MODULE 1: THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE

TOPIC: THE EARTH: A PLANET OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Lesson 1: GEOGRAPHY

A) Definition: The word geography comes from two Greek words “geo” which means
“earth” and “graphy” meaning “to describe”. Geography simply means describing the
earth where we live. Geography is a science that deals with the study of the earth, its
land, environment and other physical features and its relationship to human life.
B) Branches and sub-branches of geography
i) Physical geography: This is the branch of geography that studies all physical aspects
of the environment. It sub-branches include;
- Geomorphology (studies rocks and relief forms as highlands and lowlands)
- Hydrology (water on the earth)

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- Biogeography (soils, plants and animals on the earth)
- Meteorology and climatology (the atmosphere for weather and climate)

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- Cosmic or astronomical geography (the planet earth as part of the universe).
ii) Human geography: This is the branch that studies human activities on planet earth. It
sub-branches include;
- Population geography and demography
- Economic geography
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- Settlement geography
C) Methods of acquiring geographic knowledge
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- Observation of the environment and recording what is seen in words, pictures, sketch
diagrams and maps.
- Description of what is seen
- Representation of what they see on maps and diagrams for illustration.
- Explanation for the manner of things observed.
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- Conducting experiments to demonstrate processes seen in nature.

D) Importance of geography
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 It helps us to know about the different natural resources found in different regions
 It provide us with knowledge about places even those we have never been to.
 For the development of underdeveloped areas in a country.
 The different landscapes such as lowlands, highlands, mountainous regions and the
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reasons for the differences

 The different activities man carries out to make a living
 Gives us knowledge on environmental problems and the possible ways to solve them.
 The different habitats and places man lives.

Lesson 2: OUR PLANET: THE EARTH, The Earth in the Solar system.

The universe comprises of everything that exist in space which we can see, detect. Stars in
the universe occur in groups called “galaxies” or “nebula”. The galaxy in which the moon
belong is called the “milky way” and the part of this galaxy seen on earth is known as
“Andromedal spiral”.
The solar system is also known as the planetary system. The sun is the center of the solar
system. The solar system comprises of the planets (mercury, venus, earth, mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and pluto), the sun, satellites.

a) Shape, Dimension and Locational References.

i) Shape of the earth: The upper and lower ends of the earth are called poles (North and
South poles). Studies have shown that the earth is not flat but nearly spherical. The real
shape of the earth is “geoid”. The earth is divided into two equal parts by an imaginary
line called the equator.

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ii) Dimension of the earth: The total surface area of the earth is estimated to be about
51,010,079 km2. The diameter and the circumference at different points varies with a
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diameter of 12,682km and a circumference of 40,085km at the equator and a diameter of
12,639 and circumference of 36,955km at the poles.
iii) Locational References
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- Latitudes: These are imaginary lines running across the surface of the earth from west to
east. They are called parallels of latitudes. Latitudes are numbered in degress north and
south of the equator. Latitude 00 divides the earth into two equal halfs called hemispheres
and there are 900 of latitudes on each hemisphere.
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- Longitudes: These are imaginary lines running across the surface of the earth from the
North Pole to the South Pole. They are also called meridians of longitudes. The first or
centre meridian is known as the Greenwich Meridian (00). All longitudes are numbered to
the West (W) and East (E) of the Greenwich meridian. There are 1800 of longitudes east
and west and are measured in degrees, with longitude 1800 east or west being the last
which is also called the International Date Line.
- Cardinal points: They indicate the direction of a place on the surface of the earth. We
have four and eight figure cardinal points.

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- Great circles: These are imaginary lines running across the globe that divides it into two
equal halves. They are formed when two lines of longitude on opposite sides of the prime
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meridian meet and for them to form a great circle, the sum must be 1800. All longitudes
can form great circles. The equator is the only line of latitude that forms a great circle.
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Differences between Latitudes and Longitudes

Latitudes Longitudes
- They are parallel lines that do not meet - They meet at the poles
- They run from west to east - They run from north pole to south pole
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- They get shorter moving from the - They are of equal length
equator to the poles
- The highest latitude is 900 - The highest longitude is 1800

PRACTICAL WORK 1: Locate a place on a map (Read geographic coordinates of a

map)
Lesson 3: THE EARTH; A Planet Moving in Space.
a) Rotation and Revolution of the Earth.
i) Rotation of the earth: It is the spinning of the earth on its axis every 24hours from west
to east in an anticlockwise direction round the sun. the earth covers every 150 of longitudes in
one hour (1hr).
 Effects of rotation of the earth.
1) Differences in time: As the earth is rotating, moving from east to west, places at different
longitudes see the sun rays at different periods. This leads to places located on different
longitudes to experience differences in time.
2) Day and night: As the earth is rotating not all parts of it are facing the sun at the same

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time. The part that is facing the sun will have daylight while the other part away from the
sun will experience darkness.

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3) Deflection of winds and ocean currents: As the earth rotates, it produces a force called
coriolis force. This force displaces winds blowing over land and water flowing in oceans
to the different direction. This principle is called the Ferrell’s Law.
4) Rise and fall of sea tides at the coast: Tides are the rise (high tide) and fall (low tide) of
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sea levels that occur each day. They are caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the moon, sun and the rotation of the earth.
ii) Revolution of the earth: It is the movement of the earth around the sun on its orbits. The
earth takes 365 days (one year) to complete this movement. The day is kept aside and
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after 4 years, it will make one day and the day is added to 365 to make 366 days and to the
month of February (29 days) to make a leap year.
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Effects of revolution of the earth

1) Changes in seasons: All places on the earth surface except the equator experience a
definite rise and fall in temperature at different periods of the year bringing about changes
in seasons.
2) Varying length of day and night: The inclination or tilted position of the earth’s axis on
its orbit influence varying lengths of days and night.
3) Changing altitude of the midday sun: The earth’s axis is tilted on its elliptical orbit at an
angle of 66 0 giving rise to changes in the altitude of the midday sun.
b) Local and Standard Time
i. Local time: This is the time of the day at a given longitude determined by the sun’s
position in the sky. It is also called sun time. Places on different longitudes have different
local time. There is a difference of 4 minutes for every 10 of longitude.
ii. Standard time: This is the time given to places belonging to the same time zone. The
earth has 3600 of longitudes which have been divided into groups of 15 0 of longitudes
each. (150,300,450 up to 1800 East and West). Each of these groups of 150 is called a time
zone. This division gives 24 time zones with 12 on each side of the Greenwich meridian.

PRACTICAL WORK 2: CALCULATION OF TIME

A) Theoretical basis: revision of notion of local and standard time

B) Practical exercise: calculation of local time; calculation of local time of a place from
GMT; basis of carving out time zones.

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NB: Calculation of local time and longitudes.
Example1: If GMT is 12 noon, what will be the local time in your area considering that your

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area is located in longitude 150 E.
Solution
Differences in longitudes = 150 –00 =150
Divide by 150 =
your local time
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Example 2: What is the local time in Cairo, Egypt on longitude 300E if GMT is 8am
Solution
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Differences in longitudes
Divide by 150 to get time in hours
time in Cairo is 8am + 2hours =10am or 10hours.
C) Contextualization with situation: Establish Cameroon standard time vis-à-vis other
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areas.

FURTHER STUDY 1: INFLUENCE OF THE MOON ON THE NATURAL

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ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES.

Definition of the moon: The term moon is a natural satellite orbiting a planet. The moon
orbits the earth (our planet), completing one revolution in an elliptical path in 27 days, 7
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hours 43 minutes 11.5 second (roughly 28days). The moon orbits the earth because of the
earth’s force of gravity. The mon does not produce light but it reflects light from the sun to
brighten the earth at certain periods.

A) Phases of the moon

1. New moon: This occurs when the moon is between the earth and the sun
2. Waxing crescent: The moon is getting bigger and only a small side of the moon is lit by
sunlight.
3. First quarter: Here, the moon appears as half mon that is half of the moon is now lit by
the sun.
4. Waxing gibbous: The moon becomes bigger than half its size that is the size of the moon
lit by the sun is between a semi-circle and a full circle.
5. Full moon: Here, all side of the moon are lit by sunlight
6. Waning gibbous: The moon start getting smaller.
7. Last quarter: Also as half moon
8. Waning crescent: Only a small half of the moon is lit up by the sun.

B) Effects on physical aspects (Tides)

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It causes high tides and low tides along coastal areas. That is, the rise and fall in sea level
along the shore respectively. This is caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on

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ocean water. When the moon pulls the earth, the ocean water bulges to the direction of the
moon.

