ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY

College of Education

Name: John Napoleon G. Florita Date Embark: June 12, 2023

Subject: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

APA DOCUMENTS ON LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH

● LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES:

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective,
developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from children to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our
educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process.

- The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience. There are
different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive
skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from
information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners
are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for
contributing to their own learning. The principles set forth in this document focus
on this type of learning.
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2. Goals of the learning process.

- The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of [Link] strategic
nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies
necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must
generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term
goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding
can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge.
- The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build
links between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge
base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to,
modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made
or developed may vary in different subject areas and among students with
varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge
becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this
new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks,
and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners in
acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been
shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping
and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking.
- The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic
thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem-solving, and concept
learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided
instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate
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models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in

developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking.

- Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they think
and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially
appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward
these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs
or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on
helping learners develop these higher-order (metacognitive) strategies can
enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning.
- Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a
major interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural
or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.
Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of
prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and learning and thinking strategies. The
classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can
also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.

- What and how much is learned is influenced by motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits of thinking. The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals,
and expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner's
quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves
as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation.
Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive
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emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning

and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g.,
worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with
learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.

- The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice
and control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major
indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a
function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal
control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and
difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and
support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to
individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort.

- Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion. The effort is another major indicator of
motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands
the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with
persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating
motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning
and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective
strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase
learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
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Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning.

- As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when the material is appropriate to their developmental
level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual
development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on
one type of developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for
example--may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable
in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development
of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental
involvement in schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way
communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among
children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning.

- Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity,
encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and
collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for
perspective-taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of
cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality
personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase
learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a
positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support,
and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with
optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue
pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the
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context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and
create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning.

- Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that
are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and
develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social
acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn
and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always
useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help
students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if
necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also
need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences
are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and diversity.

- Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and
social backgrounds are taken into account. The same basic principles of
learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners. However,
language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence
learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances
the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment.

- Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
as well as learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment -- are integral parts of the learning process. The assessment
provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
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learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to
work towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's
cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is
important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of
difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about
progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner
progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about
achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other
sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes.
Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students' self-appraisal
skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

* The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the research

supporting that principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of the Task Force and
Work Group members facilitated an examination of each principle from a number of
different research perspectives.

MODULE 1 - LEARNING

● Learning is a process through which experiences cause permanent changes in

knowledge and behavior (Woolfolk, 2004)
● Changes resulting from learning are in the individual knowledge or behavior

The Learning Process

● BEHAVIORAL- Views of Learning

● COGNITIVE- Explanations of Learning
● HUMANIST- Approaches to Learning
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WE LEARN...(William Glasser’s Theory)

● 10% of what we read...
● 20% of what we hear...
● 30% of what we see...
● 50% of what we see and hear...
● 70% of what we discuss with others...
● 80%of what we experience personally...

Ways of Acquiring Knowledge

1. By reason and logic (perhaps in cooperation with others, using logical argument)
2. By mathematical proof
3. By the scientific method
4. By the trial and error method
5. By learning from experience
6. By intuition (getting them from the subconscious)
7. By an argument from authority
8. By listening to the testimonies of other people
9. By observing the world in its “natural state”
10. By acquiring knowledge that is embedded in one’s own language

General Types of knowledge

● Domain-specific Knowledge
- information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one
specific topic
● General knowledge
- information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies
to many situations

OTHER KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE

● Declarative- knowledge that can be declared through words and symbol

systems of all kinds – sign language, math symbols, musical notation, braille, etc
● Procedural –knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task. “knowing
how” to do something such as divide fractions
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● Conditional- “knowing when and why” to use declarative and procedural

knowledge; when to give up and try another approach; when to skim and when to
read carefully

METACOGNITION

- JOHN HURLEY FLAVELL

“Thinking about thinking”

- It is the process of developing self-awareness and the ability to self-assess.

- Metacognition is the knowledge and awareness one has of their own thinking
processes and strategies and the ability to evaluate and regulate one’s own
thinking processes.

Three categories of Metacognitive knowledge

● Person Variables (DECLARATIVE) include how one views himself as a learner
and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how
human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of
ones own learning process.
● Task variables (PROCEDURAL) include knowledge about the nature of the task
as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual.
“knowing what needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the
kind of effort it will demand from you.
● Strategy variables (CONDITIONAL) involve the awareness of the strategy you
are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.

“The important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on their own”.

Metacognitive strategies to facilitate learning

Have students monitor their own learning and thinking (dyad sharing/ peer tutor)

Teach students study or learning strategies:

1. TQLR – can be taught to younger students before listening to a story or presentation
T – tune in
Q – question
L – listen
R - Remember
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2. PQ4R – for older students which may aid them in studying a unit or chapter.
P –Preview
Q-Question
R –Read
R- Recite
R – Review
R- Reflect

Metacognitive strategies to facilitate learning

● Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based
on what they have read.
● Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures
● Have students develop questions
● Help students to know when to ask for help
● Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values & skills.

6 routines for metacognition for young children

1. What Makes You Say That? Interpretation with justification routine.

2. Think Puzzle Explore. A routine that sets the stage for deeper inquiry.
3. Think Pair Share. A routine for active reasoning and explanation.
4, Circle of Viewpoints. A routine for exploring diverse perspectives.
5. I used to Think... Now I think... A routine for reflecting on how and why our thinking
has changed.
6. See Think Wonder. A routine for exploring works of art and other interesting things.

Metacognitive Strategies for older learners

1. Ask Questions. Ask questions that allow learners to reflect on their own learning
processes and strategies. In collaborative learning, ask them to reflect on the role they
play when problem-solving in teams.
2. Foster Self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and
after learning experiences.
3. Encourage Self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to
generate their own questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The
questions can be related to meeting their personal goals
4. Teach Strategies Directly. Teach appropriate metacognitive strategies as a part of a
training course.
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5. Promote Autonomous Learning. When learners have some domain knowledge,

encourage participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be forced to
construct their own metacognitive strategies.
6. Provide Access to Mentors. Many people learn best by interacting with peers who
are slightly more advanced. Promote experiences where novices can observe the
proficient use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies of their
mentors.
7. Solve Problems with a Team: Cooperative problem-solving can enhance
metacognitive strategies by discussing possible approaches with team members and
learning from each other.
8. Think Aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while
performing a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner can then point out errors in thinking
or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness during learning.
9. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve
their comprehension of a difficult subject.
10. Provide Opportunities for Making Errors. When learners are given the
opportunity to make errors while in training, such as during simulations, it stimulates
reflection on the causes of their errors.

Differences between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learner Expert Learner

Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in the ● Have more profound

subject areas different subject areas. knowledge in the
different areas because
they look for
interrelationships in the
things they learn

Problem-Solving Satisfied at just scratching the ● First try to understand

surface; hurriedly gives a solution the problem, look for
to a problem. boundaries, and create
a mental picture of the
problem.

Learning/Thinking Employ rigid strategies that may ● Design new strategies

strategies not be appropriate to the task at that would be
hand appropriate to the task
at hand.
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Selectivity in processing Attempt to process all ● Select important

information they receive information to process;
able to break down
information into
manageable chunks.

Production of Output Does not examine the quality of ● Check their errors and
their work, nor stop to make redirect their efforts to
revisions maintain quality output.

Three Components Of The Educative Process

1. Learner- the center of any educative process.

2. Learning Process- how the learner learns.
3. Learning Situation- Factors affecting the learning process (noise, ventilation,
lighting, etc.)

Teacher-Centered Approach
● Formal Authority
● Expert
● Personal Model
Learner-Centered Approach
Inquiry-Based Learning
● Facilitator
● Personal Model
● Delegator
Cooperative Learning
● Facilitator
● Delegator
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MODULE 2- LEARNING THEORIES

Based on Principles 10 & 11 of learner-centered principles

● As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differentiated development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
● Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT
● Change in the child that occurs over time.
● Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and
enhances survival.

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT:
● Prenatal period: from conception to birth
● Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
● Early childhood: 2-6 years old
● Middle childhood: 6-12 years old

THEORIES
● Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict behavior.

Why are theories important?

● To give meaning to what we observe.
● As a basis for action -- finding ways to improve the lives and education of
children.

20TH CENTURY
Theories about children's development expanded around the world.
● Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.
● Laws were passed to protect children's

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
● Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. according to this approach, children
move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and
social expectations.
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MODULE 3- DIVERSITY OF LEARNERS

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLES ON DIVERSITY

12. Individual differences in learning – Learners have different strategies,

approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity – Learning is most effective when differences in linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.

HOW STUDENTS' DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

● Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity

● Student diversity contributes to cognitive development
“The classroom is a peculiarly the marketplace of ideas”-William Brennan.

● It prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society.

● It can promote harmony

WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO?

● Encourage learners to share their personal histories and experiences.
● Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students'
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
● Identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences. Every human is at the
same time, like all other humans, like some humans and like no other human” –
Kluckholn, C.
● Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups ( questioning
techniques and calling students by name).
● Use varied instructional methods to accommodate students’ diversity in learning
styles.
● Vary the example that you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
● Allow personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they
will learn and how they will learn it.
● Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
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FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY

1. Socioeconomic Status
- The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle-income or lower-income
2. Thinking/Learning Style
- Some of you learn better by seeing something; others by just listening; and still
others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities

THE VAK MODEL

VISUAL
1. Visual iconic
2. Visual symbolic

● Mind sometimes strays during ● Finds verbal instruction difficult

verbal activities ● Has good handwriting
● Observes rather than acts or ● Remember faces
talks ● Uses advanced planning
● Likes to read ● Doodles
● Usually a good speller ● Quiet by nature
● Memorizes by seeing graphics or ● Meticulous, neat in appearance
pictures ● Notices details
● Not too distractible

AUDITORY
1. Listeners
2. Talkers

● Talks to self loud ● Enjoys music

● Enjoys talking ● Whispers to self while reading
● Easily distracted ● Distracted by noise
● Has difficulty with written ● Hums or sings
directions ● Outgoing by nature
● Likes to be read to ● Enjoys listening activities
● Memorizes sequentially
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KINESTHETIC
●
● Likes physical reward ● Poor speller
● In motion most of the time ● Likes to solve problems by
● Likes to touch when people are physically working through them
talking ● Will try new things
● Taps pencil or foot when ● Outgoing by nature; expresses
studying emotions by physical means
● Enjoys doing activities ● Uses hands while talking
● Reading not a priority ● Dresses for comfort

Learning Style Type of learner Learning preference

ACTIVISTS Hands on Trial and error

REFLECTORS Tell me Briefed before proceeding

THEORISTS Convince me Clarity “does this make

sense”

PRAGMATISTS Show me Likes an expert to

demonstrate
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TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Diverging (Concrete Experience/Reflective Observation)
● Hands-on activities and the opportunity to explore
● Classic teacher-class lecture that highlights how to use a system as well as its
strengths and weaknesses.

2. Assimilating (Abstract Conceptualization/Reflective Observation)

● Independent, prepared exercises that the learner can complete without the
instructor
● Classic teacher-class lecture supported by an audio or video presentation
● Private exploration or demonstration that follows a tutorial, with answers
provided.

3. Converging (Abstract Conceptualization/Active Experimentation)

● Workbooks or worksheets that provide problem sets
● Tasks that are computer-based
● Interactive activities.

