Meat Hygiene

J. F. GRACEY
PhD , BAgr, FRCVS. DVSM. FRSH
(forme rly City Veterin arian, Belfast)

D. S. COLLINS
MVB. DVPH (MH), CBioJ, MIBiol, MBJAC, MRCV S
Consultant in Veterinary Publi c Health
(form erly City Veterinarian, Belfast )

R. J. HUEY
M VB, DVPH (MH), MRCVS
<currently) Divisional Ve terinary Officer, Veterinary Service,
Department of Agriculture for N orthern Ireland , Belfast

TENTH EDITION

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First p ublished 1949 as Ttxtbookof Mrat Inspection by H . Thomt on

Seve nth edi tion published 1981 as Thom ton's M rat Hygirne by J, F. Gracey
Eighth ed ition 1986 Mrat I(l/gim e by J. F. C racev
Nin th edition 1992 by J. F. Crecey and D. S. Colllns

English Language Book Socie ty ed ition of eig hth edi tion 1986
Italian edi tion of seventh ed ition (Er mes, Milan) 1984

ISBN 0 7020 2258 6

British library Catalogu ing in Publication Data

A ca talogue reco rd for this book is ava ilable from th e British Library

Lib rary o f Co ngress Cataloging in Publ icat ion Dat a

A ca talog reco rd for this book is available from th e Library of Congress

Note
Med ical know led ge is co nstantly cha nging. As new information beco mes available, changes in
treatment. procedures, equipment and the u se o f drugs beco me necesS<lry. The
edit ors l authors /contributor s and the publishers have , as far as it is possible, taken care to ensure
that the information given in this text is accurate and u p-to-date. However, readers are strongly
advised to confirm that the information, especially with regard to drug us..lge, complies with the
latest lq~islation and stand ard s of practice.

Typeset by IMf! CCartriO, Loanhead , Scotland

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I
 Contents

List of Colour Plates vi

Preface vii
Acknowledgements ox
1 The Food Animals 1
2 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Q uality 19
3 MCCll Pla nt Construction and Equipment 77
4 Preservation of Meat 101
5 By-products Treatment 129
6 Plant Sanitation 143
7 From Farm to Slaughter 163
8 Humane Slaughter 197
9 Meat Hygiene Practice 223
10 Red Mea t Inspeclion 243
11 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 261
12 Exotic Meat Production 289
13 Chemical Resldues in Meat 299
14 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology
Part 1 - Food Poisoning 321
Part 2 - Meat Micro biology 339
Part 3 - The Meat Plant Laboratory 355
15 Occupational Inju ries and Infections 409
16 Pathology 421
17 Infectious Diseases 505
18 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 635
19 Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies 699
20 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollu tants 709
21 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 725
Append ix I: By-products of the UK Meat Ind u stry 741
Ind ex 743
 List of Colour Plates

Plate 1
Fig. 1 Lumpy skin disease. Bovine.
Fig. 2 Scrapie. Ram.
Fig. 3 Scrapie. Lesions in vestibular nucleus of brain.
Fig. 4 Melanosis. Liver. lungs, kidney and heart. Sheep.
Fig. 5 Endocard itis. Heart. Bovine.
Fig. 6 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Lu ng. Bovine.

Plate 2
Fig. 7 Lymphosarcoma . Peritoneu m. Bovine.
Fig. 8 Epizootic lym pha ngitis. Leg. Horse.
Fig. 9 Haematoma. Spleen. Bovine.
Fig. 10 Go itre. Thyroid. Calf.
Fig. 11 Goa t pox. Tail. Goat.
Fig. 12 Vitamin D deficien cy. Sheep.

Plate 3
Fig. 13 Deep pectoral myop athy. Fow L
Fig. 14 Hacmorrh agic sep ticaem ia. Lun gs. Bovine.
Fig. 15 Coenu rus seriaiis. Rabbit.
Fig. 16 Coe nu rus cerebraiis. Sheep .
Fig. 17 Anaplocephala magna. Small intestine. Hor se (l year old ).
Fig. 18 Hyda tid cyst. Liver. Sheep.

Plat e 4
Fig. 19 Onchocerca gibsOIJi . Oesophagus. Bovine.
fi g. 20 1'. sagillata. Scolex and p roglott id s.
Fig. 21 Cysticercus ceiiutoeae. Diaphra gm. Pig.
Fig. 22 Blackhead . Liver. Tur key.
Fig. 23 Cholangfohcpattns. Broiler.
Fig. 24 Marek' s di sease. Prov en triculus. Broiler.

Plat es 1-4
Gra teful tha n ks for loan of transpare ncies are accord ed to the following: Central
Veterinary Laboratory (Fig. 3); D. E. Coun ter (Figs 5, 10,12); R. M. Ed clstc n (Figs 6, 8, 11,
14,1 9); M. Fusscy (Figs 4, 7, 9); M. Ieffre y (Fig. 13); J. A. Ken drick (Fig. 1); Or K. A.
Linklater (Fig. 2); C. J. Ran dall (Figs 22, 23, 24); Professor A. J. Trees (Figs 15 to 18,20,21).

Between pages 342-343 and 406-407.

 Preface

This tenth edition of Meat Hygiene has been largely rewritten and enlarged to take
account of the many developments in the last decade, to further emphasise the
importance of microbiology and to make the book more international in character.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and E. coli 0157H7 in particular, along with the
introduction of some genetically-modified food, have served to undermine the
confidence of the consumer in the safety of food in Britain and elsewhere, despite the
reassurances issued by authorities. It is difficult to place reliance on oft-repeated
pronouncements about food safety, especially when these emerge suddenly, are later
contradicted, are sometimes associated with vested interests or are suddenly imposed on
the population without evidence of adequate and competent research findings.
The concept of 'Plough to Plate', 'Stable to Table' is at last being recognised since
accountability cannot be laid solely at the door of meat inspection. Livestock producers
have the chief responsibility to ensure that clean, healthy livestock, free from potentially
harmful residues, are presented for slaughter with close attention being paid to welfare on
the farm, through transport and in the meat plant. It is depressing to reflect, however, that
the classic work of Empey and Scott on carcase contamination was carried out in Australia
in 1939.
To cater for this ever-increasing task, it has been necessary to enlist the help of other
experts. Robert Huey is an officer in charge of meat hygiene in the Department of
Agriculture for Northern Ireland where he is in touch with developments in the
European Union and further afield, in addition to his extensive experience in livestock
husbandry. Along with other text material, he has been responsible for updating the
important chapter on Farm to Slaughter.
Professor w.J. Reilly, BYMS, BSc, MRCYS, DYSM, of the Scottish Centre for Infection
and Environmental Health, Glasgow, has been involved in public health matters,
especially foodborne disease, for many years and has made a significant contribution to
our knowledge of this vital area. Such is the importance of this sector that we have also
seen fit to introduce a section on the function of the meat plant laboratory, this especially
in view of the fact that little is known of the intangible potential pathogens passing
through many abattoirs making final judgement based solely on visual inspection at best
a doubtful procedure. Indeed, such is the load of bacteria currently entering meat plants
that reliance in the future may well have to be based on carcase pasteurisation with
subsequent microbiological testing of meat samples.
The oft-neglected, yet vital subject of sanitation has been revised and expanded by
Stan R. Brown, BSc, (Hens). Dip. MGMT MSIM, Marketing Director, Kleencare, Europe,
and that of the other intangibles (chemical residues) by Dr. w.J. McCaughey, MVB, MA,
MSc (Ohio), PhD, FRAgS, late Deputy Director of Veterinary Sciences Division,
Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland.

J. F. Gracey
 Acknowledgements

The cooperation we received from the many associates and firms listed in the ninth
edition of Meat Hygiene continued for the most part.
In particular, we have to pay tribute to the United States Department of Agriculture's
Food Safety and Inspection Service for their generous assistance. Their 'MEAT and
POULTRY HOTLINE - We are just a phone call away', which gives valuable advice to
consumers, business people, health professionals, teachers, Members of Congress, etc.,
on safe food handling, storage, temperature control, cooking, foodborne illness, etc., is a
service which could with advantage be copied by other authorities. Staffed by a team of
qualified food technologists, registered dieticians and home economists it also provides
excellent publications.
We are grateful to Dr. David Sainsbury, Cambridge Centre for Animal Health &
Welfare, Cambridge for information on livestock housing.
Or Anne-Marie Farmer, BVSc. (Qu), MRCVS, Brian Kennedy, MRCVS, Or Alaistair F
Carson and Or George McElroy MRCVS, wrote and commented on the 'Food Animals'
chapter.
The UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food was unstinting in providing up-
to-date legislation, information bulletins and, through the Meat Hygiene Agency,
material for their Operations Manual and our thanks are accorded to them, especially the
Chief Executive, Johnston McNeill and the Head of Operations, Peter Soul. The Ministry
of Agriculture and Scottish Environment Protection Agency (MAFF /SEPA) provided us
with their much-appreciated regular copies of their reports (Radioactivity in Food and
the Environment). We are indebted to the Northern Ireland Department of Agriculture
through its veterinary officials (CO. Hart, R.H.5. Moore, J.A. Ross, M.B. Geddis, J.B.
O'Neill, Or S.w.J. Mcfrowell, K.A. Elliott (now with the European Commission) and
meat inspector A. Rice for information on pathology and carcase dressing and related
items. Peter 1. Hewson, Veterinary Head, Joint Food Safety and Standards Group, Or J.A.
Storrar and FA. Eames, MRCVS, gave advice on exotic meat production. Or Raymond
Cooper, CEng., FInst.R., gave valuable information on refrigeration.
The assistance of Dr. 1. Blair of the University of Ulster on matters microbiological is
gratefully acknowledged as is that of his colleagues, J.v. Kyle and O. Hetherington,
Environmental Health Department on processing and meat plant construction,
respectively, and Alan McBride and Derek Boucher on by-product processing.
Valuable information on meat hygiene was available from the British Veterinary
Association, London via their summaries of EU legislation and events of veterinary
interest for which we would like to thank Helena Cotton. Miss B.A. Horder and Miss
Jenny Harris of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Wellcome Library were always
to hand for photocopies of articles and deserve our thanks.
We would like to thank the Leatherhead Research Association, Leatherhead, Surrey,
UK especially EN. Church, David Pimbley and J.M. Wood for supplying data on
microbiology and quality assurance in general. We have utilised their splendid Manual
of Manufacturing Meat Quality, produced under the chairmanship of Dr. Tom Toomey of
Ventress Technical Services, Cambridge, that doyen of the food industry to whom one of
us (JFG) is forever appreciative for a constant supply of food industry information.
 Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Dr. G. Georghiev, Head, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme, Rome and Dr. K. Stohr, Division of Communicable Diseases, Veterinary
Public Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland for help with Codex
Alimentarius reports.
Our knowledge of the Australian system of meat inspection was augmented by Drs B.
Biddle, P. Hickey and P.J. Corrigan of the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service,
Department of Primary Industries, Canberra and acknowledged with thanks.
New Zealand made its much appreciated contribution to our task mainly through
advice on meat hygiene practice and humane slaughter, the latter via the publication by
the late Professor D.K Blackmore and M.W. Delany.
It has been a pleasure over the years to collaborate with the Danish Meat Research
Institute at Roskilde. Developments in lairage construction and carcase data retrieval and
feedback are kindly acknowledged to its Director, Dr. Nielsen and to Dr. R Zachrau.
Copies of transparencies/photographs were provided by D.E. Counter, J. Lucas,
ET.W. Jordan, J.A Kendrick, Profs C. Mahon and G. Manuselis, M. Jeffrey, Pro£. K.A
Linklater, M. Fussey, RM. Edelston, D.W. Sainsbury, c.J. Randall, Prof. AJ. Trees, G.B.
Wells, Prof. Diane Newell, S.E. Gold, P. Hawtin, T.Y. Fletcher, P.G.G. [ackson, RW.
Blowey and B.E.C. Shreuder. All are acknowledged with thanks.
We are grateful to the UK Meat and Livestock Commission who provided valuable
information on the British livestock industry through its Director, C.W. Maclean and
Head of Veterinary Services, J.H. Pratt who has always been a source of encouragement.
The UK Humane Slaughter Association, The Old School, Brewhouse Hill,
Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire AL4 8AN collaborated in the field of livestock handling
and humane slaughter. Our thanks are accorded to Sir Michael Simmons, Miss Miriam
Parker and Charles Mason.
Or Steve Watton and Dr Mohan Raz, University of Bristol, also advised on humane
slaughter and handling.
As longstanding members of the UK Veterinary Public Health Association, we have
profited from their various meetings and also from discussions with colleagues, a large
number of whom are involved in active meat inspection duties. To VPHA and the
members we express our thanks. A special thanks is accorded to Dr. RA [ones, Maun,
Botswana whose encouragement and advice have always been available.
We are grateful to Professors J. Hannan, J.D. Collins and P.J. Quinn of the National
University of Ireland Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Dublin whose excellent Laboratory
Handbook on Food Hygiene (Hannan & Collins) and Veterinary Microbiology and
Parasitology (Quinn) we have been pleased to consult.
Cooperating private firms supplying advice and photographs include Accles &
Shelvoke, Witton, Birmingham, England; Biotrace Ltd., Bridgend, Glamorgan, Wales;
Stork PMV RV. of Boxmeer, Holland; Alfa-Laval Meat By-products, Soborg, Denmark;
Anglia Airflow, Diss, Norfolk, England; Oxoid Ltd., Basingstoke, Hampshire, England;
Sovereign Food Group, Eye, Suffolk, England; Rentokil Environmental Services, East
Grinstead, West Sussex, England; Metal Box Ltd.; North West Water, Warrington,
England; Merck Ltd., Laboratory Supplies, Poole, Dorset, England: Kleencare Hygiene,
Cheadle, Cheshire, England; bioMerieux Vitek Inc. Missouri, USA; Scan Farmek, Skara,
Sweden; SFK Meat Systems of Kolding, Denmark; Nijhuis, Lichtenvoorde, The
Netherlands and Idexx Laboratories, Maine, USA Our thanks are accorded to them.
Paul Fforde Gracey, HND, Food Technologist, supplied valuable advice on meat plant
operations and food industry quality assurance for which we are duly thankful.
An enlarged Meat Hygiene required expert copyediting. We are indebted to Richard
Cook of Keyword Publishing Services, Barking, Essex, England and to Len Cegielka,
Farington, Preston, Lancashire, England who corrected our numerous errata.
Finally, we would like to show our appreciation for the guidance and patience of the
staff of Harcourt Brace & Company; Sean Duggan, Editor-in-chief, Catriona Byres,
Deborah Russell, Tim Kimber, [onathan Price and Mark Sanderson.
J. E Gracey
 Chapter 1
The Food Animals
'HEALTH is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity.' World Health Organization Chronicle, 1978.

Meat is normally regarded as the edible parts nitrogenous compounds. Especially when an
(muscle and offal) of the food animals which animal eats something which is inedible for man
consume mainly grass and other arable crops, or could not easily be made into food for man, it
viz. cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, deer, is considered valuable as a source of food; so
reindeer, buffalo, musk oxen, moose, caribou, when pigs and poultry, and even other animal
yak, camel, alpaca, llama, guanaco, vicuna, etc. species, are used as scavengers to eat scraps, by-
In addition, poultry have become a major meat- products, etc., they are very useful indeed.
producing species while rabbits, guinea pigs, However, when food which could be utilised by
capybara and various game animals and birds human beings is fed to livestock, the question of
provide a substantial amount of protein, efficiency becomes more problematic.
particularly in localised areas. Fish and other Nevertheless, other factors, such as the
seafood have also been an important part of production of manure for fertiliser usage, variety
man's diet since earliest times. in the human diet, etc., have to be borne in mind.
Although, theoretically, hundreds of animals Not only did the Creator command the earth
could supply meat for human consumption, in to 'bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed and
practice only a relatively small number of the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind'
species is used today. This is all the more (Genesis 1:11), He also 'made the beast of the
remarkable since it represents in general the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind,
instruction of the Levitical Law of the Old and everything that creepeth upon the earth
Testament, most of which is in accord with after his kind' (Genesis 1:25). For both plant and
modern sanitary science. The animals suitable beast, 'God saw that it was good' (Genesis 1:12 &
for the food of man had to part the hoof and 25). They were both to be used for the food of
chew the cud. Only those fish with fins and man.
scales were wholesome. It is true that today we In more recent times efforts have been made
eat pig, rabbit and hare, but it is recognised that to domesticate certain wild animals, although
they are subject to parasitic infestation. There many of these have been used as food since
appears to be little doubt that the dangers of ancient times. In Africa and Russia, elands are
trichinosis and of Cysticercus cellulosae were being domesticated, as well as antelope in the
recognised 1400 years before the birth of Christ. latter country. Kangaroos are being kept for
In many parts of the world, horse flesh forms an meat in Australia and, in South America! the
important article of human diet. The Danes large rodent capybara, which is a semi-aquatic
reintroduced the consumption of horse flesh vegetarian, is being used as a source of meat,
into Europe during the siege of Copenhagen in although it is not especially palatable. There are
1807; slaughter of horses for human probably many other wild species which could
consumption is now well established in be utilised in meat production and would have
Denmark, Belgium, Holland and Germany. some advantages over the domesticated
All the above animals, including fish, are animals since they exist on less valuable land,
converters, i.e. they utilise green vegetable need only rough grazing! are more disease-
material with varying efficiency to produce resistant and act as a tourist attraction. Some
protein. Even microorganisms can be classified problems, however, arise in connection with
as converters in that they use carbohydrates feeding, protection from predators, slaughter
from plants to make protein from simple and meat inspection.

1
2 Meat Hygiene
Recent innovations have included the prosper in a climate of real consumer
breeding of wild boar in England and buffalo in confidence in the quality and safety of food.
Germany, France and Poland. Wild boars In order to address this point, much food
introduced from Germany and Denmark into from animals is produced under 'Farm Quality
England are used to produce purebreds as well Assured Schemes'. These provide customers
as crosses with established breeds of pigs. with some assurance that the animals have
Differences in quality and flavour are said to been reared in a manner which involves animal
exist between the wild variety and the various welfare and environmental issues and are fit to
crosses. Litter sizes average six piglets and only produce wholesome, safe, food products. This
one litter is produced yearly. Slaughtered at complements the 'plough-to-plate' approach to
12-14 months, wild boar has a liveweight of meat production with control over all the
about 59 kg and a deadweight of around 45 kg. nutritional, welfare, housing and other
The meat is very lean with an acceptable management factors, as well as ensuring the
flavour but stress is sometimes associated with traceability of the food product. Veterinarians
abattoir slaughter, which may necessitate on- have a pivotal role in this discipline, both on the
farm handling. In Great Britain the keeping of farm and at the meat plant.
wild boar is subject to the Dangerous Wild
Animals Act.
Buffalo meat is said to be more tender, leaner DIETARY FACTORS
and gamier than beef, with lower levels of
cholesterol. Although expensive in France, it is Concern about the amount of fat, especially
cheaper than beef in Canada. The name buffalo saturated fat, in the diet, has been given
is often applied to the bison (Bison bison) of prominence in the USA and the UK. In the
North America, a different species of the order former country the incidence of ischaemic heart
Bovidae. There are several species, the Indian disease (IHD) has decreased owing to the
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sometimes called the reduction of fat intake. In the UK a report on
water buffalo or arna, is the only one to be Diet and Cardiovascular Disease was produced by
domesticated. It is found in many parts of the the Committee on the Medical Aspects of Food
Old World, with significant numbers in and Nutrition Policy (COMA) in 1984. This
Hungary, Italy and France. recommended that saturated fat consumption
The future for meat and meat products will should be reduced by 25% but that some
depend mainly on consumer demand and the increase in polyunsaturated fat would be
prices at which they can be profitably acceptable, in which case the total fat intake
produced. As living standards rise, so also does need only be reduced by 15%.
the consumption of meat. Factors such as the Since the COMA Report is an official
cost of production, feed conversion efficiency, document which has been accepted as
land use and availability, consumer taste, price government policy, it means that government
to consumers, diet, attitudes of people to meat agencies including the Ministry of Agriculture,
production methods, use of protein from non- Fisheries and Food are obliged to put its
animal sources, etc., will all play a part in recommendations into effect. Already steps are
determining future demands. being taken to have legislation which will
Procedures such as genetic engineering, require total fat and saturated fatty acid content
embryo transfer, cross-breeding and twinning labelling on a wide variety of foodstuffs. While
will continue to be utilised in attempts to much of the intake of fat is derived from milk
produce more productive livestock with and dairy products, meat and meat products,
improved milk and meat quality. But if close margarine, cooking fat and salad oils, some
attention is not paid to the vital importance of comes from vegetable sources, where it is either
disease resistance, we may well see the produced in a saturated form, e.g. coconut oil,
development of stock susceptible to existing or converted into such during manufacture.
and novel conditions, some of which may have The sources of fat in the average British diet
serious public health implications. Consumer are given in Table 1.1.
attitudes must always be borne in mind by If people respond to the COMA
research workers and those engaged in the recommendations, and there are indications
agriculture and food industries, which will only that this is already the case, there will be major
 The Food Animals 3
Table 1.1 Average British diet - sources of fat Factors such as heredity, blood pressure,
(1981). obesity, blood haemostasis, physical inactivity,
water hardness, smoking and alcohol
Food groups % Total fat consumption are also involved in the causation
of this serious condition.
Milk and dairy products, excluding
butter 18.9 In 1997 COMA reported on diet and cancer.
It recommended:
Total meat 27.0
Total fish 1.1 1 Maintain a healthy body weight and do not
Eggs 2.7 increase it during adult life.
Total fats, i.e. butter, margarine, 2 Increase intake of a wide variety of fruits and
cooking fats, salad oils, etc. 36.6 vegetables.
Total vegetables 2.0 3 Increase intake of dietary fibre from a variety
Total fruit 0.9 of food sources.
Total cereals 9.6 4 Eat average amounts of red meat (UK average
Total beverages 0.1
is 90 g cooked per day).
Other foods 1.1 Over the last 20 years, the amount of red meat
eaten in the UK has fallen by 25%, yet the
Total, all foods 100.00
incidence of colon cancer has increased by 20%
Source: National Food Survey.
over the same period. The consumption of meat
per head of the population in the UK is among
the lowest of all the EU countries, as Table 1.2
changes in food consumption which will shows.
inevitably have an impact on production Consumer demand is now for leaner meat in
methods in agriculture, especially in milk and smaller, waste-free cuts, easy and quick to
livestock production, despite the fact that not prepare. On the livestock breeding and rearing
all is known about the aetiology of the side, changes have taken place with the
commonest cause of death in most emphasis on animals which produce leaner
industrialised countries. (In the UK, in 1995, carcases. Appropriate grading and certification
27% of all deaths in men and 18% of all deaths standards are applied in meat plants. Quite
in women, under 75 were ascribed to IHD.) apart from the health aspect, overfat stock are

Table 1.2 Annual consumption of meat (kg/head) (EC 1996).

Beef and Sheep and Pig Poultry Total

veal goat meat meat meat meat

Bel/Lux 20.7 2.1 48.1 24.6 95.5

DK 19 1.2 58.6 15.9 94.7
D 15.2 1.2 54.9 13.6 84.9
GR 20.9 13.9 22.9 19 76.7
SP 12.2 6.4 56.6 26.6 101.8
FR 26.5 5.2 36 23.2 90.9
IR 19.2 5 33.9 30 88.1
IT 23.5 1.8 33.8 20 79.1
NL 21.8 1.4 50.1 21.5 94.8
AUS 16.5 1.2 58.6 14.5 90.8
PO 14.4 4 36.2 25.2 79.8
FIN 19.4 0.2 30.9 7.4 57.9
SWE 18.7 0.6 37.3 7 63.6
UK 14 6.3 23.6 28.1 72
EU 18.6 3.7 41.3 20.8 84.4
4 Meat Hygiene
too costly to produce, and farmers will have to Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and
realise that energetic competition will have to Denmark are large exporters of meat and meat
be faced from vegetarians (sincere and products, while the United States, Britain and
insincere), 'animal welfarists' and a wide range Germany import large quantities, although the
of branded convenience and 'health foods', former also have a considerable export trade as
many not based on a meat content. have many other countries.
There have been attempts to increase the use Many factors operate to determine levels of
of potentially cheaper non-meat proteins in food animal populations, economics playing
human foods, i.e. vegetable protein derived the principal role, but disease outbreaks,
mainly from soya beans, cottonseed, ground- weather conditions, overproduction, consumer
nuts, sunflower, rape and sesame. The three preference, feed availability, etc. are also
main classes of vegetable protein products, important reasons, along with trade barriers
usually based on soya, are meat analogue, imposed by individual states, often on ill-
textured vegetable protein and extended meat, defined, even unjustified, grounds.
which all vary in composition and production In 1996 beef and veal production was similar
cost. Analogue is soya protein spun into to that in 1995 and is not expected to alter much
filaments and bound with more protein such as for the following two years. Sheepmeat
egg albumin. Textured vegetable protein may production on a global basis is rising slowly,
be meals, concentrates or protein isolates primarily as a result of rising production in
combined with carbohydrate in the form of China. Expected improved world prospects for
starch or carageenan by extrusion, i.e. forcing the wool trade had encouraged extra
the protein mass through extrusion dies under production in Australia. In eastern Europe and
high pressure at 115-117°C. Extended meat is a countries of the former Soviet Union,
mixture of vegetable and meat protein which is production continues to contract. Pig
subjected to normal heat processing. Various production in most of the major world
flavours, colours and even fat can be added. producing countries is forecast to be stable or
Many technical problems still have to be declining in 1999. The exception is China.
overcome before vegetable protein products Poultry production continues to expand
can be regarded as acceptable commercial throughout the world.
entities. A survey in England showed that they
could be much improved in flavour, texture and
formulation. UK MEAT PLANTS AND
In the UK the annual consumption of meat THROUGHPUTS
and meat products, which represent about
22.4% of the total household expenditure on Each year some 93 million animals (excluding
food, amounted to approximately £15 200 poultry) are slaughtered in around 480 meat
million in 1996 at retail prices. plants. There has been a great reduction in the
It is estimated that only 60% of the world's number of plants, from 2062 in Great Britain in
population eats 18 kg or more of meat per year, 1968 to 444 in 1999. At the same time the total
which is regarded as the nutritional minimum. number of animals slaughtered has increased
The remaining 40% represents some 1500 from over 11 million cattle units in 1968 to over
million people who consume less than this 29 million cattle units in 1998. The trend, as far
amount. This stark fact is exemplified by as size of plant is concerned, is for the smaller
countries in equatorial Africa and OPEC where ones to close, although this is not always a
the average annual consumption is only 10 kg result of lower efficiency (Tables 1.3, 1.4 and
per head and in the underdeveloped countries 1.5).
of Asia where it is as low as 3 kg.