C) Effects on human activities

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1. Religious activities and feast: Religious events such as the Jewish Passover, the
Christian Easter or the Islamic feast of Ramadan are celebrated at certain phases of the
moon. For example, the Ramadan comes up every ninth month in the Islamic calendar
and celebrated when the crescent shape of the moon is first seen.
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2. Calendar: Muslims follow the Lunar calendar in which a month is 28 days. This
corresponds to the number of days taken b y the moon to complete its revolution round
the earth.
3. Fishing activities: Fish catches are high during moon rise and moon sets. This is when
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fishes come out to feed in large numbers. Fishermen also uses low tide to go off shore for
fishing and use high tide to come back.
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4. Social gatherings; such as outdoor dancing, story-telling by youths and adults are
organized at night during full moon in villages.
5. Hunting and harvesting: During full moon, many animals come out of their hiding
places to search for food. Hunting is usually fruitful during such periods. Harvesting is
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also done during such periods i.e nearest the autumnal equinox.

Lesson 4: THE EARTH; A Blue Planet.

a) The distribution of Landmasses (continents and major islands)

i. Continents: These are large landmasses on the earth surface. They are separated from
each other by ocean. The area covered by continents is called the lithosphere. There are
seven major continents in the world. They include; Asia, Africa, Europe, North America,
South America, Australia and Antarctica.
ii. Islands: These are smaller landmasses that are surrounded by water. There are many
islands in the world. The largest amongst them is Greenland found in the North Atlantic
ocean. Other examples include; Madagascar on the east coast of south Africa, New
guinea, etc.
b) The distribution of water bodies (oceans and major seas)
i. Oceans: These are the largest water bodies of the world. There are four main oceans in
the world namely; the Pacific ocean, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic ocean. The pacific is the
largest while the Arctic is the smallest.
ii. Seas: These are larger water bodies but smaller than oceans. They are extensions of
oceans and are usually closer to continents. They can equally be found within continents.
Examples include; the North sea, Mediterranean sea, Red sea, Caribbean sea, Caspian
sea, Norwegian sea, Arabian sea, etc.

Importance of oceans.

- They provide food for man e.g fish and sea animals which act as a rich source of protein
to man.
- Fishing provides employment to millions of people.
- Water bodies provide good means of transportation by ship from one region of the world

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to another.

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- Minerals such as crude oil are extracted under the seas and oceans.

Lesson 5: RELIEF ON THE CONTINENT OF THE EARTH.

Relief refers to the various forms of landmasses (highlands and lowlands) on the earth
surface. These various forms include
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a) Mountains: These are highly elevated areas made up of isolated masses of rocks above
700 meters above the surrounding land. When mountains appear in groups, they form
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what is called mountain ranges or chain. For example; the Rockies in USA, Himalayas in
Asia, Andes in South America, the Alps in Europe. They can also be classified into fold,
block and volcanic mountains.
b) Plateau: They are highly extensive elevated areas with a flat or an almost flat top.
Plateaux are characterized by steep slopes separating them from the surrounding
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lowlands. Plateau can be divided into two categories; high plateau (e.g Adamawa plateau)
and low plateau (e.g Southern Cameroon low plateau), which covers the centre, east and
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south regions of Cameroon.

c) Plains: Plains are vast extensive areas on the earth surface that are relatively low in
relation to its surroundings. They are equally gentle low lying areas with almost flat
surfaces. Most plains are dominated by extensive crop cultivation and animal rearing.
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Examples include; the coastal plains, the Tiko plain, the Ndop plain, the Diamare plain,
all in Cameroon.

PRACTICAL WORK 3: FORMS OF REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH ON THE

MAP.

a) Theoretical basis: Forms of representation of the earth (globes, maps, projections

b) Practical Exercise: Identification of marginal information of a map (conventional signs
or key, scale, cardinal points, gridlines, latitudes and longitudes)
- Title: This is the name given to a map. It reflects what is represented in the map and gives
a clear purpose of the map. E.g relief map of Cameron
- Key or legend: These are conventional signs and symbols that represent features on the
map. It enables us to be able to read and understand what the map is talking about.
- Scale: The distance on a paper is usually different from the actual ground distance. The
scale is used to show these differences. A scale is therefore “the ratio of a distance on the
map to a corresponding distance on ground”. E.g 1:50,000; 1:100,000; etc. on a map with
scale 1:100,000 means that 1cm on paper represents 100,000cm (i.e 1km) on ground.
- Cardinal points: This is the orientation of the map. It represent the direction of the map.
- Grid lines: These are horizontal and parallel lines forming squares on the map that are
used in locating places.

How to calculate distance between two points using the4 scale.

- Draw a straight line linking the two points e.g A and B

- Using a ruler, measure the distance of the straight line in centimetres. E.g if the distance
between point A and B is 4cm, distance on ground will be calculated as

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- Distance on paper multiplied by the scale of the map.

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4cm

PRACTICAL WORK 4: THE RELIEF MAP OF CAMEROON

a) Theoretical basis: Read the relief map of Cameroon; highlands (mountains and plateau),
lowlands (plains and depressions)
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b) Practical exercise: Sketch relief units of Cameroon on a base map (shade and add a scale).
c) Contextualization with situation: identify forms of relief of their locality.
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MODULE 2: LET’S PRESERVE OUR ENVIRONMENT

TOPIC: LET’S PRESERVE OUR ENVIRONMENT

Lesson 6: The Notion of the Environment.

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a) Definition of natural environment

The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally
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on earth or some regions thereof. It include; climate, weather, soil, and natural resources
that affect human survival and economic activity.
The term environment is derived or originates from a French word “Environia” which
means “to surround”. In its simplest term, environment refers to the materials and forces
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that surround the living organism. There are two types of environment.
- Physical environment: It refers to all abiotic (non-living) factors or conditions like
temperature, light, rainfall, soil, minerals etc.
- Human environment: It refers to the built up environment. In these areas, man has
transformed the landscape.
b) Components of the natural environment
There are four main components that comprises or makes up the natural environment.
They include;
1) Lithosphere: It is the outermost layer of the earth called the crust which is made up of
different minerals and rocks. The crust has a depth of about 100km and its of two types
 i.e terrestrial or continental crust and oceanic crust. The main component of the
lithosphere is the earth’s tectonic plates.
2) Hydrosphere: It comprises of all forms of water bodies on earth which include oceans,
seas, lakes, ponds, streams. It covers 70% of the earth surface. 97.5% of water found on
earth is in oceans in the form of salt water while only 2.5% is available as fresh water.
Out of this,30.8% is available as groundwater and 68.9% is in frozen form as in glaciers.
Only 0.3% is available in rivers, reservoirs and lakes easily accessible to man.
3) Atmosphere: This is a thin blanket of gasses and tiny particles which surrounds or
envelope the solid earth. Oxygen in the atmosphere which sustains man, makes it unique.
The atmosphere mainly comprises of Nitrogen (78.08%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon
(0.93%), Carbon dioxide (0.038%), and traces of hydrogen, helium and noble gases. The
amount of water vapour present in variable or changes.
4) Biosphere: It refers to all the regions on earth where life exist. It also refers to the sum
total of all living matter, the biomass or biota. It extends from the polar ice caps to the

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equator, with each region harboring or having some life form suitable to the conditions
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c) Ecosystems
An ecosystem (also called an environment) is a natural unit consisting of all living things
(biotic elements as plants, animals, and micro organisms) and the non-living physical
(abiotic elements as soils, air, water etc) functioning together. It also refers to the smallest
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unit of the biosphere which has the characteristics to support life.
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Characteristics of an ecosystem.
- Ecosystems vary in scale or size e.g from a simple tree trunk pond to a complex natural
region such as rainforest.
- They are dynamic. That is changing over time
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- They are structured. That is they have components that are different
- They operate as a system. This is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged
in a highly interrelated set of relationship with all components of the environment. The
most common relationship is the feeding habit (food chain). A food chain shows how
each living thing gets its food.
Grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk
A complex food chain in which each organism has more than one source of food is called
a food web. A food web thus consist of all food chains in an ecosystem.
Components of an ecosystem.
a) Abiotic components: They are the inorganic elements such as air, water, soil, rocks, light
etc. this provides the minerals and energy needed in the ecosystem.
b) Biotic components: These are the organic (living things) elements in an ecosystem. They
include;
- Green plants called producers or autotrophs. They make their food through the process of
photosynthesis.
- Animals also called consumers or heterotrophs. They eat grass or other animals. They
include
 Herbivores or primary consumers (plant eaters)
 Carnivores or secondary consumers (flesh eaters) e.g lions
 Omnivores or diversivores or tertiary consumers (eat both plant and flesh) e.g man.
 Decomposers or detritivores (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decayinh matter.