4. Accommodating (Concrete Experience/Active Experimentation)

● Activities that allow them to be actively engaged
● Exploration and instructor support for deeper questioning, such as “what if?” or
“Why not?”
● Tasks that promote independent discovery.

WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
● The capacity to acquire knowledge, the ability to think and reason in the abstract,
and the capacity of solving problems (Sternberg, 1986)
● Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and
adapting to the world (Woolfolk, 2004)

INTELLIGENCE AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT

● Alfred Binet (1904). Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well, and
reason well.
● Charles Spearman (1924). Intelligence consisted of (g)general factors and
(s)specific factors
● Louis Leon Thurstone (1935). Intelligence consisted of 7 primary abilities
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● Arthur Jensen (1979). Intelligence is hierarchical (Level 1 and Level 2)

● J.P Guilford(1967) Intelligence is viewed as comprising of operations, contents,
and products.

RAYMOND CATTEL AND JOHN HORN’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

FLUID INTELLIGENCE – is mental efficiency that is essentially culture free and

non-verbal.
● This increases until adolescence and then gradually decreases in adulthood.
● Grounded on brain development

CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE – the ability to apply culturally approved

problem-solving methods.
● Can increase throughout the life span because it includes the learned skills and
knowledge

ROBERT STERNBERG

● An American psychologist and psychometrician. He is Professor of Human

Development at Cornell University. Sternberg has a BA from Yale University and
a Ph.D. from Stanford University.
● December 8, 1949 (age 72 years), Newark, New Jersey, United States
● Known for Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, triarchic theory of love and three
process view. research interests are in intelligence, creativity, wisdom, thinking
styles, leadership, love, jealousy, envy, and hate.
● American Psychological Association listed Robert Sternberg as one of the top
100 psychologists of the twentieth century.
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TRIARCHIC TEACHING IS EASY TO DO. THE MAIN PRINCIPLES ARE SIMPLE:

● Some of the time, teach analytically, helping students learn to analyze, evaluate,
compare and contrast, critique, and judge.
● Some of the time, teach creatively, helping students learn to create, invent,
imagine, discover, explore, and suppose.
● Some of the time, teach practically, helping students learn to apply, use, utilize,
contextualize, implement, and put into practice.
● Some of the time, enable all students to capitalize on their strengths. Most of the
time enables all students to correct or compensate for their weaknesses.
● Make sure your assessments match your teaching, calling upon analytical,
creative, and practical as well as memory skills.
● Value the diverse patterns of abilities in all students.

WHO IS HOWARD GARDNER?

● Born on July 11, 1943, in Scranton, Pennsylvania. a studious child who gained
much pleasure from playing the piano.“
● He completed his post-secondary education at Harvard, earning his
undergraduate degree in 1965 and his Ph.D. in 1971.
● He was inspired by Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson
● "My mind was really opened when I went to Harvard College and had the
opportunity to study under individuals—such as psychoanalyst Erik
● Erikson, sociologist David Riesman, and cognitive psychologist Jerome
Bruner—who were creating knowledge about human beings. That helped set me
on the course of investigating human nature, particularly how human beings
think,“
● In 1983, he published his book Frames of Mind which outlined his Multiple
Intelligences Theory

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Gardner's Theory of Eight Bits of Intelligence

- From Verbal Intelligence to Naturalist Intelligence

• Verbal Skills • Musical Skills

• Mathematical Skills • Interpersonal Skills
• Spatial Skills • Intrapersonal Skills
• Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills • Naturalist Skills
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APPLYING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE IN TEACHING & LEARNING

• Get to Know Your Students Better
• Expand Upon Traditional Activities
1. Linguistic (Writing scripts, making videos, or designing a brochure are other
good activities for this intelligence)
2. Logical-Mathematical ( debate, Ask students to function the way a real-life
scientist does – using logic and/or math to solve a problem or propose a
hypothesis.)
3. Bodily-Kinesthetic (act out a skit, do a dance, or physically simulate a scientific
process. Use manipulatives in math, have them build a model with clay, or create
a collage about an important concept.)
4. Visual-Spatial (draw a diagram, illustrate a group project, or develop a
PowerPoint presentation)
5. Musical (create a rap song about their subject or make connections between
sound/music and the information you are teaching, create a podcast)
6. Interpersonal ( discussion or group works)
7. Intrapersonal (Blogs, journals, and essays on personal topics, personal
portfolio)
8. Naturalistic ( field trips or project-based learning)

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Daniel Goleman
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MODELS AND MEASURES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

1. Ability Models: Mayer and Salovey (1997) Four-Branch Model of EI
- This model proposes that four fundamental
emotion-related abilities comprise EI:
(1) perception/expression of emotion,
(2) use of emotion to facilitate thinking,
(3) understanding of emotion, and
(4) management of emotion in oneself and others.
Measured through a 141 test with 8 tasks (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligent
Test (MSCEIT

2. MIXED AND TRAIT MODELS OF EI

- EI combines mental abilities with personality traits such as optimism, motivation,
and stress tolerance (Cherniss, 2010).
The two most widely used mixed models are the
● Boyatzis-Goleman model (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004) and the Bar-On model of
emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2006). The Boyatzis-Goleman model
divides EI competencies into four groups: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationship management.
● Similarly, the Bar-On model offers five main components of EI: intrapersonal
skills, interpersonal skills, adaptability, stress management, and mood.
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3. MIXED AND TRAIT MODEL ASSESSMENT: SELF-REPORT

- Self-report measures are usually quick to administer. However, many
researchers argue that their vulnerability to social-desirability biases and faking
are problematic (Day & Carroll, 2008) Self-report measures have been shown to
lack discriminant validity from existing personality measures and have very low
correlations with ability measures of EI (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Brackett, Rivers,
Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006). Mayer and colleagues (2008), self-report
tests may show reliability for individual personalities, but should not be
considered EI because performance tests are the gold standard for measuring
intelligence.

IMPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE CLASSROOM.

- Theoretical foundations of EI are often integrated into social and emotional
learning (SEL) programs.
- SEL is the process of merging thinking, feeling, and behaving. These skills
enable individuals to be aware of themselves and of others, make responsible
decisions, and manage their own behaviors and those of others (Elias et al.,
1997; Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg, 2010).
- SEL programs are designed to enhance the climate of a classroom, school, or
district, with the ultimate goal of enhancing children’s social and emotional skills
and improving their academic outcomes (Greenberg et al., 2003).
- Adopting curricula that focus on these elements is believed to enable success in
academics, relationships, and, ultimately, in life (Becker & Luthar, 2002; Catalino,
Berglundh, Ryan,
Lonczek, & Hawkins,
2004).

ADVERSITY QUOTIENT
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HOW CAN TEACHERS CULTIVATE THE DIFFERENT BITS OF INTELLIGENCES OF

STUDENTS?

● The Education of Students with Special Needs

● Human Growth and Development
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Understanding Special Needs

Heredity and environment influence the special needs in individuals.

● Hereditary factors include the genetic history and makeup of a person.
● Environmental factors affect the fetus after conception or the child after birth.

13 LEGAL CATEGORIES FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES

1. Autism 8. Orthopedic Impairment

2. Deaf-blindness 9. Other Health impairment
3. Deafness [Link] Learning Disability
4. Emotional Disturbance [Link] or Language Impairment
5. Intellectual Disability 12. Traumatic Brain Injury
6. Hearing Impairment 13. Visual Impairment
7. Multiple Disabilities

The Nature of Special Needs

A disability is any condition that prevents, delays, or interferes with a child’s normal
achievement and development. A disability may be classified as one of the following:
• Developmental
• Learning
• Physical
• Sensory
Developmental Disabilities
Some goals for the care and education of children with developmental disabilities are as
follows:
• Expanding language skills
•Increasing attention span
• Learning self-help skills
• Mastering basic concepts

Learning Disabilities
● A learning disability involves a disorder in understanding or using spoken or
written language.
● A child with a learning disability may be unable to listen, think, speak, spell, or
do mathematical problems.
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Physical Disabilities
● Educators who care for children with physical disabilities need to learn about
each child’s special needs.

Sensory Disabilities
● Educators who work with visually impaired children can aid their development in
many ways.

Giftedness and Talent

● Refer to high performance in intellectual, creative, or artistic areas, unusual
leadership capacity, and excellence in specific fields.
● Possesses traits of above-average general abilities, high-level task commitment,
and creativity.
● Shows superior memory, observational powers, curiosity, creativity, and ability to
learn.

Roles Of Special Needs Professionals

● Appreciation of individual differences

● Arranging the environment
● Assessment
● Encouraging cooperation
● Encouraging independence
● Encouraging positive interactions
● Mainstreaming/Inclusion
● Schedule planning
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MODULE 4- BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

1. Cognitive Psychology
- Studies mental processes
2. Humanistic Psychology
- Focuses on an individual’s free will
3. Psychoanalysis
- Studies on the unconscious mind
4. Behaviorism
- Focuses on observable behavior
5. Gestalt Psychology
- Studies the mind and behavior as a whole

Basic Assumption – KEY CONCEPTS

● All behavior is learned from the environment – “tabula rasa”, environmental
factors guide behavior
● Psychology should be seen as a science – objective, empirical data, operational
definition
● Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to
internal events like thinking and emotion:
● There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that
in other animals. “comparative psychology”
● Behavior is the result of stimulus-response

A historical timeline of Behaviorism

● In 1897, Ivan Pavlov published the results of an experiment on conditioning after
originally studying digestion in dogs.
● In 1913, John B. Watson launches behavioral psychology
● Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan boy called Albert B to fear
white rats
● B.F Skinner (1938) wrote The Behavior of Organism and introduced the
concepts of operant Conditioning and Shaping
● Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published
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A historical timeline of Behaviorism

● Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior began in 1948
● Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner’s Behaviorism, “review of
verbal behavior”
● Albert Bandura ( 1963) publishes a book called “the social learning theory and
personality development which combines both cognitive and behavioral
framework
● BF Skinner (1971) published a book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity”, where he
argues that free will is an illusion.

John B. Watson- “Founder of Behaviorism”

● John B. Watson was a pioneer of behaviorism, a school of psychology that
focused on observable behaviors and stimuli.
● He was inspired by Ivan Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning, where
dogs learned to associate a bell with food and salivated at the sound.
● He applied this principle to humans in his controversial "Little Albert" experiment,
where he conditioned a baby to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.
● He also argued that emotions were learned responses to stimuli and that anyone
could be trained to do anything, regardless of their genes or personality.
● He left academia after a scandalous affair with his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, and
became a successful advertising executive, using his knowledge of human
behavior to influence consumers.
● He later regretted some of his views and experiments and admitted that he had
neglected the role of cognition and motivation in psychology.

Little Albert Experiment

● The Little Albert Experiment demonstrated that classical conditioning could be
used to create a phobia. A phobia is an irrational fear, that is out of proportion to
the danger. In this experiment, a previously unafraid baby was conditioned to
become afraid of a rat.

Edward Thorndike
● Edward Lee Thorndike was an influential psychologist who is often referred to as
the founder of modern educational psychology and professor of education at
Teachers College, Columbia University.
● He was born on August 31, 1874, in Williamsburg, Massachusetts.
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● His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory
of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational
psychology
● He is also best known for animal research.

Essentials of Connectionism

● Connectionism was Thorndike's main philosophy. He said that learning is about

responding to stimuli. Believe it or not, much of his theory is still used in
classrooms today, almost a hundred years later.
● Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike, which says that learning
is a product between stimulus and response. A stimulus is something that causes
a reaction, while a response is a reaction to a stimulus. The connection between
the two is called an S-R bond, (stimulus-response bond.)
● Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and
humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory to
education including mathematics, spelling and reading, measurement of
intelligence, and adult learning.