CATTLE·
WORLD LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
The 1996 FAO Production Yearbook gives the
In general, those countries with the highest world cattle population as 1320 million with
meat consumption rates are also the major 145.7 million buffaloes. The numbers in the
producers. Some parts of the world such as main countries are as follows (in millions):
 The Food Animals 5
Table 1.3 Abattoirs and total throughputs Table 1.5 Meat plant numbers and throughputs
(1996/97) in Great Britain. per size of operation (1996/97) in Great Britain.

Abattoir Total cattle Average no. of Cattle units per year No. of plants %
number units* cattle units"
(April-March) (1000s) per year 1-1000 159 0.4
1001-5000 71 1.2
453 13138 29002 5001-10000 35 2
10001-20000 56 6.3
* 1 cattle unit = 1 beast/2 pigs/3 calves/5 lambs.
Courtesy of MLC Information Service.
20001-30000 32 5.8
30001-50000 28 8.5
50 001-1000 000 72 75.6
Table 1.4 Throughputs by species (1996/97) in Total 453 99.9
Great Britain.
Courtesy of MLC Information Service.
Species Average annual throughput
(1000s)

Cattle 7470 dairy cows and almost half of the dairy heifers
Pigs 43400 are mated with beef bulls, mostly Belgian Blue,
Sheep 42240 Limousin and Charolais, in order to increase
the beef potential of calves not required as dairy
Courtesy of MLC Information Service. herd replacements.

I
Exotic breeds have been introduced into the
United Kingdom in an attempt to improve beef
India 276.1 (inc. 80.1 buffalo); Brazil 166.7 (inc. production. The first of these (in 1961) was the
1.7 buffalo); China 127.3 (inc. 22.8 buffalo); French Charolais, which is typical of the large
USSR for 1989-91118.3 (inc. 0.412 buffalo); USA cattle breeds of western Europe with their
103.5; Argentina 54; Pakistan 38.1 (inc. 20 mature body size, rapid growth rate and lean
buffalo); Ethiopia 29.9; Mexico 28; Australia 27; carcases. Charolais and Belgian Blue, are,
Columbia 26; Bangladesh 25.2 (inc. 0.8 buffalo); however, liable to some difficulty in calving,
Sudan 23.5; France 20.7; Nigeria 18.1; Germany often necessitating caesarian section, but this is
15.9; Indonesia 15; Venezuela 14.6; Tanzania apparently regarded as an acceptable risk by
13.4; Canada 13.2; S. Africa 13.0; Turkey 12 (inc. many farmers. British Charolais, through
0.25 buffalo); UK 11.6; Madagascar 10.3; New selective breeding, have easier calvings.
Zealand 9.2. Other breeds which have been imported
In the United Kingdom, beef and milk include: Blonde d'Aquitaine, Brown Swiss,
account for about one-third of the total Limousin, Murray-Grey (which was developed
agricultural output. Britain now produces in Australia but has been in the UK for decades
almost 80% of its beef requirement, compared and is now widely considered to be British),
with about 50% just before the Second World Piedmontese, Romagnola, French Salers and
War. The remaining 20% is imported mainly Simmental. The Luing was evolved from Beef
from Ireland and Argentina. About 52% of the Shorthorn and Highland cattle on the island off
home-produced beef is derived from the dairy the west coast of Scotland.
herd, i.e. from calves reared for beef. British breeds have been exported to many
Specialised beef cattle and their crosses provide other countries to improve local strains, as live
48% of the home kill. animals, frozen embryos or semen.
Throughout the world there are numerous
breeds of domestic cattle used for meat and
Breeds milk production and also in some cases as
In Britain's dairy herd the Friesian (British draught animals. Most are humped Zebu cattle
Friesian/Holstein) is the dominant breed, or cross-breeds of these with cattle of European
representing in England 80% of all dairy cows origin. In addition, the domestic buffalo, the
and in Scotland 25%. About one-third of the water buffalo of Asia (Bubalus bubalis), is an
6 Meat Hygiene
animal of great importance mainly in the Far autumn-born calves are fed through the winter,
East (India and China) but is also found in the kept on grass from 6 to 12 months of age and
Caribbean, Middle East and the former USSR. then finished during their second winter on
(It has to be distinguished from the buffalo of hay, silage and feed grains.
North America, which is not a buffalo at all but In Britain the term 'fatstock' used to mean
a bison, and from the African wild buffalo, exactly what it said. The meat industry was
which has never been domesticated.) Many traditionally based on well-finished animals
consider that the full potential of the water with substantial fat depots. However, the term
buffalo as a meat and milk producer has not yet fatstock is no longer appropriate; 'leansiock' or
been realised. A breed of Droughtmaster cattle 'meaisiock' is more suitable. Changes in the
(Bos taurindicus) has been developed by cross- grades of fatness of livestock will probably be
breeding the Zebu or Brahman (Bos indicus) of promoted by the production of intact males, use
the tropics with British beef breeds, notably of bulls for larger, leaner, late-maturing breeds
Shorthorn and Hereford (Bos taurus). The on the dairy herd and genetic selection of types
Droughtmaster is said to combine the with efficient feed conversion rates, rapid
hardiness and disease resistance of the Zebu growth rates and less fat.
with the productivity and early maturity of the Most male cattle in Britain today are reared
British breeds. Since 1974, Droughtmasters as castrates (steers or bullocks), although the
have been exported from Australia to many production of young bulls may become more
tropical countries including Nigeria, Ghana, important. The practice of castration was
Pakistan, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and adopted to prevent indiscriminate breeding, to
Taiwan. make animals more docile and less dangerous
to man and to facilitate fattening. Only the
latter factor can be regarded as significant
today, since modern husbandry methods for the
Systems of beef production
most part eliminate the breeding problem and
Beef production systems vary from almost present consumer demand is for lean meat.
range conditions to semi-intensive and While bulls are more dangerous to handle than
intensive units. The efficiency of animal steers, experience has shown that the problem
production is the ratio of output to input: the has been overemphasised. It has also been well
main outputs are meat, milk, power and demonstrated under experimental and practical
transport, hides, fur and by-products; and the farm conditions that bulls grow faster (by 12%),
principal inputs are feed, land, labour, capital, convert food more efficiently (by 8%) and
energy and water. produce heavier (by 10%) and leaner carcases
In the United Kingdom, consumer demand than steers. Bull beef production is much more
has dictated that meat be lean with a minimum important in Europe, especially in Italy,
of fat cover, tender, nutritious, palatable and, Germany and eastern Europe, than it is
not least, relatively inexpensive. Accordingly, it currently in Britain.
is now the custom to slaughter not only cattle In Europe, bulls are reared in intensive
but all animals and poultry at much earlier feedlot systems largely based on maize silage,
ages. The economically important beef and also in grass-finishing systems with
production systems in Britain usually involve slaughter ages of 24-30 months. The main
slaughter of cattle at between 15 and 24 months breeds are Simmentals and Friesians. In New
of age. Even lower slaughter ages are adopted Zealand grass-finishing systems have been
for certain specialist beef systems; for example, used over the last 25 years.
in the so-called barley-beef system calves are Although the production of bull beef in
weaned early and fed concentrates ad lib to Britain was initially slow, the rearing of young
slaughter at 11 months of age and 400 kg, with bulls doubled during the 1980s and will
an overall feed conversion ratio of 5.5:1. At the undoubtedly expand further. Some sections of
other extreme, there may be a high utilisation of the meat trade have considered bull beef to be
grass with a lower overallliveweight gain, with of inferior conformation and tenderness as well
animals slaughtered at 2 or more years of age at as being subject to dark cutting (DFD)
weights of 499 kg and over. A popular development. However, recent trials have
intermediate system is 18-month beef in which shown most of these objections to be ill-judged.
 The Food Animals 7
In fact, young bull carcases are heavier and effects, causing early maturation of muscles
leaner than steers of the same age. Careful and bones.
handling of young bulls will obviate the DFD The main purpose of using growth-
problem (which is not confined to bulls), and promoting compounds is to replace the metabolic
chilling efficiency will offset any tendency to growth action lost at castration. Much
meat toughness, bull beef being inclined to cool controversy, however, surrounded the use of
more rapidly than steer beef. these compounds, a lot of it in response to the
Young bull beef must be distinguished from illegal use of diethylstilboestrol in veal calf
the inferior product supplied by old cull bulls, production in certain EC countries with the
which is much darker in colour. Investigations occurrence of carcinogenesis in human beings.
by the UK Meat and Livestock Commission on Widespread consumer concern finally resulted
groups of young bulls and steers transported in the introduction of EC Directive
and slaughtered under comparable commercial 81/602/EU, as amended by Directives
conditions have shown that bull flesh is only 85/358/EU and 88/146/EU, which prohibited
marginally darker than that of the steers, and the use in livestock farming of certain
there are only a few dark cutters among the substances having a hormonal action. These
bulls. The solution is to avoid pre-slaughter directives were supplemented by Council
stress by gentle, efficient handling, keeping Directive 86/469 /EU, which established
social groups intact and providing for controls for the examination of animals and
immediate slaughter. Some of the other meat fresh meat for the presence of residues, and
trade criticisms can be ascribed to pure Council Directive 88/299/EU, which dealt
conservatism. In the UK full use is made of with trade in animals treated with certain
grassland and grass products in cattle rearing substances having a hormonal action. There
systems, unlike in certain EU countries, e.g. was no scientific evidence to show that the use
Germany, where bulls are housed for beef of the licensed substances, with a hormonal
J- production (51% bulls and 2% steers as against action, was harmful and these are still used
40% steers and 17% bulls in the UK). legally in some countries.
Calves range from the 'bobby' calves, Probiotics are benign bacteria which are
slaughtered within a few days of birth, to administered by mouth to animals (calves,
specially fed veal calves producing carcases of lambs and piglets) sometimes at birth and/or
115-135 kg at slaughter. A great variation in after disease. The introduction of a probiotic
quality exists in the various age groups, only into the digestive tract is claimed to ensure
the heavier carcases being of real value. The more efficient feed conversion, earlier slaughter
typical 'bobby' calf not only has a low and a healthier animal. Unlike antibiotics,
muscle/bone ratio but is also very oedematous, which often kill useful intestinal
rendering it of little value from a consumer microorganisms and create undesirable
standpoint. residues, probiotics are said to be natural
products without any side effects.
Beta-agonists (f3-adrenergic blocking agents)
Growth promoters are drugs normally used in human medicine
Many different factors are associated with (sometimes also in small-animal practice) to
growth and the muscle/bone ratio in animals, block the effects of adrenaline (epinephrine)
including nutrition, hereditary factors and and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) in, for
certain hormones. Growth hormone (GH) is example, peripheral vascular disease, cardiac
probably the most important regulator of arrhythmias and hypertension. There have
growth before puberty is reached, and been reports of the alleged misuse of these
androgenic and oestrogenic hormones are not compounds, for example, propanolol,
active. chlorpromazine and clenbuterol, in livestock
Androgens stimulate the growth of all body farming to produce lean meat. These products
tissues, as well as the organs specific to the act as a partitioning agent and produce lean
male. They are responsible for the characteristic meat at the expense of fat. The meat is said to be
development of the male with his well tougher than in non-treated animals. While
developed forequarter and neck and greater approved for therapeutic purposes, they are not
size. Oestrogens also appear to exhibit anabolic authorised as growth promoters.
8 Meat Hygiene
Definitions and that neonatal mortality is high. Indeed, of
all the farm animals, the relative mortality rate
Bull is highest in sheep. Other breeds can be found
An uncastrated bovine. in desert or semi-desert regions where high
temperatures or fluctuating high and low
temperatures predominate, with arid
Heifer conditions and sparse vegetation. With some
A female up to its first calf. breeds, such as those kept under lowland
conditions in Britain, stocking rates can be as
high as 20 ewes and their lambs per hectare;
Cow under hill and other extensive systems the rate
A female which has had one or more calves. may be as low as one sheep to 20 hectares.
The quality of forage consumed by sheep
varies from good grass under semi-intensive
Steer or bullock husbandry to low-quality (high-cellulose)
A castrated male (usually castrated at 6-12 plants, such as thorn scrub, rushes and heather,
weeks old). where the stock are relatively few in number.
The ability of sheep to eat plants of little use to
man and to survive in places which cannot
Stag easily be cultivated is very much in their
A male bovine castrated late in life, and favour. On the other hand, except for
therefore presenting a more masculine specialised breeds like the Finnish Landrace
conformation than the bullock. and Russian Romanov, which can produce over
three lambs per ewe a year, low reproductive
rates, difficulties with husbandry (e.g. fencing
and labour) and the disposition towards
SHEEP carcases of fairly high fat content are definite
drawbacks. It has been shown that with
The principal sheep-producing countries in the housing of ewes and subjecting them to
world are (in millions): China 127.2; Australia artificial photoperiods and hormone treatment
126.3; Iran 51.5; New Zealand 48.8; India 45.4; they can produce a lamb crop every 8 months
Turkey 33.8; Pakistan 29.8; South Africa 29; UK and an average of 2.2 lambs per ewe yearly.
28.8; Sudan 23.4; Ethiopia 21.7; Spain 21.3 (FAO Unless fecundity can be improved by suitable
Production Yearbook 1996). breeding methods, and leaner carcases ensured,
Sheep were probably among the first animals it is possible that in many hill areas sheep may
to be domesticated by man. They can be found be replaced by goats or deer.
under a wide range of environments In addition to meat, sheep produce wool
throughout the world and, just like goats, their and, in some countries, milk, which is used in
system of husbandry has changed very little the making of cheese.
over the centuries in most countries. In the In the United Kingdom there are some 50
main this can be classed as an extensive grazing breeds of sheep classified by habitat and type of
system, the most natural for the three main wool. They are kept mainly for meat
species of meat animals: cattle, sheep and pigs. production, with wool as an important
This system probably explains why sheep have secondary product. Two major systems of sheep
the fewest lesions and condemnations at post- farming exist: hill sheep farming, by far the
mortem compared with cattle and pigs, at least larger of the two, where the sheep are hardy
under UK conditions. and thrifty, small in size, long of wool, late in
Various breeds are adapted to living in areas maturity and low in fecundity; and lowland
of high altitude where wind, rainfall, low sheep farming, in which short-woolled breeds
temperatures and snow are common. The hill predominate, possessing characteristics of early
ewe lives a very hazardous life exposed to these maturing, higher carcase weights and superior
adverse elements and with low food intake, lambing percentages.
especially during pregnancy. It is little wonder True hill breeds include the North Country
that up to one-third of body weight can be lost Cheviot, South Country Cheviot, Scottish
 The Food Animals 9
Blackface, Swaledale, Welsh Mountain, Exmoor hybrids: it is certain that some 50 breeds are
Horn, Herdwick, Rough Fell, Derbyshire unnecessary for successful sheep production.
Gritstone and Lonk. Hill flocks provide store Indeed, this has already taken place with the
stock for fattening on lowland farms along with appearance of the Colbred sheep, named after
cast ewes which are retained for a year or two Oscar Colborn, a Cotswold farmer who crossed
for further breeding. The famous Half-Bred, Cluns, Dorset Horns, Suffolks and East
which is the product of the Border-Leicester Frieslands in order to increase fecundity,
ram and the Cheviot ewe, is one of the foremost mothering ability and carcase quality. More
utility sheep in Britain. Although the flesh of recently, French Texels, Beltex, Berrichon du
the Border-Leicester carries an excessive Cher, Rouge de l'Ouest and Charolais have
amount of fat, its prolificacy and milk yield been imported for crossing purposes. The
potential when blended with the hardiness of Cambridge breed of sheep is another recently
the Cheviot make the resulting cross an developed breed which is very prolific.
excellent animal, the dams bred to Down rams British breeds of sheep are not found
being very popular for fat lamb production in extensively in Europe, although Cheviots and
lowland areas. Another example of this close some lowland types occur in Scandinavia, but
association between hill and lowland breeds is many have found their way to other parts of the
the use of the Border-Leicester ram on Scottish world. In Australia, about 75% of the 126
Blackface ewes, the cross being known as the million sheep are Merinos, the remainder being
Greyface, which is second only in importance to crosses with certain British breeds. In New
the Half Bred. Another Half-Bred, the Welsh Zealand, the Romney Marsh predominates,
Half-Bred, results from the crossing of the followed by Corriedales, Merinos and South-
Border-Leicester with Welsh Mountain ewes. Downs and their crosses. In the United States,
The Mule is a cross-bred ewe which has grown the Rambouillet is the main representative of
in popularity in the UK; it now makes up 20% the Merino and a lot of cross-breeding occurs,
of the UK ewe flock. The term Mule covers a with larger sheep units under confined systems
number of Blue-faced x hill breed ewe crosses. of management becoming more important.
The most common of these are the Blue-Faced However, it is doubtful whether sheep grazing
Leicester x Scottish Blackface cross and the in the United States will expand very much. In
Blue-Faced Leicester x (Welsh) Hardy Speckled South Africa and the USSR, the most important
Face. Reported prolificacy levels are higher in breed is the Merino. Fat-tailed and fat-rumped
Mules than Greyfaces. Where certain hill sheep, sheep are found in the Middle and Far East; the
e.g. Scottish Blackface ewes, are grazed on Awassi breed is an important coarse-wool type
lowland pastures, the good feeding can result in the eastern Mediterranean and Iraq, where
in up to 200% lamb crops. the wool is used mainly for making carpets.
Lowland breeds are represented by the short- In some parts of Europe, milk or dairy sheep
woolled Downland types, the Suffolk, Dorset are of significance: the common breeds are East
Horn and Dorset Down, Southdown, Oxford Friesland (Holland), Cochurro, Lancha and
Down, Ryeland, Shropshire, and the long- Mancha (Portugal and Spain).
woolled breeds of Leicester, Lincoln Longwool, In recent years more attention is being given
Kent or Romney Marsh, Wensleydale and the to the production of fine wools, cashmere and
Blue-faced or Hexham Leicester. The three most mohair which the textile industry needs and
common terminal sires used in the industry at presently has to import. In addition to sheep,
present are Suffolk, Texel and Charolais. angora goats and rabbits, alpacas and llamas
The Dorset Horn, a white-faced short-wool, also produce quality fibres. Judicious crossing
has a much-extended mating season and can of British sheep with Merinos, e.g. Merino de
produce three crops of lambs in 2 years. In this l'Ouest from France, produces sheep capable of
way it resembles the Merino. Breeds like these high lambing percentages, good growth rates
along with Finnish Landrace (high prolificacy), and carcase quality as well as fine fleeces.
East Friesland (good milking potential) and the In addition to better feeding methods,
ne de France (excellent carcase quality) could improvements in sheep production are
feature in cross-breeding programmes. It is currently centred on the use of hormones to
possible that many of the present British breeds increase the number of lambs born and out-of-
"'nay disappear with the development of new season lambing, hybridisation to produce a
10 Meat Hygiene
superior stock of leaner types, oestrous Definitions
synchronisation, early weaning and artificial
Lamb
rearing of lambs. Intensification on grass and
fodder is possible as long as farmers are aware A sheep from birth to weaning time (generally
of the problems involved. at 3)1;;-4)1;; months old). Butchers apply a more
In the United Kingdom the demand for generous interpretation to the term 'lamb' and
young and small carcases means that lamb is use it to denote a sheep from birth until
the more important product. Lambs are usually shearing time the following year; by this
slaughtered at between 36 and 45 kg liveweight interpretation a sheep 13 months old is still
giving a dressed carcase of 17-23 kg. 'Mutton' is classed as lamb.
derived from lambs not attaining a finished
condition before weaning and from ewes, Tup or Ram
wethers, hoggets and rams.
As in the case of cattle and pigs, use has been The uncastrated male.
made of entire ram lambs to produce leaner
carcases. Work carried out at the Meat Research Hogg or Wether
Institute, Bristol and in New Zealand has
The castrated male sheep (usually castrated
shown that carcases from entire ram lambs
before 1 week of age with a rubber ring or at 3
grade about one fat class lower than those from
weeks to 3 months old by other methods).
ewes at the same weight without deterioration
in eating quality. The entire ram lambs had
lower values of subcutaneous and Gimmer
intermuscular fat and a higher proportion of A female which has not yet borne a lamb.
the total fat in the rams was deposited
subcutaneously where it can be removed by
trimming an important commercial Ewe
consideration. Some 30% of the New Zealand A female which has borne lambs.
kill is now composed of entire ram lambs, non-
castration being encouraged.
Research work on carcase and meat
Cast Ewe
composition and tenderness of meat from ram, One which has been removed from the
wether and ewe Dorset-Down-cross and breeding flock.
Suffolk-cross lambs slaughtered at 20 weeks of
age showed that differences in meat quality
were very small, tenderness of ram meat being PIGS
ensured by efficient refrigeration control. The
fact that the rams, especially the Suffolk crosses, According to the most recent world census
grew faster, yielded larger joints and had good data, the leading 12 pig-producing countries in
carcase conformation in addition to meat order of production are: Republic of China
tenderness would indicate potential for ram 452.2; USA 58.2; Brazil 36.6; Germany 23.7;
lamb production in the UK (Dransfield et al. Russian Federation 22.6; Poland 18.7; Mexico
1990). When the adverse aspects of castration, 18; Spain 18; Vietnam 16.9; France 14.8;
viz. sepsis, which often leads to pyaemia and Netherlands 14; Ukraine 13.1 (FAO Yearbook
sometimes death, the improvement in welfare, 1996). However, since these data were
and labour and equipment costs are considered, published, pig production in the USA has
the lead given by New Zealand would seem a grown significantly while in the Netherlands a
good one to follow. severe outbreak of Classical Swine Fever
The desirable features required by the during 1997 led to a major culling programme
butcher in both lamb and mutton carcases of which removed 40% of the Dutch annual
any breed are short stocky plump legs, thick production (6% EU total annual output) during
full loin, broad full back, thick fleshy ribs with that year. Since then the Dutch government has
a wide breast and shoulder, a good depth of decided to introduce stringent new legislation
chest cavity, a short plump neck, and overall which will in future limit the size of the national
lean content. herd to 80% of the 1996 herd size.
 The Food Animals 11
3000

2500
""0
~ 2000
J::.
""0
~ 1500
Cf)
::J
s
I-
1000

500

0 c
>, Q) ""0 .Y ~ >< >, ctl <ii c "0 ""0 Q)
c
ctl 'co,a o
c ~
c Co ::::l ::J
Q) ~
.;::
t5 Cl
Q)
""0
c
ctl
c
ctl
o
Q)
E ~ E c
::J
c
~
(J) Q)
::J t E:>
ill LL
"0
I
c
Q)
Q)
eo <t: 0
0...
s:
(J) u::: CJ
CJ 0

Fig. 1.1 Breeding sow herd sizes by country (1997). (Source: SOEC)

