Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir

Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoirs, or unconventional

resources (resource plays) are accumulations where oil & gas
phases are tightly bound to the rock fabric by strong capillary
forces, requiring specialised measures for evaluation and
extraction.[1]

Conventional reservoir
Schematic unconventional reservoir
Oil and gas are generated naturally at depths of around 4 or 5 kms classification expressed as fluid
below Earth’s surface.[a] Being lighter than the water, which energy vs flow potential based on
saturates rocks below the water table, the oil and gas percolate up initials without stimulation
through aquifer pathways towards Earth's surface (through time)
by buoyancy. Some of the oil and gas percolate all the way to the
surface as natural seepages, either on land or on the sea floor. The rest remain trapped underground
where the oil and gas are prevented from reaching the surface by geological barriers,[b] in a range of
trap geometries. In this way, underground pockets of oil & gas accumulate by displacing water in
porous rock, which, if permeable, are referred to as conventional reservoirs. A well drilled into these
reservoirs normally flow oil and gas through natural buoyancy, driven to the well bore where pressure
differences are relatively high.[c] Where the pressures are low, flow can be assisted with pumps (e.g.
nodding donkeys).[2]

History
In the early days of the oil industry, there was no need for
stimulation to improve recovery efficiency, because supply vastly
outstripped demand and leaving "difficult" oil in the ground was
economically expedient.[3] Two world wars, followed by huge
economic growth resulted in surging demand for cheap portable
Schematic cross-section of general
energy,[4] while the availability of new conventional oil and gas
types of oil and gas resources
resources declined.[5][6][d] The industry initially sought to enhance featuring unconventional as well as
recovery of trapped oil and gas, using techniques like restricted, or conventional reservoirs
low volume hydraulic fracturing to stimulate the reservoir
further,[e] thereby reducing the volume of oil and gas left in the
ground to an economic minimum.[7][f] By the turn of the millennium, a new kind of energy resource
was required, particularly by the USA, who were driven to achieve energy independence. The USA
turned to unconventional reservoirs to achieve their goals,[8] which had been known about for
decades but had previously been too costly to be economically attractive. Today, unconventional
reservoirs include basin-centered gas, shale gas, coalbed methane (CBM), gas hydrates, tar sands,
light tight oil and oil shale, mostly from North America.[9][10]

Essential differences between conventional and

unconventional reservoirs
The distinction between conventional and unconventional resources reflects differences in the
qualities of the reservoir and/or the physical properties of the oil and gas (i.e. permeability and/or
viscosity).[11][12][13] These characteristics significantly impact predictability (risk to find, appraise and
develop) and in turn the methods of extraction from those reservoirs such as fracking.

Conventional oil & gas accumulations are concentrated by buoyancy driven aquifer pathways into
discrete geological traps, which are detectable from the surface. These traps constitute relatively small
but high resource density fields. Most conventional oil or gas fields initially flow naturally by
buoyancy alone into the well bore, with their limits defined by fluid mechanics measurable from the
well bore (e.g. fluid pressure, OWC/GWC etc.). In general, the technical and commercial risk
associated with discrete conventional reservoirs can be reduced using relatively inexpensive remote
techniques such as reflection seismology and extracted with relatively few appraisal and development
wells.[2]

Unconventional reservoirs, in contrast, are regionally dispersed over large areas with no indicative
trap geometry that can be used for predictive purposes. The oil and gas in unconventional reservoirs
are generally low density resources, frequently trapped in the rock by strong capillary forces incapable
of flowing naturally through buoyancy.[14] The limits of an unconventional field are therefore usually
defined by relatively expensive well testing for delivery. Extraction from unconventional reservoirs
requires changing the physical properties of the reservoir, or the flow characteristics of the fluid,[g]
using techniques such as fracking or steam injection. The technical and commercial risk associated
with unconventional reservoirs is generally higher than conventional reservoirs owing to the lack of
predictability of the trap extent and of the reservoir quality, which requires extensive well placement
and testing to determine the economic reserves/well limit defined by well delivery.[1][h]
 Main Min
Reservoir Phase Density[D 1] Flow[i]
predictors[D 2] extraction[D 3]
Well bore
Oil &
Conventional[D 4] gas
high buoyancy pressure;Reflection Well bore
seismic

Basin-centered well bore

gas low capillary drilling
gas [D 5] (fracking)

well bore
Shale gas[D 6] gas low capillary drilling
(fracking)

Coalbed well bore (de-

gas high adsorption drilling
Methane [D 7] pressurisation)

Gas ? Reflection seismic; ?mining/well

gas high
hydrates[D 8] buoyancy? drilling bore?

Tar sands [D 9] oil high ?capillary? drilling/mining steam flood

Light Tight well bore

oil low capillary drilling
Oil[D 10] (fracking)

retort (sub
Oil shales[D 11] oil high bonded mining
mature)

Environmental differences

As with all forms of fossil fuel, there are established issues with greenhouse gas emissions through
export (distribution) as well as consumption (combustion), which are identical whether the oil or gas
are derived from conventional or unconventional reservoirs.[15] Their carbon footprints, however, are
radically different: conventional reservoirs use the natural energy in the environment to flow oil and
gas to the surface unaided; unconventional reservoirs require putting energy into the ground for
extraction, either as heat (e.g. tar sands and oil shales) or as pressure (e.g. shale gas and CBM). The
artificial transfer of heat and pressure require the use of large volumes of fresh water creating supply
and disposal issues. The distribution of the resource over large areas creates land use issues, with
implications for local communities on infrastructure, freight traffic and local economies. Impact on
the environment is an unavoidable consequence of all human activity but the difference between the
impact of conventional reservoirs compared with unconventional is significant, measurable and
predictable.[16][17]