Types of ecosystems

1) Terrestrial Ecosystems.

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These are the largest ecosystems on the surface of the earth. They are called biomes. The
examples of these large terrestrial (land) ecosystems are;

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a) The forest ecosystem: The main vegetation species are trees e.g tropical rainforest
ecosystem, tropical deciduous ecosystems, etc.
b) Grassland ecosystem: The main vegetation here is grass. Examples are tropical
grassland, temperate grassland ecosystems etc.
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c) The desert ecosystem e.g tropical desert ecosystem, temperate desert ecosystem.
2) Aquatic (water) ecosystems
They develop in water and marshy areas. It examples include;
a) Freshwater ecosystem: They are found in streams, rivers, ponds and lakes. Examples of
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lake ecosystems include Lake Barombi Mbo, Male and female manenguba lakes, etc.
b) Marine ecosystems: These are ecosystems that develop in salty water. They can be at the
bottom of the oceans or along the coast. Mangroves are examples of marine ecosystems
along the coast.
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Importance of Ecosystems.
- They serve as a source of food to man and other animals.
- They serve as a source of habitat to living organisms.
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- They serve as a source of building materials.

- It acts as a source of oxygen vital for human survival.
- They provide nutrients to the soil and help in the cycling of these nutrients.
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- They help regulate the atmospheric conditions of a place e.g trees.

PRACTICAL WORK 5: WEATHER OBSERVATION

a) Theoretical basis: Presentation of basic weather instruments (rain guage, wind vane, ect)
b) Practical exercise: Read weather elements with instruments (temperature from a
thermometer, level of rainfall from a measuring cylinder) or empirical approaches (wet
finger, smoke or flyers for wind direction, rainfall possibility from types of clouds).
c) Contextualization with situation: describe current weather of their locality.

FURTHER STUDY 2: STREAMS AND RIVERS OF CAMEROON.

A) Major Drainage Basins and Watersheds

A drainage basin refers to an area or a piece of land where a river and its tributaries flow. A
tributary is a small river that joins the main stream. Any stream that branches off from the
main river is called a distributary. Below is a table showing the major drainage basins of
Cameroon and their principal rivers.

Drainage Basins Main Rivers

1) Atlantic basin: It is the largest drainage - Sanaga is the largest river in Cameroon
basin in Cameroon and can be divided with over 920-975km, with a 140,000km2
into three minor basins basin. Other rivers here are the Noun, Mifi,
Nde, Mbam-Lom and Djerem.
- The west Atlantic. Rivers here converge to
create the vast Cameroon estuary. The
main rivers here are the Ndian, Manyu,
Meme, Nkam and Wouri.
- The south Atlantic, with small rivers the

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extensive marshland. Rivers here are
Nyong, Ntem and Lobe. They take their
rise from three watersheds (Adamawa,

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Western highlands and Guimbiri mounts).
2) The Congo basin - The rivers here flow through Congo
Brazaville into DRC. They include the Dja
and Lobo, Boumba and Ngoko, Kadei,
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rise from the adamawa plateau.
3) The Niger basin - The Benue and its tributaries such as the
Faro, Mayo Rey and Mayo Louti Mayo
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Kebi makes up this basin.
4) The Lake Chad basin (smallest basin) - Logon (main river), shari, Mayo Kani,
Mayo Sava, etc. they all flow into a
number of lakes and seasonal swamps or
marshes.
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Watersheds
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This is a piece of land where rivers take their rise or an area usually a highland which supply
water to its surrounding lowlands. They are also called water divide or water parting. The
following are the various watersheds in Cameroon.
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1. The Adamawa highlands (plateau): It is at the centre of Cameroon and it is the main
watershed of Cameroon. This is because most major rivers e.g Sanaga takes their rise from
it and flows towards the northern or southern parts.
2. The Western highlands or the Bamileke high plateau: It is found at the western part of
Cameroon. Many rivers take their rise here and flow to the western or southern part of
Cameron.
3. The Mandara Mountains: They are found at the Far Northwest of Cameroon. Rivers
from here flow to the Northeast and Southern part.
4. Guimbiri Mountains: They are found at the southern eastern part of Cameroon. Rivers
from it flow towards the southwest and south direction.
 5. Some smaller watersheds are the Mount Cameroon and the Rumpi hills in the Southwest
region of Cameroon.
B) Uses or Potentials of rivers of Cameron.
- Means of transport e.g river Nyong, Sanaga in Cameroon and river Niger in Nigeria.
- Agricultural purposes through irrigation. For example the Lagdo dam over river Benue.
- Source of drinking water and water for other domestic purposes.
- Provide us with building and construction materials such as sand, pebbles, and gravel. E.g
river Mungo, wouri and Sanaga
- Fishing activities. For example river Logone and chari in Cameroon.
C) Problems of Rivers and Streams.
- Increase spread of diseases such as cholera, dysentery, rashes, malaria and typhoid.
- Soil instability as the soil experiences seasonal wetness and dryness caused by flood.
- Pollution. Some lakes and rivers are used as dumping grounds for industrial and domestic
waste. For example the Bonamousadi lake in Yaounde and river wouri in douala.

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- Constant flooding caused by overflow of water on its banks due to excessive rainfall for
more than two days. For example the 2018 flood in Limbe.

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- Sedimentation of river beds by the deposition of eroded debris from nearby lands.
- Eutrophication of rivers by the washing away of chemical fertilizers from nearby
farmlands. ES
PRACTICAL WORK 6: CONSTRUCTION AND READING OF A CLIMOGRAPH
(Temperature-Rainfall Graph)

A) Theoretical basis: Define temperature-rainfall graph

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A climograph is a graphical representation of basic climatic parameters (elements) of
monthly average temperature and monthly average rainfall (precipitation) totals of a
certain location. In other words, it is a dual purpose graph since it shows two different
kinds of information (precipitation and temperature).
B) Practical exercise: Construct a temperature-rainfall graph
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 Steps to follow when drawing a climograph.

- Draw a horizontal line to represent the X-axis. It should be 12cm long, with each cm
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representing a month. Label the months at the centre of each square using capital letters
of the first letter of the month.
- Draw two vertical lines at both ends of the 12cm line to give the Y-vertical axis. Label
rainfall in mm to the left and temperature in 0C to the right. Use the scale 1cm
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representing 100mm for rainfall and 1cm to represent 500C for temperature.
- Draw the bars of the rainfall of each month respecting the values
- Indicate the temperature for each month at the centre of each square using a dot.
- Draw a smooth curve with your free hands to connect the dots to give the temperature
curve.
- Add a key.
 Materials
- Monthly data for rainfall and temperature. For example, my locality is Limbe, my data is
shown below.
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D Total
Precipitation 21 49 127 174 105 308 43 600 46 568 119 18 2980
(mm) 1 2
Temperature 28.5 29 29. 29 28 29 26 24 27 26 28. 29 27.7
(0C) 5 5
- Graph paper
- Pencils and colour pencils

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Interpretation of graph.

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- Precipitation is represented using bars which indicates how much precipitation a given
place receives during a period of a month. High bars indicate that the month received
higher rainfall, corresponding to the wet months of the year (March, April, May, June,
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July, August, September October and November) i.e 9 months are rainy season months
with more than 100mm of rainfall. Low values below 100mm indicate dry season months
(December, January, February).
- Temperature is represented by a line showing temperature conditions for the same place
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during the same period of time. When the line rises, it indicates high temperature and
where it falls indicates low temperature. But when it is almost straight, this means the
month of the year have almost the same temperature.

Importance or benefits of a climograph.

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- They are very useful to farmers when they plan for farming activities especially when to
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plant.
- Identify weather trends such as global warming
- Weather scientist use climographs to predict precipitation for various places.
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Lesson 7: NATURAL REGIONS (Bio-Climatic Zones) OF CAMEROON.