Pig breeds there are now estimated to be some 300

different breeds of pigs.
A pig breed is defined as A group of animals
J Unlike some species, the pig has suffered
that has been selected by man to possess a little from man's selection to maximise
uniform appearance that is inheritable and production and appearance. The most noted
distinguishes it from other groups of animals exception was the introduction of the halothane
within the same species.' In essence a breed gene following the introduction of the Pietrain
relies on being recognisable because it breed. This breed was chosen with the aim of
possesses a number or combination of features, increasing muscle production via the double
e.g. coat colour, body conformation, head muscle gene carried naturally by the Pie train
shape, etc. breed. However, pigs which carry the double
When viewed from a worldwide recessive gene known as the halothane gene
perspective, the domesticated pig appears to tend to drop dead if stressed and those that do
have converged from the breeding of what was survive and are slaughtered express a high
essentially two divergent extremes: (a) the frequency of pale, soft, exudative (PSE) muscle
European 'Wild Boar' type, a flighty muscular tissue such that the meat appears pale and
animal with an arched back, coarse body shape suffers from high drip-loss, making it less
and coarse coat type and with body fat suitable for processing and sale. For many years
deposited mainly within the muscle mass; and after this gene was introduced, the commercial
(b) the Asian type, a more docile pig whose breeding companies tested breeding stock by
body is lighter in shape with a low back and exposing all potential breeding pigs to the
whose fat deposition tends to lie predominantly anaesthetic gas halothane because it was found
below the skin. that if 10-week-old pigs which were double
As the pig was domesticated it was selected recessive for this gene were exposed to this gas
for a variety of different characteristics such as they would become rigid; pigs not carrying the
fertility, mothering ability, muscle and fat gene retained a relaxed posture. Recently a
deposition, durability and amenability to gene probe has been developed which is
handling under a variety of husbandry cheaper and more welfare-acceptable. This new
systems. This process continues today on two test has also made it possible for the breeding
distinct levels. There are those who breed companies to retain some of the benefits of this
pedigree pigs with the aim of preserving the gene in terms of muscle production without the
'purity' of their breed and the commercial pig- risk of pigs being stress-susceptible and
producing companies and pig farmers who use producing PSE meat (see also p. 64).
cross-bred varieties to utilise hybrid pigs to More recently breeding companies in the UK
optimise production traits. Through selection and France have imported and experimented
12 Meat Hygiene
with genes introduced by crossing European Pig production
breeds with the Meisham breed which
The UK, with some 23% of its pigs outdoors,
originates in China. The Meisham is a highly
has the highest percentage of outdoor production
prolific breed with the potential of producing
in Europe. The availability of suitable outdoor
up to 30 piglets per litter. The aim is to
sites will probably limit further development
introduce the genes for prolificacy while
since pig welfare can be severely compromised
retaining the leaner carcase characteristics of
if pigs are put on to sites where the rainfall
the European breeds.
exceeds 750 mm per year and the land is not
free-draining or relatively flat. In fact, much of
Pig breeds in the United Kingdom the outdoor rearing of pigs has now ceased in
the UK since farmers have discovered that the
In the UK pedigree pig breeding is carefully
environmental conditions were too severe and
recorded by the British Pig Association (BPA),
too difficult to manage.
which began keeping breeding records in 1884
European Council Directive 91/630 EEC set
when the association was known as the
out the 'Minimum Standards for the Protection
National Pig Breeders Association (NPBA). The
of Pigs'. This legislation was incorporated into
aim of the NPBA was to 'maintain the purity UK law by SI 2126 'The Welfare of Livestock
and improve the breeds of swine in the United Regulations 1994'. However, the UK legislation
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by the
not only implemented the European Directive
means of livestock inspection and herdbook but added the abolition of stalls and tethers by
recording all pedigree pure-bred pigs'.
1 January 1999. Some of the other European
Today the BPA recognises three major countries decided to address other aspects of
pedigree pig breeds: Large White, Landrace
production; for example, in the Netherlands
and Welsh and eight minor breeds: Berkshire,
fully slatted flooring systems have to be phased
British Hampshire, British Saddleback, Duroc,
out by 2006.
Gloucester Old Spot, Large Black, Middle
The imposition of legislation on production
White and Tamworth.
inevitably affects the way pigs are produced.
Commercial breeding companies in the UK
Pig production in the future is likely to be even
supply approximately three-quarters of all the
more tightly controlled by legislation as
replacement gilts bought by commercial pig
pressure from welfare and other lobbying
farmers. These companies use pedigree pigs at
bodies mounts on governments. This, plus the
the top of their breeding pyramids to produce
change in the way world trade is changing, will
cross-bred grand-parent and parent pigs.
inevitably affect the economics of pig
Increasingly, the force which has been
production and accordingly the size and
driving the selection made by the breeding
structure of the UK pig industry. The breeds of
companies is coming from the retail sector
pigs used and the husbandry procedures
where the demand is for a leaner, 'healthier'
adopted, will continue to evolve.
carcase which produces a tender, succulent
meat not showing signs of PSE or excessive drip
loss and which has sufficient intramuscular fat
to provide flavour. Added to this is a new
demand which places emphasis on the Pigmeat production
production system used, with the requirement By 1997 the EU was about 105% self-sufficient
being for what are termed 'high-welfare' for pigmeat based on a total consumption
production systems but which equate to loose figure of 15.4 million tonnes or 41.3 kg per
housing systems. These demands influenced person. The UK industry produced in the
the choice of breed used by the breeding region of 871 000 tonnes of pork and 236 000
companies in their breeding programmes. For tonnes of bacon. When compared with other
example, although the traditional crosses of the European countries, the UK consumer eats less
White breeds still account for 84% of all pigmeat, with the total consumption figures
commercial indoor production, sales of Duroc being 839 000 tonnes for pork and 453 000
crosses to produce hardier pigs, more suited to tonnes for bacon. The UK pig industry is about
the more demanding outdoor environment, are 104% self-sufficient for pork but only 52% for
on the increase. bacon. The balance of bacon production comes
 The Food Animals 13

from Denmark, Holland and France. The UK Glossary of terms

industry is unusual in that it produces pigmeat
The following definitions are those used in EU
from uncastrated males, which means that in
legislation:
order to avoid boar taint, pigs are slaughtered at
lighter weights in that country. The average
Pig: an animal of the porcine
slaughter weight, at 69 kg deadweight (90 kg
species of any age, kept for
liveweight), is lower than in most other
breeding or fattening
countries.
Historically, pigs in the UK were sold as pork Boar: a male pig after puberty,
pigs, cutters, bacon pigs and heavy hogs. This intended for breeding
classification has largely disappeared and been
Gilt: a female pig intended for
replaced by three weight bands. According to
breeding, after puberty and
the MLC Year Book 1998, in 1997 these weight
before farrowing
bands, P2 measurements and distribution of kill
were: Sow: a female pig after the first
farrowing
Average O(
,0 Piglet: a pig from birth to weaning
Liveweight carcase P2 of GB kill
weight Weaner: a pig from weaning to the age
of ten weeks
Less than 60 kg 54.6kg 9.4 9.2
Rearing pig: a pig from ten weeks to
60-80 kg 70.2kg 11.2 83.3 slaughter or service
Greater than 80 kg 83.7 kg 13.2 7.6
Additional facts
In recent years the trend in the UK has been In Europe piglets must not be weaned from the
to allow pigs to grow to heavier carcase weights sow at an age of less than 3 weeks unless the
because it has been more economically welfare or health of the sow or piglets would
advantageous to do so. However, as a result, fat otherwise be adversely affected. This is not the
content as measured by P2 has also increased. case in the United States where it is not unusual
This has had a negative influence on grading, to find piglets weaned between 16 and 19 days
which in the UK is now done using the EU of age.
grades as follows: On average, UK producers weaning between
24 and 28 days will achieve between 2.3 and
2.44 litters per sow per year, and expect to
Grade Lean meat% produce between 22 and 25 piglets per sow per
year born and sell in the region of 18 to 22
S 60% or more
slaughter pigs per sow per year. Feed
E 55-59%
conversion is around 2.5:1. Producers using
U 50-54% outdoor systems tend now to produce only one
R 45-49% pig less per sow per year than those using
o 40-44% indoor systems.
P less than 40%
Z partially condemned or with soft fat or
pale muscle GOATS
c poor conformation
The principal goat-producing countries of the
world are (in millions): China 88.2; India 49;
Carcase dressing can be different in the UK Pakistan 24.8; Bangladesh 15; Nigeria 10.2 (FAO
when compared with the rest of Europe; in the Yearbook 1996).
UK if the tongue, flare fat, kidneys and Consumer demand for meat with a low
diaphragm remain with the carcase, saturated fat content has seen an increase in the
adjustments to payment are made to take this numbers of those species which are naturally
into account. lean, e.g. goats and deer. In Britain there are
14 Meat Hygiene
now over 100000 goats producing milk, which agricultural industry. While many farmers keep
is also utilised for making hard and soft cheeses a few poultry for their own use to provide meat
and yoghurt. Allergy to cow's milk has also and eggs, the other extreme is represented by
been a factor in the increased goat population. large commercial organisations in which
Meat is a by-product, as are skins and goat hair. thousands of birds are kept under the most
Steps were recently taken in Britain to produce modern systems of management. The major
home-bred mohair and cashmere from part of the poultry industry consists of
imported Angora goats. domestic fowls, but turkeys, ducks, geese and
Domesticated goats, descended from native guinea fowl are also reared, turkeys being
breeds in the East, probably Iran, are found especially common in the United States and
throughout the world, even in torrid and frigid Britain. While it is still not unusual for meat and
zones where they are superior to cows for milk egg production to go hand-in-hand on small
production. Besides milk, some breeds are kept enterprises, they are mostly separate activities
for their wool, e.g. Angora and Cashmere, with the larger concerns. Indeed, the early
while young goats are a source of kid leather. 1950s saw the commencement of the broiler
They are especially useful for small-scale milk industry, which in the UK now has an annual
production and can be maintained in buildings production of 750 million broilers and
and on pasture where it would not be possible combines in most instances breeding, hatching,
to keep cattle or sheep. rearing, slaughter, processing, packing and
Breeds can be roughly classified into two marketing; efficiency and competition are the
main groups: Swiss, which are prick-eared and motivating forces. This operation is said to be
include Alpine and Toggenburg; and Nubian, 'vertically integrated'.
which are African in origin, chiefly Egyptian, The rapid trend towards larger enterprises
and have long drooping ears and roman noses, is exemplified by the broiler industry in the
e.g. Angora, Cashmere, Maltese. UK, where some 75% of the whole industry is
While the market for goat meat in Britain has controlled by six companies. While in the
not yet assumed much importance, in France early years only a few hundred birds were
there are now some 121000 goat farmers. Many reared on one holding, nowadays it is not
of these have developed broiler goat units in uncommon for one million birds to be housed
which 3-7-day-old kids are reared on high- on a single poultry farm, as many as 40 000
vitamin milk powder to a liveweight of 10kg at birds being kept in one house. In the UK,
1 month of age, when they are slaughtered. The house size generally varies from 12 000 to
average carcase deadweight is 6.3 kg. The 35000 birds and there may be one to ten
carcases are split and the meat is exported, houses on each individual site rather than in
mainly to Italy, skins being utilised for huge integrated units, this trend being
shoemaking. dictated by disease control and welfare
considerations.
Concentrated efforts have been put into the
breeding of poultry for both egg and meat
POULTRY production, not only to enhance productivity
but also to control disease, which could be
The main poultry-producing regions of the devastating to the industry. Instead of pure
world include (in 1000 metric tonnes ready to breeds, commercial poultry are now
cook equivalent, 1998 forecast): USA 15435; represented by hybrids.
China 12500; Brazil 4650; France 2350; Mexico Poultry meat production in the United
1749; UK 1509; Japan 1235; Italy 1170 (Foreign Kingdom is provided in the main by broilers,
Agricultural Services USDA). turkeys and ducks, together with geese,
It is probably true to say that no other farm poussins and end-of-lay hens, guinea fowl and
enterprise is as widespread throughout the some game species such as grouse, partridges,
world as is that of poultry farming. Certainly pheasants and quail. Ostrich farming for meat
no other farming activity has made such vast production and leather is a significant
strides in recent years as the production of meat enterprise in South Africa and has recently been
and eggs for table use. In many countries it is introduced into Britain and other areas of
regarded as the most important sector of the Europe.
 The Food Animals 15

Definitions reduced food intake, weight gain, egg

production in layers.
Broilers Two aspects of management help birds keep
Slaughtered normally at around 42 days at free from disease. Biosecurity - safety from
liveweight of about 2.3 kg. Food conversion rate transmissible infectious diseases, parasites and
is 1.75:1 with a kill-out of 69%. Broilers are pests - is a term that embodies all the measures
housed in environmentally-controlled buildings. that can or should be taken to prevent viruses,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, parasites, insects,
rodents and wild birds from entering or
Poussins surviving and infecting or endangering the
well-being of the poultry flock. An 'all in-allout'
Young birds, 23-28 days old, with an average
policy operates where the birds on a unit are
liveweight of 0.5 kg. Oven-ready they weigh
0.25-5 kg. Poussins are mainly sold to the retail approximately the same age and all are
slaughtered, the unit then thoroughly cleaned
trade.
and disinfected prior to the arrival of a new
batch of birds.
Turkeys are nowadays not confined to the
End-oJ-lay hens Christmas period. A wide range of weights is
Birds at the end of their laying life, sometimes produced, depending on the particular trade,
called boiling fowl, and weighing around 2 kg, and these may be as low as 4kg and as high as
form a substantial trade in meat for processing. 9 kg or more. Some large cocks can be as heavy
Some live, fat hens are required for Halal as 18 kg. The popular weight of bird for the
slaughter in Britain. average family in Britain is between 5 and
6kg.
Nearly all the broilers in the major production Ducks are produced both oven-ready frozen
areas in the world are reared on deep litter on - used mainly in the catering trade - and
the floor. Using modern strains of fast-growing oven-ready fresh chilled - sold mainly retail-
birds, the majority are raised until they are and are available in weights from 2 kg
approximately 6 weeks of age, when they are upwards. Table ducks can make very fast
harvested, i.e. caught, crated, loaded and liveweight gains, attaining 3.6kg in 49 days at
transported to the processing plant. Nowhere is a food conversion of 2.3:1. The kill-out
intensivism more evident than in broiler percentage is 72%. In the UK, 90% of ducks are
production, where the health of the breeding Pekin. Small specialist producers use other
stock and the growing birds is essential for breeds such as Barberi. Generally Pekin ducks
economic and welfare reasons. Breeding flocks are considered a cold weather duck and are
have a detailed vaccination programme which predominant in northern Europe, and Barbari
gives protection against respiratory diseases are predominant in southern Europe and
such as infectious bronchitis and Newcastle warmer countries.
disease as well as Marek's disease, egg drop Compared with domestic fowls and turkeys,
syndrome, avian epidemic tremor and geese and ducks are of minor importance. Sales
infectious bursal disease (IBD). The broilers of geese are usually confined to the Christmas
themselves may be vaccinated against period. They are generally regarded as being a
Gumboro disease and other infections and in specialised product in that they have a high
addition will have a coccidiostat in the ration to feed conversion ratio, 5:1, and are expensive to
prevent coccidiosis. produce. A female can produce 50-60 offspring
The keeping of large numbers of birds which are killed normally at 18-22 weeks
together makes it essential that nutrition, weighing around 10 kg liveweight with a kill-
ventilation and temperature, stocking densities out of about 75%. Nowadays, owing to
and management are optimal. Very close hybridisation, the meat content of the carcase is
supervision of the birds is essential and correct much higher. In Denmark, Germany, Austria,
treatment/management changes must be Poland and parts of France, commercial geese
prompt. It is vital that detailed records are kept production is an important enterprise; in some
since it is usually from these that early signs of instances force-feeding with noodles or other
disease are detected, e.g. water consumption, foods is carried out to produce enlargement of
16 Meat Hygiene
the liver, from which the delicacy pate de fois forequarter (18.9% fat and 18.3% protein), lamb
gras is prepared. leg (17.5% fat and 18.7% protein) and pork ham
In the UK the keeping of geese and ducks is (19.6% fat and 19.7% protein).
subject to the terms of the Agriculture Rearing is often a large-scale enterprise in
(Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 1968, and Europe, where farms of several thousand does
other legislation, as is all livestock farming, so can be found, but rabbits are mainly kept on
that geese and ducks have the same welfare small farms where labour costs are low. The
protection as other animals. Their force-feeding average size of a rabbit farm in the UK is a
might, therefore, be regarded as causing 40-50 doe unit. For the industry to be successful
unnecessary stress, depending on the it must develop on the same lines as the poultry
professional assessment of the inspecting industry, i.e. highly organised with specialist
veterinary officer, and would not be allowed in attention to the cost of labour, food, equipment,
the UK. breeding, nutrition, disease prevention and
Guinea fowl can be reared intensively and housing.
kept indoors, the first part of their life under The optimum weight for slaughter lies
brooders. They are killed at 8-9 weeks of age around 2.7kg, which is achieved at about 12-14
and have a food conversion ratio of 3:1. France weeks of age, although this depends on factors
and Italy produce large numbers. such as breed, feeding systems and
There is no doubt that poultry is Britain's management, but mainly the environment.
favourite meat at the moment, its market Rabbit-processing plants have to conform to
continuing to grow at the expense of red meat. EC standards. Integrated premises have
Chicken has a 78% share of the retail market, facilities for rearing, slaughter, refrigeration
while turkey now stands at 19%. The major and packing, the end products consisting of
growth sector in the poultry industry in recent whole fresh rabbits, sausages and burgers,
years has been that of value-added products, stewpacks and cooked and coated portions as
now estimated to be worth over £600 million in the poultry industry.
for chicken. Altogether, poultry are worth some Stunning is by electricity as opposed to
£2000 million. Most of the retail sales of chicken home killing where animals are stunned by a
(87%) go to the multiples, only 6% going to blow to the head, which is immediately
butchers. The trade is divided into fresh chilled removed, or the spinal cord is broken in a
and frozen birds and portions. manner similar to that for poultry.
Imports of Chinese rabbits have been a
serious source of competition for the British
RABBITS industry but they are not of the same standard
as British supplies.
Under commercial rabbit-rearing conditions in While the rabbit is an animal which can
the UK only two of the 40 breeds of rabbit, are utilise many types of feedingstuffs unsuitable
used for meat production. These are the for human consumption, it is susceptible to
Commercial White and Californian. certain conditions such as the enteritis complex,
Rabbits have high fertility rates (some breeds which may be a form of nutritional deficiency
can produce 60 offspring per year), fast growth allied to an infection caused by
rates (1.75 kg at 8 weeks of age) and a food microorganisms. Respiratory diseases are also
conversion efficiency of 2.5:1. A killing-out common and these, along with the above,
percentage of around 50 head-oft hot carcase represent important areas for research as well
weight can be achieved. A measure of the as good husbandry. Labour input is very high
potential of the rabbit as a meat-producing for rabbit breeding and one person can only
animal can be gauged by comparing it with a manage a maximum of 250-300 does.
breeding ewe. A 70 kg ewe is capable of
producing 20 kg of lamb carcase per year,
whereas a 4.5 kg doe is able to produce 75 kg of DEER
rabbit meat in the same time. The farming of red deer has now become firmly
Rabbit meat is low in fat (3.8%) and high in established in the UK and other European
protein (20.7%), which compares favourably countries and on a much larger scale in New
with chicken (2.5% fat and 21.5% protein), beef Zealand. In the latter country the emphasis is
 The Food Animals 17
on the production of antler in velvet for the outwintered unless very good shelter is
lucrative oriental trade, a practice prohibited by available. The principal problem in housing
law in the UK. deer is bullying and it is important to separate
There are three different kinds of pasture deer into groups of similar size and to quickly
land which, taken together with the system of identify and remove either aggressive deer or
livestock production practised, provide a basis those being bullied. Where there is abundant
for the classifying of farm units into hill farms, fenced rough pasture and forest to provide
upland farms and lowland farms. Hill deer shelter, adult deer are best outwintered because
farms produce weaned calves which are sold to of bullying indoors.
upland and lowland farms, where they grow The most suitable areas for deer farming are
much faster to breeding or slaughter good, well-sheltered grassland with good
liveweights. Upland farms breed stags which fencing and shelter because of the lower
may be suitable for use on hill farms, and sell subcutaneous fat content than in cattle and
breeding stock and store calves to lowland sheep and the consequent poorer insulation.
farms; they can also produce prime venison. Rutting (the annual sexual display in the
Some upland farms will also export breeding male) occurs in the autumn and is accompanied
stock and import new blood lines from abroad. by increased aggression, vocalisation, testicular
Lowland farms sell breeding stags to the upland activity, shedding of velvet and a strong urine
farmer and can import and export livestock as odour. The rut lasts for 2-5 weeks (late
well as being a major producer of prime September-October) .
venison. Single calves are born in the Spring (late
It was estimated by the British Deer Society May-June) after a gestation of 231 days. At
Farmers' Association in 1997 that some birth they weigh an average 8.5 kg and reach
10000-15000 carcases were being handled from sexual maturity at 16 months. Farmed deer are
200 deer farms containing 10000 deer. Park deer slaughtered at various ages (8-30 months) and
are also increasingly being used for venison produce dressed carcase weights of 53-60%
production. Estimates made in 1993 show that liveweight. Some 56% of the carcase is regarded
Scotland had at least 300000 wild red deer as as first-class meat.
well as between 150000 and 200000 roe deer, in Stocking rates vary according to the type of
comparison with a total of about 10000 red deer land and pasture utilised, from 0.66/hectare on
and 200000 roe deer in the rest of Britain. heather-dominant hills to 12-16 hinds with
While most of the deer farmed in Britain are their calves, per hectare, on good lowland
red deer, smaller numbers of fallow, roe, sika pasture.
and wapiti are also kept.
New Zealand's 1.5 million farmed deer graze
on approximately 4000 farms. Average herd
Handling of Deer
size is about 375, although the largest herds
comprise several thousand. Deer are processed Because of their relatively sensitive nature,
in specialist plants. Revenue from New Zealand aggression at times and powers of agility, it is
venison exports (14186 tonnes) was around £61 essential that they are handled efficiently and
million in 1995. The major market group was with care. Housing has been shown to be of
Europe, with Germany the main importer, value, especially for calves, but care has to be
followed by Scandinavia and France. taken with dominant types (which must be
Consumer demand for lean meat is fullv met removed) and to allow sufficient trough
in venison, which has a low fat content (~IOOo), space.
the polyunsaturate content is 50-55°0, Good handling systems are necessary for
compared with levels of 4-5% in beef and lamb. collection of deer for tuberculin testing, blood
Husbandry mainly centres round the red deer sampling, weighing, anthelmintic and other
(Cerous elaphus) because of its ease of handling treatments, etc. Drugs such as etorphine
compared with the other species, some of hydrochloride (Immobilon) and diprenorphine
which can be aggressive, e.g. wapita (Cercus (Revivon) are frequently used to immobilise
canadensis). animals humanely, projectile syringes being
The calves are weaned in September. Housed fired from rifles or blowpipes into the
calves appear to thrive much better than those hindquarter or shoulder.
18 Meat Hygiene
REFERENCE Farm Animal Welfare COli/led
Report 011 ti le Welfarr of Broiler Orickms, 1992.
Dransfid d , E., Nu te, G. R., Hogg. B. W. and Waiters, Report 011 tilt Welfare of Sheep, 1994.
B. R. (1990) Animal Production SO, 291. Report on tile Wdfare of Tilrkrys, 1995.
Report of tJre Welfare of Pigs Krpt O rMoors, 1996.
!\tAFF Codes of Practice.
FURT H ER READING MlC Year Books Cattle, Pigs and Sheep .

Universities Federation for Anima l Welfare (1988)

TlI~ Management of Farm Animals. London:
Balliere-Tindall.
Alexander. T. L. and Bu xtcn , D. (ed s] (1994)
Management and DiseaSl?S of Deer. A Veterina ry
Deer Society Publica tion . London : B. V.A.
 Chapter 2
Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality

ANATOMY their classification. There are four main types of

tissues in animal bodies:
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living 1 Epithelial tissues are found on external and
matter. Billions of different types of cells form internal surfaces and also form specialised
the tissues of the body; each type is distinct in structures such as the liver.
shape and function. 2 Muscular tissues, constituting the flesh of
Each cell is a tiny, microscopic unit, animals, are of three main types: voluntary
surrounded by a cell membrane, which (striped, striated), involuntary (unstriped,
contains a jelly-like material called protoplasm, unstriated, smooth) and cardiac (a special
and a nucleus. The cell membrane acts as a form of striated muscle found in the heart).
filter, allowing certain substances to enter the 3 Connective tissues include the skeleton, which
cell and others to leave. gives rigidity to the body. Blood is a
The chemical processes which sustain life specialised form of connective tissue
occur in the protoplasm. The nucleus governs although it is sometimes classified alone.
cell structure and function. Bounded by a 4 Nervous tissue is the most specialised of all the
nucleus membrane, it contains: nucleoproteins, tissues. It transmits the nerve impulses of
particularly chromatin; deoxyribonucleic acid both sensation and movement.
(DNA), the molecule governing hereditary
The animal body is a highly developed
characteristics; ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is
multicellular organism, consisting of billions of
involved with protein synthesis; and nucleoli,
cells specialised to form tissues. Each tissue has
which contain RNA and protein.
a special function; the tissues are further
About 80% of any cell is water. The next
grouped together to form organs. An organ is a
most important substance is protein,
group of tissues arranged in a special manner to
composed of numerous amino acids, followed
carry out a special task; for example, the heart,
by the carbohydrates, such as sucrose,
stomach, kidney, bone. Organs are again
glucose, maltose and fructose, and the lipids
grouped to form systems, each of which
or fats, which can be combined with, for
performs essential body functions.
example, carbohydrates or phosphates
The systems of the body are 11 in number, as
(phospholipids). Steroids are complex lipids
follows: osteology and arthrology (bones and
of great biological significance, e.g.
joints), digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
cholesterol, bile salts, cortisol and oestradiol.
lymphatic, urogenital, nervous, endocrine,
Cells also contain a number of inorganic salts
myology (muscles), sense organs (ear, eye,
such as potassium, sodium, calcium and
organ of smell and organ of taste) and common
magnesium salts, as well as nitrogenous
integument (skin and appendages).
compounds, enzymes, organic acids, gases
and vitamins, all the numerous substances
taking part in the complex metabolic Descriptive terms
processes of the animal body.
In complex organisms, cells are specialised in Certain terms are used to describe the exact
form and function. There is also differentiation position and direction of the different body
of cells between different types of organism in parts, it being assumed that the animal is in the
the animal kingdom, which acts as a basis for standing position.