How does learning happen?

Thorndike’s research showed the correct response was strengthened and the incorrect
responses were weakened. He identified three major laws of learning to explain the
process:

● Law of Effect - a satisfying effect following the response strengthens the

connection between the stimulus and the behavior.
● Law of Exercise - repetition of the experience increases the probability of a
correct response. But, it will not enhance learning without satisfying the effect
following the response.

a) Law of Use- a response to a stimulus strengthens their connections

b) Law of Disuse- when a response is not made to a stimulus, the connection’s
strengths are weakened.

● Law of Readiness - the execution of an action in response to a strong impulse is

satisfying. But the blocking of an action or forcing it is annoying.
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Contributions/ Implications to Teaching and Learning

● As a professor at Teachers College, Columbia University, Thorndike books that

addressed topics such as educational goals, learning processes, teaching
methods, circular sequences, and techniques for assessing educational
outcomes. Some of Thorndike’s many contributions to education are the
following:

1. Principles of Teaching. Teachers should help students form good habits.

2. The sequence of Curricula. This suggests that learning should be integrated
across subjects.
3. Mental Discipline. Is the view that learning certain subjects (e.g., the classics,
mathematics) enhances general mental functioning better than learning other
subjects. But, Thorndike research proved that there is no support for mental
discipline. Students who had a greater ability, to begin with, made the best
progress regardless of what they studied.

Types of Behavioral Learning

1. Classical Behaviorism (Ivan Pavlov)
2. Operant Behaviorsm (Burrhuss Frederick Skinner)
3. Observational Learning

Behaviors can be learned, shaped, and modified through conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

● Studied the digestive process in dogs and Discovered the concept of classical
conditioning by chance,
● Classical conditioning is a kind of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus
comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that naturally
brings about the response.
● Learning by association

Principles of Classical conditioning

● Acquisition/ Excitation – this happens when a previously neutral stimulus

acquires the property of eliciting the CR.
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● Generalization – refers to the process by which conditioned response transfers

to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
● Discrimination – the process by which we learn not to respond to similar stimuli
in an identical manner.
● Extinction – the process by which conditioned responses are lost.
● Spontaneous Recovery – the reappearance of previously extinguished
response after a period of time during which conditioned stimulus has been
absent.

Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

● Associate positive, pleasant events with learning tasks.

● Help students to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and successfully
● Help students recognize the differences and similarities among situations so they
discriminate and generalize appropriately

B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

● “Behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence

modifies the organism's tendency to repeat the behavior in the future”.
● Reinforcement – is defined as any behavioral consequence that strengthens
(increases the frequency of behavior) a behavior

How does Operant Conditioning

work?
● The method that occurs uses
negative and positive
reinforcement (or rewards and
punishments).
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The rise of the neo-behaviorists

1. EDWARD CHACE TOLMAN

2. ALBERT BANDURA

Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959)

● Purposive Behaviorism
- Learning is a cognitive process. It involves forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment and then revealing the knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

Key concepts worth applying

● Learning are always purposive and goal-directed.

● Behavior is holistic, purposive, and cognitive
● Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until
needed.
● The concept of intervening variables (are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior)
● Reinforcement is not essential for learning.
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Albert Bandura
● Social Learning Theory
- Developed by Albert Bandura
- Accepts most of the principles of behavioral theories but focuses to a
much greater extent on the effects of cues on behavior and on internal
mental processes.
- Modeling – imitation of others’ behavior
- Vicarious learning- learning from others’ successes or failures

General Principles of social learning theory

● People can learn by observing the behaviors of others and its outcomes.
● Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
● Cognition plays a role in learning
● Social learning theory can be considered as a bridge or a transition.

● During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments on

observational learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments.

According to Bandura's research, We are more likely to imitate:

● People we perceive as warm and nurturing

● People who receive rewards for their behavior
● People who are in an authoritative position in our lives
● People who are similar to us in age, sex, and interests
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● People we admire or who are of a higher social status

● When we have been rewarded for imitating the behavior in the past
● When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities
● When the situation is confusing, ambiguous, or unfamiliar

Strengths of Behavioral Perspective

● The behaviorist approach provides clear predictions. This means that
explanations can be scientifically tested and supported with evidence.
● Real-life applications (e.g., therapy, education)
● Emphasizes objective measurement
● Many experiments to support theories
● Identified comparisons between animals (Pavlov) and humans (Watson & Rayner
- Little Albert)

In the end, as teachers we are called to

● Maximize learning by using techniques that will produce meaningful behavioral
changes.
● Use of teaching materials
● Programmed instruction,
● Direct instruction
● Drills, and practice
● Mobile response
● Simulations
● Immediate reinforcement

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura

— 1925 to 2021
— became interested in studying biological sciences at the University of British
Columbia
— American Psychological Association President (1974)
— 4th most influential psychologist of the 20th Century (2002)
— received National Medal of Science (2015)
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Social Learning Theory

— learning from interacting with others in a social context
— observing, assimilating, and imitating others’ behavior when witnessing positive
or rewarding experiences
— Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to
rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.

Bobo Doll Experiment

GROUP A
- Aggresive model
GROUP B
- Non-aggressive model
GROUP C
- no model

Factors:
● behavior
● environment
● personal

● Observation
— we observe other people's behavior
● Imitation
— following observation, we assimilate and imitate the observed behavior
● Modeling
— we are more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people we perceive as similar to
ourselves

mediating processes take place between the stimuli and response behavior is learned
through observation of the environment

Four Conditions of SLT:

1. Attention
— we must pay attention to the model
— our attention increases when behavior is more striking, different, or prestigious, and
when the model is more similar to ourselves
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Application on Teaching:
● share examples from their real-life experiences
● use technology and applications they enjoy
● gamify the learning
EXAMPLES — Kahoot, Mentimeter, TedTalk

2. Retention
— we must be able to remember the observed behavior
— this can be increased through rehearsal
Application on Teaching:
● construct positive learning habits and attitudes
● discuss positive social network behavior
● create similar scenarios for retention
EXAMPLES — Pre-Test and Post-Test

3. Reproduction
— we must be capable of replicating the behavior just observed
— note that a novice may not be developmentally ready to reproduce the action
Application on Learning:
● upload lecture materials such as video recordings and readings
● facilitate peer works
● return papers so students will know where they went wrong
EXAMPLES — online submissions

4. Motivation
— we must be motivated to demonstrate what we have learned
— this can be influenced by both reinforcement and punishment
Application on Learning:
● always provide feedback
● promote goal-centered character
● have a constant monitoring and evaluation
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GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY AND INSIGHT LEARNING BY KOHLER, KOFFKA, AND

WERTHEINMER

Wolfgang Kohler
● January 9, 1887 - June 11, 1967, German psychologist and philosopher
● 1909 - Doctoral thesis on the investigation of hearing with Carl Stumpf at the
University of Berlin
● 1913-1920 - Director of the anthropoid research station at the Prussian Academy
of Sciences and conducted experiments on problem-solving by chimpanzees
● Findings appeared in the classic works titled The Mentality of Apes in 1917 and
● Physical Gestalt in Rest and Stationary States in 1920, which emphasized
insights and revised a learning theory; and determined the relation of the physical
processes in the nervous tissues to perception.
● 1921 - Head, Psychological Institute & Professor of Philosophy at University of
Berlin
● 1929 - Explored Gestalt Theory and published Gestalt Psychology
● 1935-1955 - Became a professor of psychology at Swarthmore College in
Pennsylvania, United States

Kurt Koffka
● March 18, 1886 - November 22, 1941 German psychologist
● 1904 - Studied British philosophy at the University of Edinburgh
● 1906 - Shifted from philosophy to psychology
● 1909 - Practiced medical field at the University of Freiburg and assisted Oswald
Kulpe and Karl Marbe at the University of Wurzburg
● 1910 - Continued his research and met Kohler and Wertheimer
● 1911 - Became a lecturer at the University of Giessen, focused on researches
about thinking and memory, and was granted a full-time position as a professor
of experimental psychology in the same university
● 1921 - Director of the psychology institute at Giessen, established his own
laboratory, and published numerous articles on Gestalt Psychology
● 1924-1927 - Lectured at Cornell University and the University of Wisconsin
● 1930-1933 - Published his four-volume research titled Smith College Studies in
Psychology and Principles of Gestalt Psychology
● 1939 - Taught and researched about brain injuries at the Oxford University
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Max Wertheimer
● April 15, 1880 - October 12, 1943
● Best known for the gestalt psychology and principles, and the Phi Phenomenon
● 1904 - Graduated summa cum laude with a doctorate degree from the University
of Wurzburg
● 1910 - Worked at the University of Frankfurt's Psychological Institute with his two
assistants, Kohler and Koffka
● 1933 - Began teaching at the New School for Social Research in New York City
● Had an early interest in music but was fascinated with philosophy and
psychology. He was first enrolled as a law student in the same university.

Gestalt Theory and Psychology

● Initial cognitive response to behaviorism

● Importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception
● Gestalt - “form “ or “configuration”
● Forefront of the cognitive psychology
● Foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning
● Seeks to understand learning, perception, and other components of mental life

“Learners are not passive, but active”

-Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka

Perceptual Process
- Actively processing and restructuring of data

Factors that Affect One's Perception

1. Past Experiences
2. Needs
3. Attitudes
4. Present Situation
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GESTALT PRINCIPLES

1 Law of Proximity
- Elements that are closer together will be perceived as coherent objects.

2 Law of Similarity
- Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.

3 Law of Closure
- We tend to fill the gaps or close the figures that we perceived.

4 Law of Good Continuation

- Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the
pattern establish an implied direction.

5 Law of Good Pragnanz

- People interpret complex shapes and elements in the easiest way possible.

6 Law of Figure/Ground
- We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus
will be perceived as separate from its ground.

Insight Learning
- Also known as “discovery learning”
- Learning takes place by discovery and insight
- Developed by Wolfgang Kohler through experimentations with an intelligent ape
named "Sultan"
- “The important aspect of learning is not reinforcement, but the coordination of
thinking to create new organizations.”

GESTALT PRINCIPLES AND THE TEACHING & LEARNING PROCESS

- 6 Gestalt Principles - influence both perception and learning

- Learning as an experience, and experience as a source of learning
- Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947) - Life Space Theory
- “An individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his
learning.”
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Application to Learning and Teaching

● Lessen continuity
● "Less is more"
● Set goals and obstacles
● Work as a team
● Be creative

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Computer Analogy

INPUT DEVICES → PROCESSOR (Working Memory)→ OUTPUT

(Sensory Memory) ↓↑ (Response to Stimuli)
HARD DRIVE STORAGE (Long term Memory)

George A. Miller
- First person to propose that working memory is limited.
- Idea of short-term memory
- Chunking
- Feb. 3, 1920
- One of the founders of cognitive psychology

John Sweller
- Developed Information Processing Theory
- Proposed Cognitive Load
Cognitive Load
- Amount of information that working memory can hold at one time.
- This theory is one of the most cited educational spychology theories.

Atkinson and Shiffrin

- Mode the multi-store model (sensory, working/short-term, long-term memory)
- This model is an explanation of memory that assumes, there are three unitary
(separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these
stories in a linear sequence.
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1. Sensory Memory
- Involves information detected by senses (visual; iconic; auditory; echoic)
- Affected by attention ( decays, gets filtered)
- Capacity: very limited
- Duration: very brief; 0.5-0.3 secs)
Selective Attention
- Process of filtering the only important information that goes into the short-term
memory.