A natural and bio-climatic region is an area or country which has the same climate,
vegetation, and animal type and at the same time with similar human activities. Cameroon is
divided into three (3) bio-climatic zones. They are;

I) The Equatorial Bio-climatic Zone.

a) Location: This zone is located between latitude 20N and 60N of the equator. It covers the
South west, and parts of the southern low plateau which includes the center, south, east
and parts of the littoral region.
b) Bio-climatic characteristics.
i) Climate: The climate of this zone is sub-divided into two type; the Guinea and the
Cameroon type. The Guinea types covers the southern plateau and rainfall here ranges
 across the year from 1500mm to 2000mm and it falls much in the rainy season with
cloudy skies than in the dry season.
Temperatures here are fairly constant between 210C to 280C giving warm atmospheric
conditions throughout the year. It has four seasons (two rainy and two dry).
The Cameroon type covers the south west coast around Mount Cameron and the western
highlands. It has two seasons. The wet season last for eight months (March to October)
and dry season for four months (November to February). Rainfall ranges from 900mm to
2000mm yearly with average temperatures 270C giving a warm environment throughout
the year.
ii) Vegetation: It is divided into two types as follows
- Mangrove forest: It covers the swamps of the littoral, south west (Ndian) and south
(campo) region. The dominant species of these are the raffia palms. Trees here are made
up of much shorter trees or shrubs with large trunks which contain buttress and prop roots
that are exposed from the ground above the water level.

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- The Equatorial rainforest or Evergreen forest: It covers a large part of the southern
plateau and lies immediately below the mangrove forest. It is characterized by very broad

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leaves due to heavy and constant rainfall and high temperatures giving a dense vegetation
cover with different tree species.
Trees have buttress roots which help support the large tall trees. The broad leaves prevent
sunlight from reaching the surface thus making it dark. The forest is made up of different
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layers of trees with the first layer dominated by tall trees, the second with shorter trees
and vines and the third with few plants and grass.
Tree species here are of economic important and include Iroko, Ebony, Obeche,
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Mahogany, etc and the forest is inhabited by animals such as monkeys, elephants etc.
Non-timber forest products such as bush mango, eru, njangsa are also harvested.
- Soils: This zone is made up of two soil categories; Zonal and azonal soils. Zonal soils are
those influenced by the climate and vegetation of the area and it forms the most extensive
soil type in this area. The type present here is called ferrallitic soil. They are thick,
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reddish or reddish-brown in colour because of the presence of silica and alluminium in

the soil. They contain a lot of clay and generally very poor. They are equally infertile due
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to heavy leaching.
The azonal soils are influenced by the rock types and the works of rivers. They occupy
small patches of land and cover areas like the coastal plains, Ndop plains. Others are the
volcanic soils around the volcanic mountains of western Cameroon.
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II) The Tropical Bio-climatic Region.

a) Location: It is located between latitudes 60N to 130N of the equator. It covers the western
highlands, adamawa plateau, Benue lowlands and the Northern lowlands.
b) Bio-climatic characteristics.
- Climate: The climate here is divided into two types.
i) The humid climate (Sudan): It extends from latitude 60N to 100N of the equator. It
covers and extends from the Northwest and western highlands, the Adamawa plateau,
Benue lowlands and the south of the Northern lowlands. It has two seasons; the rainy
season which last for about 8-9 months (April to October) with rainfall ranging from
1000mm to 1500mm accompanied by storms across the year. The dry season last for 3-4
months with low temperature of 210C making it less hot. All this is due to the higher
 altitude of the region above 1000m except the benue basin which lies at 500m. this region
is also known as the humid tropics due to the longer wet season.
ii) The Dry tropical climate (Sahel): It extends from latitude 100N to 130N. it ocvers the
Far northern part of the Northern lowlands, Mandara highlands and the Chad plain. It has
two season; the long dry season that last for nine months and a short rainy season that last
for three months. Rainfall is irregular, with a maximum of 900mm a year. Much more of
the area is made up of bare ground and sand.
- Vegetation: The type of vegetation is the tropical grassland also called Savanna
vegetation. It is divided into three.
i) The Guinea or Tree Savanna: It is found North of the southern low plateau and part of
the western highlands. It is made up of a mixture of tall grass and scattered trees which
can grow up to about 2m though not as those in the equatorial region. These trees form a
thick woodland while the grasses form undergrowth. The grasses usually dry up and
become brownish in the dry season due to abundant heat from sunlight. Bush fires are

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common here and the types of animals here are; goats, cattle, sheep, horses, and reptiles.
ii) The Sudan (Parkland) Savanna: It occupies the Benue depression, Northern part of the

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Adamawa plateau, Western highlands and the Mandara Mountains. It has shorter grasses
and fewer scattered trees (shrubs). This type of trees shed their leaves to withstand dry
conditions and bush fires. This type of vegetation in which plants change their colour and
the manner in which they grow in the course of the year is known as deciduous. These
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trees also have thick backs to withstand dry conditions. The vegetation is also called the
grass fields. Animals common here are both herbivores and carnivores such as; sheep,
goat, cattle, zebras, giraffes, lions, tigers, hyenas, etc.
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iii) The Sahel Savanna (Scrubland): It is also found in the extreme North towards Lake
Chad. It has very scanty trees which are mainly scrubs around Maroua and Far north
region mix with scanty short grasses which are brownish in colour due to insufficient
rainfall and high temperatures.
- Soils: The dominant soil type is the ferruginous soil (laterite) rich in iron compounds.
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They are brownish-red in colour and are less deep than the ferrallitic soils therefore not
fertile. They contain a lot of iron, bauxite and magnesium in some places they contain a
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lot of gravels and are hardened. The soils are good for cereal (rice, corn and millet)
cultivation.
III) The Mountainous Bio-climatic Zone.
These are ecosystems that develop on mountains and high plateau.
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a) Location: Many mountainous regions can be identified in Cameroon. They include;

- Mount Cameroon or Mount Fako
- The Rumpi hills
- The Western highlands
- The Adamawa plateau.

We shall look at that of the mount Cameroon region. The mount Cameron is found in the
southwest region of Cameroon. It extents across the Fako and Meme divisions but it is very
visible in Fako. It is the highest mountain in Cameroon with a height of 4095m.
b) Bio-climatic characteristics.
- Climate: The climatic conditions changes from the foot of the mountain at Tiko up to the
summit. Temperatures here decrease with height increase where at the foot prevails
equatorial climate. Temperatures are 280C in Tiko and Limbe but at the summit,
temperatures drown to near freezing point (00) and at times, snow falls at the summit.
Rainfall is very high between 2000mm to 10,000mm especially at the sea-facing
(windward) slope. This explains why Debundscha receives the highest rainfall marking
the wettest place in Cameroon and Africa. Muyuka on the inland (leeward) side of the
mountain receives very low rainfall total below 2000mm.
- Vegetation: The vegetation changes from the slope of the mountain up to the summit. At
the foot of the mountain around Idenau, Tiko, Limbe and Buea there is the equatorial
forest. This has been replaced by palms, rubber, banana and tea plantations in many areas.
At about 900m above Buea, there is the evergreen forest which has animal species such as
Francolin (a bird that lives only in this area), apes and monkeys. From 1700m-3000m,

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there is grassland or savanna vegetation made up of all grasses and fewer trees. Between
3000m-3500m, the slope is covered by shorter grass which are very sparse.

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- Soils: The soils are mainly azonal type formed from broken lava and are usually black in
colour. These soils are loose, dark and very fertile. The soils are at the foot of the
mountain and become thin towards the summit. Above 1700m, there are no soils. There
are mainly bare rocks and loose volcanic gravels (cinder) and ash. The presence of fertile
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soils around the slope has favoured the presence of the various plantations such as
banana, palm, etc which all belong to CDC.

Lesson 8: Forms of Degradation of the Natural Regions of Cameroon.

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Degradation refers to any change or disturbance to the environment seen to be harmful or

undesirable to the environment. It also refers to the reduction in the capacity of the
environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs (United Nastions
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction).
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I) Causes of Degradation of the Natural Regions of Cameroon.

