14 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

R3 R4

Mesh 3
Mesh
R1
4
+ Mesh R5
Mesh
vS 1 R2 2
_ iS
How many loops can you
identify in this four-mesh
circuit? (Answer: 15)

Figure 2.8 Definition of a mesh

Network Analysis
The analysis of an electrical network consists of determining each of the unknown
branch currents and node voltages. It is therefore important to define all the rele-
vant variables as clearly as possible and in systematic fashion. Once the known and
unknown variables have been identified, a set of equations relating these variables is
constructed, and these are solved by means of suitable techniques.
Before introducing methods for the analysis of electrical networks, we must
formally present some important laws of circuit analysis.

2.2 CHARGE, CURRENT, AND KIRCHHOFF’S

CURRENT LAW
The earliest accounts of electricity date from about 2,500 years ago, when it was
discovered that static charge on a piece of amber was capable of attracting very light
objects, such as feathers. The word electricity originated about 600 B.C.; it comes from
elektron, which was the ancient Greek word for amber. The true nature of electricity
was not understood until much later, however. Following the work ofAlessandro Volta
and his invention of the copper-zinc battery, it was determined that static electricity
and the current that flows in metal wires connected to a battery are due to the same
fundamental mechanism: the atomic structure of matter, consisting of a nucleus—
neutrons and protons—surrounded by electrons. The fundamental electric quantity
is charge, and the smallest amount of charge that exists is the charge carried by an
electron, equal to
qe = −1.602 × 10−19 C (2.1)
As you can see, the amount of charge associated with an electron is rather small.
This, of course, has to do with the size of the unit we use to measure charge, the
coulomb (C), named after Charles Coulomb. However, the definition of the coulomb
leads to an appropriate unit when we define electric current, since current consists of
the flow of very large numbers of charge particles. The other charge-carrying particle
in an atom, the proton, is assigned a plus sign and the same magnitude. The charge
of a proton is
Charles Coulomb (1736–1806).
Photograph courtesy of French
qp = +1.602 × 10−19 C (2.2)
Embassy, Washington, District of
Columbia. Electrons and protons are often referred to as elementary charges.
Electric current is defined as the time rate of change of charge passing through
a predetermined area. Typically, this area is the cross-sectional area of a metal
 Part I Circuits 15

wire; however, we explore later a number of cases in which the current-carrying

material is not a conducting wire. Figure 2.9 depicts a macroscopic view of the
flow of charge in a wire, where we imagine !q units of charge flowing through
the cross-sectional area A in !t units of time. The resulting current i is then
given by
Current i = dq/dt is generated by
the flow of charge through the
!q C cross-sectional area A in a
i= (2.3) conductor.
!t s
i
If we consider the effect of the enormous number of elementary charges actually
flowing, we can write this relationship in differential form:
A
dq C
i= (2.4) Figure 2.9 Current flow in
dt s an electric conductor

The units of current are called amperes, where 1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb/second
(C/s). The name of the unit is a tribute to the French scientist André-Marie Ampère.
The electrical engineering convention states that the positive direction of current flow
is that of positive charges. In metallic conductors, however, current is carried by neg-
ative charges; these charges are the free electrons in the conduction band, which are
only weakly attracted to the atomic structure in metallic elements and are therefore
easily displaced in the presence of electric fields.

EXAMPLE 2.1 Charge and Current in a Conductor

Problem
Find the total charge in a cylindrical conductor (solid wire) and compute the current flowing
in the wire.

Solution

Known Quantities: Conductor geometry, charge density, charge carrier velocity.

Find: Total charge of carriers Q; current in the wire I .

Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data:

Conductor length: L = 1 m.
Conductor diameter: 2r = 2 × 10−3 m.
Charge density: n = 1029 carriers/m3 .
Charge of one electron: qe = −1.602 × 10−19 .
Charge carrier velocity: u = 19.9 × 10−6 m/s.

Assumptions: None.

Analysis: To compute the total charge in the conductor, we first determine the volume of the
conductor:

Volume = length × cross-sectional area

! " #2 $
2 2 × 10−3
V = L × π r = (1 m) π m2 = π × 10−6 m3
2
16 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Next, we compute the number of carriers (electrons) in the conductor and the total charge:
Number of carriers = volume × carrier density
carriers
" #
N = V × n = π × 10−6 m3 1029 = π × 1023 carriers
% &
m3
Charge = number of carriers × charge/carrier
Q = N × qe = π × 1023 carriers
% &

C
" #
× −1.602 × 10−19 = −50.33 × 103 C
carrier
To compute the current, we consider the velocity of the charge carriers and the charge density
per unit length of the conductor:
Current = carrier charge density per unit length × carrier velocity
Q C m( 3 C m(
" # ' " #'
I= × u = −50.33 × 10 19.9 × 10−6 = −1 A
L m s m s
Comments: Charge carrier density is a function of material properties. Carrier velocity is a
function of the applied electric field.

i = Current flowing
in closed circuit In order for current to flow, there must exist a closed circuit.