2. Working/Short-term Memory
- Involves what you are consciously aware of at a given moment (visual:
visuospatial sketchpad; auditory: phonological loop)
- Disruption to rehearsal/coding creates deterioration of information.
- Capacity: limited; 7+-2 items at a time
- Duration: 15-2- secs
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Encoding
- Transferring information from working to long-term memory.

3. Long-term Memory
- Storage of information over extended epriods of time
- Organized in schemas
- Capacity: very large, limitless
- Duration: extended period of time, permanent
Retrieval
- Taking information from long-term to working memory.

Executive Control Process

- Involves the executive process or what is referred to as metacognitive skills.

Example of Processors
a. Attention
b. Rehearsals
c. Organizations

Forgetting
- The inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

2 main ways in which forgetting occurs

1. Decay
- Information is not attended to and eventually fades away
2. Interference
- new/old information blocks access to the information in question.

3 Types of Information Processing Theory

● Serial Processing Theory: This theory proposes that information is processed
one step at a time in the order received. Each piece of information is held in
short-term memory until the next piece of information comes in, and then it is
transferred to long-term memory or discarded if it is no longer relevant.

● Parallel Processing Theory: This theory suggests that multiple pieces of

information can be processed simultaneously instead of sequentially. It argues
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against the concept of a limited capacity for short-term memory since various
pieces of information can be stored and processed simultaneously.

● Hierarchical Processing Theory: This model suggests that different levels of

complexity exist within cognitive processes, with higher-level tasks requiring
more complex mental operations than lower-level tasks.4 This theory developed
as a result of Miller's work on the limited capacity of short-term memory and has
been used to explain cognitive phenomena such as learning, problem-solving,
and decision-making.

Four Stages of Information Processing Theory

● Encoding: This is the process of taking in information from the environment and
assigning meaning to it. It involves perceiving or attending to stimuli before they
can be stored in short-term memory.
● Storage: This is when information is held temporarily in short-term memory while
it is processed or transferred into long-term memory for more permanent storage.

● Retrieval: This stage focuses on accessing previously stored information from

either short-term or long-term memory in order to utilize it for a current task.5
● Transformation: The final stage involves transforming information into a more
useful form, such as organizing it in different ways or using reasoning and
problem-solving skills to come up with a solution.

How Can I Improve My Information Processing Skills

● Utilize memory techniques such as mnemonic devices and chunking in order to
better remember the material.
● Take notes while studying or reading in order to reinforce important concepts.
● Break up complex tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks instead of trying
to tackle them all at once.
● Make use of various visual aids such as charts, diagrams, and illustrations; these
can make complex topics easier to understand.
● Stay focused on the task at hand by eliminating distractions and setting aside
enough time for adequate concentration.
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ROBERT GAGNE'S CONDITION OF LEARNING AND 9 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Robert Mills Gagne

● Born on August 21, 1916,

● Died on April 28, 2002,
● Educational Psychologist known for his "Conditions of Learning"

Faculty:
● Connecticut College for Women (1940-1949)
● Pennsylvania State University (1945-1946)
● Princeton (1958-1962)
● University of California at Berkeley (1966-1969)

5 Conditions of Learning

1. Intellectual Skills
● "Knowing How"
● Having procedural knowledge

2. Cognitive Strategies
● Having certain techniques of thinking, ways of analyzing problems, and having
approaches to solving problems

3. Verbal Information
● "Declarative Knowledge"
● Memorization and recalling information that is taught beforehand. (e.g. listing the
signs of cancer)

4. Motor Skills
● Executing movements in a number of organized motor acts such as playing
sports or driving a car

5. Attitude
● Mental states that influence the choices of personal actions
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9 Events of Instructions

Gaining Attention (Reception)

● Ensure the learners are ready to learn and participate in activities by presenting a
stimulus to capture their attention.

Inform Students of the Objectives (Expectancy)

● Inform students of the objectives or outcomes for the course and individual
lessons to help them understand what they are expected to learn and do. Provide
objectives before instruction begins.

Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval)

● Help students make sense of new information by relating it to something they
already know or something they have already experienced.

Present the Stimulus (Selective Perception)

● Use strategies to present and cue lesson content to provide more effective
instruction. Organize and group content in meaningful ways, and provide
explanations after demonstrations.

Provide Learning Guidance (Semantic Coding)

● Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning content and of resources
available. In other words, help students learn how to learn.

Elicit Performance (Responding)

● Have students apply what they have learned to reinforce new skills and
knowledge and to confirm correct understanding of course concepts.

Provide Feedback (Reinforcement)

● Provide timely feedback of students’ performance to assess and facilitate
learning and to allow students to identify gaps in understanding before it is too
late.

Assess Performance (Retrieval)

● Test whether the expected learning outcomes have been achieved on previously
stated course objectives.
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Enhance Retention and Transfer (Generalization)

● Help learners retain more information by providing them opportunities to connect
course concepts to potential real-world applications.

AUSUBEL'S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING/SUMBSUMPTION THEORY

DAVID P. AUSEBEL
● American Psychologist and Educator
● Grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y
● Was born October 5, 1918 and
● Died July 9, 2008

L I F E E D U C A T I ON
● Attended University of Pennsylvania, majoring in psychology for pre-med.
● Graduated at Middlesex University
● Earned Ph.D in Developmental psychology from columbia university.
● Started to practice psychiatry

WORKS
● His most significant contribution to the field of educational psychology, cognitive
science and science education learning was on the development and research of
advanced organizers.

INFLUENCE
● Teachings of Jean Piaget. His Ideas of Conceptual schemes are similar to
Piaget.
● Commonalities with Gestalt theories, schema theory, and Brunner’s spiral
learning model.
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1. LEARNER'S COGNITIVE STRUCTURE

● The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity, and
organization of the learner's present knowledge..

PRESENT KNOWLEDGE - it include facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw

perceptual data that the learner has available at any point in time.

2. USE OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER

● It is the major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel.

THERE ARE 2 BENEFITS OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS:

(1) You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about
the topic.
(2) you can readily see how the concepts in a certaintopic are related to each other.

3. SUBSUMPTION
● It is a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure.

FOUR PROCESSES OF SUBSUMPTION

● Derivative Subsumption - When you add new things to existing cognitive
structures, linking them to conceptsalready known.
● Correlative learning - When you add new details to what you already know,
usually a higher-order concept.
● Superordinate learning - Introduces a new higher-level concept into which
already existing categories can be integrated.
● Combinatorial learning - When newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich theunderstanding of both concepts.

4. ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

● An instructional unit that is used before direct instruction, or before a new topic.
(HOOK/INDUCTION SET)
● Popularized by David Ausubel first in 1968
● Presented at a higher level of abstraction than the information
● Bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what she needs to
know presented
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FOUR TYPES & EXAMPLES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

1. EXPOSITORY
● This type of advance organizer presents new information as opposed to making
connections with previously introduced information.
● It provide a written or verbal account of what students are about to learn and
emphasize key concepts.

2. NARRATIVE
● This type of advanced organizer presents new Information in the format of a
story.
● Use a story structure to convey information.

3. SKIMMING
● It is done by looking over the new material to gain a quick overview
● A reading technique that use a rapid eye movements and keywords to move
quickly through text for slightly different purposes in order to get a general
overview of the reading material.
● Sometimes referred to as gist reading, means going through the text to grasp the
main idea.

4. GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
● Graphic organizers integrate both text and visuals.
● Visual thinking tools that make pictures of your thoughts. The pictures
demonstrate relationships between facts, concepts, or ideas, and guide your
thinking as you design the map or diagram.

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
1. Spiral Approach
- The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first, and then
progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifity, also known as
progressive differentiation.
2. Providing Instructional Materials
- use tools such as advance organizers to assist in the process of learning. These
tools can be used prior to a learning experience to prepare the learner’s mind
and activate specific prior knowledge that will be needed to understand and
interpret the new information.
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ig. Chart, Graph, Venn Diagram

3. Encouraging learners to link old-knowledge to new learning
- Meaningful learning occurs when the learner interprets, relates, and incorporates
new information with existing knowledge and applies the new information to solve
novel problems.

CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY OF JEROME BRUNER SPIRAL CURRICULUM AND

DISCOVERY LEARNING

Jerome Seymour Bruner

● Bruner was an American Psychologist and an Educator. He developed theories
on perception, learning, memory, and other cognition aspects in children that
strongly influenced the American educational system.
● He was born blind and Cataract operations restored his sight at the age of 2.
Bruner led the “cognitive revolution” and his work led to significant changes in
American Schools. He ranked 28th on the American Psychological Association’s
list of 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.

Constructivism Theory
● Suggest that learners construct new knowledge by building upon their existing
knowledge
● Bruner says that learning is an active process in which learners use their prior
knowledge to make sense of new information
Prior knowledge
Experiences
Active participation
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Spiral Curriculum
● Revisiting key concepts and ideas
atmincreasingly complex levels over time
● Deepening understanding and building
more complex mental model
Implications for Education
● Emphasizing active learning
● Building on prior knowledge
● Revisiting key concepts over time
● Impact on curriculum design and
instructional methods

Discovery Learning Theory

● Discovery Learning is a constructivist theory, meaning it is based on the idea that
students construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through
experience and reflecting on those experiences.
-Inquiry-based instruction
-Discover facts for themselves
-Interact, exploring and manipulating, asking questions, and experiments

Bruner states that instruction should address four major aspects:

1. Predisposition to learn- "readiness for learning"
2. Structure of knowledge- ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured
so that the learner can grasp it readily.
2.1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more
comprehensible
2.2. Generate knowledge that is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles
or patterns that are best suited.
2.3. The body of knowledge should be in a form simple enough for the learner to
understand and it must be recognizable to the student’s experience.
3. Effective Sequencing -"Spiral Curriculum"
4. Reinforcement- Rewards and Punishment

Application to the Teaching and Learning

● Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning:
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-Encourages active engagement

-Promotes motivation
-Promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
-Develops creativity and problem-solving skills

Examples of activities that promote discovery learning are:

● Experimentation
● Research Projects
● Reporting or Peer-Discussion
● Field Trips
● Conducting interviews

● Discovery Learning happens in a context

● Discovery Learning encourages students to take ownership of their own
educational process.
● Jerome Bruner's constructivism theory emphasizes active learning, exploration,
and discovery in the learning process.
● It suggests that learners construct their own knowledge throught heir
experiences, interactions, and reflection.
● Classroom environments should be interactive, collaborative, and provide
opportunities for hands-on, inquiry-based learning.
● Teachers should provide scaffolding to support learning and facilitate the
development of metacognitive skills.
● Bruner's theory promotes student-centered learning and the importance of prior
knowledge, exploration, and reflection in the acquisition of new knowledge.

CONSTRUCTIVISM AND KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION

1. Learners construct understanding.
2. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
3. All knowledge is personal.
4. Learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.

JEAN PIAGET
● A Swiss psychologist
● Born in Switzerland on August 9, 1896
● The father of Developmental Psychology Known for his Theory of Cognitive
Development
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COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
● "individual constructivism"
● all knowledge is held in cognitive structures called schema

SCHEMA
● a way of organizing knowledge the things a child already knows

Assimilation
● Occurs when new information agrees with existing knowledge.
Accommodation
● Refers to adaptation in which a child or adult develops new schema or modifies
existing ones to accommodate new information different from what was already
known.

APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

● set the environment up for them to explore and figure things out on their own
● the teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting
conceptions and guides the activity to address them and then build on them

LEV VYGOTSKY
● A Russian psychologist
● Born in Orsha, Russia on November 17, 1896
● Best known for his Sociocultural Theory

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

1. Zone of Proximal Development

● Refers to the range of abilities an individual can perform with the guidance of an
expert, but cannot yet perform on their own.
2. Scaffolding
● Giving the learner the right amount of assistance at the right time.

APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

● The teacher would set up an environment where there are activities for everyone
to contribute some ideas, and figure things out with the help of others
● Asking students their prior knowledge to better understand more complex topics
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ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE
● way of grouping objects or events in our mind.

Concepts as Feature List

● defining feature- characteristic present in ALLinstances
● correlational feature- one that is present in many instances but not essential for
organizing

Concepts as Prototypes
● Prototype - an idea or visual images of a "typical" example

Concepts as Exemplars
● Exemplars- represent a variety of examples

TRANSFER OF LEARNING, ITS TYPES, CONDITIONS AND PRINCIPLES

Transfer of Learning
● Transfer of learning is a process in which something learnt in one situation is
used in another situation.

Originally introduced as transfer of practice

- Edward Thorndike
- Robert S. Woodworth

Transfer of learning occurs:

● When the learner recognizes common features among concepts, skills, or
principles
● Links the information in memory
● Sees the value of utilizing what was learned inone situation in another
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Stages of Learning

Unconscious incompetence
- Unaware of what you need to learn
Conscious incompetence
- Aware of what you need to learn

Conscious competence
- Learnt what you need to know but have to practice it
Unconscious competence
- No longer need to practice – what you have learnt has become second nature.

Types of Transfer of Learning

1. Positive Transfer of Learning

Occurs when learning in one context improves performance in some other context.

2. Negative Transfer of Learning

Happens when a previous learning hinders the acquisition of a new learning.\

3. Near Transfer or Specific Transfer of learning

Refers to transfer between very similar contexts.

4. Far Transfer or General Transfer

Refers to transfer between context that, on appearance, seem remote and alien on one
another.
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Conditions and Principles of Transfer

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● Transfer of learning the application of skills, knowledge, an/or attitudes that were
learned in one situation to another learning situation (Perkins, 1992)
● Transfer of learning plays a very important role in our day to day life. Whatever
we learnt in the school, we are expected to apply that in the same life.
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BENJAMIN BLOOM's TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

TAXONOMY
● Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A
taxonomy is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in
which things are organized into groups or types.

DR. BENJAMIN S. BLOOM

● Born on February 21, 1913, in Lansford, Pennsylvania.
● Died on September 13, 1999, with the age of 86 years old.
● An influential academic educational psychologist.
● Bloom developed the “Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives.”

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

COGNITIVE
● (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
AFFECTIVE
● The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
PSYCHOMOTOR
● The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement,
coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
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SIX LEARNING LEVELS

1 REMEMBERING
2 UNDERSTANDING
3 APPLYING
4 ANALYZING
5 EVALUATING
6 CREATING

1. REMEMBER
● REMEMBERING is the process of retrieving and recalling relevant information
from one’s long-term memory.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Recalling
● Recognizing
APPLICATION:
At this level, the teacher is attempting to determine whether the students can recognize
and recall information.
Sample Activities that can be given to students:
● Make a list of the main events.
● Make a timeline of events.
● Make a facts chart.
● Write a list of any pieces of information you can remember.
● List all the .... in the story/article/reading piece.
● Make a chart showing...

2. UNDERSTAND
● UNDERSTANDING is the ability to comprehend new information via
interpretation and explanation.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Inferring
● Comparing
● Explaining
● Interpreting
● Exemplifying
● Classifying
● Summarizing
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APPLICATION:
At this level, the teacher wants the students to be able to arrange or, in some way,
organize information.
Sample Activities:
● Illustrate what you think the main idea was.
● Make a cartoon strip showing the sequence of events.
● Write and perform a play based on the story.
● Retell the story in your words.
● Paint a picture of some aspect you like.
3. APPLY
● APPLYING is the act of carrying out or implementing gained knowledge.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Executing
● Implementing
APPLICATION:
At this level the teacher begins to use abstractions to describe particular ideas or
situations.
Sample Activities:
● Construct a model to demonstrate how it will work. Make a scrapbook about the
areas of study.
● Take a collection of photographs to demonstrate a particular point.
● Make a clay model of an item in the material.
● Design a market strategy for your product using a known strategy.

4. ANALYZE
● ANALYZING is determining how the knowledge relates to other components.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Differentiating
● Organizing
● Attributing
At this level the teacher begins to examine elements and the relationships between
elements or the operating organizational principles undergirding an idea.
Sample Activities:
● Design a questionnaire to gather information. Write a commercial to sell a new
product.
● Conduct an investigation to produce information to support a view.
● Make a flow chart to show the critical stages.
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● Construct a graph to illustrate selected information.

● Make a family tree showing relationships.
● Prepare a report about the area of study.

5. EVALUATE
● EVALUATING is the process of making judgments based on criteria and
standards.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Checking
● Critiquing
APPLICATION:
At this level the teacher helps students understand the complexity of ideas so that they
can recognize how concepts and facts are either logically consistent or illogically
developed.
Sample Activities:
● Conduct a debate about an issue of special [Link] a booklet about 5 rules
you see as important. Convince others.
● Form a panel to discuss views, e.g. “Learning at School.”.
● Write a letter to ... advising on changes needed at...
● Write a report.
● Prepare a case to present your view about...

6. CREATE
● CREATING is the act of putting elements together to form a novel, coherent
whole or make an original product.
EXAMPLE VERBS:
● Generating
● Planning
● Producing
APPLICATION:
At this level, the teacher is beginning to help students put conceptual elements or parts
together in some new plan of operation or development of abstract relationships.
Sample Activities:
● Design a building to house your study.
● Create a new product. Give it a name and plan a marketing campaign.
● Write about your feelings in relation to...
● Write a TV show, play, puppet show, role play, song or pantomime about...?
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● Design a record, book, or magazine cover for...?

● Compose a rhythm or put new words to a known melody.
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CRITICAL THINKING Bloom's Taxonomy

(Florence Pangilinan & Marvin Reyes)

Critical Thinking
organized and disciplined way of
thinking.
● Thinking logically with clarity and
precision.
● Using an appropriate approach
that is fair and accurate
● Focusing on information that is
relevant
- Identifying Strengths and
Weaknesses JOHN DEWEY
- Moderating a Debate.
- Grading an Essay. ● born October 20, 1859, in
- Deciding Whether or Not to Burlington, Vermont, U.S.
Believe Something. ● died June 1, 1952, New York,
- Determining the Best Solution to New York
a Situation. ● American philosopher and
educator
The Prefrontal Cortex: Home to Critical ● founder of the philosophical
Thinking movement known as pragmatism
● pioneer in functional psychology
● a leader of the progressive
movement in education in the
United States.
● How We Think

introduced the term 'critical thinking' as

the name of an educational goal, which
he identified with a scientific attitude of
mind. More commonly, he called the
goal 'reflective thought', 'reflective
thinking', 'reflection', or just 'thought' or
'thinking'.
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ROBERT HUGH ENNIS ● Second, critical thinking is

essential for problem-solving.
● An American philosopher ● Third, critical thinking is essential
considered one of the greatest for decision-making.
exponents of critical thinking
● Born on November 1, 1927
STRATEGIES
● Ennis is a professor at the
University of Illinois and a ● Provide opportunities for
member of the Board of the analysis: Provide students with
Association of Informal Logic and opportunities to analyze and
Critical Thinking evaluate information.
● Teach problem-solving
FOUR TYPES OF CRITICAL THINKING
strategies: Teach students
OBSERVATION specific problem-solving
to gather information about a process strategies, such as breaking a
TWO TYPES OF OBSERVERS: problem down into smaller parts,
- Direct Observer brainstorming potential solutions,
try not to engage in a process. and evaluating the pros and cons
- Participant Observer of different solutions.
participant observers may interact. ● Use cooperative learning:
ANALYSIS Encourage students to work
a way to evaluate what it is that you together in small groups to
observe. discuss and analyze information.
INFERENCE This can help students learn from
the manner in which people make each other and develop their
informed conclusions. critical thinking skills through
PREDICTION collaborative problem-solving.
the method of applying your inferences ● Model critical thinking:
to essentially guess what will happen Teachers can model critical
thinking by thinking out loud as
The Importance of Critical Thinking in they work through a problem or
Education analyze information. This can
help students see the process of
● First, it helps students to develop
critical thinking in action and
a deeper understanding of a
subject. learn to apply it themselves.
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● Offer feedback: Provide people could master the process, what

students with feedback on their kind of climate made it grow, and what
critical thinking skills. Point out products would be involved (Torrance,
areas where they are excelling 1995).
and offer suggestions for
improvement. Torrance believed that each person is
unique and has particular strengths that
EDWARD TORRANCE’S are of value and must be respected;
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND therefore, education must be built upon
CREATIVITY strengths rather than weaknesses.

Edward Paul Torrance Torrance found that learning and

thinking creatively takes place in the
● · (October 8, 1915, process of sensing difficulties, problems,
Milledgeville, Georgia – July 12, and gaps in information; making
2003, Athens, GA) (Aged 87) guesses or formulating hypotheses
● · “Father of Creativity” for about these deficiencies; in testing
his nearly 60 years of research these guesses and possibilities, revising
that became the framework for and retesting them, and finally
the field of gifted education. communicating the results.
● · He was a professor
emeritus of educational Problem Solving and Creativity
psychology.
● · EDWARD PAUL · According to Merriam-Webster’s
TORRANCE "Torrance Tests of Dictionary Problem Solving is the
Creative Thinking" helped process or act of finding a solution to a
shatter the theory that IQ tests problem.
alone were sufficient to gauge
· Within psychology,
real intelligence. The tests
problem-solving refers to a
solidified what heretofore was
motivational drive for reading a
only conceptual - namely that
definite “goal” from a present
creative levels can be scaled and
situation or condition that is either
then increased through practice.
not moving toward that goal, is distant
· Torrance chose to define from it, or requires more complex logical
creativity as a process because he analysis for finding a missing description
thought if we understood the creative of conditions or steps toward that goal.
process, we could predict what kinds of
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· According to Merriam-Webster’s 1) Trace a picture and label the parts.

Dictionary, Creativity is the use of the 2) Outline an article you find on your
imagination or original ideas, especially topic.
in the production of an artistic work 3) How many uses can you think of for
a clothes hanger?
· Torrance (1969) defined 4) List 15 things that are commonly
creativity as the capacity to detect red or contain red.
gaps, propose various solutions to Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose,
solve problems, produce novel ideas, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign, fire
re-combine them, and intuit a novel alarm, flag, heart, red nose reindeer,
relationship between ideas. rose, tomato, wagon.