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These causes are both natural and human. They include

a) Natural causes
1. Floods: It occurs when rivers or streams overflow their banks especially during peak
periods of rainy season with torrential storms. This leads to dead of people and loss of
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properties.
2. Volcanic eruptions: This leads to emission of hot lava and toxic gases which crushes or
destroys nearby animal and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive.
3. Landslides: It happens after an extensive rainfall which causes the soils up the hills or
slopes to slide downward. This leads to destruction of biodiversity.
4. Erosion: It comes as a result of bad agricultural practices and heavy rainfall. This strip
the earth of its valuable topsoil leaving coarse, useless soils behind.
b) Human causes.
1. Pollution: In all it forms, pollution is harmful to the environment. Water pollution
reduces the quality and quantity of water that we use for drinking purposes. Air pollution
pollutes the air we breathe which causes health issues.
2. Deforestation: It refers to the indiscriminate cutting down of trees to make way for more
homes, farmlands and industries. This causes pressure on the environment thereby
degrading it.
3. Overgrazing: This is the act of keeping many animals on smaller pieces of land such that
the animals are more than the food (grass) available.
4. Landfills: It comes within the city due to the large amount of waste that gets generated by
households, industries, factories and hospitals.
II) Manifestations of Degradation of Bio-climatic Zones.
- Bad odors or smelling environments from decomposition of waste dumped on road sides.
- Visibility problems faced from the smoke, gases and dust particles from vehicles and
industries.
- Increase in the spread of communicable diseases such as cholera, malaria, typhoid, etc.
- Undermining of the very resources on which farmers and their families depends on for
their survival.

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III) Consequences of Degradation of Natural Regions of Cameroon.
1. Water pollution and water scarcity. This cause health problems in return.

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2. Air pollution. Urban air pollution is noted for affecting the state of the atmosphere
thereby causing acid rain.
3. Food shortage. This is common in the tropical bio-climatic zone due to soil erosion and
deforestation.
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4. Solid and hazardous waste affects productivity as through pollution of groundwater
sources.
5. Loss of biodiversity as the extinction of plant and animal species affect development of
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new drugs, reduce ecosystem adaptability and lead to loss of genetic resources.
6. Atmospheric change through ozone layer depletion has caused an increase in skin cancer
and cataracts.
7. Soil degradation. Depleted soils increase the risk of malnutrition for famrmers..
IV) Solutions of environmental Degradation.
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- Trash cans should be placed along road sides, markets and school campuses.
- Industries should be located far from settlement sites
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- Recycling of plastic bags and bottles should be encouraged.

- Wastes should be well treated and degradable waste should be separated from non-
degradable.
- Afforestation and reforestation programs should be encouraged in Cameroon especially
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by NGOs and government planed programs.

- The ozone layer should be protected by the conservation of the Congo and Amazon
forests by international bodies.
- The population should be sensitized against the effects of waste dumping and pouring of
chemicals into rivers.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management is the prevention, elimination, sorting, handling, removal, treatment,

recycling or reuse of solid materials.
Types of waste.

1. Liquid type: example include; wash water from homes, liquids used for cleaning in
industries and waste detergents.
2. Solid type: It comprise of any garbage, refuse or rubbish that we make in our homes and
other places. Examples include; old car tires, old newspapers, broken furniture, etc.
3. Hazardous type: These are those that threatens public health or the environment. It can
either be inflammable (i.e can easily catch fire), reactive (i.e can easily explode),
corrosive (i.e can easily be eaten through metal) or toxic (i.e poisonous to human and
animals). Examples are; fire extinguishers, pesticides, batteries, lamps (fluorescent bulbs)
etc.
4. Organic type: They are those that comes from plants and animal sources. They are
biodegradable in nature. Examples are; vegetable peels, flower trimmings and dog poop.
5. Recyclable type: These are those that can be processed to give raw materials through

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recycling. Examples are alluminium products, plastics, paper products, etc.

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How to dispose hazardous waste.

- Use of sanitary landfills or incinerators.

- Use of surface impoundments i.e they are shallow depressions on the earth surface that
are lined with plastic and weak materials.
- Use of deep-well injection.
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PRACTICAL WORK 7: Degradation of the Natural Region of the locality of the
School.
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A) Theoretical basis: Revision of the different forms of human aggression on the

environment such as overgrazing, polluytion, deforestation, etc.
B) Practical Exercise and contextualization with situation.
i. Visit the school surroundings and; observe, identify, describe an d explain the
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aggression within the area.

ii. Identification of some solutions to the problems.
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- Terrace farming, contour ploughing, etc to reduce erosion on hill slopes.

- Plant more trees to serve as wind breaks and bind soil particles together.
- Cattle ranches should be constructed by herders and cattle owners.
- Proper drainage systems should be created to prevent creation of gullies by erosion.
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- Avoid monoculture farming systems.

- Plant more cover crops
- Device other sources of coking energy such as biogas to prevent deforestation.

PRACTICAL WORK 8: Solid Waste Management.

A) Theoretical basis: Recall and define waste, types and various sources of waste.
B) Practical Exercise and contextualization with situation.
- Collection of waste around the school campus
- Sort into biodegradable and non-biodegradable
- Dispose them at indicated site i.e biodegradable for compost and non-biodegradable
(papers) to burn, non-biodegradable (plastics, glass, metals) to burry.
MODULE 3: LET’S PROTECT OURSELVES FROM THE WRATH OF NATURE.

TOPIC: PROTECTION AGAINST THE WRATH OF NATURE.

Lesson 9: The Atmosphere.

A) Definition: The atmosphere refers to a thin blanket of gases (air) and tiny particles which
surrounds (envelope) the solid earth.
B) Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere has gases, liquids and solids as components.
i. Atmospheric gases: It comprises of the air found in the atmosphere. Some of these gases
have their volume (%) constant in the atmosphere and are called constant or fixed gases
while others varies (variable gases). The most common of these are Nitrogen (78%),
Oxygen (21%) and others such as Carbon dioxide and the rare or trace gases (1%).
ii. Atmospheric liquids: These are the water droplets floating in the atmosphere. This is

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part of the clouds we see in the atmosphere from the earth. The proportion is much in the
wet season than in the dry season and over water bodies than on landmasses.

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iii. Atmospheric solids: These are the particles of dust and smoke (soot) found in the
atmosphere and it makes up 0.000001% of the atmosphere. Other particles include salt
and ice crystals. They are more in the atmosphere during the dry season than in the rainy
season and over landmasses than over water bodies.
C) Structure of the atmosphere.
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i. Troposphere (0-16km): This is the first and lowest layer of the atmosphere. It is also
known as the weather layer or the weather sphere. Here, temperatures decrease with
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increase in height (Environmental Lapse Rate). This layer is separated from the next by
the Tropopause.
ii. Stratosphere (16-50km): This is the second layer of the atmosphere from the earth
surface. This layer contains the highest concentration of Ozone (Ozone layer).
Temperatures here increase with increase in height (Temperature Inversion). It is
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separated from the Mesosphere by the Stratopause.

iii. Mesosphere (50-80km): This is the third layer of the atmosphere. Temperature here falls
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rapidly with increase in height . it is separated from the Thermosphere by the Mesopause.
iv. Thermosphere (80-640km): This is the fourth and last layer of the atmosphere. It
contains ionosphere and the exosphere. Temperatures rise with increase in height. This is
the layer where many satellites orbit the earth
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 Importance of the Atmosphere.
- It is a temporal store for water that evaporates from the earth surface.
- Weather conditions takes place within the troposphere which determines most of our
activities especially agriculture.
- The ozone layer found in the stratosphere is very important as it contains the ozone gas
which absorbs most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
- The thermosphere is the layer where all television and radio shortwave transmission
signals pass.
D) Atmospheric Circulation (Winds and Pressure Belts).
1. Pressure Belts.
The force of air weighing down over unite of area is known or called atmospheric
pressure or air pressure.
A pressure belt is a large area on the surface of the earth stretching across several
latitudes and continents having the same atmospheric pressure.

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From the figure, the pressure belts include;

a. Equatorial Low pressure (doldrums) at latitude 00.
b. Sub-tropical high pressure (horse latitudes) around the tropics of cancer and Capricorn
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300 North and South.

c. Temperate (sub-polar) low pressure at latitude 600 North and South.
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d. Polar high pressure at the North and South poles (900).

 Pressure cells: This is a small area on the surface of the earth which has a different
atmospheric pressure from that of the surrounding areas. They occur in limited areas
within the pressure belts.
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2. Winds.
Air blowing (in motion) on the surface of the earth in a given direction is called wind.
The general movement of air (winds) from one part of the atmosphere to another is called
atmospheric motions or circulation. These movements are both vertical and horizontal.
There are two groups of winds
a) Planetary winds: These are large air masses that blow across large areas of the earth’s
surface. They blow mostly at the same speed, same direction and throughout the year.
They are also called prevailing winds and result from the combined effects of differences
in atmospheric pressure, the force of the earth’s rotation and the shape of the earth.
b) Local winds: These are winds that blow across a small area on the surface of the earth.
Their direction and speed changes with seasons and also between day and night. They are
caused by pressure cells, the nature of the surface of the earth, differences in heat
properties of land and water bodies. Examples of local winds are; land and sea breeze,
monsoon winds, mountain and valley winds, foehn or Chinook winds.