19
20 Meat Hygiene
Dorsal, superior or upper structures or positions, those below the knee and hock being
positions lie towards the back or dorsum of the dorsal and palmar and dorsal and plantar
body, head or tail. respectively.
Ventral, inferior or lower positions are The terms superficial and deep denote
directed towards the belly or venter. relationships from the surface of the body, e.g.
The longitudinal median plane divides the superficial and deep flexor tendons of the legs.
body into two similar halves. Structures that are
nearer than others to the median plane are said
to be medial or internal while those farther away OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY
from it are lateral or external. Planes parallel to (See Appendix I for use of parts.)
the median plane are sagittal to it. Parts which
lie towards the head are cranial or anterior while
Bones
those towards the tail are caudal or posterior.
In relation to the limbs the terms proximal The skeleton, composed of some 200 bones, acts
and distal are used, those lying towards the as a support and protection for the soft tissues
junction with the body being proximal and those of the body and provides a system of levers for
at a greater distance away from the body being locomotion and body movement (Fig. 2.1). It
distal. Above the knee and hock the terms also acts as a blood-forming organ, producing
cranial and caudal are used for front and rear red and white cells, haemoglobin and platelets.

Vertebrae
Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal
I I I I

Fig. 2.1 Skeleton of ox. 1/ Atlas; 2/ 7th Cervical vertebra; 3/ Scapula; 4/ Ribs; 5/ Pelvic girdle; 6/ Femur;
7/ Patella; 8/ Tibia; 9/ Tarsus; 10/Metatarsus; 11/ Phalanges; 12/Humerus; 13/ Ulna; 14/Radius; 15/ Sternum;
16/ Xiphiod process; 17/ Carpus; 18/Metacarpus; 19, Phalanges; 20/ Mandible; 21/ Cranium. (By courtesy of
Sisson and Grossman, 1975)
 Anatomy/ Meat Composition and Quality 21
The long bones of the very young animal are Later/ in the adult/ the marrow in the medullary
very long/ slender and smooth/ with their cavity of long bones becomes white bone
prominences less pronounced. With age/ marrow, which is rich in fat, is yellowish in
ossification of cartilage takes place and the bone colour and may represent 15% of the weight of
becomes more rigid. In the very old animal the bone; the marrow in the epiphyses of long
there is a decrease in bone organic matter/ bones usually remains red. Another important
making the bone more brittle and liable to position of red bone marrow in the adult is in
fracture. Though a proportion of the carcase those bones which possess no medullary cavity,
bone is often sold with the retail joints/ the head such as the bodies of the vertebrae, the scapula
bones/ thigh bones/ etc., are retained by the and pedal bones.
butcher and are collected for processing. Two or more bones form a joint or
The proportion of bone in the dressed articulation, which may be:
carcase of beef/ i.e. the two sides/ varies
1 fibrous, where there is no movement, e.g.
between 12% and 28%/ according to breed and bones of the skull;
bodily condition/ being about 15% in a good
2 cartilaginous, in which cartilage unites the
beef carcase and increasing with the age and
bones, e.g. vertebral joints, pelvic symphysis;
weight of the animal. It is lowest in Aberdeen or
Angus cattle/ but is as high as 28% in second-
3 synovial, in which a joint capsule is formed
quality cows. The average percentage of bone
with the operation of tendons and ligaments
in lamb is 17-35%/ in bobby calves 50%/ in veal to make a movable joint.
calves 25%/ in pork 12-20%/ in poultry 8-17%.
Ox bone is composed of the following
Bones are classified according to their overall
constituents:
shape and function as follows:
Long bones Elongated with enlarged
%
extremities, acting as levers and supports,
e.g. humerus, radius, femur.
Organic matter: Ossein or bone collagen 33.3
Inorganic matter: Calcium phosphate 57.7 Flat bones Expanded to furnish large areas
Calcium carbonate 3.5 for muscle attachment, e.g. scapula or
Sodium carbonate and shoulder blade.
chloride 3.5 Short bones Cuboidal in shape, e.g. small
Magnesium phosphate 2.0 bones in the carpus (knee) and tarsus
(hock).
100.0 Irregular bones Vertebrae forming the axial
skeleton, for example.
The organic matter is the only edible
constituent of bone and forms gelatin when The skeleton of the meat animals is divided
boiled. into two parts: the axial skeleton comprising the
Bone also contains blood vessels/ lymphatics vertebral column or the spine, ribs/ sternum
and nerves/ and a typical long bone is and skull; and the appendicular skeleton
composed of a hard/ compact substance within representing the bones of the limbs. The foreleg
which is a cancellated spongy substance. The contains the scapula, humerus, radius and ulna,
shaft of the long bone has a medullary cavity carpus, metacarpus and digits which are
lined by a fibrous membrane/ the endosteum/ composed of phalanges. The hindleg is made up
and containing marrow. Covering the outside of of the pelvic girdle (ilium, pubis and ischium),
bone/ except where cartilage occurs/ is the femur, tibia and fibula/ tarsus, metatarsus and
periosteum/ another specialised membrane digits.
capable of producing bone in certain The vertebral column or spine is divided into
circumstances. five regions-cervical (C)/ thoracic (T)/ lumbar
Two types of bone marrow may be (L)/ sacral (S) and coccygeal (Cy). representing
distinguished: the red marrow and the white/ the neck, chest or thorax, loins, sacrum (fused
which is fatty and gelatinous. In the fetus and sacral vertebrae) and tail, respectively. In meat
newborn animal the marrow has an important animals it consists of the number of individual
blood-forming function and is red in colour. vertebrae shown in Table 2.1.
22 Meat Hygiene
Table 2.1 Vertebrae of the spine.

Ox C7 T13 L6 55 Cy 18-20
Sheep and goat C7 T13 L6 54 Cy 16-18
Horse C7 T18 L6 55 Cy 15-21
Pig C7 T14-T15 L6-7 S4 Cy 20-23
Rabbit C7 T12 L7-8 S3-4 Cy 14-20
Chicken C15-17 T7 L + S14 Cy 5-6 + pygostyle
(fused synsacrum) (fused caudal vertebrae)

The sacrum is in the shape of a pyramid and A further useful guide as to age can also be
formed of three to five fused sacral vertebrae, obtained from the ischiopubic symphysis. In
except in the fowl in which 14 fused lumbar cattle up to 3 years of age this can be cut with a
and sacral vertebrae form the synsacrum. The knife, but after this age a saw is necessary.
sternum or breast bone in mammals is Similarly, the red bone marrow of the vertebrae
composed of six to eight fused segments. In the is gradually replaced by yellow bone marrow
fowl the sacrum is a very large bone covering and distinction can be drawn between the soft
almost all of the ventral part of the body. vascular bones of the young animal with
There are generally the same number of ribs cartilage discernible at the joints, and the hard,
as thoracic vertebrae; they are divided into white, bleached appearance of bones in old
sternaI or asternal ribs depending on whether cows. In young bovines, cartilage is discernible
or not they articulate with the sternum. between the individual segments of the
Carcase bones are valuable means of sternum, but after 5 years of age begins to be
identification of the different species of food replaced by bone; at 8 years two or three
animals, e.g. where substitution is suspected. cartilaginous divisions are still apparent, but at
Where the teeth of a bovine animal are 10 years the cut surface of the sternum presents
unavailable for examination, the age can be a uniform bony structure.
estimated with reasonable accuracy by In sheep the break at the carpus, or knee joint,
examination of the carcase bones. This is a valuable guide as to age. In lambs the joint
estimation is based on the degree of ossification breaks in four well-marked ridges resembling
of certain parts of the skeletal system, the most the teeth of a saw, the ridges being smooth,
valuable of which are the cartilaginous moist and somewhat pink or congested. In older
extensions of the spines of the first five dorsal sheep the surface of the joint is rough, porous/
vertebrae. Ossification in these spines develops dry and lacks redness. The determination by X-
as shown in Table 2.2. ray of the amount of cartilage present at the
In cows these changes take place more epiphysis of a long bone in a joint of meat
rapidly and the cartilage has ossified after 3 provides unassailable evidence in cases where
years. there is dispute as to the age of the animal from

Table 2.2 Ossification of the cartilaginous extensions of the spines of the first five dorsal vertebrae.
(Bovines.)

Age (years) Ossification

1 The extension is entirely cartilaginous, soft/ pearly white and sharply delineated from the
bone, which is soft and red.
2 Small red islets of bone appear in the cartilage.
3 The cartilage is greyish, and red areas are more numerous.
4-5 The area of ossification within the cartilage extends until the proportion of bone is greater
than that of cartilage.
6 The cartilage has ossified into compact bony tissue, though the line of junction between
cartilage and bone can still be defined.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 23
.vhich the meat was derived. The degree of marked, the surface is smoother and the tip
ossification, determined by X-ray, in the ischial more rounded. Black pigmentation of the
portion of the pubic symphysis enables a leg of surface of the tongue is common in black-
lamb to be differentiated with certainty from skinned sheep.
::cat of an old sheep.
Pig
Poultry
The tongue is long and narrow and there is no
In the domestic fowl the bones of the skeleton are dorsal ridge. One, or possibly two/
wry light in weight and contain air sacs. The circumvallate papillae are present on each side
skeleton also differs from that of other animals. of the midline near the base of the tongue and
There is a pectoral girdle which consists of a the surface is studded with fungiform papillae.
clavicle or wishbone, scapula and coracoid
(Raven's beak), and a fused pelvic girdle
comprising an ilium, ischium and pubis, which Horse
does not meet ventrally as in mammals. The tongue is long and flat with a spatulate
The wings, comparable with the forelimbs of end. There is no dorsal ridge and only one
mammals, are composed of a large humerus, a circumvallate papilla is present on each side.
smaller radius and ulna and a manus or wing The epiglottis is pointed. Pigmentation is never
tip consisting of a carpus (two bones), seen.
metacarpus (two fused segments) and three
digits. The legs are formed by a large femur
(thigh bone), a very large tibiotarsus with a Stomach
slender fibula forming the drumstick, a
tarsometatarsus or shank bone and digits
Ox (Figs 2.2, 2.3/ 2.4)
(four). The oesophagus is comparatively short and
r, wide, measuring about 1 m long and 5 cm wide.
The voluntary muscle, which performs the
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM reverse peristaltic action in rumination, weighs
about 340 g and is used for sausage meat. After
Tongue removal of this muscle, the serous covering of
the oesophagus is used for sausage casings.
Ox The stomach (paunch) consists of four
In the ox tongue the filiform papillae are horny compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, the
and directed backwards; they have a rasp-like omasum and the abomasum, which is the true
roughness which aids in the prehension of food. digestive stomach and secretes gastric juice.
The posterior part of the dorsum, i.e. the upper The rumen occupies 75% of the abdominal
surface, is prominent and defined anteriorly by cavity; it is bounded on the left side by the
a transverse depression which is frequently the abdominal wall, on the anterior extremity by
seat of erosions due to actinobacillosis. On the reticulum and part of the omasum, and on
either side of the midline on the prominent the right side by the remainder of the omasum,
dorsum are 10-14 circumvallate papillae; the the abomasum and intestine. The reticulum,
epiglottis, if left on the tongue, is oval in shape. which is placed transversely between the
Black pigmentation of the skin of the tongue is anterior extremity of the rumen and the
frequently observed but is quite normal and of posterior surface of the diaphragm to which it
no pathological significance. is adherent, causes a depression on the
posterior aspect of the thin, left lobe of the liver
(Fig. 2.2). The omasum and abomasum are
Sheep and goat
attached to the posterior surface of the liver by
The tongue is similar to that of cattle, but the means of the omentum or caulfat, the root of this
centre of the tip is slightly grooved and the membrane being apparent on the posterior
papillae are not horny. The sheep tongue may aspect of the liver to the left of the portal lymph
be differentiated from that of the calf by the fact nodes when the liver is removed from the
that it is narrower, the dorsal eminence is more carcase. The omentum, after connecting the
24 Meat Hygiene

Dorsal sac
of Rumen

q
Fig. 2.2 Sto mach of ox; right
side . Oes , oeso p hagus : 1, insula

Venlra l
"'" 0'
7/'1 omasum
between right longitud inal
groo ve below, and accessory
groove above: 2, caudal groove

\~
Rumen o f rumen; 3, ,1. right dorsal and
\ I ventral co ronary grooves: 5, 6,
6 4
Reticu lum caudodorsal and caudoventral
blind sacs; 7, py lorus. The
Abomasum pos itions of the reticul um ,
omasum and abomasum have
l been altered by removal of the
stomach from the abdomina l
cav ity and inflation.

Fig.2.3 Project ion of " iSCCTa of cow on body wall; left side. b.s., at rium of rum en: b.s.', b.s.", blind sacs of
rum en: 0 , ovary; Oes , oesophagus: Rct., reticulum; Sp. spleen. The left kidn ey (LK) is concealed by the
dorsal sa c of the rumen, is ind icated by dotted lines . The me dian line of the d iaphragm is dotted.

live! and omas u m, is contin ued to the less er Reticulum Honeycomb-like appea rance with
curvature of the abomasum and thence to the four, five or six-sided cells.
d u odenum. The ana tomical relations of the Oma5U1II Prominent longi tudi nal folds, about
bovine stomach play an important pa rt in the 100 in number. Sometimes called the ' Bible' .
aeti olo gy o f tra umatic pericarditis. The average A bomaSI/m Some 30 prominent oblique folds
capacity of the s toma ch is 150 litres. in the bodv of the abomas um, but absen t in
the py loric portion.
Mucous membranes A feature of the calf stomach is the relatively
Rumen Brown or black in colour except on large size of the abomasum as compared wi th
pillars or folds where it is pale. Studded the small size of the rumen, which remains
with large papillae. small until the animal is weaned . As the calf
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 25

Fig. 2.4 Projec tio n of viscera of bull on body wall; right side. B.g., bulbourothral gland; Bl., urinary bladder;
G.b., gallb ladd er: L.K., left kidney; P (above duodenum), pancreas; P (below G.b.), pylorus; R.K. right kidney;
\".$., vesicular gland . Costal attachment and median line of diaphra gm are indicated by dotted Itnos.

commences to ta ke solid foods, the size of the

ru men increases until in the adult animal it ..- re!
represe n ts 80% of the total stomach ca pacity
and the abomasum 7-8%.

5heepand goat (Fig. 2.5)

The stomach is s imilar in structure to that of the
0'\ and has an average capacity o f 18 litres. The
firs t and second stomachs together yield 0.9 kg
-
of tripe; the four th stomach is also sometim es
used, but the third is often discarded. The sheep
rumen is also used in Scotland as a con tainer for
ha ggis (coo ked minced heart, live r and lungs,
seasoned with salt, p epper, cayenne, nu tmeg
an d grated onion mixed wi th oa tmea l and
shred ded beef s uet). Mechan ical me tho d s for
the cleaning of bo th ox and sheep s tom achs are
DOW operating satisfacto rily in mo de rn
mpertes.

l'i~
Tne pig s tomach is a simple one, semilunar in
.".'upe. with a small pocket or diverticulum at
card iac (Le. oesophageal) end . The mucous
br ane of the cardiac end is pale g rey, while Fig. 2.5 Abdominal viscera of sheep; ventral
cen tral fundic region is reddish brown, aspect. For ' Anterior blind sac' read cranial end of
mi ng pal er and corrugated towards the ventral sac; for 'Pos terior ventral blind sac' read
rtc end. The a\'erage ca p acity of the caud oventral blind sac; for 'Posterior dorsal blind
.;bnach is 6.5 litres. sac' read caudodorsa l blind sac.
26 Meat Hygiene
,

Horse gall bladder, common hepatic duct and hepatic

artery) in contact with the pancreas, reticulum,
The horse stomach is a simple one; the mucous
omasum and abomasum with the caudal vena
membrane of the whitish oesophageal portion
cava prominent on its dorsal border.
is clearly distinguishable from the reddish, soft
and vascular fundic and pyloric portions. The
average capacity is 12 litres. Functions:
1 Concerned with the formation and
Intestines destruction of red blood cells (RBCs). (It is a
site of RBC formation in the fetus.)
Small Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
2 Removes bilirubin from the blood and
Large Caecum, colon, rectum. excretes it via the bile duct into the
duodenum.
The average length of the intestines is shown
3 Manufactures plasma proteins except for
in Table 2.3. Thus, for practical purposes, the some of the globulin fraction.
ratio of the length of the small intestine to the
4 Manufactures blood-clotting factors
large intestine is 4 to 1.
(prothrombin and fibrinogen) and heparin.
Table 2.3 Length of intestines (m). 5 Manufactures glycogen from protein and fat
and stores it along with the fat and protein.
Small intestine Large intestine 6 Maintains the normal blood sugar level (100
mg%) and converts galactose into glucose.
Cattle 36.5 9 7 Detoxifies certain foreign substances in the
Horse 24.3 6 blood.
Sheep 25.6 6 8 Deaminates surplus amino acids.
Pig 17.1 4.8 9 Produces bile salts for the digestion of fats.
Forms and stores bile, vitamins A, D and BI2! .
copper and iron.
Fowl
The alimentary tract of the domestic fowl
consists of an oesophagus, fusiform crop,
Ox (Fig. 2.6)
proventriculus or glandular stomach, thick The liver is poorly divided into three lobes: a
muscular gizzard, small intestine (duodenum, thin left, a thicker right, and a caudate lobe or
jejunum and ileum), large intestine (two caeca thumb piece. The left and right lobes are
and a rectum) and a cloaca, which is the divided by a slight notch, the umbilical fissure,
common end of the digestive and urogenital which indicates the point of entry of the
tracts. A cloacal bursa (bursa of Fabricius) is umbilical vein while the calf is in utero. In the
found in the dorsal aspect of the cloaca in cow the left lobe of the liver is thin, elongated
young birds and is composed mainly of and often markedly cirrhotic. Running
lymphoid tissue. transversely across the upper border of the liver
is the posterior vena cava and on its posterior
Length of small intestine: 120-170 cm.
aspect the liver shows the root of the omentum,
Length of large intestine: 22-35 cm.
the gall bladder, portal vein and portal lymph
nodes, the vein and lymph nodes being partly
concealed by the pancreas.
Liver
The weight of the ox liver is about 5.4 kg, i.e.
With the exception of the horse, the livers of all about 1% of the liveweight, although in feedlot
the food animals are reddish-brown in colour. cattle and heavier animals the liver may weigh
The liver, the largest gland in the body, lies up to 6.3 kg. The calf liver, which is relatively
mainly to the right of the midline in all animals, larger than in the adult, weighs 0.9-1.1 kg; its
its convex anterior surface conforming to the tenderness, its usual freedom from parasitic
hollow of the diaphragm to which it is attached and other pathological conditions and its
on its dorsal surface and its concave visceral therapeutic value in the treatment of anaemia
surface (with portal vein, hepatic lymph nodes, ensures the highest price.
 Allatomy, M eat Compoeitton and Quality 27

Caudate process

--;::' Coronary
/' ligament (cut)
Gall bladd er

ceuoervena cava

Hepa tic veins

Falcil orm
lig ament (cut)

Fig. 2.6 Liver of ox; diaphragmatic surface, hardened ill situ.

Slwep (Fig . 2.7) visible interlobul ar tissu e which gives the

surface of the o rgan its classical ' m orocco
The h er is simila r in shape to tha t of the ox, but lea ther ' appearance. The lobules are mapped
the caud ate lobe is more poin ted and its ed ges out sharp ly and are polyh ed ra l, and the org an,
are well defi ned. This is a usefu l d istinguishing bec ause of the amoun t of inte rlobu lar tissue, is
featu re between sheep and calf liver. The less friabl e than in the other food animals.
cau date lobe in the latter is more rou nded and Its weight va ries from 0.9 kg in po rk pigs to 2
s a blu n ter extre mit y w hich frequently kg in sow s.
ectends beyond the lower edge of the liver.
'hen the calf liver is laid on the table, an ter ior
sartace up permo st, the caud ate lobe fits neatly
Horse (Fig . 2.9)
the liver like a carpenter 's joint.
An ad ult sheep's liver weigh s 453-680 g but Horse liver has three di stinct lobes and a
ergoes a marked hyper trop h y in ewes thumb piece which term inates in a point. A
~roach i ng part u rition . notable featu re is the absence of a gall blad d er.
The horse liver is pu rplish and we ighs about
4.5 kg .
_ fFi g. 2.8)
liver has five lobes, tw o smaller inn er, tw o
er ou ter and a caud a te lobe . The F01t'1
r ha gea l not ch is p romine n t but the The liver consists o f righ t (larger) and left lobes
ufying featu re is the large amou n t of with fusiform gall bladd er.
28 Meat Hygiene
Rena l impression
/
/

Ca uda l vena
cava - --f'-1ffi

Porta l vein -
- - Gall bladder

Hepatic art ery _

-=:::::=::::::::::....L---
'" -
~ Notch for
round ligament

omese t
impressioll
_-+_-j _ /Ibomual
impr ession
Lesser
omentum

Fig. 2.7 Liver of sheep;

Reticular visce ral surface ; hardened ill
impression situ. The papilliary proci"SS is
the round projection between
the omasa! im pression and the
left bra nch of the portal vein.

Right Ialerallobe
Ca udal vena cava

Esophaqeat impression

/
Right
media l -
lobe
-
o-.J '-'"
2

3 l ••
lateral
lobe f ig. 2.8 Liver of p ig; parietal
surface. 1, Large hepatic veins
opening into cau da l vena cava:
I 2, coro nary ligament; 3, faldforrn
Le" medial lobe ligament .
 Anatomy, Meat Com position and Quality 29

Renal impression
Caudal vena cava -e, \

Attachment of gastropancreatic IokI

Portal vein
Portallissure
Hepatic artery_J-i:lr--.;\:-
Anachm ent of lesse r omentum
Hepatic duct _ Right
EsoptIagea l impression border

Left triangular ~ \
ligam ent - '/

." .
Interloba r fissure between
right and quadrate lobes

l ••
border

,
e~.......'lJ: \ Notch for round ligament

~ Inter10bar fissure between

left and quadrate lobes
rig . 2.9 Liver of horse; visceral surface.

Pan creas (gut sweetbread) separated from the abdominal cavity (in which
all the other body organs are situated) by the
Two hormones, insulin and glucagon, are ~trong musculomembranous diaphragm (convex
prod uced by the islet cells of Langerhans in the to front and concave pos tertorly).
pan creas. These substances control the levels of The ~piratory system comprises the nose,
blood sugars: an excess of insulin causes the nasal cavity, part of the pharynx. larvnx. trachea
bl~ . sugar to . dro1:" while [Link] glucagon and lu ngs. Resp ira tio n allows an adequate
raises It. La ck of ins u lin causes diabetes mellitus intake of oxygen and the removal of carbon
~ which there are high blood levels and red uced d ioxide by bringing blood in the lungs into
tat an d protein forma tion in the body. close proximity w ith the alv eol ar air.
The ox pancreas is redd ish brown, loose ly Th e pleu ra lines the ches t cavity and in the
k:l~ u la ted and rou ghly the sha pe of an oak leaf. healthy an ima l is a smooth , g lis teni ng
It IS atta ched to the ba ck of the liver an d is membran e d ivid ed into a righ t and left sac.
Je~ p l y notched to accom modate the po rtal Each sac cove rs the chest wa ll (the parietal
vein. I hc average weigh ts of the pancreas are: pleura) and the lun g (the viscera l pleu ra). The
~ ttlc, ~6-340 g; horse, 34Og; sheep, 85-142g; tw o sacs (p leu ra e) join in th e centra l
r Ig, 28-56 g, med iast inal space in which are situa ted the
In the fowl the pancreas has dorsal, ventral mediastinal lymph no des and which is
en d sp len ic lobes. It is yellow or reddish in traversed by the ao rta, oesophagus and trachea .
colour.

Lungs
RES PIRAT O RY SYSTEM Ox (Fig. 2.10)
The much smaller thoracic cavity (containing The cartiJaginous rings of the ox trachea mee-t at
gs. heart and associated large vessels) is an angle and form a distinct ridge along the
30 Meat Hygiene
Pig
The number of lobes varies, with two to three
on the left and three to four on the right,
because the apical and cardiac lobes can be
subdivided. The tissue is very spongy and
compressible, and the surface lobulation is
particularly well marked. Of all the food
animals, pig lungs show the greatest variations
in colour, varying from red to a light pink, but
these variations are due to slight variations in
the amount of blood left in the lungs after
bleeding and are of no pathological
significance. Pig lungs weigh 340-453 g.

Horse
The lobar divisions are very indistinct in the
horse; only two left lobes and three right lobes
can be clearly distinguished. The horse lungs
are long and may be further differentiated from
those of the ox by the absence of surface
lobulation and the absence of an accessory
bronchus, while the ends of the cartilaginous
rings of the trachea overlap like a piston ring.
Horse lungs weigh 2.2-3.0 kg.

Domesticfowl
The respiratory system of the fowl is
distinguished by the presence of an anterior or
Fig. 2.10 Lymph nodes of the bovine lungs. a, left cranial larynx, which opens into the floor of the
bronchial partly covered by the aorta; b, right pharynx, and a posterior larynx or syrinx,
bronchial; c, middle bronchial; d, apical; e, posterior located at the terminal part of the trachea and
mediastinal; I, anterior mediastinal, related partly formed by the bronchi. Associated with
inferiorly to the oesophagus and trachea. the respiratory system are 10 paired air sacs and
one single (clavicular) air sac. These form a
communication between a bronchus and the
dorsal aspect. The left lung has three lobes
interior of some of the pneumatic bones. The
named, from before backwards, the apical,
sacs are lined with a mucous membrane
cardiac and diaphragmatic. The right lung has
covered with a serous coat and play an active
four or five lobes, its apical lobe receiving an
part in respiration. The walls are very thin and,
accessory bronchus from the trachea. The lung
while not easy to see in the healthy bird, are
lobulation is well marked by the large amount
often involved in respiratory disease with
of interlobular tissue and is particularly evident
thickening of the walls and cheesy or purulent
in old cows. The pair of ox lungs weighs 2.2-3.0
exudation.
kg.