FLEXIBILITY - refers to the production

Torrance Framework for Creative of ideas that show a variety of
Thinking possibilities or realms of thought. It
involves the ability to see things from
· A common framework for creative different points of view, to use many
thinking processes is described by different approaches or strategies.
Torrance (1979). Each aspect is defined
below, along with ways to facilitate the Keywords
respective aspect by using keywords
Change, demonstrate, distinguish,
and application activities.
employ, extrapolate, interpolate,
FLUENCY - Definition refers to the interpret, predict.
production of a great number of ideas or
· Application ideas
alternate solutions to a problem.
1) What would happen if ... there were
Fluency implies understanding, not just
no automobiles?
remembering information that is learned.
2) How would a … dog look to a flea?
Keywords: 3) How is ______ like _ _____?
4) How would you feel if ... you were
Compare, convert, count, define, invisible for a day?
describe, explain, identify, label, list, 5) How would you group the ideas
match, name, outline, paraphrase, about "red" into categories?
predict, summarize.
ELABORATION - the process of
· Application activities enhancing ideas by providing more
details. Additional detail and clarity
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improves interest in, and understanding Write an unusual title for the ideas about
of, the topic. red. Example: Revolutionary "Red"
Representation.
Keywords
Creative Problem Solving - CPS
Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate,
grade, Judge, measure, select, test. Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an
intentional process for solving
Application ideas problems and discovering
opportunities. It espouses the use of
Tell your neighbor about your last family
creativity in coming up with solutions
trip using as many details as possible.
that are not only novel but practical as
What can you add to_______ to
well.
improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics Osborn’s Checklist, the origin of
of the red quality in a wagon. Classical Brainstorming is the root of
Example: Shade, finish, texture, creative problem solving (CPS). There
uniformity. are a variety of general structures:
define the problem, generate possible
solutions, and select and implement the
ORIGINALITY- Originality involves the best which can be found extensively, in
production of ideas that are unique or several different academic traditions.
unusual. It involves synthesis or putting
Classical brainstorming is a
information about a topic back together
predominantly verbal method of
in a new way.
problem-solving and an ideation
Keywords technique of divergent idea
generation, conducted in small,
Compose, create, design, generate, specifically organized groups of different
integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct. from each other and equal participants,
reorganize, revise. (3-12 persons), and involves a
well-trained leader–facilitator, a
Application ideas secretary, a well-defined problem, a two
Find an original use for_______. separated stages session (idea
What would be the strangest way to get generation, idea evolution), which
out of bed? normally lasts for 1-1,5 hour.
Design a new________ that is better
than the one you have.
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Convergent thinking focuses on and How) and listing of wants, sources

finding one well-defined solution to a and data: List all your information
problem. Divergent thinking is the 'wants' as a series of question; for each,
opposite of convergent thinking and list possible sources of answers; then
involves more creativity. With this type of follow these up and for each source, list
thinking, you can generate ideas and what you found.
develop multiple solutions to a problem.
While divergent thinking often involves • Convergent techniques again include:
brainstorming for many possible identifying hotspots (Highlighting);
answers to a question, the goal is the Mindmapping to sort and classify the
same as convergent thinking—to arrive information gathered; and also restating
at the best solution. the problem in the light of your richer
understanding of it.
1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitize
yourself (scan, search) for issues 3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a
(concerns, challenges, opportunities, fuzzy statement of the problem into a
etc.) that need to be tackled. broad statement more suitable for idea
finding.
• Divergent techniques include “Wouldn't
It Be Nice If…” (WIBNI) and Wouldn't It • Divergent techniques include asking
Be Awful If... (WIBAI) - brainstorming to 'Why?' etc. - the repeatable questions
identify desirable outcomes and and Five W’s and H.
obstacles to be overcome.
• Convergent techniques include
• Convergent techniques include the highlighting again, reformulation of
identification of hotspots (u), expressed problemstatements to meet the criteria
as a list of IWWMs ('In What Ways that they contain only one problem and
Might... "), and selection in terms of no criteria, and selection of the most
ownership criteria (e.g. problem- promising statement (but NB that the
owner's motivation and ability to mental 'stretching' that the activity gives
influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. to the participants can be as important
urgency, familiarity, stability). as the actual statement chosen)

2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather 4. Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as

information about the problem. many ideas as possible

• Divergent techniques include Five W’s • Divergence using any of a very wide
and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where range of idea-generating techniques.
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The general rules of Classic Possible techniques include - Five W's

Brainstorming (such as deferring and H, Implementation Checklists,
judgment) are likely to underpin all of
these. Consensus Mapping, and
Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA).
• Convergence can again involve
hotspots or mind-mapping, the
combining of different ideas, and the
shortlisting of the most promising
handful, perhaps with some thought for
the more obvious evaluation criteria, but
not over-restrictively.

5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate

and select obvious evaluation criteria
(using an expansion/contraction cycle)
and develop (which may include
combining) the shortlisted ideas from
Idea Finding as much as you can in the
light of these criteria. Then opt for the
best of these improved ideas (e.g. using
Comparison tables).

6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How

can the suggestion you have just
selected be made up to standard and
put into practice? Shun negativity, and
continue to apply deferred judgment -
problems are exposed to be solved, not
to dishearten progress.

Action plans are better developed in

small groups of 2 - 3 rather than in a
large group (unless you particularly want
commitment by the whole group).
Particularly for people's problems it is
often worth developing several
alternative action plans.
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MOTIVATION THEORIES BERNARD Manitoba, Canada. He also is a member

WEINER’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY of the National Academy of Education.

(Sheila Ceguerra and Jassi Sayson)

BERNARD WEINER

He is an American social psychologist ATTRIBUTION

known for developing a form of
attribution theory that seeks to explain ● The action of regarding
the emotional and motivational something as being caused by a
entailments of academic success and person or thing.
failure. ● "The process through which
people assess the success or
He has research interests in attribution failure of their behavior or that of
theory, emotions, responsibility others." - Bernard Weiner
judgments, impression management,
help-giving, achievement motivation, WEINER'S ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF
reactions to stigmatization, and theories MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
of punishment.
● It is a motivational theory that
His Ph. D. was at the University of focuses on how people explain
Michigan, in 1963 and he has been at the cause of their success or
U.C. L.A. since 1965, where he is failure in certain events in life and
currently a distinguished professor of how it affects their emotional
Psychology. aspect.
● A person’s own attributions in an
His awards include the Distinguished attempt to explain their outcomes
Scientist Award for SESP, the E. L. determine the effort they are
Thorndike Lifetime Achievement Award willing to exert in the future.
from Division 15 (Educational
Psychology) of APA, and the Donald ATTRIBUTION TO SUCCESS AND
Campbell Research Award from Division FAILURE
8 of APA.
Stimulus→Attribution →(1) Emotional
He holds honorary degrees from the Reaction (2) Expectancy for success
University of Bielefeld, Germany; Turku and failure → Action
University, Finland; and the University of
01: ANTECEDENT CONDITIONS
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An antecedent is an event or stimulus The three (3) causal dimensions trigger

that precedes some other event or the fundamental emotions of a person
stimulus and often elicits, signals, or as well as his expectations to the future.
sets the occasion for a particular
behavior or response. ● 03.1: LOCUS OF CAUSALITY

SCENARIO: Viper was given only five The locus dimension refers to the
(5) minutes by her professor to present perception of the cause of any
her report in class. In the middle of her event as internal or external.
discussion, she heard a beeping sound
Internal is a type of locus where
from her professor's timer and she
people believe that they are in
immediately ended her presentation.
control and take responsibility for
What is the stimulus in this scenario?
their actions. Ability and Effort are
02: ATTRIBUTION internal factors of achievement.

The process through which people External is a type of locus where

assess the success or failure of their people blame external forces
behavior or that of others. (other people) for their own
circumstances. External factors
According to early attributional research, are also known as environmental
there are four main attributes of success factors. Task Difficulty and Luck
and failure. are external factors of
achievement.
The latest research included more
attribution properties that fall under four Locus
(4) different domains.
Internal:
Ability→Effort→Task difficulty→Luck
- Ability
03: CAUSAL DIMENSIONS - Effort

According to Weiner's attributional External:

theory of achievement motivation,
internal or external locus, stability - Task difficulty
across time, and controllability are the - Luck
three fundamental dimensions people
use to understand their success and
failure.
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● 03.2: STABILITY 04: CONSEQUENCES

The stability dimension refers to Psychological Consequence is an

whether the cause of the event is effect of an incident, event, or
stable or unstable across time occurrence on the mental or
and situations. It can range from emotional state of individuals or
stable (permanent) to unstable groups resulting in a change in
(temporary). perception and/or behavior.

Internal: Behavioral Consequence is the

action or response that follows
- Ability (stable) the behavior.
- Effort (unstable)
ATTRIBUTION ERROR
External:
Fundamental Attribution Error
- Task difficulty (stable) refers to an individual's tendency
- Luck (unstable) to attribute another's actions to
their character or personality,
while attributing their behavior to
● 03.3: CONTROLLABILITY external situational factors
outside of their control.
According to Weiner, a behavior
may be under the individual's Self-serving bias is the tendency
control. If the behavior is to attribute our successes to
controllable, the person can internal, personal factors, and our
influence how a task or behavior failures to external, situational
turns out; however, if the factors. In other words, it is like to
behavior is uncontrollable, the take credit for the triumphs, but
person has little to no control more likely to blame others or
over how the task or behavior circumstances for our
turns out. shortcomings.

APPLICATION

SCENARIO: The students take a

test in math. Instead of going
through her notes, the girl goes to
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a party. Based on her general ● Died July 26, 2021

understanding, she believed she ● Studied at University of British
could respond to the questions. Columbia and University of Iowa
However, the boy reviewed his ● Elected President of American
notes.. On the basis of their Psychological Association in197
discussed subject, he also visits ● 4th most influential psychologist
the library to find further of the 20th Century (2002)
materials. As the test began, the ● He is a psychologist specializing
boy assumed it would be simple, in social cognitive learning
but the girl had trouble solving ● theory and SELF- EFFICACY.
those problems. The exam is
then over, and the results are Self-Efficacy
made public. The boy appears
— refers to an individual's belief in his or
pleased because he passed the
her capacity to execute behaviors
test. The girl is disappointed,
necessary to produce specific
though, because she failed. The
performance attainments (Bandura,
teacher praised the boy.
1977, 1986, 1997).
However, the girl's failure on the
exam was brought up by the — self-efficacy reflects confidence in the
teacher. She claimed that instead ability to exert control over one's own
of reviewing her notes, she relied motivation, behavior, and social
on stock knowledge and good environment.
fortune. She felt ashamed of what
happened. Then the teacher — perceived capabilities for learning or
inspired her to do well next time performing actions at designated levels
and become motivated. (Schunk and Pajares, 2009, p. 35 based
on Bandura, 1997)

HIGH SELF-EFFICACY
ALBERT BANDURA’S
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY 1. Approach difficult tasks.
2. Set challenging goals and
(Amparado and Cuarto) maintain strong commitment to
them.
Albert Bandura
3. Heighten and sustain their efforts
● Born on December 4 1925 in in the face of failures or setbacks.
Mundare. Alberta, Canada
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4. Attribute failures to insufficient

efforts or deficient knowledge or
skills which are acquirable.
5. Approach threatening situations
with assurance that they can
exercise control over them.

LOW SELF-EFFICACY

1. Shy away from tasks they view

as personal threats.
2. Have low aspirations and weak
commitment to goals they choose
to pursue.
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies or Performance Outcomes
focus on personal feelings rather
than concentrating on how to Positive and negative experiences can
perform successfully. influence the ability of an individual to
4. Give up quickly in the face of perform a given task.
difficulties.
5. slow to recover after a failure or If one has performed well at a task
setbacks. previously, he or she is more likely to
feel competent and perform well at a
4 Sources of Self-Efficacy similarly associated task.

(1) Personal Experience,(2) Example:

Vicarious Experience,(3) Social
Persuasion,(4) Emotional and Alex feels more confident about
Physiological States preparing a great science fair project
this year, after having placed in the top 3
at last year's fair.