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Lesson 10: Atmospheric Disturbances

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A) Definition: It refers to any form of interruption, agitation or disruption of the steady
stable or equilibrium state of the atmosphere. It is also known as atmospheric instability.
B) Types of clouds. ES
Clouds are made of tiny drops of water or ice crystals that settle on dust particles in the
atmosphere. Clouds are generally classified into three groups with respect to height from
the surface of the earth. This includes;
i. High clouds (7-13km)
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- Cirrus clouds (Ci): They are made up of ice crystals, they are thin and whispy with silky
sheen and feathery filament appearance known as “mareas’ tails’. They usually appear
with no rain.
- Cirro-cumulus (Cc): They are also known as mackerel skies. They are thin layers of
small, globular masses with a rippled appearance. They don’t generate rainfall.
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- Cirrostratus (Cs): They are a thin, milky layer appearing like a veil. They are quite
translucent making it easy for the sun or moon to shine through them with a halo effect.
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They don’t bring rain.

- Cumulo-nimbus (Cb): It is an extreme vertical extension of the cumulus. It may develop
an “anvil” at its head and may became dark at its base. They bring heavy showers,
thunderstorm and hails.
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ii. Middle clouds (2-7km)

- Altocumulus (Ac): They are white-grey cloud usually resembling waves or lumps
separated by patches of blue sky. They are accompanied by small amounts of
precipitation.
- Altostratus (As):It is greyish, uniform sheet of clouds, largely featureless. They are
associated with occasional small amount of precipitation.
- Cumulus (Cu): They are detatched, white cloud with a pronounced flat base and sharp
outlines, which grows vertically and may resemble a cauliflower. They are associated
with scattered showers.
iv) Low clouds (Ground level).
- Stratus (St): It is a persistent, grey uniform sheet of cloud and contains water droplets
and the main form of precipitation is drizzle.
- Nimbostratus (Ns): It is a thick, dark grey-black cloud usually uniform but may have
detached, darker patches beneath it. It brings rain or snow.
- Stratocumulus (Sc): It is a grey-white patchy cloud appearing in long rows or in rolls. It
brings occasional showers.
C) Types of Disturbances.
1. Thunderstorm: A thunderstorm is a storm with lightning and thunder, produced by
cumulonimbus clouds, accompanied by gusty winds, heavy rain and sometimes hail.
2. Cyclones: This is an elliptical arrangement of isobars having low pressure at the centre
with a convergence of winds within them in an anti-clockwise direction. They are of two
types; temperate and tropical cyclones.
3. Tornadoes: A tornado is a violent, whirling wind that moves in a narrow path over land

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usually in a direction from southwest to northeast. They are mostly formed along fronts
during severe thunderstorms.

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4. Hurricanes: A hurricane is a large swirling low pressure system that forms over tropical
oceans between latitude 50-200 North where the water is quite warm.
5. Desert winds and Dust storms: Hot winds blow across many deserts and most are given
names. Across the Sahara desert, the winds are known as Leveche, Sirocco and Sharav.
D) Consequences.
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- High storms that occur in late August 2012 caused flooding which led to displacement of
over 88640 persons both in the North and Far North regions.
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- Drought and desertification in the North.
- Winds also blow maize causing them to be tilted to the direction of wind movement.
- Increase dryness increase the exploitation of marginal ecosystem.
- Shift of ecological zones.
- Lost of lives and properties.
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FURTHER STUDY 3: Atmospheric Disturbances in Cameroon.

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A) Definition: See definition of atmospheric disturbance from the lesson(10) above

B) Major types in Cameroon.
i. Thunderstorm: A thunderstorm is a storm with lightning and thunder. It is produced by
cumulonimbus clouds, accompanied by gusty winds, heavy rain and sometimes hail. The
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basic elements needed to make a thunderstorm are; moisture, unstable air and lift.
 Lightning: This is a bright flash of electricity produced by thunder. Lightning kills and
injures more people each year than hurricane or tornadoes. It is caused by collision osf
small ice or frozen raindrops in the atmosphere.
C) Manifestations.
- When the surface is intensely heated during the day, convection currents are produced
that causes convectional rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning.
- Mountain and valley winds also affect the weather of a place where they are found.
- The development of rain bearing clouds such as cumulonimbus clouds.
- The meeting of two air masses at a front produces frontal rainfall.
- The development of low pressure zones.
- Warm air masses from the coast ascending a mountain barrier producing relief rainfall.
D) Consequences
- Thunder and lightning causes bush fires.
- Winds also blow maize to be tilted to the direction of wind movement.
- It causes loss of lives and destruction of valuable properties like electrical appliances.
- Shift and destruction of ecological zones.
- They are usually accompanied by floods around coastal areas which in turn lead to the
displacement of people.

PRACTICAL WORK 9: Mechanism (Processes) of Rain Formation.

A) Theoretical basis:
Precipitation refers to all forms of condensation that reach the surface. It can be in solid,
liquid or gaseous form.
Forms of Precipitation.

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1. Snow: It is precipitation in the form of flakes of crystalline water i.e ice that fall from

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clouds. It has a white and fluffy structure and mostly common in the temperate and polar
regions of the world.
2. Hail: These are ice crystals that fall in rain during thunderstorms. They are formed when
small water droplets are caught in the uplift of a thunderstorm. These water droplets are
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lifted higher and higher into the sky until they freeze into ice, then eventually falls back.
3. Drizzle: It is a light precicpitation consisting of liquid water drops smaller than those of
rain i.e generally smaleer than 0.5mm (0.02) in diameter. It is formed in low stratiform
clouds and strato-cumulus clouds.
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4. Rain: This is liquid precipitation consisting of liquid water droplets of larger sizes which
develops when growing cloud droplets becomes too heavy to remain in the atmosphere as
such, falls towards the surface as rain. It is common in the tropical regions.
B) Practical Exercise: Draw step by step general diagrams for various types of rainfall.
There are three types of rainfall which are classified according to the different
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mechanisms that cause air to rise. They include;

i) Convectional rainfall: This is the type of rainfall that comes from much heating of the
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surface. This is by uplift by convectional currents. It is formed when sun heats the surface
thereby warming the air near it through the process of conduction. The warm air then
rises and reaches condensation level, it expands and cools leading to condensation and
forming clouds. The rain that falls from this is called convectional rainfall.
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ii) Orographic rainfall: This is rainfall that occurs in mountainous areas due to uplift of air
caused by a mountain barrier. It is formed when warm moist wind blow across the earth’s
surface and comes across a relief or mountain, its forced to rise up the slope of the
mountain. As it rises, it reaches lifting condensation, expands and cools leading to d
formation producing rain on the windward side of the relief. This type is common around
mountainous areas such as mount Cameroon, western highlands and the Adamawa
plateau.

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iii) Frontal or cyclonic rainfall: This is rain that comes from the meeting of two air masses
of different temperatures or characteristics. It is formed when two air masses (usually
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warm and cold air mass) meet at a point or boundary called a front. At the front, the
warm moist air which is light and less dense is forced to rise over the cold dry air. As the
warm air rises, it expands and cools at dew point leading to condensation and cloud
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formation and rainfall. This type of rainfall is called frontal or cyclonic rainfall.
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C) Contextualization with situation: Mount Cameroon area.

Lesson 11: Climate Change and Consequences

A) Definition: Climate change refers to a shift in the normal conditions of climate to an

undesirable state usually 30-35years. Climate on the other hand is the average weather
conditions over a place recorded over a long period of time.
B) General causes of climate change.
1. Variation in solar out i.e the amount of energy the sun radiates is variable.
2. Volcanic activity: Volcanic eruption has increased the amount of dust particles in the
inner atmosphere which absorb and scatter more incoming solar radiation.
3. Composition of the atmosphere: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap the heat that
radiates off the planet’s surface.
4. Plate tectonics: Plate movement have led to redistribution of land masses and to long
term effects on climate.
5. Changes in oceanic circulation: changes in oceanic circulation affect the exchange of heat
between the oceans and the atmosphere.
6. Meteorites: A major extinction event which included the dinosaurs, took place about
65million years ago. This seems to have caused a reduction in incoming radiation,
depletion of the ozone layer and a lowering of global temperatures.
7. Population pressure on land
8. Deforestation
9. Increase industrial activities.
C) Manifestations of climate change.
- Sea levels are rising, threatening coastal communities and estuarine ecosystems.