Sheep Pluck
Sheep lungs resemble those of the ox in the In the pig, sheep and calf the internal organs
division of the lobes, but their consistency is comprising the larynx, trachea, lungs, heart and
more dense and leathery, they are duller in liver constitute the pluck. In the pig pluck the
colour, and the lobulation is less distinct. They oesophagus remains attached and is related to
weigh 340-907 g. the trachea, which is short and consists of 32
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 31
cartilaginous rings. In the sheep the Ox
oesophagus is removed with the stomachs in
The ox heart shows three ventricular furrows
the dressing of the carcase. The trachea is long
and composed of about 50 rings. on its surface. Two ossa cordis, which are
cartilaginous until 4 weeks after birth, develop
at the base of the heart in the aortic wall. The ox
heart weighs 1.8-2.2 kg. In pregnant cows and
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM (heart, arteries, in those with a septic infection it is frequently
capillaries and veins) pale, flabby and friable.

Heart Sheep
The heart, a hollow muscular organ acting as a There are three ventricular furrows, while in
pump, lies in the pericardial sac in the mid- later years a small os cordis may develop on the
mediastinal region of the thorax between the right side. The heart weighs 85-113 g.
lungs. Its muscular portion, the myocardium, has
a smooth lining, the endocardium, to its four
cavities (left ventricle and atrium, right Pig
ventricle and atrium). Covering the cardiac Only two ventricular furrows are normally
muscle is the epicardium, the visceral layer of the present in the pig heart although a rudimentary
pericardium. posterior furrow may be present. The apex is
In reality the circulation consists of two more rounded than in sheep/and the heart
pumps, the left and right sides, the former cartilage ossified in older animals. The weight
being involved with the systemic circulation is 170-198 g.
and the latter the pulmonary circulation.
Systemic circulation: Horse
1 Left atrium and ventricle (LA and LV) via The heart has two ventricular furrows, the
aorta, arteries, arterioles and capillaries to
tissues (oxygenated blood). aortic cartilage becoming partly ossified in
older animals. The average weight is 2.7 kg
2 Return via venae cavae and veins to right side although much greater in racehorses; in the
of heart (RV and RA) (carbonated blood).
thoroughbred horse Eclipse the heart weighed
Pulmonary circulation: 6.3kg.
1 RV and RA via pulmonary artery (two
branches) to lungs (carbonated blood). Domestic fowl
2 Return via pulmonary veins to left side of The heart possesses a very pointed apex which
heart (LA and LV) (oxygenated blood). in round-heart disease becomes distorted,
dimpled at the apex and brownish.
The heart itself receives blood from the right
and left coronary arteries and is drained by
several veins which pass into the coronary
sinus and the right atrium.
Portal circulation
The heart is reddish-brown in colour in all The portal circulation is important in the study
the food animals; the myocardium has a firm of the spread of certain parasitic and bacterial
consistency and the epicardium and infections throughout the body.
endocardium are smooth and glistening. The The portal vein is formed by two main
right and left ventricles may be readily branches, the gastrosplenic and mesenteric
distinguished by palpation, the wall of the left veins which drain the stomach and intestines.
ventricle being three times as thick as that of the The veins also drain blood from the pancreas.
right, while the mitral valve and its chordae Venous blood from these organs is conveyed by
tendineae are stronger than the tricuspid valve the portal vein to the liver. The liver is drained
of the right side. A certain amount of blood clot by the hepatic veins which enter the posterior
is found normally in each of the ventricles after vena cava, wherein the blood is conveyed to the
death. heart.
32 Meat Hygiene
Bacteria or parasites which gain entry to the ovale, an orifice situated in the interauricular
portal vein may be arrested within the wall. A certain amount of blood, mostly
sinusoids of the liver, but this organ is an draining from the head, does pass from the
imperfect filter and organisms may pass right auricle to the right ventricle and into the
through to the heart and thence to the lungs. pulmonary artery, but a large portion of this
For example, hydatid cysts may be found in the blood passes from the pulmonary artery into
lungs and occasionally immature liver flukes in the ductus arteriosus, a connecting vessel to the
the lungs of cattle and older sheep but not in posterior aorta, and consequently does not
pigs. reach the lungs. The blood supply to the fetal
lungs, then, is the minimum amount necessary
for the growth of these organs.
Blood which supplies the fetal structures
Fetal circulation through the aorta and its branches is eventually
The fetal circulation plays an important role in collected bv two umbilical arteries which arise
the occurrence of congenital tuberculosis in the from the two iliac arteries in the pelvic cavity.
calf and in the distribution of lesions. These pass back to the umbilicus and thence to
Although the fetus in utero receives oxygen the placenta where the blood receives fresh
and nutrient material from the mother there is oxygen and nutriment. After birth, the
no actual passage of blood from mother to umbilical arteries retract and, like the umbilical
fetus. Transference of essential materials is vein, ductus venosus and ductus arteriosus,
rendered possible by the intimate contact of the become cord-like and cease to function, while
mucous membrane of the maternal uterus with the foramen ovale becomes occluded. Although
the fetal membrane, this contact being attained the elastic umbilical arteries retract within the
by means of the cotyledons of the placenta. abdomen of the calf immediately after birth, the
Corresponding to each maternal cotyledon is a umbilical vein remains open for a day or so.
fetal cotyledon containing fine branches of the This is filled with liquid blood which
umbilical vein. These branches are received into coagulates to form a physiological thrombus; it
the sponge-like structure of the maternal is by this channel that the organisms causing
cotyledon and close contiguity of the two blood navel ill gain entry to the body.
supplies is thus assured. Fetal blood is Although the placenta acts as an excellent
conveyed from the placenta by the umbilical filter, normally preventing the passage of
veins (two in the ox and sheep) to the bacteria into the umbilical veins and thence into
umbilicus, where they join to form a single the body of the fetus, certain foreign invaders
vein. This main umbilical vein then passes do, at times, enter the umbilical vein from the
forward along the floor of the abdominal wall placenta. Where bacteria or parasites gain entry
and enters the liver at the umbilical fissure. The to this vein, the place where these organisms
umbilical vein is the only fetal vessel which are most likely to be arrested is the fetal liver.
carries unmixed arterial blood.
In the fetal calf a portion of the blood borne
by the umbilical vein, having entered the liver, The umbilical cord
passes into the ductus venosus and thus In the cow this cord from fetal membranes to
discharges directly into the posterior vena cava. umbilicus is 33--46cm long, the fetal calf being
The amount of blood side-tracked in this way is born free of its membranes. In both cow and
insignificant compared with the amount which ewe the umbilical cord is embraced in a jelly-
passes through the liver substance, but by like tissue which contains the following vessels:
whichever route the blood passes through the two umbilical veins, two umbilical arteries and
liver its destination is the right auricle of the the urachus, the tube which drains the fetal
heart and then the lungs. bladder.
The lungs do not function in the fetus, as
oxygen is supplied to it by the placenta, and the
blood requirements of the fetal lungs are
accordingly small. Blood which reaches the Blood
right auricle is therefore largely directed from Blood consists of a suspension of cells or
the right to the left auricle by way of the foramen corpuscles (red and white) and platelets in a
 Anaiomi], Meat Composition and Quality 33
straw-coloured fluid called plasma. It Fetal blood
constitutes about one-thirteenth of the body
This is an important biological substance, its
weight of the animal. At anyone time, about
serum being used for cell or tissue culture,
20% of the blood volume is in the lungs, 20% in
following collection at slaughter via the
the heart and arterial system and 60% in the
umbilical cord or by direct heart cannulation
veins of the body.
and subsequent chilling.
The red blood cells are small biconcave discs
about 7.2 urn thick. There are about six million
red blood cells in every millilitre. The red cells Spleen (melt)
give the blood its colour, although under the
The spleen is not essential to life. In the fetus it
microscope they appear pale orange. They are
forms red and white cells, lymphocytes being
manufactured in the red bone marrow,
produced during the life of the animal. It also
especially of the sternum. vertebrae. ribs and, in
acts as a store for RBCs and for the destruction
early life, the long bones. In fetal life, red cells
of old red cells and platelets. Antibodies are
are also formed in the liver, kidneys, spleen and
formed in the spleen, which, in certain diseases,
muscles. Each red cell has a life of about 120
e.g. anthrax or trypanosomiasis, becomes very
days, after which time it is broken down and
enlarged.
replaced by a new cell.
Unlike mammalian blood, the avian red
blood cells are nucleated. Ox (Fig. 2.11)
White blood cells or leukocytes are much fewer
The spleen of the ox is related to the left dorsal
in number than the red cells, there being only
side of the rumen and also to the diaphragm. In
one in everv 600 of the latter, and between 7000
and 14000 'white cells per millilitre. In certain
Dorsal ~xtremity
diseases leukocytes are greatly increased in
number, and young animals possess more than
older stock. Leukocytes are manufactured in
the bone marrow, spleen and lymph nodes
(especially the lymphocytes). They play vital
parts in the defensive mechanism of the body,
destroying bacteria, dead cells and foreign Splenic vein
material, and producing antibodies, heparin, Splenic artery
histamine and antihistamine substances.
Blood platelets or thrombocytes are very minute Hilus
bodies, measuring 2.4 urn in diameter. There are
some 160000-250000 per millilitre. Their exact
origin is not fully known, but some are thought
to be produced in the lungs. Platelets aggregate 2
and break down at sites of injury and when
they come into contact with a foreign surface. 3
They can arrest bleeding by forming a plug,
especially in capillaries.
Blood obtained from the food animals at
slaughter contains 77-82% of water and 18-23%
of solids, of which 18-19% is protein. It
therefore forms an article of food, though it is
an essential preliminary process to whip or
defibrinate it to prevent clotting. If any
suppurative lesion, however slight, or other
gross lesion of infection is found, the blood
Ventral extremity
should not be used for food purposes. Further,
the blood of animals slaughtered by the Jewish Fig. 2.11 Spleen of ox; visceral surface. 1, Area of
method is contaminated by stomach contents attachment to rumen (non-peritoneal); 2, caudal
and should be rejected. border; 3, line of peritoneal reflection.
34 Meat Hygiene
the young bovine, it is reddish-brown, which cannot pass readily through the capillary
elongated and slightly convex with rounded walls.
edges; lymph follicles are apparent on the cut After lymph has fulfilled its function of
surface. In the cow the organ is bluish and flat feeding the tissue cells it is forced by the
with sharp edges and rounded extremities; it animal's muscular movements into the fine-
weighs 0.9-1.3 kg. walled lymphatics, which arise as blind-ended
vessels in the tissues. These are similar to veins,
but have thinner walls and more valves; when
Sheep distended with lymph they have a
The spleen is usually found attached to the characteristic beaded appearance.
pluck, being removed with it in the dressing of Practically all lymph vessels discharge their
the carcase. It is oyster-shaped, soft or elastic to contents into lymph nodes and, with rare
the touch and weighs 56-85 g. In both ox and exceptions, all the lymph throughout the
sheep the spleen is adherent to the rumen. system passes through at least one lymph node
before it returns into the blood circulatory
system. In every case the direction of flow of
Pig lymph in an organ is from the centre of the
The pig spleen is connected to the greater organ towards its surface. Lymph nodes consist
curvature of the stomach by the serous of a reticular framework of elastic and smooth
membrane known as the gastrosplenic muscle fibres enclosing lymphatic tissue which
omentum. The organ is elongated, tongue- contains lymphocytes. The intestinal
shaped and triangular in cross-section, while its lymphatics are the route of absorption of fat
under surface shows well-marked longitudinal from the digestive tract.
ridge to which the omentum is attached; it Lymphatic vessels conveying lymph to a
weighs 113-425 g. The relatively loose lymph node are known as afferent lymphatics and
attachment of the pig spleen to the stomach the area drained by the particular lymph node is
often leads to splenic rotation, resulting in known as its drainage area. An appreciation of the
torsion and acute swelling of the organ. drainage system of lymph nodes is of particular
value in the judgement of septic infections and of
the tuberculous carcase (Fig. 2.12).
Horse After passing through one or more lymph
The equine spleen is flat, sickle-shaped and nodes, where some impurities are removed,
bluish and weighs 453-907 g. lymph is conveyed by efferent lymphatics to
discharge eventually into larger lymph-
collecting vessels, which all flow towards the
Fowl heart. The largest of these lymph-collecting
In fowl the spleen is reddish-brown, small and vessels is the thoracic duct, which commences as
spherical (1.5 cm in diameter.); it weighs 3-5 g. a thin-walled dilation about 19 mm in width
and known as the receptaculum chyli. This
dilation is situated in the abdomen, lying above
the aorta at the level of the last dorsal vertebra,
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM (Figs 2.10, 2.12) and receives lymph from the lumbar and
intestinal trunks; it is the main receptacle for
Lymph is the medium by which oxygen and lymph from the posterior part of the body. The
nutritive matter are transferred from the blood thoracic duct is about 6.3 mm in width, passes
to the body tissues and waste products are forward through the diaphragm, traverses the
removed. Although the blood capillaries thorax and opens into the anterior vena cava in
approximate to the individual body cells, actual the anterior thorax. Lymph from the anterior
contact is through the lymph. The presence of part of the body is carried towards the heart by
lymph around the tissue cells is maintained by two tracheal lymph ducts, which commence at
a slow exudation of fluid through the capillary the lateral retropharyngeal lymph nodes and
walls and into the surrounding tissue; this fluid pass down the neck on each side of the trachea
is similar to the plasma of the blood but is and oesophagus; each duct discharges into the
thinner, more watery and poorer in protein, jugular vein of its own side.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 35
The size of lymph nodes varies from that of a abdomen being generally softer than those of
pinhead to that of a walnut, though the the thorax. A physiological oedema of the
posterior mediastinal lymph node of the ox supramammary and iliac lymph nodes will
may reach a length of 20 cm. Lymph nodes are invariably be encountered in the lactating
generally round or oval and somewhat animal.
compressed; in the ruminant they are large and The response of a lymph node to an irritant
few in number, but in the horse they occur in is normally rapid, involving enlargement,
large numbers and in clusters. The size of congestion and possibly tissue breakdown; thus
lymph nodes is relatively greater in the young the size, colour and consistencyof lymph nodes form
growing animal than in the adult. a valuable guide in the estimation of disease
The colour of lymph nodes shows processes in the animal body.
considerable variation, and may be white, Lymph nodes are absent in most poultry,
greyish-blue or almost black. The mesenteric although lymphatics are present.
lymph nodes of the ox are invariably black but
in the pig the lymph nodes are lobulated and
almost white, with the exception of those of the Haemal lymph nodes
head and neck which are reddish. These are deep red or almost black in colour,
The consistency of lymph nodes varies in oval in shape and up to the size of a pea, but
different parts of the body, the nodes of the differ from lymph nodes in their anatomical

Fig. 2.12 Carcase of bullock. A,

Position of lymph nodes: a, popliteal;
b, superficial inguinal; c, precrural;
d. deep inguinal; e, external iliac; f,
internal iliac; g, ischiatic; h. sacral;
i, lumbar, i", renal; m, xyphoid;
n, suprasternal; 0, presternal;
P. prepectoral; q, middle cervical;
r, costocervical; s, intercostal.
B, Direction of the lymph flow: I
lymph from intestine; S, lymph from
stomach; L, lymph from liver;
R, receptaculum chyli; j, lymph from
posterior mediastinal lymph node
discharging into thoracic duct;
k, lymph from bronchial lymph
A B nodes; 1, lymph from anterior
mediastinal lymph nodes.
36 Meat Hygiene
structure and in the absence of afferent and 1 The internal retropharyngealnodes, two to four
efferent lymphatics. Haemal lymph nodes are in number and situated between the hyoid
supplied by arteries which break up in the bones. D: Pharynx, tongue and larynx. E:
gland substance and discharge their blood into Lateral retropharyngeal nodes.
tissue spaces; in this respect these nodes bear a 2 The lateral reiropharungeal nodes situated
resemblance to the spleen and may, in fact, be beneath each wing of the atlas and therefore
described as accessory spleens. Like the spleen, usually located at the neck end of the dressed
they contain numerous white blood corpuscles carcase. D: Tongue, and receive efferents from
submaxillary, parotid, and internal
together with red blood corpuscles in various retropharyngeal nodes. E: Tracheal lymph
stages of disintegration, hence the red duct.
coloration of the nodes.
Haemal lymph nodes are numerous in the ox
and sheep but are not found in the horse or pig. Middle cervical
In cattle they occur especially along the course P: Situated in the middle of the neck on each
of the aorta and in the subcutaneous fat, while side of the trachea and often absent in cattle.
in sheep and lambs they are commonest They vary in number from one to seven and
beneath the peritoneum in the sublumbar also in position and size. D: Lateral
region, being larger and more numerous in retropharyngeal nodes. E: Prepectoral nodes.
animals suffering from anaemic and cachectic
conditions. The red lymph nodes of the head
and neck of the pig are frequently mistaken for Nodes of the chest and forequarter (Figs
haemal lymph nodes. 2.10 and 2.12)
In poultry, mural lymph nodules are present
on the lymphatic vessels. Prepectoral
These are known also as the lower cervicals and
may be considered anatomically as a
continuation of the upper and middle cervical
LYMPH NODES OF THE OX chain. The middle cervical group may, in fact,
extend to the upper group or may reach back
P: Position. D: Drainage area. E: Destination of almost to the prepectorals. P: The prepectorals
efferent lymph vessels of node. (Nomenclature are two to four in number on each side, and are
varies in different texts, countries, etc.) embedded in fat along the anterior border of
the first rib. The main node of this group is
superficially situated about the middle of the
N odes of the head and neck first rib and just anterior to it; haemal lymph
Submaxillary nodes are usually present in the fat around this
group. The second node of this group is on the
P: One on each side, just inside the angle of the same level and just anterior to the main node
jaw and embedded in fat. D: Head, nose and but is deep-seated and is exposed by making an
mouth. E: Lateral retropharyngeal nodes. incision 10 cm long and 5 cm deep through the
triangular-shaped scalenus muscle. D: Efferents
Parotid from upper and middle cervical nodes, together
with efferents from the prescapular; thus all
P: One on each side, on the edge of the masseter lymph from the head and neck passes through
muscle and covered by the parotid salivary the prepectorallymph nodes. E: Thoracic duct.
gland which must be incised to expose it. It is a
flat node 7.5 cm long by 2.5 cm wide, and
should always be examined in old cows. D: Costocervical
Muscles of head, eye and ear, tongue and P: This may be found on the inner side or just
cranial cavity. E: Lateral retropharyngeal nodes. anterior to the first rib and close to its junction
with the first dorsal vertebra. It lies adjacent to
Retropharyngeal the oesophagus and trachea and is frequently
removed with these in the dressing of the
These are divided into two groups: carcase, being then found anterior to the heart
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 37
and lungs. D: Neck, shoulder, parietal pleura structures as the intercostals and also the
and first few intercostal nodes. E: Thoracic duct. mediastinum, pericardium, diaphragm and
efferents from the intercostal lymph nodes. E:
Thoracic duct.
Prescapular
P: This node is elongated, commonly 7.5-10 cm
long and 2.5 cm or more in width. It lies about Suprasternal
10 cm in front of the point of the shoulder and a P: Known also as the sternocostal, these nodes lie
deep incision 15 cm long and 5 cm deep must be between the costal cartilages and are covered
made to expose it. The node is embedded in fat by muscle. They may be exposed by an incision
and its exposure is greatly facilitated if the 7.5 cm from and parallel to the cut surface of the
carcase is examined before the onset of rigor sternum, and are found at the junction of
mortis. D: Head, neck, shoulder and forelimb. the internal thoracic vein with a line
E: Thoracic duct. continuing the posterior border of each rib. The
The importance of the prescapular lymph node in the fourth intercostal space is large and
node in relation to bovine tuberculosis lies in readily exposed, but nodes are not present in
the fact that it drains not only the head, neck, every intercostal space. The largest of this
shoulder and forelimb, but also muscle and group, known as the presternal or anterior
bone. When lesions of tuberculosis, therefore, sternal node, is superficially placed and
are found in the prescapular node without embedded in fat on the first segment of the
lesions being present in the head or its lymph sternum. D: Diaphragm, abdominal muscles,
nodes, it is strongly suggestive that the intercostal muscles, parietal and visceral pleura
infection of the node is the result of either local and peritoneum. E: Thoracic duct and
inoculation or haematogenous dissemination. prepectoral nodes.

Intercostal Bronchial (Fig. 2.10)

P: Known also as the dorsa-costal, these are P: There are two main bronchial nodes, the
situated in the intercostal spaces at the junction right and left, together with two smaller nodes.
of the ribs with their vertebrae, and are deep- The left bronchial is 4 cm x 2.5 cm in size, often
seated, being covered by the intercostal muscle. irregular in shape, and found close to the left
Most of these nodes are small, and not all of the bronchus, being embedded deeply in fat and
spaces may contain nodes. D: Muscles of dorsal partly covered by the aorta. The right bronchial
region, intercostal muscles, ribs, and parietal is related to the right bronchus, is usually
pleura. E: Mediastinal lymph nodes. smaller than the left and partly hidden by the
right lung; it is absent in 25% of cases, while in
others two nodes may be found. The middle
Subdorsal bronchial node is situated in the middle line
P: This superficial group lies in the fat between above the bifurcation of the trachea but is
the aorta and the dorsal vertebrae. The nodes absent in 50% of cases; a further node, the apical,
are irregular in arrangement, varying in length is placed on the accessory bronchus where it
from 12 to 25 mm, and are frequently removed enters the apical lobe of the right lung. D:
with the lungs in the dressing of the carcase; Lungs. E: The left bronchial node discharges
they may then be found by incising the upper into the thoracic duct, the right bronchial node
surface of the mediastinal fat between the into the posterior mediastinal node or thoracic
lungs. In some areas the thoracic portion of the duct, the middle bronchial or apical into the
posterior aorta is left attached and the anterior mediastinal nodes. When the right
subdorsal lymph nodes, which run down each bronchial node is absent, the lymphatics of the
side of the vessel wall, will then be found on the diaphragmatic lobe of the right lung discharge
carcase. The more posterior nodes of the group, into the posterior mediastinal and left bronchial
no matter how the carcase is dressed, usually node. A node known as the inspector's node is
remain on the forequarter and can be found by present in 75% of cases and is situated at the
incising the fat below the dorsal vertebrae just junction of the two cardiac lobes of the right
anterior to the diaphragm. D: The same lung.
38 Meat Hygiene

Anterior mediastinal (Fig. 2.10) embedded in the loin fat; haemal lymph nodes
are common in this region. D: Lumbar region
P: These are numerous, lying in the mediastinal
and peritoneum. They receive efferent vessels
space anterior to the heart, and are related
from the internal and external iliacs, sacral and
anatomically to the oesophagus, trachea and
popliteal nodes. E: Receptaculum chyli.
anterior aorta. D: Heart, pericardium,
mediastinum and thoracic wall, and receive
efferents from apical and middle bronchial Portal
lymph nodes. E: Thoracic duct.
P: Known also as the hepatic, these form a group
around the portal vein, hepatic artery and bile
Posterior mediastinal (Fig. 2.10) duct, and are covered by the pancreas. Another
group, which includes the lymph node draining
These nodes are 8 to 12 in number and situated
the pancreas, lies between the edge of the
in the fat along the dorsal wall of the
pancreas and the caudate lobe of the liver. The
oesophagus. The largest and most posterior of
portal nodes vary from 10 to 15 in number. D:
these nodes lies posterior to the heart being up
Liver, pancreas and duodenum. E:
to 20 cm long and extending almost to the
Receptaculum chyli.
diaphragm; in some cases this large node is
replaced by two smaller ones. D: Lungs,
diaphragm and, via the diaphragm, the Renal
peritoneum, surface of the liver and spleen.
P: This node belongs in reality to the lumbar
They receive efferents from the right bronchial
group, and is found in the fat at the entrance to
node. E: Thoracic duct.
the kidney. In this position a split blood vessel
is found and the node can be exposed by
Axillary making an incision lengthwise through this
vessel and continuing the incision 2.5 cm deep
P: Known also as the brachial, this node is about
into the lumbar suet. D: Kidneys and adrenal
2.5 cm long, covered by the scapula and
body. E: Receptaculum chyli. The renal lymph
situated in the muscle external to and about
nodes vary in size and number.
midway along the second rib. D: Muscles of
shoulder and forelimb. E: Prepectoral node.
Mesenteric
Xiphoid (ventral mediastinal) P: These comprise a large number of elongated
nodes which lie between the peritoneal folds of
P: Found in the loose fat at the junction of the
the mesentery and receive lymph from the
sternum and diaphragm at the level of the sixth
intestines. These nodes may be divided into a
rib, and related anatomically to the apex of the
small duodenal group which drains the
heart. This node is absent in 50% of cases. D:
duodenum, the efferent lymphatics passing to
Pleura, diaphragm and ribs. E: Suprasternal
the portal nodes of the liver, and a jejuna-ileal
lymph nodes.
group ranging in number from 10 to 50, and
0.5-12 cm in length. The long nodes form the
main chain parallel to and some 5 cm from the
Nodes of the abdomen and hindquarter
intestine, while the small nodes are scattered
(Fig. 2.12)
throughout the mesentery between the small
The position of these nodes is described as if the intestine and the colon. D: The small intestine
hindquarters were suspended by the hock in (jejunum and ilium). E: Receptaculum chyli.
the normal manner.
Splenic
Lumbar Splenic lymph nodes are absent in the ox and
P: These are situated in the fat covering the sheep. Lymph drained from the spleen passes
lumbar muscles and are related anatomically to to the gastric chain of lymph nodes. Several
the aorta and posterior vena cava. Some of splenic lymph nodes are present in the horse
these nodes are superficial, others being and pig.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 39
Gastric cut pubic tubercle. D: Udder and external
P: These are numerous and difficult to group genitals. E: Deep inguinal when present, or
satisfactorily; a number form a chain along the internal iliac.
right and left longitudinal grooves of the
rumen. D: Walls of stomach and spleen. E:
Receptaculum chyli. The gastric group are Deep inguinal
rarely incised in meat inspection. P: In the inguinal canal and frequently absent;
when absent, the internal iliac functions in its
place. D: Hind limb and abdominal wall. E:
Iliacs Internal iliac. According to some authors the
These are situated near the terminal branches of deep inguinals are part of the external iliacs.
the aorta and are embedded in fat.
Internal iliac P: This may be exposed by an Ischiatic
incision level with the junction of the sacrum
and the last lumbar vertebrae. Several nodes are P: This lies on the outer aspect of the
present, lying some 18 cm from the vertebrae sacrosciatic ligament, and is exposed by a deep
and 1-5 cm in length. D: This node drains incision on a vertical line midway between the
muscle and pelvic viscera, including muscles of posterior part of the ischium and the sacrum. D:
the sublumbar region, pelvis and thigh, the Posterior pelvic organs and also receives
femur, tibia, patella, tarsus and metatarsus, the efferents from popliteal node. E: Internal iliac.
male and female genital organs and kidneys. It In many countries in Africa the ischiatic node
receives efferent vessels from the external iliac, is incised on routine post-mortem examination
precrural, ischiatic and superficial inguinal of beef carcases because the bites of the tick
nodes. E: Lumbar lymph nodes and Hyalomma rufipee, which attaches itself to the
receptaculum chyli. perianal region, frequently cause abscess
formation.
External iliac P: A single or double node 1-2.5
cm in length and situated laterally to the
internal iliac. It lies beneath the external angle Sacral
of the ilium at the bifurcation of the circumflex
iliac artery, but is sometimes absent on one or P: These are not constantly present and are
both sides. D: Abdominal muscles, sublumbar unimportant. If present they are difficult to
area, posterior part of the peritoneum, and distinguish from the medial iliac lymph nodes.
some efferents from the popliteal node. E:
Internal iliac and lumbar lymph nodes.
Precrural (Sub-iliac)
P: This node is known also as the prefemoral
Superficial inguinal (male) and is embedded in fat; it may be exposed by an
P: These lie in the mass of fat about the neck of incision at the edge of the tensor fascia lata, the
the scrotum and behind the spermatic cord. D: incision being made about 18 cm down from
External genitals and adjoining skin area. E: the apex of this muscle. D: Skin, prepuce and
Deep inguinal when present, or failing this, the superficial muscles. E: Internal iliac nodes.
internal iliac. The precrural nodes, draining the umbilicus,
should always be palpated in calves, and if
necessary incised.
Supramammaru (female)
P: These lie above and behind the udder; there
Popliteal
are usually two present on each side, one large
and one small, the larger pair, about 7.5 cm in P: This is deeply seated in the round of beef
size, approximating to each other, the small pair and is exposed by a deep incision along the
being found above or in front of the larger pair superficial seam or division which connects the
and 0.5-1.5 cm in size. In the heifer these nodes ischium and os calcis, the node lying midway
may be found on a straight line level with the between these and 15 cm deep. D: Lower part
40 Meat Hygiene
of the leg and foot. E: Lumbar and iliac nodes
and also ischiatic node.

