of geotechnical engineering structures such as retaining walls,
basements, tunnels, deep foundation sand braced excavations.

• Earth retaining structures are common in a manmade environment.

Lateral earth pressure is a function of:

Type and amount of wall movement- Wall flexibility

Shear strength parameter of soil
Unit weight of soil
Drainage conditions of the soil
• Soil mass is stable- slope of the surface of the soil mass is flatter than the
safe slope.

• Where slope is limited- soil has to be retained at a steeper slope.

• Soil has to be supported by retaining structure.

• Soils at different levels are supported by retaining structures on either sides.

• Soil at the higher level will slide and ultimately fail in the absence of
retaining structure.

• Determination of magnitude and line of action of force critical for design of

earth retaining structures.
Lateral earth pressures
AT REST-PRESSURE ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Not subjected to any lateral yielding or movements Occurs when soil tends to Occurs when soil tends to
stretch horizontally compress horizontally

Firmly fixed at its top Not fixed at top Not fixed at top

Not allowed to move laterally or rotate freely Allowed to rotate freely or Allowed to rotate freely or
move laterally move laterally

In elastic equilibrium In plastic equilibrium In plastic equilibrium

1. Retaining walls with basement slab at top 1. Retaining wall 1. Retaining wall
2. Bridge abutment

7
 Basement Slab

Passive Active
Pressure Pressure

No Movement
Movement Towards Left

At-Rest Pressure

8
Rankine’s Analysis
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Θ = Batter Angle
δ = Angle of Wall friction
β = Surcharge angle

δ = This is an angle of friction

between the wall and backfill soil and
is usually called ‘wall friction’.
Culmann’s Graphical Method for Active Earth
Pressure of Cohesionless Soil
 ɸ line

𝝍 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽 − 𝜹
 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

• Gravity retaining walls

• Cantilever retaining walls
• Sheet pile retaining walls
• Counter-fort / Buttressed retaining wall
Gravity retaining walls
• It is that type of retaining wall that relies on their huge weight
to retain the material behind it and achieve stability against
failures.

• Gravity Retaining wall can be constructed from concrete,

stone or even brick masonry. Gravity retaining walls are
much thicker in section.

• Geometry of these walls also help them to maintain the

stability.
 Cantilever retaining walls

• A cantilever retaining wall is one that

consists of a wall which is connected to
foundation.
• They are the most common type used as
retaining walls. Cantilever wall rest on a
slab foundation.
• This slab foundation is also loaded by
back-fill and thus the weight of the
backfill and surcharge also stabilizes the
wall against overturning and sliding.
Sheet pile retaining walls
• Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight
spaces.

• Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are
driven into the ground.

• They are mainly used as temporary structures

• Taller sheet pile walls will need a tieback anchor for stability
 Counter-fort / Buttressed retaining wall

• Counterfort retaining wall

consists of a stem, toe slab and
heel slab as in case of cantilever
retaining wall.
• It also consists of counterforts
are regular interval which divides
the stem.
Stability of retaining walls
 Geotechnical Engineering –II
Assignment No. 3
(Last date of submission- 25/03/2019)
1. Differentiate active, passive and earth pressure at rest.

2. An unsupported excavation is made in a clay layer. The properties of clay are c =23
kN/m2, γ =19 kN/m3 and Φ =150.
Determine.
i. Depth of tension crack.
ii. Draw active earth pressure diagram.
iii. Determine the total thrust
Assume the depth of clay layer as 6m.

3. A retaining wall 6m high, with a smooth vertical back is pushed against a soil mass
having C= 36 kN/m2 and Φ =15° and γ =18 kN/m3. What is the total Rankine passive
pressure, if the horizontal soil surface carries a uniform load of 35 kN/m2? What is the
point of application of the resultant thrust?