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- Overall glaciers are melting at a faster rate.
- The frequent and more severe occurrence of tropical storms due to warmer water ocean

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temperature.
- Droughts are becoming longer and more extreme around the world.
- Increase global temperature due to greenhouse gases trapping more heat in the
atmosphere.
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- Permafrost is melting, releasing methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere.
D) Consequences of climate change.
- Loss of biodiversity due to limited adaptability and loss of fauna.
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- Saline water intrusion in coastal areas.
- Shortage of water supply due to increase dryness.
- Unpredicted rainstorms and floods due to changing weather pattern.
- The spread of heat-loving vector borne diseases such as mosquitoes spreading malaria.
- Food shortage due to the extension of desert-like conditions into productive land.
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- Reduced rainfall amount and depletion of fresh water resources.

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Further Study 4: Climate Change and Consequences in Cameroon.

a) Manifestations
 Prevalence of drought conditions in the North and Far North regions of Cameroon.

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Increase occurrence of tropical storms e.g thunderstorms.

 Sea levels are rising, threatening coastal communities and estuarine ecosystems.
 Variation in rainfall patterns over the national territory.
 Less snowpack around mount Cameroon and other high altitude areas and the snow melts
faster.
b) Consequences
- Shortage of water supply due to increase dryness
- Reduction in malnutrition status.
- Lake chad has reduced in size from 2500km2 to 250km2 partly due to increase dryness.
- Advancement of desertification southwards.
- Poor human health affects agriculture
- Frost affect crops like tea in Ndu
- Increased morbidity and mortality
- Saline water intrusion in coastal areas like douala.
c) Adaptation strategies to climate change
 Increase forest conservation or developing wild life corridors
 Coastal defenses will help to check coastline vulnerable to sea level rise.
 Irrigate farmlands vulnerable to drought in other to increase soil moisture.
 Recycling of waste to reduce the spread of greenhouse gases.
 Studying weather patterns to target planting seasons.
 Developing a second generation of drought resistant GM crops.
d) Mitigation Strategies to climate change.
- Water basin transfer from river Ubangi in the Congo basin to the Lake Chad basin.
- Improve water supply especially in drier areas like the North of Cameroon.
- Developing disease and drought resistant crops through research.
- Defend and protect low lying areas from flooding.

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- Developing efficient ways of providing and preparing for extreme weather conditions
such as tropical storms.

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Lesson 12: Tectonic Movements

A) Internal structure of the earth. ES

Our knowledge about the interior of the earth has been derived from the movement of
earthquake waves and erupted volcanic materials. With this, it has come to our
knowledge that the earth is made up of three concentric layer separated from each other
by discontinuities. These layers are;
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1. The Crust: This is the outermost layer and the thinnest in nature. Its depth varies from
6km on the ocean bed to about 70km where there are highlands on the continents. The
crust is made up of solid rocks namely granite and basalts. The crust is also called the
lithosphere. It is divided into two i.e continental and oceanic. The continental crust is
made up of dry land and its rock minerals are light and are mainly silica and aluminum
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(SIAL) while the oceanic crust is heavier and dense comprising of minerals such as silica
and magnesium (SIMA). It is the crust that is divided into small and large segments called
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plates. The boundary separating the oceanic and continental crust is called the Conrad
discontinuity while the boundary separating the crust from the mantle is called the
Mohorovicic or Moho discontinuity.
2. The Mantle: This layer lies just below the crust. It is also called the Mesosphere. It has a
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depth of about 2900km and is made up of rocks which are in a semi liquid state i.e like
toothpaste formed from minerals such as Olivine. It is in the mantle that convection
currents are generated. The mantle is divided into two i.e upper and lower mantle. The
upper part of the mantle is called the Asthenosphere. The boundary between the core and
the mantle is called the Gutenburg discontinuity.
3. The Core: It is the centre of earth and it is the hottest zone. Its temperature is estimated at
55000C. The core is made up of minerals rich in iron and nickel (NIEF). It has two layers
which are the inner core, made up of dense ball of solid materials and the outer core made
up of molten materials.
B) Plates.
A plate is a rigid block or part of lithosphere which moves as a single unit over the
asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle). These plates of various plates are of different sizes

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and shapes. And of these sizes, there are seven major plates with many other minor plates.
The major plates include; North and South America, Africa, Eurasian, Pacific, Antarctic and

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the Indo-Australian plates. The minor plates are; Nazca, Juan de Fuca, Philippines, Arabian,
Cocos and Caribbean plates.
C) Plate Motions.
This refers to the constant but unnoticeable movement of tectonic or crustal plates. The point
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at which these plates move are called plate boundaries or margins. These are the active or
seismic portions of the earth. There are three types of plate margins as follows;
1. Divergent or Constructive plate boundaries: These are plate margins in which plates
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are moving away from each other. They are called constructive because new crust is
created by crustal materials deposited on the surface of the earth through cracks (faults)
created be separating plates. In the oceans, they produce mid ocean ridges e.g mid
Atlantic ridge, East pacific rise, etc. while in the continent they produce rift valleys e.g
red sea and East African rift.
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2. Convergent or destructive plate boundaries: These are plate margins where plates are
moving towards each other. They are called destructive because as the plates meet
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materials from the surface are forced into the interior of the earth through the process of
subduction along subduction zones. They either form fold mountains e.g Himalayas or
submarine trenches e.g Mariana trench.
3. Conservative plate boundaries: At conservative margins, plates slide pass each other.
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The relative movement is horizontal and classified as either Sinistral (to the left) or
dextral (to the right). Here, the lithosphere (crust) is neither created nor destroyed. They
are associated with shallow focus earthquakes. They are also called transform faults e.g
San Andreas fault in America.

Further Study 5: Theories of Earth Movements.

1. Isostacy theory: Isostacy is a theory that holds that the earth’s continental crust is in a
state of flotational balance with the denser lower layers. That is, it is a condition of balance in
which the continental crust floats on the SIMA and mantle.
2. Continental drift: This theory holds that all continents existed as on super large
landmass called Pangea in about 400 million years ago, surrounded by a super large ocean
Panthalassa. The super large continent later split into two continents Laurasia and
Gondwana land. Laurasia further splitted into North America, Europe Asia while Gondwana
broke to form Africa, Antarctica, South America, Australia and India giving rise to the
continents we have today. This theory was published by a German scientist called Alfred
Wegenar in 1912.
3. Plate Tectonics: The theory of plate tectonics is an idea that the outer solid layer of the
earth or lithosphere is divided into huge rigid blocks of various sizes and shapes called plates
which are slowly but constantly moving over the upper soft and flexible part of the mantle
called the asthenosphere. This can be referred to as the movement of plates or bending,
breaking and movement of blocks of the crust and the consequences on surface form. It was
established by McKenzie, Jason Morgan, Xavier Lepichon, Robert Parker, etc in 1960.

Lesson 13: Consequences of the Instability of the Earth’s Crust.

I) Earthquakes.
A) Definition: These are sudden vibrations or shaking of the earth’s crust producing

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elastic waves due to movements within the earth’s crust. These waves are known as seismic