LYMPH NODES OF THE PIG (Fig. 2.13)

Head and neck

g-----::~
The nodes of the head and neck are numerous
and somewhat difficult to group satisfactorily.
They include the following.

Submaxillary (mandibular)
These lie anterior to the submaxillary salivary h--~:-;-fV;r.
gland near to the angle of the jaw, and are
covered by the lower part of the parotid
salivary gland. There are commonly two nodes
on each side, one large and one small.

Anterior or upper cervical

Known also as the accessory submaxillary or
submandibular these lie a short distance behind
and above the preceding nodes, being
separated from them by the submaxillary
salivary gland. /.Jit.~ __ d

Parotid -c
There are several nodes on each side, which are
red in colour, one of the largest being situated
just posterior to the masseter muscle of the
lower jaw and partly covered by the parotid
salivary gland. One or two nodes may be left on
the inner side of the jaw after the head is
removed.

Fig. 2.13 Side of pork showing position of lymph

Prescapular (superficial cervical) nodes: a, submaxillary; b, anterior or upper
cervical; c, prepectoral; cl, presternal; e, precrural; f,
On account of the short neck of the pig these superficial inguinal; g, hock node; h, iliac; i, lumbar;
nodes lie close to the parotid salivary gland, j, renal,
being partly covered by its posterior border.
They form an oblique chain which is directed
downwards and backwards to the shoulder infection of the lymph nodes of the head.
joint. This chain really includes all the Enlargement of the prepectoral node in pigs
superficial cervical nodes and is best exposed may occur as a result of arthritic changes in the
by a long incision, made on the inside of the forelimbs.
carcase, from the nape of the neck to the lower
border of the neck and just anterior to the Other nodes
shoulder joint. The prescapular lymph nodes in
the pig receive lymph from the submaxillary,
Precrural (sub-iliac)
parotid and upper cervical nodes and thus may In adult pigs this is up to 5 cm in length by 2.5
become tuberculous as a result of primary cm wide, and is most easily exposed by an
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 41
incision through the peritoneal aspect of the UROGENITAL SYSTEM
carcase deep into the fat and 2.5 cm in front of
the stifle joint, the incision being made at right Urinary organs
angles to the vertebral column.
Two kidneys, two ureters, bladder and urethra.

Popliteal Genital organs

Female two ovaries, two uterine (fallopian)
When present these are superficial, but are tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, clitoris and
absent in 50% of cases. A small subcutaneous mammary glands.
node, known as the hock node or Hartensiein's
Male two testes and epididymes, two vasa
gland, can constantly be found, and is deferentia, seminal glands, prostate, bulbo-
superficially placed on the posterior aspect of urethral (Cowper's) glands, urethra and
the limb about a hand's breadth above the tuber penis.
calcis.
Kidney
Gastric In addition to their functions in the excretion of
These and the pancreatic nodes are situated on urine and in acid-base balance, the kidneys
the lesser curvature of the stomach. produce two hormones, renin and erythropoietic
factor. Renin acts in the formation of a blood
peptide which increases blood pressure and
Bronchial stimulates the secretion of aldosterone, a
hormone controlling the reabsorption of
In addition to the right and left bronchial, this sodium. The erythropoietic factor stimulates
group includes one on the bifurcation of the the formation of a protein which increases the
trachea and another at the apical bronchus of red cell production in the bone marrow.
the right lung. The posterior mediastinal nodes
are rudimentary or absent.
Ox (Fig. 2.14)
The kidneys are reddish-brown and composed
Portal of 15-25 lobes which are fused at their deeper
Several nodes are present about the portal vein, portions; each lobe terminates in a blunt
the largest being about 2.5 cm long. The portal process or papilla, visible when the kidney is
lymph nodes may be removed during split. When the rumen is empty, the left kidney
evisceration of the carcase, and can then be lies to the left of the vertebral column but, as the
found on the mesentery beneath the pancreas rumen becomes filled, it propels the kidney
or in the fat attached to the lesser curvature of towards the right side of the body, though
the stomach. injury due to pressure on the ureter is usually

Lateral border

Cranial
extremity
Fig.2.14 Right kidney of ox; ventral
surface. Organ hardened in situ. Fat has
Ureter
/
Renal artery
\
Renal vein
been removed from fissures between
lobes.
42 Meat Hygiene
av oid ed. Th is orien tation of the left kidney is pubis, thus closing the u reter openin gs and
rendered possible by its loo se attach ment to the in terfering with urina tion.
lumbar region . The left kidney, by reason of its
mobilit y, is ro ugh ly three-sid ed and of a Horse
somew ha t twisted. appearance, bu t the right
kidney has a more regular, elliptical outline. The right kidney is triangu lar or heart-shaped,
The we ight of each kidney is 283-3-1-0 g. the left is bean -sh aped and longer than broad.
The weight o f each kid ney is 680 g.

Sheep and goat Domesticfowl

The kidneys arc dark brown, bea n-shaped and The kidncvs lie on either side of the ve rtebral
unlobulated and posst.,,:,s a single renal papilla. column from the level o f the sixth rib to the iliac
As in the ox, the left kidney of the sheep and fossa . The" ea ch consist of fou r da rk red , friable
goa t is freely mo vable. Each kid ney weighs lobes . The' ureters empty into the cloaca medial
56--85 g. to the ductus deferens of the male or the
oviduct o f the female. The end products of
Pig (Fig. 2.15) protein metabolism are excre ted as uric acid
which can be seen as whitish tu rbid crvstals in
The kidneys an' smooth. bean-shaped and the ureters. .
redd ish-brown but thinner and flatte r than in
the other food animals; 10-12 renal papillae are
p resent internally. The weight of each kidney is REPR O D UCT IV E SYSTE M
85-1 70 g. In the pig the bladder is large with a
long neck; the ureters enter postcriorly in the Uterus (Fig. 2.16)
neck region. This predisposes the animal to
bilateral hydrone phrosis, beca use, when full , Cow
the b ladder ha ngs down into the abdominal The uterus con..ists of a small body, less than 2.3
cavity and the long neck presses against the cm long, and two cornufI o r horns about 38 cm

\ , I I
c;;'' !:"' •.1-- _
m

Vena
cava

Right
L Kidne~'_':"~~2;._-J

I Psca
major
psoas !
major
Psoas minor
Fig. 2.15 Kidneys of pig ill
sit u; ventral view. 1, hepatic
artery; 2, splenic artery.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 43

13 19

6'~ 18
19'

Fig.2.16 Lateral view of genital organs and adjac en t structures of mare. 1. L. ovary. 2. Fallopian tube. 3. L.
horn of uterus. ,t. R. horn of u terus. i Body of uter us. [5' Cervix ] 6. Broad lig. of uterus . 7. Vagina. 8. Vulva.
9. Rim and commissurcs of vulva. 10. Constrictor mu scle of vulva. 11. Vesti bu lar bulb . 12. Abdominal wall.
13. L. kidney. 14. L ureter. 15. Bladder. 16. Urethra. 17. Rectu m. 18. Anu s. 19. Anal sp hinct er m uscle.

long. The uterus of the cow and ew e has cut s ur face. This method assumes th at the
characte ristic cotyled ons on th e mucous cotyledons enlarge if the ani ma l is in calf and
membrane of the body and uterine horns; these regress in the non-pregnant u terus, Le. that the
arc oval promlncnces, about 100 in all, and in animal must have been at least 3Mmo nths or
the non-gravid bovine uterus are about 1.5 x 0.5 longer in calf.
cm. During pregnancy, and as the fetus
develops, th e cotyledons hypertrophy,
beco mi ng pitted or sponge-like, and then
Ewe
measu re up to 10-12.5 cm in length and 4 cm in The uterine horns are relatively long, the
width. Evidence as to whether a slaughtere d coty ledons being circular, pigmented and much
fem ale is a heifer o r a cow may be es tablished smaller than in the cow, while in advanced
by opening each uterine ho~n and cutting pregnancy the centre of each is cupped or
transversely through the wa ll, including the umbilicated.
d iam eter of a coty led on. Generally, in th e
u teru s o f a heifer the cot Yledons are
surrounded by a shallow moat \~hich usually
Gilt and sow
d isappears in the cow. The blood vess els in the The uterine novns are very long and arranged in
exposed wall of the uterus of the cow are coils. The mucous membrane has no cotyled ons
con torted and bulge from the su rface. In th e but is arra nged in numerous thin longitudinal
heifer the blood vessels can be seen clearly but folds . The ovaries are rounded with an
do not bulge and show little con tortion. The irregularly lobulated s urface. The sow and gilt
blood vessels in the cotyledon are the most carcase may be differentiated not only by the
valuable guide; in the heifer they are very fine developmental cond ition of the udder and tea ts
an d st raight, whereas in the cow they are \'ery but also by examination of the uterine arteries.
distinct, contorted and bulge slightly from the In the sow, the udders are enlarged and, in the
44 Meat Hygiene
broad ligaments of the uterine horns, the Ewe and goat
peripheral branches of the uterine middle
The udder is composed of two halves, each
arteries are torturous owing to pregnancy. In
with one small teat. In the goat the udder is
the gilt, these arterial vessels are less apparent
similar but the halves are more pendulous and
and almost straight. Characteristic histological
the teats are more strongly developed and
changes also take place in the uterine arteries
directed forwards.
during and after pregnancy; there is
hyperplasia of the elastic fibres in the intima
and media of the vessel wall, the intima is Sow
hypertrophied and the internal elastic lamina
There are 10-16 mammary glands, arranged in
split into two or more layers. Similar changes
two parallel rows; each possesses a flat
can be observed in the arteries supplying the
triangular teat and the glandular substance
ovary.
appears whitish-red on section.

Domestic fowl Estimation of age of the bovine fetus

In the male there are two yellowish-white bean- By the end of the first month of pregnancy the
shaped testes situated in the dorsal part of the bovine fetus is about 10 mm long. At the end of
abdomen and related to the right lobe of the the second month the fetus is 5-6.5 cm long and
liver (right testis) and the glandular stomach digits and depressions for mouth and nose
and intestine (left testis). The testes vary in size appear. After 3 months the fetus is 15 cm long,
according to the size of the bird, breed and stomach divisions are present and hoofs and
season. The vasa deferentia pass backwards to horns appear.
the cloaca, which they enter lateral to the In the fourth month there is little change
ureters. except growth, but towards the end of the fifth
Although there are two ovaries in the month hair appears and the testes descend into
embryo, the right one atrophies. The left ovary the scrotum. At the end of five months the fetus
is situated in the dorsal abdomen opposite the is 30 cm long.
last two ribs. The associated oviduct is a very During the next 3 months the fetus attains a
flexuous organ and extends backwards to enter length of 60 cm. By 8 months the eyes are open,
the cloaca lateral to the left ureter. Its mucosa the limbs are covered with hair, and the hoofs
produces the albumen, shell membrane and are hardened. At the end of the ninth month the
shell, while the yolk represents the ovum fetus is full size, about 90 cm long, and weighs
produced in the ovary. 36 kg, which is the average weight for a
newborn calf, though variations occur
according to the breed.
Udder
Cow Testis

The right and left sides of the udder are (See Endocrine System.)
separated anatomically by a tendinous septum.
Although a strong septum does not exist
between the fore- and hindquarters of the same
side, all four quarters are anatomically distinct NERVOUS SYSTEM
and injection of differently coloured fluids into
the four teats shows that they each drain The nervous system, which forms a very
separate and distinct areas. delicate and complicated link between different
The smooth udder of the heifer, which is parts of the body, consists of two main parts:
composed almost entirely of fat, must be 1 Central nervous system (eNS), comprising the
distinguished from the pendulous fleshy udder brain and spinal cord.
of the cow in which glandular tissue 2 Peripheral nervous system, consisting of 12
predominates and which is grey to yellowish- pairs of cranial nerves, approximately 40
white in colour. pairs of spinal nerves, and the automatic
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 45
(involuntary) nervous system. Also cervical, 14 thoracic, 6 lumbar,S sacral, and 8
associated with the peripheral nervous coccygeal.
system are the specialised sense organs-eye, To the naked eye the central nervous system
ear, olfactory (smell) organ, gustatory (taste) is composed chiefly of two kinds of tissue-
organ and tactile (touch) organs. white and grey. The outer white substance or
The nervous system is made up of numerous matter is soft in consistency and consists of
nerve cells or neurons, each consisting of a numerous nerve fibres, while the inner grey
nucleated cell body, short cell processes called substance, even softer in make-up, is modified
dendriies, and a single long process, the axon. to form the gelatinous substance, which is a
The dendrites receive impulses from other pale yellowish-grey and jelly-like. The grey
axons and transmit them to the nerve cell, matter is comprised of large numbers of nerve
which conveys them onwards via the axon. A cells.
nerve fibre consists of the axon and a covering The brain and spinal cord are covered by
of sheath cells. In the peripheral nerves the three membranes known as the meninges. The
sheath is composed of Schwann cells, forming a dura mater is the tough, fibrous outer coat lining
thick fatty (lipoidal) covering, the myelin the cranial cavity and spinal canal, while the
sheath, which acts as an insulator and gives the arachnoid mater (arachnoidea) is a delicate
white colour to nerves of the brain and spinal membrane loosely covering the brain and
cord. In myelinated nerves, conduction of serving to contain the cerbrospinal fluid. The
impulses takes place by means of jumps pia mater is another delicate membrane closely
between notches (the nodes of Ranvier) in the attached to the convoluted surface of the brain
myelin sheath. In unmyelinated nerve cells, and spinal cord, to which it supplies blood.
conduction is a smooth continuous process. The clear cerebrospinal fluid, which occurs
Bundles of nerve fibres are bound together by in the subarachnoid space between the
an extensive connective tissue sheath, the arachnoid and pia mater, serves to protect the
perineurium; the complete nerve trunk is brain and the spinal cord as well as to nourish
covered by the epineurium. and cleanse these structures.
Nerve cells may be sensory or motor. Sensory
(afferent) fibres carry impulses to the brain Peripheral nervous system
from the sensory organs while motor (efferent)
fibres carry impulses away from the brain to The 12 cranial nerves (motor and sensory)
produce muscular movement and glandular supply the head and neck and include the
secretion. nerves involved in the sensations of sight, smell,
taste and hearing in addition to the vagus nerve,
an important entity of the parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system.
Central nervous system
The 40 or so spinal nerves supply the muscles
The brain is that part of the eNS situated in the of the body and limbs. They are mixed nerves;
cranial cavity and containing the vital centres. It the motor fibres give movement to these parts
consists of an upper main part, the cerebrum, and the sensory fibres give sensation to the skin
and a lower smaller part, the cerebellum; the and to a lesser extent to body and limb muscles.
lowest portion of the brain, the medulla Associated with some of the cranial nerves and
oblongata, is continuous through the [oramen all of the spinal nerves (on their ventral roots)
magnum with the spinal cord. The cerebrum is are swellings (collections of nerves cells) called
divided into two hemispheres by a longitudinal ganglia, which are part of the sympathetic
fissure. nervous system.
The spinal cord is situated in the spinal or
vertebral canal and extends from the foramen
magnum at its juncture with the medulla Autonomic (visceral, vegetative) nervous
oblongata to about the middle of the sacrum. It system
is approximately cylindrical in cross-section but The autonomic nervous system is a set of nerves
somewhat flattened dorsoventrally. From it and ganglia supplying ennervation to all the
emerge a varying number of spinal nerves: in internal organs, glands and blood vessels. It is
the bovine there are 40 pairs made up by 7 so named because it acts independently of the
46 Meat Hygiene
conscious will, although it can be affected by ovary after the ovum has been expelled,
the emotions. produces the hormone progesterone, which
Like the cerebrospinal system, it possesses prevents further ovulation.
conducting paths which transmit impulses to Hormones are either peptides, containing two
and away from the vital centres, but the nerves or more amino acids, or steroids, which are lipid
are mainly efferent. The efferent neurons are substances. Insulin, produced by the islets of
both motor, supplying the involuntary muscles Langerhans in the pancreas, is a polypeptide
of the walls of the stomach, lungs, intestines, composed of two amino acid chains, while the
heart, eye, bladder and blood vessels, and hormones of the adrenal glands, noradrenaline
secretory, supplying glands such as the liver, and adrenaline, are steroids, as are the hormones
salivary glands, pancreas as well as the external of the reproductive system (oestrogens and
genitalia. progestins in the female and androgens in the
The autonomic nervous system consists of male). These organic substances are 'chemical
two subdivisions, the sympathetic and messengers' responsible for regulating the
parasympathetic, both of which supply fibres to physiological activities of the body; only minute
some organs (eye, bronchi, heart, digestive tract, amounts are necessary to evoke responses in
sphincters, of digestive tract and bladder), target glands and tissues.
although the sympathetic system mainly supplies
the blood vessels and sweat glands and the
Thyroid
parasympathetic the salivary, gastric and pancre-
atic glands and the external genitalia. The actions In the ox the thyroid consists of two lateral lobes
of these two systems are largely antagonistic to lying on either side of the trachea immediately
each other. Increased sympathetic activity dilates posterior to the larynx. The lobes are flat, dark
the pupil of the eye, the bronchi and the blood red, about 7.5 cm long, and are connected
vessels, increases heart rate, inhibits motility of inferiorly by a narrow band-like isthmus about
the digestive tract and allows the bladder to fill; 13 mm wide.
the parasympathetic system produces the opposite In sheep the glands are dark red, resembling
effects and enhances the secretions from the sali- muscle, and are about 5 cm long and 1.5 cm
vary, gastric and pancreatic glands and produces wide. Each lateral lobe is long and elliptical and
vasodilation in the external genitalia. covers the first five rings of the trachea, but the
isthmus is indistinct.
In the pig the lobes are large, dark red, about 5
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM cm long, and irregularly triangular in shape; they
lie below the trachea and posterior to the larynx
The endocrine or ductless glands (thyroid, and are connected with each other inferiorly. The
parathyroids, thymus, adrenals, and gonads- dark red colour of the thyroid gland is due to its
testes and ovaries) produce secretions or rich blood supply.
hormones which pass directly into the The thyroid gland produces three hormones:
bloodstream to act on another organ or tissue. thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine) and triiodothyro-
The liver and pancreas are both endocrine and nine, which contain iodine, are involved in the
exocrine glands, each possessing ducts, and are control of the general body metabolism; and thy-
usually described with the digestive system. rocalcitonin (calcitonin) which controls serum
(Exocrine glands such as the sweat, mammary calcium levels.
and lachrymal glands pass their secretions Overactivity of the thyroid glands with
along ducts to the surface of the body.) excess secretion of the thyroid hormones in man
The placenta, formed from the outer chorionic causes toxic goitre (exophthalmic goitre,
membrane (the inner is the amnion) surrounding thyrotoxicosis, Graves' disease) with
the developing fetus, is a ductless gland in enlargement of the thyroid gland, excitability,
addition to its function as a means of irritability and loss of weight. Underactivity of
transferring nutrients from the mother to the the thyroid, on the other hand, results in
embryo and conveying away waste material. It myxoedema (hypothyroidism), which is
produces oestrogen, progesterone and chorionic characterised by slowness of physical and
gonadotrophin. The corpus luteum (yellow mental processes and an increase in body
body), formed from the ovarian follicle of the weight. Cretinism is hypothyroidism or
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 47
myxoedema which begins before birth or early antibodies. It is probably also associated with
childhood and in which there is stunted growth lymphocyte production. If this is removed
and loss of intellectual ability. These syndromes shortly after birth, the production of
occur infrequently in man and are rare in lymphocytes, lymphoid tissue and plasma cells
animals. However, goitre caused by iodine is much reduced, antibodies are not formed,
deficiency is seen occasionally in newborn and skin grafts, even from different species, are
animals of all species which show thyroid not rejected. Since no hormone has yet been
enlargement with loss of hair or wool and isolated from the thymus, it should probably be
thickened skin. Hyperthyroidism occurs only in classified as belonging to the circulatory system
dogs and cats. rather than the endocrine system. In animals
certain autoimmune diseases such as
haemolytic anaemia and systemic lupus
Parathyroids erythematosus are associated with a defective
The position of the parathyroids relative to the thymus.
thyroid gland varies, but they may sometimes
be found near the posterior extremity or on the
deep surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid Adrenal (suprarenal) bodies
and are little larger than a grain of wheat in the
ox. Their small size and similar colour to the In the ox, the adrenal glands are related to the
thyroid makes them difficult to identify. One two kidneys, and lie anterior to them. The left
pair occurs in the pig in front of the thyroid adrenal body is in contact with the dorsal sac of
gland. the rumen, though it does not rotate with the
The parathyroids produce a polypeptide left kidney when the rumen is distended. After
hormone, which controls the levels of serum dressing of the carcase, portions of the right
calcium and inorganic phosphorus and adrenal body may sometimes be found
stimulates the removal of calcium from bone. attached to the posterior aspect of the liver, or
Thyrocalcitonin, produced by the thyroid, has sometimes to the central muscular portion of
the opposite effect on calcium levels. the diaphragm.
In the sheep both the adrenals are bean-shaped,
but the left is not in contact with its kidney. In the
Thymus pig the adrenals are long and narrow, each lying
The thymus is pinkish-white and distinctly on the inner aspect of the kidney.
lobulated, and constitutes the true sweetbread. It The adrenals are reddish-brown in colour,
consists of two portions; the thoracic portion and a section of them reveals a well-marked
(heart bread) is rich in fat, roughly the shape of cortex and medulla.
the palm of the hand in the ox, and lies in the The adrenal glands produce two completely
thoracic cavity, extending back to the third rib different types of hormones. The medulla or
where it contacts the base of the heart; the central part of the gland produces hormones
second portion (neck bread) is poor in fat and known as caiecholamines, particularly adrenaline
consists of two lobes joined at their base and (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
extending up the neck on either side of the Being supplied by the preganglionic fibres of the
trachea, diverging and diminishing in size as sympathetic nervous system, the hormones of the
they pass up the neck and reaching almost to adrenal medulla augment the action of this
the thyroid gland. system, increasing blood pressure, constricting
In the calf the thymus is at its largest at 5-6 the sphincters of the alimentary tract, inhibiting
weeks, when it weighs 453-680 g, but gradually the bladder musculature, mobilising liver
atrophies. By the onset of sexual maturity, little glycogen to form glucose, relaxing the
of the cervical portion remains. It is very small bronchioles of the lungs and constricting the
in 3-year-old cattle but a vestige of the thoracic arterioles and veins (except those of the heart and
portion may be seen in cows even after 8 or 9 muscle). These effects are associated with
years. In the pig the thymus is large, greyish- excitement and emotions such as fear and anger.
yellow, and reaches to the throat. The adrenals are therefore sometimes referred to
In early life, the thymus is necessary for the as the 'glands offight andflight' or the emergency
development of certain immune responses and glands.
48 Meat Hygiene
The adrenal cortex, unlike the medulla, has skull. Sometimes termed the master gland of
no nerve supply. It is rich in vitamin C and the body, it exerts through its many hormones,
cholesterol, which is the probable precursor of an influence on almost all the other ductless
its hormones, the corticoids: glucocorticoids, glands. It consists of an anterior lobe
mineralocorticoids and sex hormones. (adenohypophysis) and a posterior lobe
The glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol or (neurohypophysis), each having very different
hydrocortisone) regulate the metabolism of activities (Table 2.4).
carbohydrates, fats and proteins on a long-term
basis, decreasing the metabolism of
Testicles (testes)
carbohydrates, increasing the breakdown of
protein to amino acids and mobilising fats. An In the bull the testes have an elongated oval
excess of cortisol in the blood elevates blood outline; they are about 12.5 cm long and weigh
glucose and causes ketosis, i.e. diabetes 283-340 g. The epididymis is narrow, but is
mellitus. closely attached to the testicle along its
Mineralocorticoids, represented mainly by posterior border. In the ram the testicles are
aldosterone, regulate the mineral salts in the large, pear-shaped, and more rounded than in
body by stimulating the reabsorption of sodium the ox, being 10 cm long and 255-283 g in
in the kidney tubules and increasing the weight. In the boar the testicles are very large
excretion of potassium. Aldosterone is also and irregularly elliptical, while the epididymis
concerned with the control of blood and fluid is well developed and forms a blunt conical
volumes in the body. projection at both ends of the testicle.
The sex hormones (androgens, oestrogens The testes or male gonads have two
and progesterone) are known to affect the functions; the production of spermatozoa and
development and function of the reproductive the production of testosterone, the main
organs and secondary sexual characteristics, hormone responsible for the development of
but are less important than the sex hormones male secondary sexual characteristics.
produced by the gonads.
Ovaries
Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) The ovaries, in addition to producing ova,
The pituitary gland is situated on the lower secrete three hormones: oestradiol, progesterone
aspect of the cerebrum, being connected to it by and relaxin. Oestradiol, formed in the ovarian
a short stalk, and rests in the pituitary fossa of follicles, promotes female secondary sexual
the sphenoid bone formed by the base of the characteristics and sexual behaviour.