4. Describe the construction procedure for Culmann’s graphical method.

5. A smooth vertical wall 6 m high retains a soil with c = 2.5 kN/m2, φ = 28°, and γ = 20
kN/m3. Show a) Rankine passive pressure distribution, b) Rankine Active earth
pressure distribution and also determine the magnitude and point of application

6. Determine the active pressure on the retaining wall shown in Figure. Take ɣw=10
kN/m3.

7. Discuss the design principles of retaining walls.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-II

MODULE-IV
BEARING CAPACITY
 INTRODUCTION
 The foundation should be designed such that

 The soil below does not fail in shear, i.e the load applied to
soil should be such that the induced stresses in soil is lesser
than its capacity

 Settlement is within the safe limits

 No differential settlement should occur

2
 Types of Foundations

3
 Bearing Capacity of soil

 Bearing capacity is the ability of soil to safely carry the

pressure/load placed on the soil from any engineered
structure without undergoing shear failure and
excessive large settlements.

4
5
6
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
 Gross pressure intensity (q)

Total pressure at the base of the footing due to weight of

superstructure, self weight of the footing and the weight of
the earthfill/soil

 Net Pressure Intensity(qn)

Difference in intensities of the gross pressure after the

construction of the structure and the original overburden
pressure

qn = q – γD
7
 Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) :

The ultimate bearing capacity is the minimum gross pressure

intensity at the base of the foundation at which soil fails in
shear

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu) :

It is the minimum net pressure intensity at the base of

foundation that cause shear failure of the soil

Thus, qnu = qu – γD (overburden pressure)

8
  Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) :

Net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a Factor of safety

Thus, qns = qnu / F

F - Factor of safety usually taken as 2.00 -3.00

 Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) :

It is the maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely
without risk of shear failure

It is equal to net safe bearing capacity plus overburden

qs = qnu / F + γ D

9
  Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp) :

It is the net pressure which the soil can carry without exceeding
allowable settlement

 Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna ):

It is the net bearing pressure which can be used for design of

foundation
Thus,
qna = qns ; if qnp > qns
qna = qnp ; if qns > qnp

It is also known as Allowable Soil Pressure

10
 TYPES OF BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES
 Distinct failure patterns are developed depending on failure
mechanism

 Vesic (1973) classified shear failure of soil under a foundation

base into three categories depending on the type of soil &
location of foundation

 General Shear failure

 Local Shear failure

 Punching Shear failure

11
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- GENERAL SHEAR
FAILURE

 In low compressibility (dense or stiff) soils

 Heaving on both sides of foundation

 Final slip (movement of soil) on one side only causing structure

to tilt

12
 Load vs. Settlement behaviour
13
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- GENERAL SHEAR
FAILURE
 It has well defined failure surface reaching to ground surface

 There is considerable bulging of sheared mass of soil adjacent

to footing

 Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing

 Failure is sudden

 Ultimate bearing capacity is well defined

14
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- LOCAL SHEAR
FAILURE

 In highly compressible soils

 Only slight heaving on sides

 Significant compression of soil under footing but no tilting

15
 Load vs. Settlement behaviour
16
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- LOCAL SHEAR
FAILURE
 In soils of high compressibility and in sands having relative density
between 35 and 70 percent
 Failure pattern is clearly defined only immediately below the
footing
 Failure surface do not reach ground surface

 Only slight bulging of soil around the footing

 Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of the footing

 Failure is defined by large settlements

 Ultimate bearing capacity not well defined

17
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- PUNCHING
SHEAR FAILURE

 In loose, uncompacted soils

 Vertical shearing around edges of footing

 High compression of soil under footing, hence large settlements

 No heaving, no tilting

18
 Load vs. Settlement behaviour
19
BEARING CAPACITY FAILURES- PUNCHING
SHEAR FAILURE
 No failure pattern observed

 No bulging of soil around the footing

 No tilting of footing

 Failure is characterised in terms of very large settlements

 Ultimate bearing capacity not well defined

20
21
 TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

Surcharge stress/Overburden Stress

22
 Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity equation for
determining ultimate bearing capacity of
strip footing (Only)

C= Cohesion ɣ = Unit weight of soil

B= Width of foundation
Df= Depth of foundation

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
 𝛾 ′ is the submerged or effective unit weight ( 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 )

32
33
34
 Alternate Approximate method

35
36
37
 Extension of Terzaghi’s Equation for
Local shear failure of soils

38
 (For Cohesive soils only)

39
 q=ɣ*Df

40
41
42
PLATE LOAD TEST
 The test pit should be at least five times as wide as the
test plate and the bottom of the test plate should
correspond to the proposed foundation level.
 At the centre of the pit, a small square hole is made the
size being that of the test plate and the depth being such
that,
(i) After excavating the pit of required size and levelling the base, the test plate is seated over the
ground.