Light- Figure 2.10 depicts a simple circuit, composed of a battery (e.g., a dry-cell or
+
bulb alkaline 1.5-V battery) and a lightbulb.
1.5-V
battery 1.5 V
Note that in the circuit of Figure 2.10, the current i flowing from the battery to
– the lightbulb is equal to the current flowing from the lightbulb to the battery. In other
words, no current (and therefore no charge) is “lost” around the closed circuit. This
principle was observed by the German scientist G. R. Kirchhoff 1 and is now known as
i Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). Kirchhoff’s current law states that because charge
Figure 2.10 A simple cannot be created but must be conserved, the sum of the currents at a node must equal
electric circuit zero. Formally,

i Node 1
N
)
in = 0 Kirchhoff’s current law (2.5)
➲
LO2
i1 i2 i3 n=1

+
Battery The significance of Kirchhoff’s current law is illustrated in Figure 2.11, where the
1.5 V
– simple circuit of Figure 2.10 has been augmented by the addition of two lightbulbs
(note how the two nodes that exist in this circuit have been emphasized by the shaded
i
areas). In this illustration, we define currents entering a node as being negative and
Node 2
Illustration of KCL at
node 1: –i + i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 1 GustavRobert Kirchhoff (1824–1887), a German scientist, published the first systematic description of
Figure 2.11 Illustration of the laws of circuit analysis. His contribution—though not original in terms of its scientific
Kirchhoff’s current law content—forms the basis of all circuit analysis.
 Part I Circuits 17

currents exiting the node as being positive. Thus, the resulting expression for node 1
of the circuit of Figure 2.11 is

−i + i1 + i2 + i3 = 0

Note that if we had assumed that currents entering the node were positive, the result
would not have changed.
Kirchhoff’s current law is one of the fundamental laws of circuit analysis,
making it possible to express currents in a circuit in terms of one another. KCL is
explored further in Examples 2.2 through 2.4.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law Applied to an Automotive

➲
LO2
Electrical Harness

Problem
Figure 2.12 shows an automotive battery connected to a variety of circuits in an automobile.
The circuits include headlights, taillights, starter motor, fan, power locks, and dashboard panel.
The battery must supply enough current to independently satisfy the requirements of each of
the “load” circuits. Apply KCL to the automotive circuits.

(a)

Ibatt
Ihead Itail Istart Ifan Ilocks Idash
+
Vbatt
–

(b)

Figure 2.12 (a) Automotive circuits; (b) equivalent electric circuit

18 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Solution

Known Quantities: Components of electrical harness: headlights, taillights, starter motor,

fan, power locks, and dashboard panel.

Find: Expression relating battery current to load currents.

Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data: Figure 2.12.

Assumptions: None.

Analysis: Figure 2.12(b) depicts the equivalent electric circuit, illustrating how the current
supplied by the battery must divide among the various circuits. The application of KCL to the
equivalent circuit of Figure 2.12 requires that
Ibatt − Ihead − Itail − Istart − Ifan − Ilocks − Idash = 0

➲
LO2 EXAMPLE 2.3 Application of KCL
Problem
Determine the unknown currents in the circuit of Figure 2.13.
Node a

I0 I1 I2 Solution

Known Quantities:
IS = 5 A I1 = 2 A I2 = −3 A I3 = 1.5 A
Find: I0 and I4 .
Node b
Analysis: Two nodes are clearly shown in Figure 2.13 as node a and node b; the third node in the
circuit is the reference (ground) node. In this example we apply KCL at each of the three nodes.
I3 I4 At node a:
IS
I0 + I1 + I2 = 0
VS I0 + 2 − 3 = 0
∴ I0 = 1 A
Note that the three currents are all defined as flowing away from the node, but one of the
currents has a negative value (i.e., it is actually flowing toward the node).
Figure 2.13 Demonstration At node b:
of KCL IS − I3 − I4 = 0
5 − 1.5 − I4 = 0
∴ I4 = 3.5 A
Note that the current from the battery is defined in a direction opposite to that of the other two
currents (i.e., toward the node instead of away from the node). Thus, in applying KCL, we
have used opposite signs for the first and the latter two currents.
At the reference node: If we use the same convention (positive value for currents entering
the node and negative value for currents exiting the node), we obtain the following equations:
−IS + I3 + I4 = 0
−5 + 1.5 + I4 = 0
∴ I4 = 3.5 A