Table 2.4 Pituitary gland hormones.

Hormone Action

Adenohypophysis
Growth hormone Growth promotion.
Thyrotrophin Control of thyroid.
Corticotrophin/ adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) Control of adrenocorticoid hormones
Gonadotrophic hormones (follicle stimulating hormone, Control of growth of gonads and their
luteinising hormone, luteotrophic hormone) reproductive functions.

Neurohypophysis
Oxytocin Milk let-down, uterine contractions
at parturition.
Antidiuretic hormone Control of water secretion.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 49
Progesterone is formed in the corpus luteum a gland significantly reduces the hormone yield
and during pregnancy it prevents ovulation by and it should not be soaked in water. In the case
inhibiting the secretion of luteinising hormone. of the pancreas, care must be taken to leave the
Relaxin, also produced by the corpus luteum, gland whole and not to remove adjoining
relaxes the pelvic ligaments during parturition. portions of the duodenum whereby trypsin
The ovaries also control cyclical changes in the might be liberated and the insulin destroyed.
reproductive system which ensure The occurrence of BSE in Britain has given
development of breeding seasons when more urgency to the need for extreme care in
weather conditions, temperature, food, etc. are the collection of glands to be used for
suitable. pharmaceutical purposes. Guidelines have
been issued by the UK Committee on the Safety
of Medicines and the Veterinary Products
Pineal gland
Committee for all products licensed under the
The pineal gland is located in the brain Medicines Act of 1968 not only for material of
posterior to the third ventricle. It is believed to bovine origin but also for material from sheep,
be the source of the hormone melatonin. goats, deer and other animals susceptible to
Darkness and light are believed to affect the scrapie-like agents. The main points of the
synthesis and release of melatonin, the former guidelines are as follows.
promoting and the latter inhibiting them. 1 Tissues to be excluded: all nerve tissue,
Melatonin in turn is thought to control the spleen, thymus and other lymphoid tissue,
formation and release of gonadotrophic placental tissue and cell cultures of bovine
hormone-releasing factors from the brain. origin.
2 Bovine material should be taken from closed
Collection and yield of glands (Table 2.5) herds (since 1980), BSE-free and which have
not received ruminant-derived feedstuff
Although valuable pharmaceutical products during this period.
are prepared from the ductless glands, it is only 3 Sterile equipment must always be used and
when there is a very large weekly kill that their needles, syringes, scalpel blades, etc. should
collection becomes an economic proposition. be disposable items.
Successful utilisation of glands entails 4 Whenever possible, source animals should be
careful handling from the moment the animal is calves up to 6 months of age.
killed. The entire glands should be removed 5 No tissue is to be used in relevant medicinal
immediately, freed from surrounding fat or products when collected from an animal after
tissue and, according to the variety of gland, brain penetrative stunning.
either frozen to a temperature of -lOoC or 6 All cellular components must be removed
placed in acetone. Cutting into the substance of from serum and fetal calf serum, care being

Table 2.5 Yield of glands used in medicine.

Gland No. of animals required to No. of glands required per 500 g

produce 500 g of fresh material finished product

Pituitary, whole (cattle) 199 1100

Ovary (cow) 39 210
Ovary (sow) 50 298
Parathyroid (cattle) 243 1990
Suprarenal (cattle) 22 127
Pancreas (beef) 2 26500
Pancreas (calf) 18 8830
Pancreas (pig) 11 132500
Testis (bull) 1.5 7
Thyroid (cattle) 22 100110
50 Meat Hygiene
taken to avoid contamination from placenta plus one. In cows it is not unusual for the rings
and fetal fluids. to be removed by scraping, and greater
7 Sterilisation of equipment must be capable of accuracy as to age may be obtained by
inactivating scrapie-like agents-autoclaving examination of the incisor teeth or carcase
using a porous load cycle at 134-138°C for 18 bones.
min at 30 psi.
S The final product must be sterilised
adequately. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
(See also Orders relating to SBM and Heads of The muscular system is composed of skeletal
Sheep and Goats.) (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary,
A European Commission Decision of 11 June striated) and smooth (involuntary, non-striated)
1996, 96/362/EC, amending 96/239/EC muscle. Smooth muscle is found in certain
prohibited the despatch to other Member States organs, glands and blood vessels and responds
and to third countries, of materials destined for to the demands of the autonomic nervous
use as medicinal products, cosmetics or system.
pharmaceutical products which had been Skeletal muscle along with associated
obtained from bovines slaughtered in the connective tissue and intermuscular fat forms
United Kingdom. the flesh or butcher meat and represents
25-45% of the animal's liveweight.
There are some 300 muscles in the animal
SKIN body which, despite vast differences in the size,
The skin or common integument acts as a shape, and function of each, all possess the
protective covering for the body and merges at same basic structure. Muscles are made up of
the natural orifices with the mucous numerous tiny spindle-shaped multinucleated
membranes of the digestive, respiratory and muscle cells or fibres, each encased in a thin
reproductive systems. With its covering of hair, membrane, the sarcolemma. Groups of muscle
wool, feathers, nails or horn it acts also as a cells joined by a loose connective tissue
temperature-regulating mechanism and, since (endomysium) form bundles sheathed in
it contains many sensory nerve endings, it connective tissue perimysium and fatty deposits.
protects the body against injury and is thus an Connective tissue epimysium covers the
important sense organ. complete muscle.
Sweat (sudoriferous) and sebaceous glands The muscles of domestic birds resemble in
are found in the skin, the former involved in general those of mammals except that many are
temperature and tissue fluid regulation and the greatly enlarged and adapted for flight
latter secreting sebum which prevents loss of purposes, e.g. the pectoralis which lowers the
fluid and in some species playing an important wing and the supracoracoideus which raises it.
part in the sexual life of the animal. Two forms of muscle occur: white muscle, and
The mammary glands are modified skin dark muscle which contains numerous
glands associated in function with the myoglobin-containing cells. Specialised
reproductive system. breeding of domestic poultry, and especially
turkeys, has resulted in the enlargement of the
pectoral muscles.
HORNS

Estimation of the age of cattle by means of the CONNECTIVE TISSUE

horns entails counting the number of rings on
the animal's horns, but these rings must not be Connective tissue is present in two forms in the
confused with the small wrinkles situated at the animal body, white and yellow. A typical
root of the horn which are an indication that the example of white connective tissue is the fascia
animal has been ill-fed during its growth. The connecting the muscular bundles. The main
first ring appears at about two years and constituent of white connective tissue is
thereafter one ring is added annually so that the collagen, which is converted into gelatin by
age in years in cattle equals the number of rings boiling. Yellow connective tissue, as seen in the
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 51
yellow fascia covering the abdominal muscles eating quality, similar Danish work putting this
and in the ligamentum nuchae, consists of elastin, figure at 2-3% of marbling fat. Leaner European
which cannot be softened by boiling. breeds of cattle, e.g. Limousin, Simmental and
Charolais, should therefore not be slaughtered
at stages leaner than EEC fat class 3 in order to
FAT ensure minimal marbling. The Aberdeen-
Angus has excellent marbling qualities. The
Fat develops in connection with connective amount of marbling in a given muscle can be
tissue and has an important influence on both reliably measured using the technique of
the odour and flavour of the different meats. It magnetic resonance imaging.
varies in consistency according to its Excess fat is expensive to produce since,
composition, which is again controlled by the weight for weight, it requires five to seven
species, the feeding method and the site of the times as much energy to produce as meat.
fat in the carcase. Much of the fat trimmed from carcases is used
The amount of fat in a carcase affects the rate in manufactured meat products, which
of chilling, a greater amount slowing it down contribute some 9.4% of fat in the human diet.
owing to its insulating property. So lean bull The edible fat from the ox carcase, other than
carcases chill more quickly than fatter steer that intermixed with the muscle, is obtained
carcases while trimming of subcutaneous fat from certain well-defined positions: the
from the hot carcase increases the chilling rate omentum, mesentery, stomach, mediastinum
of the underlying muscle (AlIen, 1990). But fat and kidney, which yield an average of 19 kg,
insulation also serves to prevent cold shortening varying between 11 kg in the lean cow and 29.5
in rapidly chilled carcases. Changes in kg in the well-finished bullock. Of the various
refrigeration techniques have accordingly been by-products, edible fat has historically ranked
recommended for leaner carcases in order to second only to the hide in value. Abnormal
achieve tenderness combined with flavour. amounts of kidney fat, sometimes up to 91 kg,
Work in Denmark has indicated that lean are sometimes encountered; these are known as
carcases should be conditioned at 4°C and 'balloon kidneys', but the fat is marketable and
chilled at 6°C, while in the USA even higher edible. The butcher may render down his edible
temperatures (up to 25°C) have been beef and mutton fat to produce dripping. On a
advocated, the implication being that slow commercial scale edible fat is converted into
early chilling shortens the conditioning time oleo oil and oleo stearin for margarine
necessary for producing tenderness. (See manufacture; oleo stearin is also used for soap
Conditioning of meat.) and candle manufacture and is mixed with'
The deposition of fat between the muscle cooking fats to harden them. Inedible fat is used
fibres is known as 'marbling'. It occurs only in for the production of lubricants, soap, candles
young, well-nourished cattle and not in older and glycerine, and as a binder for animal feed.
animals where fat tends to be deposited
subcutaneously, e.g. on the hips and pin bones
of fat cows. Marbling of fat does not occur in DETERMINATION OF AGE BY
the horse. In the pig, fat cells between the DENTITION
individual muscle fibres prevent the gastric
juice from reaching the fibres and thus render Determination of age and sex is important in
pork less digestible. The muscle fat is basically the keeping of records of disease found on
polyunsaturated, but as adipose tissue is laid routine examination, and also in the recognition
down the saturated fat increases in amount. of the carcase of the cow, ewe and sow, animals
The eating of saturated fats has a bearing on the in which dangerous affections of a septic nature
development of coronary heart disease in man, are most likely to occur. It is also of value where
and the general tendency today is to reduce a system of mutual insurance of animals
their level in the diet. intended for slaughter exists and an inspector
Marbling has a marked effect on eating may be called upon to pass expert judgement as
quality. Studies at the USDA Meat Animal to the age and sex of any animal in dispute.
Research Center showed that a marbling rating Where meat is supplied to public institutions
of 'slight', which contained 3.7% fat, had a good there is the possibility of the substitution of cow
52 Meat Hygiene
Table 2.6 Dental formula for the ox, sheep and Table 2.8 Dental formula for the horse.
goat.
3 0 3
Temporary (deciduous) teeth Temporary 2 (1 C P) 24
Upper o0 3 3 0 3
2 (1 C P) 20
3 1 3(4) 3
Lower 3 1 3
Permanent 2 (1 C P M) 40(42)
Permanent teeth 3 1 3 3
Upper 003 3
I = Incisor, C = canine, P = premolar, M = molar.
2 (1 C P M) 32
Lower 313 3
The corner pair of permanent incisors are
I = Incisor, C = canine, P = premolar, M = molar.
subject to the greatest variation in the time of
eruption and well-bred cattle or animals that are
well fed and well housed tend to erupt their
Table 2.7 Dental formula for the pig. teeth earlier than scrub animals or those that are
poorly fed and poorly housed. In pedigree cattle
3 1 3 the corner incisors may appear soon after
Temporary 2 (1 C P) 28
completion of the third year, and in bulls they are
3 1 3
not uncommonly present at 2 years 10 months.
3 1 4 3 The dental formulae for the temporary and
Permanent 2 (1 C P M) 44 permanent teeth are shown in Table 2.6. The
3 1 4 3 upper and lower figures corresponding to the
I = Incisor, C = canine, P = premolar, M = molar. teeth of the upper and lower jaw. After the
permanent incisor teeth have erupted, the degree
of wear on their cutting surface and the amount
of neck visible above the gums are a guide to the
meat for that from bullocks or heifers, or for the animal's age. The neck of the central pair of
substitution of ewe mutton for that of lambs or incisors is perceptible at the sixth year, that of the
young sheep. Here again the judgement of the lateral centrals at 7 years, of the laterals at 8 years,
inspector will be of value. and of the corner incisors at 9 years. Subsequent
In the food animals, age may be estimated to this, the incisor teeth are small and much worn
with reasonable accuracy from the teeth (Tables and it is then possible to confuse an animal 1~
2.6-2.9), from the horns of cattle, or from the years of age, and therefore possessing all its milk
carcase bones. incisors, with an animal of about 10 years, but
this can be avoided by recognition of the
Teeth exposure of the roots of the teeth in the older
animal due to shrinkage of the gums and
Ox projection of the roots from the alveolar sockets.
The age is estimated by the period at which the
permanent incisor teeth erupt and come into
Sheep
wear; these periods are subject to variation,
depending on sex, breed and method of The milk incisors in sheep are all present at
feeding. birth or shortly after and remain until the

Table 2.9 Ages at which the permanent incisors appear.

1st pair 2nd pair 3rd pair 4th pair

Ox 1)1,-2 years 2-2 years 3 years 3)1,-4 years

Sheep 1)1,-1)1, years 1)1,-2 years 2)1,-3 years 3)1,-4 years
Pig 1 year 16-20 months 8-10 months Canines 9-10 months
Horse 2)1, years 3)1, years 4)1, years Canines 4-5 years
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 53
animal is 1 year old. Where sheep are fed on open external inguinal ring partly covered by
turnips, however, a number of the temporary scanty scrotal fat. The pelvic cavity is narrow
incisors may be broken off before the animal is and can be spanned with the hand, while the
1 year old. pelvic floor (ischiopubic symphysis) is angular
A notch develops between the central pair of and the pelvic tubercle strongly developed. The
incisors at 6 years of age. The formula for the bulbocavernosus muscle, often referred to as
temporary and permanent dentition in sheep is the erector and retractor penis muscle, is well
identical with that in cattle. developed and the cut adductor, or gracilis
muscle, is triangular in shape; in young bulls,
however, the posterior portion of this muscle is
Goat not covered with fat and the gracilis muscle
It is generally accepted that up to 4 years of age therefore appears bean-shaped. The muscle of
the goat is as many years old as it has pairs of young bulls is light or brick red in colour and
permanent incisor teeth. Thus a goat in which similar to that of the bullock, but in older bulls
the last pair of permanent incisors have erupted it is dark red, dry and poor in fat.
may be estimated as 4 years old. In some European countries and the
northern countries of South America cattle are
rarely castrated and it is the custom in dressing
Pig the carcase to leave the testicles attached to the
The period of eruption of temporary and hindquarters. These organs are much in
permanent teeth in pigs is subject to demand by the population, many of whom
considerable variation, and dentition is not a regard them as an aphrodisiac.
really satisfactory or accurate guide to the
animal's age. Estimation of the age in pigs is
only likely to be necessary in the case of show
Stag
animals in connection with their eligibility for If the male bovine is castrated later in life, at
particular age classes. There is variation in the perhaps a year old, it will have developed
figures quoted by various authorities as to the certain bullish characteristics, the chief of which
ages at which the permanent incisors appear in is the strong development of the muscles of the
the various animals. Sisson & Grossman (1975) neck and shoulder. Such animals are known as
give the figures shown in Table 2.9. stags and, except for the muscular development
of the forequarter, differ little in appearance or
quality from the normal bullock.
DETERMINATION OF SEX
Cattle Bullock (steer)
Differentiation may be established between the The muscles of the neck and crest are not so
carcase of the bull, stag, bullock, heifer and cow. strongly developed as in the bull, but fat is
more evenly distributed over the carcase and is
particularly abundant in the pelvic cavity; the
Bull scrotal fat is abundant and completely occludes
The outstanding characteristic in the bull the external inguinal ring. The pelvic cavity is
carcase is the massive development of the narrow and can be spanned with the hand but
muscles of the neck and the shoulder, with the although the pelvic floor is angular and the
forequarter, except in well-bred animals, being pubic tubercle is prominent, these
better fleshed than the hindquarter. This characteristics are not so marked as in the bull
development of the crest is diagnostic in bulls, carcase.
and in some American packing houses the The posterior or ischial portion of the gracilis
funicular portion of the ligamentum nuchae is muscle, which presents a triangular
cut at its insertion to the dorsal vertebrae, the appearance, is covered with fascia and fat,
effect being to make the carcase approximate while there is a well-marked bulbocavernosus
more in appearance to that of the bullock. muscle, though this is less strongly developed
In the dressing of the bull carcase the testicles than in the bull. Bullock flesh is lighter in colour
and spermatic cord are removed, leaving an than bull flesh and has a brick red colour with a
54 Meat Hygiene
shiny, marbled appearance due to the presence Wether
of intermuscular fat.
The carcase is usually well proportioned with
evenly distributed fat and abundant, lobulated
Heifer cod fat. The root of the penis can be exposed by
In the dressing of the heifer carcase the udder a transverse section with the knife above the
remains on each side of beef and is characterised pubic tubercle and in the wether is no thicker
by its smooth, regular convexity and, on section, than an ordinary pencil.
by the predominance of fat and lack of evidence
of glandular tissue. The absence of
bulbocavernosus muscle may be noted, and a
Gimmer
useful feature in distinguishing the forequarter The carcase is characterised by its symmetrical
of the heifer or cow from that of the bullock is shape and the presence of a smooth convex
the enlargement at the end of the foreshank udder.
(radius). In the cow or heifer the bone is slim
and rather straight, but in the bullock it is
markedly enlarged. In the heifer or cow, remains Ewe
of the broad ligament of the uterus are apparent The carcase is angular in shape, with long thin
on the inner abdominal wall, about a hands neck and poor legs. The udder is brown,
breadth below the angle of the haunch. spongy and never sets; it is removed in
dressing, leaving a roughened area on the outer
Cow abdominal wall, though portions of the
The cow carcase is more slender and less supramammary lymph nodes frequently
symmetrical than that of the bull or bullock and remain on the carcase.
shows a long tapering neck, a wide chest cavity, Differentiating features of the carcases of the
curved back and prominent hips. The pelvic sheep and goat are shown in Table 2.10.
cavity is wide and can scarcely be spanned with
the hand, while the pelvic floor is thin, only Pigs
slightly arched, and the pubic tubercle is only
slightly developed. The exposed gracilis muscle Differentiation must be established between the
is crescentic or bean-shaped, but no carcase of the boar, hog, gilt and sow.
bulbocavernosus muscle is present. The udder,
except occasionally in animals which have had Boar
only one calf, is removed, leaving a triangular
ragged space on the outer aspect of the The boar possesses an oval, strongly developed
abdominal wall. In the cow both external and area of cartilage over the shoulder region which
internal fat is irregularly distributed and may become calcified in old boars, and is
yellowish in colour. known as the shield. The scrotum is removed in
the dressing of the carcase, the area of removal
Calf being apparent on the inside of the thigh. The
cut gracilis muscle is triangular, while the root
In the dressed bobby calf, the male may be of the penis will be present on one of the sides
recognised by the presence of testicles and the when the carcase is split and a strongly
open external inguinal ring. A transverse cut developed bulbocavernosus muscle will then
with a knife just above the pubic tubercle will be apparent. Strong, curved canine teeth (the
expose the root of the penis. In the heifer calf tusks) are present in the boar.
the rudimentary udder remains on the carcase. Castration of the adult boar produces an
animal known as a stag, which is both heavier
Sheep and fatter and commands a higher price than
the boar carcase. Stag pigs show some reduction
Ram in the density of the shield as a result of
The carcase has strong muscular development castration, but as both boars and stags may be
of the forequarter, the inguinal rings are open, used only for manufacturing purposes, being
and the scrotal or cod fat is sparse or absent. skinned and boned out, this reduction of the
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 55
Table 2.10 Differentiation of carcases of sheep and goat.