(ii) A seating pressure of 7.0 kN/m2 (70 g/cm2) is applied and released before actual loading is
commenced.

(iii) The first increment of load, say about one-tenth of the anticipated ultimate load, is applied.
Settlements are recorded with the aid of the dial gauges after 1 min., 4 min., 10 min., 20 min., 40
min., and 60 min., and later on at hourly intervals until the rate of settlement is less than 0.02
mm/hour, or at least for 24 hours.

(iv) The test is continued until a load of about 1.5 times the anticipated ultimate load is applied.
According to another school of thought, a settlement at which failure occurs
or at least 2.5 cm should be reached.

(v) From the results of the test, a plot should be made between pressure and settlement, which is
usually referred to as the ‘‘load-settlement curve’’,. The bearing capacity is determined from
this plot
 The plot between pressure and settlement usually consists
of two straight lines as shown in Figure. The point
corresponding to the break gives the failure point and the
pressure corresponding to it is taken as the bearing
capacity.

 IS: 1888–1971 also recommends this method for use with

plate load tests.
ALTERNATE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF BEARING
CAPACITY

Bearing capacity
Settlement of original foundation (S)

f
Ultimate bearing capacity (qu) for
foundation
 Settlement in Soil

 Immediate Settlement

 Consolidation Settlement

54
55
56
57
 Allowable/Permissible Settlements

58
 MODULE V
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
2
 PILE FOUNDATIONS- USES
Highly compressible or weak strata directly below the ground surface
Foundations for irregular structures- irregular relative to the plan and load
distribution
Transmission of load through deep waters to a hard stratum
Structures with risk of soil being washed out- shallow foundations almost impossible
In expansive soils- subject to swelling or shrink
In collapsible soils

3
PILE FOUNDATIONS
BASED ON FUNCTION BASED ON MATERIAL

END
BEARING
STEEL
SHEET FRICTION

COMPACTI
BATTER PILES PILES CONCRETE
ON COMPOSITE

FENDER TENSION
PILE
ANCHOR TIMBER

4
PILE FOUNDATIONS
MODE OF TRANSFER OF LOAD BASED ON METHOD OF INSTALLATION

END DRIVEN
BEARING PILES

DRIVEN
JACKED AND CAST-
PILES IN-SITU
PILES PILES

COMBINED
END
BEARING FRICTION
AND BORED AND
FRICTION SCREW CAST-IN-
SITU

5
6
7
8
Compaction Piles 9
Fender Piles 10
11
12
Batter Piles 13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILE
• The following is the classification of the methods of determining pile
capacity:

(i) Static analysis

(ii) Dynamic analysis

(iii) Load tests on pile

(iv) Penetration tests

22
Static Analysis
• The ultimate bearing load of a pile is considered to be the sum of the
end-bearing resistance and the resistance due to skin friction:

23
 Piles in sand

q = ɣ*Depth

Critical depth can be taken as

10 * B- loose sands

20 * B- dense sands

B is the diameter of the pile 24

 c = adhesion
a

σh = K * σv [K = coefficient of earth pressure] Average vertical stress/ surcharge is considered for analysis

𝝈𝒗
𝒇𝒔 = 𝑲 ∗ ∗ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝜹
𝟐 25
 Piles in Clay
Nc = bearing capacity factor for deep foundation
9 - commonly used for piles

Ultimate load (Qu) = c * Nc * Ab + α * c * As

26
27
28
29
 DYNAMIC FORMULAE
• Engineering News Record Formulae

(W ∗ h ∗ ηh)
Qu =
(S + C)
• S = penetration of pile per hammer blow; obtained from the average for the last
few blows of the hammer
• C = constant
• 2.54 cm- drop hammer