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waves and are of two types i.e body waves and surface waves. The point where these waves
originate is called the Focus while the point directly above the focus found on the surface is
called Epicenter. Earthquakes are measured using a seismograph. There are three types of
earthquakes i.e shallow focus, intermediate focus and deep focus earthquakes.
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B) Causes of Earthquakes.
1. Plate tectonics: the movement of plates at their margins generates stresses and strains
which cause crustal rocks to suddenly rupture and dislodge causing the crust to vibrate.
2. Volcanism: The rumbling of magma in the mantle and the strain it exerts in an effort to
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force its way to the surface causes crustal rocks to fracture or rupture and vibrate causing
earthquakes.
3. Folding and Faulting: During folding and faulting, crustal rocks bend, twist, fracture and
tear. This causes the crustal rocks to be displaced producing shock waves.
4. Subsurface water injection: As water seeps into ancient faults, it lowers the confining
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pressure or frictional resistance between broken rock ends by lubrication and causes them
to slip suddenly triggering earthquakes.
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5. Isostatic readjustment: This involves the elastic rebound of rock material to its original
shape after it has been subjected to stress and deformation.
Other minor causes of earthquakes include; Nuclear testing, Damming, Mining and oil
drilling, movement of containers, etc.
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C) Mechanism of Earthquakes.
Earthquakes occur when pressure (inherent stress) which has built up within the crustal rocks
as a result of the slow movement of the crust over time, is suddenly released as the rocks
break. As the breakage occurs, there is sudden release of energy which sets up shove waves
of energy which travels outwards in all directions from the point of rupture or focus, shaking
the ground violently until the energy has been dissipated. When this occurs we talk of
earthquakes.
D) Consequences of earthquakes.
i. Consequences/Effects on the landscape.
- Rocks may be changed in character by frictional heat or by stress and strain creating new
lines of weakness.
- Tsunamis or huge sea waves caused by submarine earthquakes results in enormous
erosion and flooding of coastal areas.
- It may lead to uplifting, lowering and shifting of entire regions e.g 2002 in Turkey.
- It may trigger mass movements such as rock fall, landslides, avalanche leaving scars on
the slope.
- Huge ripples or waves cause land surface to bulge and crack.
ii. Consequences/Effects on the Human Environment.
- Destruction of buildings such as story buildings and those made of weak materials.
- Ruptured dams cause flooding downstream
- Gas and water pipes break up and cause fires as well as electricity cables.
- Roads, railways and bridges are often destroyed.
- Tsunamis or seismic sea waves also cause great destruction in property and loss of life
e.g Indian ocean tsunami of 26th December 2004 which killed over 250,000 people in
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand.

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- Landslides and other mass movements cause destruction of properties and loss of life.
II) Volcanism or Volcanicity.

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A) Definition: Volcanism is simply defined as the process by which solid, liquid and
gaseous materials called magma from the mantle (magma chamber or store) is forced into
the crust or unto the surface through fractures or vents. These vents or fractures are also
called Volcanoes. Thus a volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gases from
beneath the earth’s surface escape.
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B) Causes of Volcanism.
1. Plate tectonics: During plate movements at their margins, fractures and vents are created
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which favours the upward movement of magma causing it to rise to the surface.
2. Faulting: When crustal plates twist, break or shatter due to tensional forces from within
the crust, cracks, fissures and fractures are created which goes down to the magma
chamber leading to the upward movement of magma unto the surface.
C) Mechanism of Volcanicity.
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It begins with the formation of magma which takes place within the crust and in the upper
mantle. When solid rock under pressure is changed into liquid whenever pressure is
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released giving rise to formation of magma. Magma often has mixture of liquid (Oxygen
and Silicon molecules), solid (one or more minerals) and a gaseous part. This magma
usually collects in a large reservoir or magma chamber just a few kilometers below the
surface, which may then rise or forced into the crust above it or unto the surface. When is
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poured unto the surface, volcanic eruption or volcanism is said to occur. It can happen
relatively peacefully as lava or explosively as fragments but either of which depends on
the composition of the magma.
D) Consequences of volcanism
i. Positive.
- Volcanic ash weather to produce very fine soils, excellent for farming e.g around Mount
Cameron, Sicily and the western highlands of Cameroon.
- Volcanic rocks make good building stones.
- Volcanoes attract adventure tourists to visit sites such as Mount Cameroon.
- Geothermal energy e.g Iceland uses energy from volcanic water and stream to supply heat
and electricity.
ii. Negative
- Lava flow cover hectares of land leading to destruction of properties and loss of life.
- Gases sent out by explosive volcanoes causes the loss of life either through inhalation e.g
Lake Nyos disaster of 1986 which killed about 1700 people in Northwest region of
Cameroon.
- Pyroclastic falls results from explosion of tephra and gas which affects tens of thousands
of kilometers.
- Lahass or mudflow which is a mixture of ash and water travelling at great speed down the
mountain side is another hazard.

Practical Work 10: Manifestation of Seismic and Volcanic Activities in Cameroon.

A) Read and identify seismic and volcanic zones from a map

B) Locate zones of recent volcanic and seismic activities on a map
C) Contextualization with situation: Reactions to recent volcanic eruption in Cameroon.

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Further Study 6: What to do in case of an Earthquake or Volcanic Eruption

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(Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies).

A) Adaptation measures
i. Before the earthquake
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Make sure that heavy objects are not stored in high places.
 Secure water heaters all around and at the top and bottom.
 Bolt heavy furniture onto walls with bolts, screws or strap hinges.
 Replace halogen and incandescent light bulbs with fluorescent bulbs to lessen fire risk.
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 Everyone in the house should know how to off the gas line.
 Keep several fire extinguishers around the house to fight the small fires that might break
out.
 Do not plan on driving as roadways will likely be damaged.
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Any equipment that uses gas should be well secured.

 Check to see that gas lines are made of flexible material so that they do not rupture.
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ii. During the Earthquake

- If you are in a building, drop to the ground, get beneath a study table or desk, cover your
head and hold on.
- If the building is structuring unsound, get out as fast as possible and run into an open area
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away from buildings and power lines.

- If you are in a car, stay in the car and stay away from structures like buildings, bridges
that may collapse.
- Stay away from windows and mirrors as well as other large furniture that can fall on you.
iii. After the Earthquake.
 Be aware that aftershocks are like to occur.
 Turn off water and power to your home
 Avoid dangerous areas like hill sides that may experience landslide.
 Use your phone only if there is an emergency
 Be prepared to wait for help or instruction. Assist others as necessary.
B) Mitigation Strategies
o Installation of seismographs to monitor tremors.
o Wide range sensitization of the population.
o Restriction of settlements in risk prone areas.
o Setting up of an evacuation team.

Further Study 7: Other Agents of Catastrophes

1. Crickets: Crickets are omnivores and scavengers feeding on organic materials, as well as
decaying plant materials, fungi and seedling plants. They live under rocks and logs in
meadows, pastures and along roadsides. Field crickets live in leaf litter, under or near logs
or around damp places in gardens.
Manifestations
- They eat the roots and shoots of plants where they are found.
- Mole cricket tunneling and feeding damage looks like ugly or dead grass which are
typically replaced by weeds.
- Predators such as raccoons and birds may further dig up the turf to snack on the crickets.

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- They tunnel through the soil often close to the surface, severing grass roots and causing

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the earth to bulge upwards.
Consequences
- Male songs can be loud causing sound pollution.
- They produce great quantities of methane which helps to deplete the ozone layer.
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- They injure seedlings and large number can be destructive limiting the rate of plant
germination.
- They act as food for other animals
- Destroy builds especially those in wood or plank.
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- They break down plant material and renew soil materials.
Adaptation/Solution
- Seedlings are treated with chemicals before being planted
- Waste are recycled to reduce the spread of methane by crickets
- Building and construction materials are treated before use.
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- Chemicals such as insecticides, pesticides and herbicides used help to reduce cricket
population.
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- Crickets can also be limited when their habitats are known

- Monitoring their pattern of movement are periods of appearance.
2. Granivorous Birds: As these birds forage in and near agricultural fields, they are weed
and grain eaters destroying the natural and agricultural environment.
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Manifestations
- Birds feed on seed which affects plant germination.
- They also feed on and use plant leaf to make their nest all this affect plat growth.
Consequences
- Noise pollution
- Destroy vegetation
- Bird’s droppings destroy buildings and monuments.
- Destroy crops
- They are insect predators.
Adaptation/Solutions.
- Seedlings are treated with chemicals before being planted.
- Scar screw are planted in farms to scare away granivorous birds.
- Ropes from destroyed tape are used to scare away birds since they produce noise when
windy
- Bells are also hung in farms to scare away birds.
- Crops are protected with treated plastics and nets to prevent them from being destroyed
by birds.
3. Elephants: The elephant population in Cameroon exist in two groups. One group of
about 2000 elephants is found in the dry Northern Sahel savanna region specifically in
Kalamaloue and Waza parks in the Far North and Benue, Bouba Ndjida parks in the
North. The second group of about 18000 elephants resides in the densely forested region
of the South where human population numbers remain low.
Consequences.
- Destroy vegetation
- Causes famine especially when they resides in and near agricultural areas

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- Causes death of people through conflicts
- Reduce productivity

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- They destroy crops.
Adaptation/Solution
- Migratory patterns and needs of the existing elephant population.
- Hunting concessions exist around Benue and Bouba Ndjida parks.
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- Identify and institute a management plan that provides suitable, sustainable habitat for the
elephants.
- Efforts are been made to rehabilitate the sahel wetland by WWF and the IUCN to
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increase water and food for wildlife.
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