See also
Source rock
Energy portal
Petroleum trap
Fracking in the United States
Environmental impact of fracking
Coalbed methane
Methane clathrate (gas hydrate)
Shale gas
Synthetic natural gas, such as oil shale gas
Tight gas
Oil sand
 Tight oil
Extreme energy
Renewable energy
Future energy development
Hubbert peak
Energy development
Alternative fuels
World energy resources and consumption
Oil megaprojects

References and notes

1. SPE (2018). Petroleum Resource Management System (revised June 2018) (1.01 ed.). Society of
Petroleum Engineers. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-61399-660-7.
2. Gluyas, Jon; Swarbrick, Richard (2004). Petroleum Geoscience. UK, USA & Australia: Blackwell
Publishing. pp. i-350. ISBN 978-0-632-03767-4.
3. "Oil Glut, Price Cuts: How Long Will They Last?". U.S. News & World Report. Vol. 89, no. 7. 18
August 1980. p. 44.
4. Black, Brian C. (2012). Crude Reality: Petroleum in World History. New York: Rowman &
Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742556546.
5. "Michael Lynch Hubbert Peak of Oil Production" ([Link]
[Link]. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
6. Campbell, CJ (2005). Oil Crisis. Brentwood, Essex, England: Multi-Science Pub. Co. p. 90.
ISBN 0-906522-39-0.
7. Hyne, Norman J. (2001). Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and
Production ([Link] PennWell Corporation. pp. 431 (h
ttps://[Link]/details/nontechnicalguid00hyne/page/n447)–449. ISBN 9780878148233.
8. US Energy Information Administration, Natural gas data ([Link]
accessed March 21, 2014.
9. Erbach, Gregor. "Unconventional gas and oil in North America" ([Link]
egData/bibliotheque/briefing/2014/140815/LDM_BRI%282014%29140815_REV1_EN.pdf) (PDF).
EPRS In-depth analysis. European Parliamentary Research Service.
10. Anon (17 November 2012). "Leader:America's oil bonanza" ([Link]
012/11/17/americas-oil-bonanza). The Economist Newspaper Limited. The Economist. Retrieved
20 November 2022.
11. Bear, Jacob, 1972. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Dover. ISBN 0-486-65675-6
12. Tissot, B.P.; Welte, D.H. (1984). Petroleum Formation and Occurrence. p. 476. doi:10.1007/978-3-
642-87813-8 ([Link] ISBN 978-3-642-87815-2.
13. Cander, Harris (2012). "Abstract:What Are Unconventional Resources? A Simple Definition Using
Viscosity and Permeability" ([Link]
ndx_cander). AAPG - Poster Presentation Annual Convention and Exhibition. Retrieved
24 November 2022.
14. Zee Ma, Y; Holditch, Stephen A. (2016). Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources Handbook
Evaluation and Development. Elsevier Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-802238-2.
15. United Nations. "IPCC Sixth Assessment Report" ([Link] IPCC.
United Nations. Retrieved 24 November 2022.
16. Ahlbrandt, Thomas S.; Charpentier, Ronald R.; Klett, T.R.; Schmoker, James W.; Schenk,
Christopher J.; Ulmishek, Gregory F. (2005). Global Resource Estimates from Total Petroleum
Systems. American Association of Petroleum Geologists. ISBN 0891813675.
17. "Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale
Formations in 41 Countries Outside the United States" ([Link]
halegas/pdf/[Link]) (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). June 2013.
Retrieved 11 June 2013.

Notes
a. or as little as 2-3 kms for thermogenic gas, depending on the Geothermal gradient of Earth's crust,
which varies at different locations; less common biogenic methane forms at much shallower
depths
b. where the capillary entry pressures are higher than the buoyancy pressure of the oil and gas
c. when oil reaches its bubble point and gas is exsolved, the natural expansion of gas on ascent
creates additional energy to lift fluids in the borehole to the surface much faster than by buoyancy
alone, which, if not controlled, can lead to a blowout
d. the expression "conventional resources" refers to oil or gas derived from conventional reservoirs
e. restricted hydraulic fracturing (aka fracking or fraccing) compensates for formation damage in
proximity to the well bore, whereas pervasive or high volume fraccing penetrates deep into the
surrounding rock strata. Fraccing works by allowing oil or gas to flow to the well-bore by opening
fracture pathways through impermeable rock
f. the costs of enhancing recovery are high
g. e.g. tar sands and immature oil shales
h. risking for conventional reservoirs is primarily in finding the resource; in unconventional, it is
finding a quality resource, defining the resource limits (measured by the EUR per well), which
means the well itself defines the extent of commercial viability
i. main influences on fluid dynamics

Abbreviated definitions
1. resource density defined here as the concentration of oil or gas by unit area because it
determines the number of wells needed for efficient extraction
2. tool or technique for evaluating the extent and limits of an oil or gas resource
3. technique for extracting the minimum amount of oil or gas
4. defined as porous or naturally fractured rock formations where percolating oil or gas have
migrated into geological traps
5. defined as natural gas held by capillary forces in low-permeability non-fissile rock
6. defined as natural gas held by capillary forces in low-permeability, typically fissile, mudrock
7. defined as natural gas adsorbed into the solid matrix of low-permeability coal seams
8. defined as natural gas held as methane hydrate on the seabed, in ocean and deep lake
sediments and permafrost regions trapped in hydrogen bonded, frozen water molecules
9. defined as viscous oil held by capillary forces in unconsolidated sediments containing mixtures of
sand, clay and water
10. also known as tight oil or shale oil, is defined as light crude oil contained within restricted pore
space of low permeability sedimentary rock
11. defined as a fine-grained sedimentary rock rich in thermally immature organic material, which
requires industrial processing (retorting) to distill oil from the rock

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