• 0.254 cm- steam hammer

(En ∗ ηh)
• Qu = En = energy of hammer in kN-cm
(S + C)
30
• Engineering News Record Formulae

• Efficiency of drop hammer- 0.7 to 0.9

• Single acting - 0.75

• Double acting- 0.85

• Diesel hammer- 0.80 to 0.90

• Factor of safety- 6 (recommended)

• Formula not dependable

31
 Modified Engineering News Record Formulae

• P = weight of pile; e = coefficient of restitution; ηh= hammer

efficiency
• Hammer efficiency dependent on
• Pile driving equipment
• Driving procedure
• Ground conditions

Hammer Type Drop Single Acting Double Acting Diesel

Efficiency 0.75 – 1 0.75 - 0.85 0.85 0.85 - 1

32
 Coefficient of Restitution (e)

Type of Pile Coefficient of Restitution

Broomed timber pile 0.0
Good timber pile 0.25
Driving cap with timber dolly on steel pile 0.3
Driving cap with plastic dolly on steel pile 0.5
Helmet with composite plastic dolly and packing on
0.4
R.C. C. Pile

33
• Hiley’s Formulae

• Takes into account the various losses

• Qf = ultimate load on pile

• W = weight of hammer, in kg

• H = height of drop of hammer, in cm

• S = penetration or set, in cm per blow

• C = total elastic compression = C1+C2+C3

34
DYNAMIC FORMULAE
• C1, C2, C3 = temporary elastic compression of dolly and packing, pile and soil
respectively

• ηh = efficiency of hammer

• ηb = efficiency of hammer blow

P = weight of pile

e = coefficient of restitution

35
36
Group Capacity of piles

37
38
39
40
=

41
42
43
44
 For Individual Piles

Individual capacity of pile

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑄𝑔 (𝑢൯ = 𝜶𝑪 ∗ 𝑨𝒔𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟒𝑩 × 𝟗 Group capacity of pile

45
46
Pile Load test

47
B=Diameter of Pile

48
49
50
51
52
53
54
 Settlement of pile groups in clay
• The equation for consolidation settlement may be used treating the pile group as
a block or unit.

• The increase in stress is to be evaluated appropriately under the influence of the

load on the pile group.

• When the piles are embedded in a uniform soil (friction and end-bearing piles),
the total load is assumed to act at a depth equal to two-thirds the pile length.

• Conventional settlement analysis procedures assuming the Boussinesq or

Westergaard stress distribution are then applied to compute the consolidation
settlement of the soil beneath the pile tip. 55
56
• Calculate the final settlement of the clay layer shown below due to an increase in pressure
of 30 kN / m2 at the mid-height of the layer. Take γw = 10 kN / m3.

4.0 m
Sand γ = 20 kN / m3

Clay γ = 18 kN / m3 2.5 m
Cc = 0.22 e0 = 1.30

57
γw = 10 kN / m3; γsand = 20 kN / m3; γclay = 18 kN / m3

Height of sand layer = h1 = 4 m

Height of clay layer = h2 = 1.25 m

CC = 0.22; e0 = 1.30

Additional pressure = 30 kN / m2

Pressure at the center of the clay layer = 20 * 4 + 18 * 1.25 = 102.5 kN / m2

Settlement ∆H = CC * H * log10 ((σ0’ + ∆σ’) / σ0’) / (1 + e0)

= 0.22 * 2.5 * log10 ((102.5 + 30) / 102.5) / (1 + 1.30)

= 0.0266 m = 2.66 cm

58
59
60
 Well Foundations

• Well foundation is the most commonly adopted foundation for major

bridges in India.

• Since then many major bridges across wide rivers have been founded on
wells.

• Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation when foundation has to

resist large lateral forces

• The construction principles of well foundation are similar to the

conventional wells sunk for underground water.

• Well foundations have been used in India for centuries.

61
Advantages of well foundation

62
63
64
65
66
Types of Well Foundation

67
68
69
70
71
72
73
Types of well shapes

74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Design aspects of well foundation

83
84
85
Terzaghi and Peck have suggested the ultimate bearing
capacity can be determined from the following expression.

86