Vicarious Experience

People can develop high or low

self-efficacy vicariously through other
people's performances. A
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person can watch another perform and Nick feels anxious before the band
then compare their own competence recital, but he takes a moment to
with the other individual's competence. breathe and reframe this emotion as
excitement to perform before his family
and friends. He finds that this helps him
to feel better about how he will do in his
Example:
performance.
Although public speaking makes her
nervous, Angela feels better about her
upcoming speech to the student body Why Self-efficacy matters?
after having watched her best friend
deliver a speech that was well-received ● Have better self-regulation.
by their peers. ● Are more resilient in the face of
obstacles.
Verbal Persuasion ● Demonstrate stronger academic
performance and achievement.
Self-efficacy is influenced by
● Are more motivated in school.
encouragement and discouragement
● Set more challenging and higher
pertaining to an individual’s performance
academic goals.
or ability to perform.
● Are better prepared to adapt to
Example: and succeed in their first-year of
college.
When John's teacher reminds him how ● Go on to have more successful
much John has improved his writing careers and are open to a wider
since the beginning of the year, new range of career choices
writing assignments seem less daunting. ● Are happier all around.

Physiological State MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation

People experience sensations from their eMpowerment

bodies and how they perceive this
emotional arousal influences their - believe that they have some
beliefs of efficacy. control over some aspects of
their learning.
Example:
Usefulness
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- understand why the content is SELF-DETERMINATION AND

useful. SELF-REGULATION THEORIES
(Elcano and Ampay)
Sucess
SELF DETERMINATION THEORY
- believe that they can succeed if
they put forth the effort. Edward Deci and Richard Ryan
are professors in the Department
Interest of Clinical and Social Sciences in
Psychology at the University of
- are interested in what they are
Rochester. Their extremely
supposed to be learning.
productive 30-year collaboration
has led to the development and
the continuing evolution of
Caring self-determination theory (SDT).

- believe that the instructor cares SELF-DETERMINATION

about whether they meet the
course objectives. ● Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
represents a broad framework for
Students need to believe that they can the study of human motivation
succeed if they put forth the effort. and personality, in addition to
their well-being and the quality of
success → increased self-efficacy → their performance.
increased motivation (choice, effort,
persistence) ● Self-determination theory (SDT)
is a theory of motivation.
‘Self-determination’ is the sense
that we are in control of our
own lives, and choices, are
motivated, and can meet our
potential.

The Three Fundamental Needs of

SDT
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1) COMPETENCE 1) Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Competence refers to the experience -states that you need to feel
of mastery and being effective in competence and autonomy to have
one’s activity. intrinsic motivation.

People want to feel competent. It is an

unpleasant feeling when you don’t
feel as if you can complete a task. 2) Organismic Integration Theory
-looks at how we learn to enjoy
2) AUTONOMY tasks that we might once have
only completed due to rewards
Autonomy refers to the feeling that one offered.
has a choice and is willingly
endorsing one’s behavior. 3) Casualty Orientations Theory
- Talks about the three orientations
We all feel the need to be in control of that we can have. Orientations
our own choices in life. are just a way we look at things
and behave in situations.
3) RELATEDNESS a. The autonomy orientations
Refers to the need to feel connected b. The control orientation
and a sense of belongingness with c. Impersonal or a motivated
others. orientation

Humans are social creatures and 4) Basic Psychological Needs Theory

require the sense that they belong to a - states that you need to meet the three
community or group. basic needs of autonomy, competence,
and relatedness to succeed in life.
The Six Mini-Theories of STD
1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) 5) Goal Contents Theory
2. Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) -looks at the difference between intrinsic
3. Causality Orientations Theory (COT) and extrinsic goals
4. Basic Psychological Needs Theory
(BPNT) 6) Relationships Motivation Theory
5. Goal Contents Theory (GCT) -states that relatedness is central to
6. Relationships Motivation Theory personal well-being.
(RMT) - Family
- Romantic
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- Friendship Individuals set goals,plans how they will

achieve goals and anticipate the
Conclusion potential consequences of their
[Link] involves a cognitive
Self-determination theory remains one process that includes goal-setting,
of the most influential theories of planning, and self-evaluation. Goals can
motivation today. be internal, such as personal values and
beliefs, or external, such as a societal
norms, and expectations. During this
It impacts the fields of education, social phas, individuals may also assess their
work, psychology, and public policy. It own abilities and resources, and
successfully dissects the components develop strategies for coping with
required for success and wellness, potential obstacles.
centrally highlighting that Performance or vopolitational phase
self-determination is the ultimate Individuals carry out the behaviors
goal of intrinsic motivation. necessary to achieve their goals. This
requires self-control and other
Background of Self-Regulation self-regulatory strategies such as
Theory (SRT) self-reinforcement or self-punishment, in
order to maintain focus and effort.
It’s a psychological theory that describes During this phase, individuals must
how individuals regulates their thoughts, manage their attention, motivations, and
emotions, and behaviors in order to emotions to stayon track towards their
achieve their goals. It is based on the goals.
idea that individuals have the ability to
monitor and control their actions, Self-reflection or self-regulation
thoughts, and feelings in order to adapt phase
to changing situations and achieve Individuals regulate their performance
desired outcomes. and reflect their progress towards their
goals. This phase involves comparing
It is an essential factor for child actual performance to desired
development, learning, achievement, outcomes, recognizing areas for
mental health, obesity rates, addiction, improvement, and adjusting strategies
crime levels, and many more things. for future goal pursuit. Self-reflection
and self-evaluation also plays an
Forethought Phase important role in maintaining motivations
and helping individuals to stay
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committed to their goals over time. This - Involves rewarding oneself for
includes bothinternal monitoring of one’s positive behavior in order to
own mental and emotional states, as maintain motivation and build
well as external monitoring of the self-confidence.
environment and external feedback. Self-punishment
- Involves imposing consequences
Self-regulation strategies and on oneself for negative behavior
examples in order to discourage that
behavior in the future.
Goal Setting
- Seting clear and specific goals is Summary
an important self-regulation
strategy. Self-regulation theory suggests that
Self-monitoring individuals can improve their
- Involves paying attention to one’s self-regulatory abilities through practice
own thoughts, emotions, and and feedback, and that various factors
behaviors in order to identify such as motivation, emotion, cognitive
patterns and make adjustments is load, and social support can influence
needed. an individuals to self-regulate.
Self-talk
- Involves using internal dialogue
to regulate one’s thoughts, Self-regulation theory has applications
emotions, and behaviors. Positive in various fields, including education,
self-talk can help individuals to health, and work, as it can help
maintain motivation, and individuals to improve their academic
self-confidence, while negative performance, manage their health
self-talk can undermine behaviors, and achieve their career
confidence and lead to self- goals.
doubt.
Mindfulness
- A self-regulation strategy that
involves paying attention to the
present moment and accepting
one’s thoughts and emotions
without judging.
Self-reinforcement
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WILLIAM GLASSER’S CHOICE

THEORY Choice theory states that an individual's
(Kimberly Borjal and Elaine Borromeo) choice is not determined or controlled by
external circumstances.
Dr. William Glasser
BASIC NEEDS
● May 11, 1925 – August 23, 2013
● He was born in Cleveland, Ohio Getting what you want ultimately
in 1925. satisfies one or more of your five basic
● His psychiatric training from 1954 needs, which provides the motivation for
to 1957 was at UCLA and the all you do.
Veterans Administration Hospital
in West Los Angeles SURVIVAL
● In 1961, he was Board Certified
in Psychiatry This is a physiological need
● He founded The Institute for encompassing everything you need to
Reality Therapy in 1967 sustain life, such as health, shelter and
● His career expanded to lecturing nourishment.
and writing: culminating in the
publication of over twenty books. LOVE AND BELONGING
- Reality Therapy (1965) best
seller The need for Love & Belonging includes
- Schools without Failure (1969) the drive to be connected with others,
- Choice Theory (1998) such as friends, family, intimate
partners, co-workers, pets and the
CHOICE THEORY groups you affiliate with.

● Behavior is a choice made by an POWER

individual, based on his or her
feelings and needs, and is This need involves the desire to matter,
therefore not determined or make a difference, achieve, and be
controlled by external competent, recognised and respected. It
circumstances. includes self-esteem and a desire to
● This theory states that individuals leave a legacy.
use their self-interests to make FREEDOM
choices that will provide them
with the greatest benefit.
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The need for freedom is about having

choices and being independent and Perceived World
autonomous. Freedom is about being
able to move freely without restriction. - Choice Theory explains that the
Creativity is a part of this need, too. only way you can experience the
real world is through your
FUN perceptual system.
- Information from the real world
This need encompasses pleasure, play, first comes to you through your
humour, relaxation and relevant learning five senses: sight, hearing, taste,
smell and touch.
The five basic needs are survival, love & - Next, these sensations pass
belonging, motivation, freedom, and fun. through your perceptual system,
beginning with your Total
QUALITY WORLD AND PERCEIVE Knowledge Filter, which
WORLD represents everything you know
or have experienced in life.
Quality World
Total Knowledge Filter
- The people, places, things,
values and beliefs that are When information passes through your
important to you reside there. Total Knowledge Filter, one of three
- The only thing necessary for things happens:
admittance into the Quality World
is that it must feel very good to 1. You decide that the information is
you and meet at least one or not meaningful to you and the
more of your basic needs. perception stops there.
- Your Quality World is a special 2. You do not immediately recognize
place in your mind, where you the information, but believe it may
store the mental pictures or be meaningful, so you have some
representations of everything you incentive to investigate further.
want. 3. The information is meaningful to
- Quality World pictures are unique you and therefore passes through
and specific for each person. the next filter, the Valuing Filter.
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Valuing Filter When the two match fairly well, you feel
good.
When information passes through the
Valuing Filter, you place one of three When there is a mismatch, you feel
values on it. some frustration, depending on how
important the Quality World picture is to
1. If the information is pleasurable, you.
you place a positive value on it.

2. If it is painful, you place a

negative value on it.

3. If it’s neither positive nor

negative, then the information
remains neutral.

REAL WORLD→ PERCEIVE

WORLD→ QUALITY WORLD

When there is a mismatch, frustration

PERCEIVE WORLD
signal is felt as an urge to behave in a
1. Quite subjective
way that will help you get more of what
2. Reality
you want.
3. Unique
4. Subject to constant change
TOTAL BEHAVIOR
5. Frequently inaccurate
- Acting
- Feeling
When information passes through the
- Thinking
Valuing Filter is painful, you place a
- Physiology
neutral value on it.

All four components are present all the

Comparing Place
time, and we name our current behavior
by the most obvious component. Like
The Comparing Place is where you are
the wheels of a car, if one wheel
constantly comparing what you want
changes direction or speed, the others
(your Quality World pictures) with what
follow.
you have (your Perceived World)
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APPLICATION GOAL ORIENTATION THEORY

Application 1 (Sophia Claire Francisco)
- Students should be largely
allowed to make their own Carol Dweck
choices about what they learn - The research looks at the origins
Application 2 of these self-conceptions, their
- Learn should be encouraged to role in motivation and
explore new things self-regulation, and their impact
Application 3 on achievement and
- Students should be graded on interpersonal processes.
their competency, their utilization
of the resources available to - innovative educational
them and their ability to apply psychologist and ardent
what they have learned, rather researcher, dedicating over 50
than on rote memorization of years to advancing the
facts. understanding of the ways in
which individuals make meaning
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND of their abilities and experiences,
DISCIPLINE including failure and achievement
as well as intelligence, coping,
1. Observe the student's and resilience.
troublesome behavior. - Dweck shares her educational
2. Explain to the student their psychology research in hundreds
current behavior willnot get them of publications and various
what they want. Suggest an speaking engagements including
alternatve behaviorfor them. Ask motivational impacts of
them if they know a better attributions, achievement goals,
method. academic mindsets, implicit
3. Implement; have the student try theories of intelligence,
positive, proactive behavior. Remind challenge-seeking and resilience,
him/they can achieve or succeed to effort beliefs, and meaning
have what they want or need, with systems. Dweck’s research has
appropriate behavior. revolutionized the ways
4 Choice; if the student refuses to try a educators think about the
positive behavior that they come up with socialization processes that affect
, or that you suggest, offer a choice. You academic ability, motivation,
can do ABC or XYZ.
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failure, success, resilience, and ● It examines individuals' approach

praise. to, engagement in, and
responses to their academic
GOALS work.
● The outcome that a person ● Shortly, why and how they strive
is trying to accomplish. to accomplish different objectives.
● People engage in activities The reasons can vary among
that are believed to lead to individuals such as being
goal attainment. interested in learning or doing
● As learners pursue better than others.
multiple goals such as
academic goals and social The two most basic goal orientations are
goals, goal choice and the mastery and performance goals
level at which learners (Ames & Archer, 1988). Different
commit to attaining the researchers refer to these goals with the
goals influence their following terms:
motivation to learn (Locke
& Latham, 2006; Wentzel, 1. learning and performance goals
2000). (Elliot & Dweck, 1988)
2. task-involved and ego-involved
GOAL ORIENTATION goals (Nicholls, 1984),
- the reasons or purposes 3. task-focused and ability-focused
for engaging in learning goals (Maehr & Midgley, 1991).
activities and explain
individuals’ different ways The two most basic goal orientations
of approaching and
responding to MASTERY GOAL
achievement situations ● Mastering new skills, trying to
(Ames & Archer, 1988; gain increased understanding,
Meece, Anderman, & Anderman, and improving competence
2006). (Ames & Archer, 1988).
● Students adopting mastery goals
GOAL ORIENTATION THEORY define success in terms of
● Emerged in the 1980s from a improvement and learning.
study conducted with grade level Examples:
students by Carol Dweck and her - Learn how to solve proportions
colleagues. by cross multiplying.
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- Be able to identify the verb in a MASTERY AVOIDANCE

sentence. - represents a focus on avoiding
- Learn how to dribble the ball misunderstanding or the failure to
when being defended by another master a task.
player. - Mastery-avoidance goals are the
least studied goal orientation thus
PERFORMANCE GOAL far. However, some studies have
● Focuses on doing better than found mastery avoidance to be a
others and demonstrating positive predictor of anxiety and a
competence negative predictor of
● For example, by striving to best performance.
others, using social comparative
standards to make judgments PERFORMANCE-APPROACH
about their abilities while seeking - represents individuals motivated
favorable judgment from others to outperform others and
(Dweck & Leggett, 1988). demonstrate their superiority
Examples: - students who adopt
- Complete 10 problems for performance-approach goals
homework demonstrate high levels of
- Get 7 out 10 math problems achievement but experience
correct negative emotionality such as
- Pass the TAKS test test anxiety.
- Win the basketball game,
PERFORMANCE AVOIDANCE
MASTERY-APPROACH - those who are motivated to avoid
negative judgments and appear
- related to attempts to improve inferior to others.
knowledge, skills, and learning. - consistently reported that these
- associated with positive goals induced detrimental effects,
achievement outcomes such as: such as: poor persistence, high
high levels of effort, Interest in the anxiety, use of superficial
task, use of deep learning strategies low achievement
strategies.
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FAILURE-AVOIDANT
● By nature undermine academic
achievement.
● Often they are a negative
byproduct of the competitiveness
of performance goals (Urdan,
2004).
● Avoiding failure in this way is an
example of
self-handicapping—deliberate
Goals that contribute to achievement actions and choices that reduce
the chances of success.
MASTERY GOAL
● Tend to be associated with the Students may self-handicap in a number
enjoyment of learning the of ways; in addition to not working hard,
material at hand, and in this they may procrastinate about
sense represent an outcome that completing assignments, for example, or
teachers set goals that are unrealistically high.
● Often seek for students
● A form of intrinsic motivation. SOCIAL GOALS
have been found to be better
than performance goals at ● Most students need and value
sustaining students’ interest in a relationships, both with
subject. classmates and with teachers,
and often (though not always)
PERFORMANCE GOAL they get a good deal of positive
● imply extrinsic motivation and support from the relationships.
tend to show the mixed effects of But the effects of social
this orientation. relationships are complex, and at
● students with a performance times can work both for and
orientation do tend to get higher against academic achievement.
grades than those who express
primarily a mastery orientation. ● If a relationship with the teacher
is important and reasonably
Goals that affect achievement indirectly positive, then the student is likely
to try to please the teacher by
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working hard on assignments ● Design tasks that offer

(Dowson & McInerney, 2003). reasonable challenge to students
● Help students establish short-
Relationships can also be supported term, self-referenced goals
with activities that involve students or ● Support the development and
adults from use of effective learning
another class or from outside the strategies
school, as often happens with school or
community AUTHORITY
service projects. These can provide ● Focus on helping students
considerable social satisfaction and can participate in the decision making
sometimes be connected to current ● Provide "real" choices where
curriculum needs (Butin, 2005) decisions are based on effort, not
ability evaluations
WHICH TYPE OF GOAL SHOULD BE ● Give opportunities to develop
USED IN THE CLASSROOM? responsibility and independence
● Support development and use of
“Mastery goals may be optimal for self-management and monitoring
academic engagement” Skill.
- Bloom
EVALUATION/RECOGNITION
Go for Mastery Goal
- Increased self-efficacy ● Focus on individual improvement,
- Students are more self-motivated progress, and mastery
- Try harder ad wrk longer to ● Make evaluation private, not
accomplish learning goals public
- Students seek challenges ● Recognize students' effort
● Provide opportunities for
Implement Goal Orientation Theory in improvement
Classrooms ● Encourage view of mistakes as
part of learning
TASK
● Focus on the meaningful aspects MOTIVATIONAL PATTERNS
of learning activities
● Design tasks for novelty, variety, ● Focus on effort and learning
diversity, and student interest ● High intrinsic interest in activity
● Attributions to effort
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● Attributions to effort-based ROLE OF TEACHERS

strategies (Jethro Malazarte)
● Use of effective learning and
other ● Providing Mentorship
● Active engagement ● Inspiring Learners
● Positive effect on high-effort tasks ● Nurturing healthy curiosity in
● Feelings of belongingness learners
● "Failure-tolerance ● Creating meaningful learning
experience
● Leveraging technology to support
“In classrooms with learning learning
goal orientations, effort, and ● Researching learning strategies
outcome are related: greater
Teachers Affective Traits
efforts produce greater outcomes.”
– Lisa A. Bloom Caring

● Sympathetic listening to students

not only about life inside the
classroom but more about
students’ not only about life
inside the general
● Understanding of the student’s
questions and concerns
● Knowing students individually,
their likes and dislikes, and
personal situations affecting
behavior and performance.

Fairness and respects

● Treating students as people

● Avoiding the use of ridicule and
preventing situations in which
students lose respects in
front of their peers
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● Practicing gender, racial and anchored on the belief that all

ethnic fairness students can learn
● Providing students with ● Helping students succeed by
opportunities for hem to using differentiated instructions
participate and to succeed ● Working collaboratively with
colleagues and other staff
Social interactions with students ● Serving as an example of a
lifelong learner to his/her
● Interacting productively by giving students and colleagues
students responsibility and
respect Positive expectations of students
● Allowing students to participate in
decision making ● Striving to make all students feel
● Willing to participate in class competent
activities and demonstrating a ● Communicating positive
sense of fun expectations to
● Having a sense of humor and is ● students, i.e., they will be
willing to share jokes successful
● Having high personal teaching
Enthusiasm and motivation efficacy shown in their belief that
they can cause all students to
● Encouraging students to be learn.
responsible for their own learning
● Maintaining an organized Reflective Practice
classroom environment
● Setting high standards ● Reviewing and thinking on his/her
● Assigning appropriate challenges teaching process
● Providing reinforcement and ● Eliciting feedback from others in
encouragement during tasks the interest of teaching and
learning

Attitude toward the teaching Know th students

profession Know the Content
Know the place
● Having dual commitment to
personal learning and to learning What makes an effective teacher?
and to students’ learning
 ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY
College of Education

Application ROLE OF CLASSMATES

● Improve teacher subject matter (Denise Rebueno and John Ray
knowledge Arandela)
● Improve teacher pedagogy
● Teacher can apply new Classmate’s Theory
knowledge and receive feedback Classmates theory is a social theory that
● Supportive learning community emphasizes the importance of peer
relationships in shaping an individual's
1. The ‘teaching’ can be a kind of behavior and personality. According to
social assimilation and cognitive this theory, classmates play a significant
conditioning where the teacher role in the socialization process and can
passes on both knowledge and influence a student's values, beliefs, and
bias. attitudes.
2. It can be knowledge distribution It is a social theory that has emerged
clinical and matter-of-fact, from research in sociology, psychology,
modeling skills and issuing facts. and education, and it emphasizes the
3. Or, it can be based in an artful importance of peer relationships in
critique, where they ‘point where shaping an individual's behavior and
to look but don’t tell them what to personality. The idea that peers can
see.’ influence an individual's development is
not a new concept, and it has been
studied and discussed by many scholars
in the field of social sciences.
However, the term "Classmates
Theory" is not widely used or recognized
as a formal theory in academic circles,
but rather a concept that highlights the
role of peers in shaping an individual's
socialization process.

Bronfenbrenner Bioecological
Systems Theory

● This theory argues that the

environment you grow up in
affects every facet of your life.
 ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY
College of Education

● Under this theory, there were five When certain behavior of peers
systems; microsystem, has negative consequences, it is
mesosystem, exosystem, less likely that the adolescent
macrosystem and chronosystem imitates that behavior.

SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT
(BF Skinner Operant conditioning)

➢ Students learn new behaviors

and tendencies based on either
positive or negative
reinforcement from classmates.
➢ These reinforcements can
increase the chance that a
student shows this behavior
again, or the contrary.

SUPPORT

➢ Classmate support has a positive

IMITATION OR MODELING
association with academic
(Albert Bandura’s Social Learning
adjustment (Wang et al., 2011)
Theory)
➢ Classmates provide physical,
emotional, social, and academic
➢ Students learn new social skills
support, etc.
and behavioral tendencies by
➢ Classmate Support has a positive
observing their peers.
influence on self-efficacy among
➢ They look at their peers’
students.
behaviors and the positive or
➢ The function of perceived
negative consequences these
classmate support is the
peers encounter.
provision of social acceptance
➢ Sometimes it’s to emulate peers;
and a sense of belonging
other times it’s to distinguish
(Torsheim et al., 2000)
themselves from peers.
➢ When certain behavior of peers
What should I do as a classmate?
has positive consequences, the
● Use Buddy System
adolescent imitates that behavior.
 ATENEO DE NAGA UNIVERSITY
College of Education

● Include a classmate/s in your

study group
● Share lecture notes, lab notes
and important dates
● Make a performance pact
● Avoid competition
● Don't be dependent
● Respect
● Listen
● Be kind to your classmates
● Be worthy of role model