Feature Sheep Goat

Back and withers Round and well fleshed. Sharp, little flesh.
Thorax Barrel-shaped. Flattened laterally.
Tail Fairly broad. Thin.
Radius lY, times length of metacarpus. Twice as long as metacarpus.
Scapula Short and broad. Superior spine, Possesses distinct neck. Spine
bent back and thickened. straight and narrow.
Sacrum Lateral borders thickened in Lateral borders thin and sharp.
form of rolls.
Flesh Pale red and fine in texture. Dark red coarse with goaty odour.
Sticky subcutaneous tissue which
may have adherent goat hairs.

shield is not of great importance and the chief 1 In the horse, the unusual length of the sides is
advantage is the diminution of the boar odour. noticeable, together with the great muscular
development of the hindquarters.
Hog 2 The thoracic cavity is longer in the horse; this
animal possesses 18 pairs of ribs, whereas the
The differentiation of the hog and gilt carcases ox has 13 pairs.
frequently presents difficulty, as teats are
present in both male and female pigs, though in 3 The ribs in the horse are narrower but more
the male they are small and underdeveloped. markedly curved.
Evidence of castration in the hog is seen as two 4 The superior spinous processes of the first six
puckered, depressed scars and in both the hog dorsal vertebrae are more markedly
and the boar there is evidence of the removal of developed in the horse and are less inclined
the preputial sac. The belly fat on one side of posteriorly.
the abdominal incision is grooved, and on the 5 In the forequarter, the ulna of the horse
floor of this incision can be seen the retractor extends only half the length of the radius; in
penis muscle, which is long, thin and pale red the ox it is extended and articulates with the
in colour. When the carcase is split, remains of carpus.
the bulbocavernosus muscle can be seen, while
the gracilis muscle is covered with connective 6 In the hindquarter, the femur of the ox
possesses no third trochanter; the fibula is
and fatty tissue. only a small pointed projection, but in the
horse it extends two-thirds the length of the
Gilt tibia.
In the gilt the space left below the tail after 7 In the horse, the last three lumbar transverse
removal of the anus and vulva is greater than in processes articulate with each other, the sixth
the hog, the abdominal incision is straight and articulating in a similar manner with the
uninterrupted, and the cut surface of the sacrum. They do not articulate in the ox.
gracilis muscle is bean-shaped. In sows there is 8 The horse carcase shows considerable
greater development of the udders and teats, development of soft, yellow fat beneath the
and though canine teeth are present in the peritoneum, especially in the gelding and
female pig, they do not develop. mare, but in the stallion the fat is generally of
a lighter colour and almost white. In the ox
the kidney fat is always firmer, whiter and
HORSE AND OX DIFFERENTIATION more abundant than in the horse.
9 Horse flesh is dark bluish-red, beef lacking the
Carcases of the horse and ox may be bluish tinge. Horse meat has a pronounced
differentiated by the following details. sweet taste and well-defined muscle fibres.
56 Meat Hygiene
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL animals: the precipitin test, the complement
DIFFERENTIATION OF MEATS fixation test and the ELISA (enzyme-linked
immunoabsorbent assay) test. The tests are
The differentiation of the muscle and fat of particularly applicable to mince or sausage
animals is of importance in connection with the meat.
possible substitution of inferior, and at times The precipitin test depends on the fact that
repugnant, meat for that of good quality. specific antibodies develop in the blood of an
There is little difficulty in differentiating the animal which receives repeated injections of
flesh and fat of these animals in carcase form or blood serum from another animal. If, for
in joints, but recognition in mince or in sausage example, it is desired to test for horse flesh, a
depends on chemical or biological tests and rabbit is injected periodically with blood serum
therefore comes properly within the province of from the horse. The rabbit, as a result, develops
the analytical chemist. antibodies specific for horse serum, which
possess the property of precipitating proteins of
Chemical tests the horse but of no other animal. Therefore,
A number of differential chemical tests are when blood serum from the injected rabbit is
based on the fact that horse flesh is richer in mixed in a test tube with a filtered extract from
glycogen than the flesh of other food animals. the suspected meat, a turbidity of the solution
Glycogen, however, starts to disappear from occurs if horse meat is present, and this is
meat from the time of slaughter and, unless the followed by a definite precipitation.
examination is made soon after the carcase is Complement fixation utilises a normal
cut up, very little may be found. Furthermore, component of serum complement, which is a
the liver of all animals, particularly the pig, thermolabile mixture of substances capable of
contains appreciable quantities of glycogen and reacting with any antigen-antibody system to
if this organ is used as an ingredient of sausage lyse the antigen agglutinated by the antibody.
a positive result to a glycogen test might occur Certain antigen-antibody reactions do not
from the presence of liver. Any deductions produce any visible result, e.g. precipitation or
made from the presence of glycogen, agglutination, and these can be detected by the
particularly in sausage, should therefore be fact that they use up or 'fix' complement, thus
advanced with extreme caution. making it no longer available for other
A method of identifying horse fat when reactions. Complement is usually derived from
admixed with lard or beef and mutton fat is by guinea pig serum and the indicator system
demonstrating the presence of 1-2% of linoleic normally consists of sheep red cells and rabbit
acid. In other animal fats this is not present in serum (heated to destroy its own complement
proportions higher than 0.1%. before use in the test).
A valuable test for horse fat depends on As with the previous biological tests, the
estimation of the iodine value. This test is based ELISA technique relies on the ability of
on the amount of iodine absorbed by the antibodies to bind with specific antigens. Used
unsaturated fatty acids present in the fat, and in blood grouping, tissue typing and
varies in the different animals. In the horse the bacteriological work, the ELISA test can be
iodine value of fat is 71-86, in the ox 38-46, in applied to meat identification because of the
the sheep 35-46, and in the pig 50-70; good lard differences in protein composition in the food
has an iodine value of 66. animals, slight though these generally are. In
A further valuation test for fats which can be addition to the foregoing uses, ELISA is being
liquefied by heat and thus converted into oil is applied in the detection of boar taint and soya
by the estimation of the refractive index. All in a variety of products.
liquids, including oils, possess a specific The test is carried out by making an extract
refractive index; that of horse fat is 53.5, of ox (containing antigens) from the meat sample
fat less than 40 and of pig fat not above 51.9. under investigation, placing this in a Petri dish
or test tube and then adding different specific
sera (containing antibodies). The antibody that
Biological tests binds with the corresponding antigen forms a
Three main biological methods are employed complex which is afterwards recognised and
for the differentiation of the flesh of various bound by a second antibody containing an
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 57

enzyme which catalyses the reaction to produce recognised many centuries ago that food must be
a colour. If the sample under investigation was sound and entirely fit for human consumption.
horse meat, a reaction would take place only in Meat must be derived from healthy animals reared
the presence of specific horse serum. Positive and slaughtered under high standards of welfare
identification can be carried out in as short a and hygiene and their products processed with
time as six hours and the test is able to detect due attention to cleanliness.
low levels of suspect meats, even as low as 3%. Continuous control of operations from livestock
A diagnostic kit for routine use in commercial production to the consumer's home is essential if a
practice is available. This uses polystyrene safe quality product is to be created and enjoyed.
tubes and gives a marked colour reaction in Regrettably, many opportunities exist from the
positive cases, and the colour can be more farm to retail outlet for adulteration, accidental
accurately measured using a or malicious, and misrepresentation to occur.
spectrophotometer. The test can be adapted for The chief substitutions of inferior flesh for that
use in cooked meats, meats which have been which is more highly valued are those of horse
frozen and some canned products. Heating to for beef, goat for lamb, cat for rabbit and rabbit
the temperatures which are required for the for poultry. Another form is the replacement of
manufacture of meat and bone meal, however, steer and heifer meat of high quality with lower-
denatures the species specific protein. This fact quality cow and bull beef. The use of C. boois-
allows the test to be carried out to ensure that infected meat which has been refrigerated to
this has been the case. replace Grade A heifer and steer beef is not
Polumerase chain reaction (peR) analysis can unknown and the perennial use of the word
be used to differentiate marinated or heat- 'lamb', when in fact mutton is being sold, is yet
treated meats from closely related species. The another form of substitution and deception.
technique involves the identification of DNA In recent times, kangaroo meat has been
fragments recovered from meat samples. imported from Australia into Britain and the
Other techniques used in species identifica- United States and has been used in the UK in the
tion include microscopy, electrophoresis, vari- manufacture of meat pies, pasties and
ous chemical procedures, agar gel diffusion and beefburgers, on occasions along with the
gas-liquid chromatography. inclusion of condemned meat. A Widespread
racket involving the use of unfit meat and the
meat from animal species other than that
Debasement of food (adulteration and specified has been in existence in the UK for some
substitution) years, it being estimated that the annual trade in
unfit meat may amount to some 10000 tonnes
In the UK the composition and labelling of food internally with~about 5000 tonnes imported.
is controlled by the Food Act 1984 (Sections While substitution can, and does, occur at
1-7): the carcase and meat cut stage, it is when meat
Section 1 Offences as to the preparation and is in a comminuted form that adulteration most
sale of injurious foods. often takes place. Using modem technology,
Section 2 General protection of purchasers of production techniques are used to create
food. debasement at a very sophisticated level. This
Section 3 Defences under Section 2. pernicious practice creates great problems for
Section 4 Making of regulations relating to the food analyst and enforcement agencies,
composition, etc. besides being a health threat for the consuming
Gives powers to Ministers to public.
Section 5
obtain particulars of ingredients That it is not a new practice is illustrated by
of foods. the introduction to a standard text on food law,
Bell and O'Keefe's Saleof Food and Drugs, which
Section 6 Refers to food falsely ascribed.
states 'The act of debasing a food or drug with
Section 7 The making of regulations for the the object of passing it off as genuine, of the
description of food.
substitution of an inferior article for a superior
one to the detriment of the purchaser, whether
The term 'wholesome' is defined as "promoting done in fraud or negligence, appears to be as
or conducive to good health or well-being". It was old as trade'.
58 Meat Hygiene
In Great Britain, some basic laws are Rind may be cooked with water, emulsified
contravened by this practice, probably the main with milk protein or vegetable proteins or
one being Section 8 of the Food Act 1984, which dehydrated, ground and rehydrated (using as
relates to the sale of unfit food. But legislation much as four times its own weight of water)
relating to the labelling, description and before being incorporated into a sausage or
composition of food, whose provisions ensure 'meat' product.
that all food is not adulterated or misdescribed Boneprotein or ossein is extracted from animal
and is of a reasonable quality, is also bones. Like rind, it is an incomplete protein but,
contravened. hydrated with four parts of water, is used to
The high price of meat, the wide range of replace a similar weight of proper meat, yet
proteins of an inferior nature which can be another disguise to the true meat content of the
used, the processed form of the product, the product.
analytical difficulties presented and the Ureal a natural nitrogenous waste product
economic considerations, all appeal to the found in the urine of animals and man, can also
unscrupulous manufacturer. be manufactured from ammonia and carbon
dioxide by heating under pressure. It has no
nutritional value at all and is normally used as
Ingredients used a fertiliser and animal feed additive. Very
Many different types of non-meat proteins and soluble in water, its presence in a meat product
animal-based proteins are used in an attempt to for human consumption adds nitrogen and
disguise the true meat content on analysis. thereby increases the 'protein' calculation.
These ingredients are often referred to in the Dried blood and plasma are normally used for
trade as 'meat extenders' or 'meat substitutes', animal feed, petfood or fertiliser, or are
which can, of course, be used legitimately. It is discharged as effluent, only a small amount
their illegal use which results in fraud. being consumed as black puddings. There can
Non-meat proteins include vegetable protein, be no objection to the proper inclusion, after
e.g. soya bean, which can be given a "texture' suitable treatment, of sterile blood and plasma
simulating a meat appearance and cereal. in meat products, provided their presence is
Cereal is an ingredient which is sometimes declared and they are not used in lieu of real
added to 'all-meat products' and has the ability meat. Rehvdrated with water, blood and
to absorb water, giving the product a drier plasma ha\;e the effect of disguising the true
appearance more like its natural form, besides meat content for the food analyst.
affecting the initial analytical determination, Crushed bone and waste have on occasions
depending on the type of cereal used. been used in a very fine form for incorporation
The consumption of certain forms of cereal into sausages. This must not be confused with
adversely affects the health of persons suffering accepted mechanically-recovered meat (MRM)
from coeliac disease, a condition in which the svstems. The Food Standards Committee have
mucosa of the small intestine becomes reported on this form of meat and considered
abnormal owing to contact with dietary gluten, that MRM is not meat as would be understood
a reserve protein found in wheat, barley, rye bv the consumer, its essential structure
and probably oats. The undeclared presence of compared with hand-trimmed meat being
cereal probably therefore has a serious destroyed. This Committee also felt that, used
relevance. in amounts exceeding 5%1 its presence should
Animal-based proteins often include those be declared.
parts of the carcase which are of low value and Water is a natural constituent of meat,
only some of which are legally defined as varying in amount according to its age, method
'meat'. e.g. pork rind, bone protein, ureal dried of handling, species, form of refrigeration,
blood and plasma. While there can be no environmental factors, etc. In today's
objection to their inclusion, it is the excessive technology of curing, more pickle than is
extent of usage in amounts far in excess of that
l necessary to effect a proper cure is used.
naturally associated with the type of meat Increased water uptake of meat has been shown
involved, which constitutes abuse and fraud. to be a property of the myofibrils (which are
On occasions, pork rind is incorporated into a involved in muscle contraction), which make
product in which there is no pork flesh present. up about 70% of lean meat. In addition to excess
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 59
cure, polyphosphate is also added to the curing The term 'meat' may also refer to the edible
solution and ensures that only minimal water offals such as liver, heart and tongue which are
loss occurs at the cooking stage. Tumbling or not parts of the skeletal muscular system.
massaging of the cured meat enables the curing A vegetable diet, compared with a meat diet,
solution to be more thoroughly absorbed. The is usually incomplete in essential amino acids;
end result is a product (cooked ham or the vegetable proteins are less easily digested
shoulder) which contains added water in the and remain in the stomach for a shorter period
form of curing solution. While consumers than meat protein, with the result that hunger
probably on the whole prefer moist ham, there recurs more rapidly.
must obviously be a limit to the water content of The approximate composition of lean bovine
cured meats. Accordingly, in the Ministry of muscle (immediately after onset of rigor mortis)
Agriculture's Meat Products and Spreadable is given in Table 2.11.
Fish Products Regulations the water content of
cured meat must be expressed on the label in
terms of 'added water' as opposed to Protein
'additional curing solution' and that it should be Protein is the most important muscle
banded at 10% levels. constituent and is made up of myofibrillar,
There is a distinction between cooked and sacroplasmic and connective tissue proteins.
uncooked products in relation to water content Myofibrillar protein gives rigidity to the
labelling. Uncooked products are allowed a muscle and forms about two-thirds of the total
maximum of 10% added water without protein, the most important types being myosin
requiring label declaration, but cooked and actin.
products require a label declaring the amount Sucroplasmic proteins are the water-soluble
of added water in steps of 10%. Meat products proteins of the fluid cytoplasm of the muscle
which have the appearance of raw and cells and include myoglobin muscle pigment,
unprocessed meat to which no ingredient has haemoglobin blood pigments and soluble
been added must be labelled with the glycolytic enzymes.
maximum water content, this applying also to Connective tissue proteins, along with the bony
cuts, joints, slices, portions and carcases of segments of the body, form its supporting
cooked meat, although fresh and frozen poultry mechanism. They include collagen, which is
are not as yet included. insoluble in water and salt and can be
converted into gelatin on heating; elastin, a
tough yellow connective tissue; and reticulin,
MEAT COMPOSITION AND QUALITY another form of connective tissue not converted
to gelatin on heating.
Butcher meat is a valuable part of the human
diet because: Lipids
1 It is the most concentrated and easily The lipids are mostly composed of
assimilable of nitrogenous foods, and is a triglycerides, which are fats and oils, both of
good source of first-class protein, i.e. it which are insoluble in water but soluble in
contains the amino acids essential for human
life.
2 It is stimulating to metabolism because of its
high protein content, i.e. it assists the body in Table 2.11 Composition of lean meat.
the production of heat and energy.
3 It is satisfying, for the presence of fat in the ';;0 net weight
diet delays emptying of the stomach (meat
contains fat and therefore remains in the Water 75.0
stomach for some hours and allays hunger). Protein 19.0
4 After suitable treatment, which includes the Lipids (fats and oils) 2.5
processes of ripening and cooking, meat Carbohydrates (glycogen) 1.2
acquires a palatable flavour, acts as a Non-protein nitrogen 1.65
stimulant to gastric secretion and is readily Minerals 0.65
digested. Vitamins minute quantities
60 Meat Hygiene
ethyl ether. The lipids also include difference in flavour between the castrate and
phospholipids, saturated, monounsaturated the entire animal. Recent work has shown that
and p?lyunsaturated fatty acids and other fat- there is little or no correlation between the level
soluble substances, including cholesterol, the of nutrition and flavour, although there are
level of the latter in carcase meat being many who still hold that fatness is a guarantee of
relatively low, although much higher in liver. good flavour and tenderness.
Marked differences in intramuscular lipid The extractioes of meat are the principal
levels occur in the different species of meat constituents of the commercial extracts and are
animals. The quantity of fat in all meat animals obtained by concentrating liquors in which beef
is very much lower than it used to be, because muscle and offal parts have been soaked and
fat is an expensive tissue to produce and is not cooked, or by concentrating the liquor in which
desired by the consumer. Differences in breed, beef has been cooked prior to canning. It
sex, age and level of nutrition also vary the fat requires about 13.6 kg of lean meat to yield 453
content in meat. g of extract. The food value of extractives is
thought to be low, but they stimulate the flow of
gastric juice and aid in the digestion of food.
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate is present mainly as glycogen
(animal starch), which has a major influence on
Minerals
muscle changes after death. Glycogen also The inorganic minerals or ash of muscle
occurs in the liver and is especially abundant in constitute a little less than 1% of the content, the
horse meat and in the fetus. Its level in the main elements being, in order of importance,
animal body does not vary as much as does fat, sulphur, potassium, phosphorus, sodium,
although older animals in general have lower chlorine, magnesium, calcium, iron, copper,
reserves of glycogen. chromium, selenium, cobalt (as vitamin B12) and
zmc.
Non-protein nitrogen
Non-protein nitrogen is mainly represented by Vitamins
free amino acids, creatine, nucleotides, inosine Vitamins occur in the form of the water-soluble
monophosphate and carnosine (a dipetide), B vitamins thiamin (vitamin Bl ) , riboflavin
some of which, notably the free amino acids and (vitamin B,), nicotinic acid (niacin), pyridoxine
nucleotides, give meat its flavour on cooking. (vitamin B6 ) , pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid
Some sugars (e.g. glucose), lipids (e.g. certain (pteroylmonoglutamic acid) and vitamin Bl 2
lower fatty acids), nitrogen-containing (cyanocobalamin), along with some vitamin A
compounds termed pyrazines, and oxygen- and (lipid-soluble) and vitamin C (water-soluble
sulphur-containing compounds also contribute ascorbic acid). Meat is our most important
to the flavour of meat. The production of flavour source of vitamin Bn , which is not found in
in meat is a very complex subject and not all the vegetable foods. This vitamin is essential for
various compounds and interactions have yet cell division and nuclear maturation as well as
been identified. Flavour can be influenced by the formation of red blood cells. Deficiencies of
many pre-slaughter factors. For example, it is Bc often occur in man and animals, causing
more pronounced in the flesh of fully grmvn pernicious anaemia in the former and anorexia
animals than in young immature ones, especially (lack of appetite), loss of condition and growth,
in muscles which are exercised and less tender. muscular weakness and fertility in the latter.
Veal has a very weak flavour compared with 18- Pork contains about ten times as much thiamin
month old beef. The flesh of animals which are as beef and lamb, while beef has considerably
properly rested prior to slaughter has a better more folic acid than either pork or lamb. Live"r
flavour which is more readily released on is another good source of B vitamins, especially
cooking. Breed does not appear to exert much thiamin, as well as vitamin A; 100 g of raw lamb's
influence on the degree of flavour in a carcase, liver contains 25 times the recommended adult
but sex can, especially in pigs, which on occasion daily amount. The level of vitamins in meat is
have a boar-odour taint. As far as beef and lamb reduced by cooking, the amount depending on
are concerned, there would appear to be little the temperature and time employed.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 61
Other constituents hardening and contraction of all the voluntary
muscles, by a loss in transparency of the surface
Other important constituents of meat include
of the muscle, which becomes dull, and by
the pigments myoglobin and haemoglobin. The
stiffening of the joints. It is accompanied by a
redness of meat is largely due to its myoglobin
slight rise in temperature of the carcase to 1.5°C
content, which is greatest in beef (0.30-1.0%)
or more above normal in the case of beef
and less in pork (0.06-0.40%) and poultry
carcases, the temperature then gradually
(0.02-0.18%). The myoglobin content is higher
dropping to that of the surrounding
in male animals, old animals and certain
atmosphere. Rigor mortis affects first the
muscles such as the heart and diaphragm
muscles that have been most active and best-
which are in constant activity.
nourished prior to death and commences at the
head and neck, extending backwards to involve
Reducing bodies the body and limbs. The heart is affected very
early, usually within an hour of slaughter. Rigor
Reducing bodies which possess an enzyme
reaches its greatest intensity in the left ventricle
action with marked oxidising properties are
and this cavity is therefore usually free of blood
present in meat; their action is manifested
on post-mortem examination, although some
typically in carcases affected with icterus, for
blood may remain in the right ventricle. In a
the yellow coloration of the tissues caused by
physiologically normal animal, rigor in the
the presence of the bile pigment bilirubin may
skeletal muscles does not appear for 9-12 hours
often disappear if the icteric carcase is detained
after slaughter, and maximum rigidity is
for 24 hours.
attained at 20-24 hours and then gradually
declines.
The development of rigor mortis is
QUALITY
influenced by:
Physical and chemical changes 1 The atmospheric temperature: a high
temperature accelerates its onset whereas a
Considerable changes occur in the nature of low temperature retards it.
meat within 1-2 days of slaughter. Shortly after 2 The health of the animal: where an animal is
death, the meat appears dark and is sticky and slaughtered while affected with a febrile
adherent when minced; water can only be condition, rigor mortis may be absent or
squeezed from it with difficulty; it is resistant to scarcely apparent. Certain drugs are said to
the penetration of salt and sugar and its encourage the early onset of rigor mortis,
electrical resistance is high. A day or so later, the including sodium salicylate, alcohol and
meat is lighter in colour and is moist but not ether.
sticky when minced; over 30% of fluid can be 3 The supply of energy stored as glycogen and
squeezed from it; and the electrical resistance adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the muscle
drops to one-fifth of its initial value. The rate at at the time of death. This is one of the most
which meat undergoes such changes depends important factors controlling the production
on the atmospheric temperature, but the change of rigor mortis.
cannot take place unless adequate amounts of
glycogen are present and the pH falls to a Rigor mortis occurs when, after death, the
satisfactory level. For this reason the meat of muscles lose their extensibility owing to the
exhausted animals, in which the glycogen supply of adenosine triphosphate and glycogen
content is depleted, remains dark and fiery; being used up. Energy is required to maintain
there is little concrete evidence that this state is muscle in a relaxed state. When the energy is
due to incomplete bleeding. used up, a bond forms between the myosin (in
thick fibrils) and actin (in thin fibrils), the
binding together of the protein forming
Rigor mortis (See also Chapter 9, Stress and
actomyosin. The gradual disappearance of rigor
Meat Quality) is due, at least in part, to the action of
The first and most considerable post-mortem proteolytic enzymes. Under certain conditions
change which occurs in muscle is rigor mortis. the onset of rigor mortis after slaughter may be
The phenomenon is characterised by a very rapid and may pass off as rapidly, as for
62 Meat Hygiene
example, in hunted animals or excited young The use of specialised boar lines with the
bulls. In this case the supply of energy in the emphasis on leanness and the adoption of high-
muscle is low and is rapidly used up so that energy diets can affect the type and distribution
rigor mortis occurs rapidly. The pH of the of carcase fat. At the present time the grading of
muscle remains high in this case since there has pigs is largely based on the use of the backfat
been little conversion of glycogen into lactic probe, but this may soon prove to be
acid. (See DFD meat below.) inadequate in assessing carcase quality, giving
In the meat trade the occurrence of an way to the use of ultrasonic screening, fibre
adequate degree of rigor mortis and a low optics to measure colour and a fat firmness
ultimate pH of the flesh are desirable metre. With a decrease in fat thickness the fat
characteristics. The low pH inhibits bacterial itself becomes softer and there is a tendency for
growth and the lactic acid brings about the it to separate from the lean, this defect being
conversion of the connective tissue into gelatin exaggerated on diets high in unsaturated fatty
so that the meat when cooked is more tender. acids. Lean meat separation, soft fat, drip loss,
It is thus apparent that absence of rigor lack or excess of colour, flavour and tenderness
mortis may result from unfavourable ante- all make the product less acceptable to the
mortem treatment such as fatigue or the fear consumer.
and excitement engendered during transport,
or it may result from an illness. Although poor
pre-slaughter treatment does not usually render
Dark, firm and dry meat (DFD), dark
carcases unfit for food, they are difficult to cut
cutting meat
up, the joints lose their shape, there is more
waste and the durability of the meat is lowered. This is a troublesome condition in which the
These undesirable changes also occur where colour of the musculature of freshly killed
absence of rigor mortis is due to illness before animals, as a whole or in parts, is appreciably
slaughter, but these carcases, besides being less darker and drier than normal. The condition,
durable, may contain organisms or deleterious which is most common in cattle, occurs most
toxins harmful to man. frequently where animals are subjected to pre-
slaughter stress, including the mixing of stock
24--48 hours prior to slaughter. Young bulls are
frequently affected because of their enhanced
EFFECTS OF BREEDING AND PRE- temperament and behaviour. In deer, stag
SLAUGHTER STRESS carcases are more often affected than those from
hinds.
The constant search for animals with a high In post-mortem glycolysis, glycogen reserves
meat-to-bone ratio and, more recently, the in the muscle are broken down into lactic acid
demand by the consumer for lean meat have on and CO 2 , The amount of lactic acid determines
occasion resulted in meat which many claim the ultimate pH of the meat. In normal animals
lacks colour, flavour, succulence and the final pH is in the region of 5.5-5.8, but in
tenderness. some animals which are physically exhausted
Nowhere is this illustrated more frequently or otherwise stressed at the time of slaughter
than in pig meat, where producers have played and have low glycogen reserves, the extent of
their part by reducing backfat by some 0.5 mm post-mortem glycolysis is very limited and the
a year in the past 10 years but may at the same pH fall is small, i.e. from 7.0 to, for example, 6.8.
time have produced defects which affect the This results in very dark, firm and dry meat
appearance, cutting, cooking and eating which has poor keeping quality. Thus the rate
qualities of pork and bacon. and extent of acidification taking place in
While breeding and breeding systems as muscle in the first few hours after slaughter
well as the manner in which the animal is greatly influences the quality of meat and is
handled before slaughter are undoubtedly largely determined by the degree of stress to
important, it is also likely that post-mortem which the animal has been subjected in the last
factors, such as the length of time the meat is hours prior to slaughter. If this has been
held before consumption are also of prolonged, with a consequent depletion of
significance, as is the final method of cooking. glycogen, DFD meat develops.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 63
The presence of an attractive bright red hue against PSE or at least to maintain it at the
on the exposed surface of meat is due to current levels within breeds.
oxygenated myoglobin. The effect of a high pH PSE muscle is a serious problem if pork is to
in meat is to increase the activity of the muscle be sold fresh because of the amount of drip,
enzymes that utilise oxygen and to hinder the which causes weight loss (up to 10%) and may
penetration of oxygen into the meat substance. necessitate repackaging, and to a lesser extent
The unpleasant purplish-red colour of DFD its pale colour. Such meat is more likely to be
meat is therefore due to the fact that the tougher when cooked and to have higher
myoglobin of muscle is only partly converted to cooking losses. In curing, PSE meat takes up
oxymyoglobin. Dark, firm and dry meat, while more brine than normal pig meat but appears to
perfectly fit for food, has a less desirable colour cure fairly satisfactorily as Wiltshire sides,
and flavour and a lower keeping quality. It is except for reduced weight gain due to diffusion
resisted by the meat trade for use as normal of proteins and low-molecular-weight
meat cuts. substances into the brine. Exudative hams lose
2.2% more weight than normal hams and
pasteurised canned hams have 1% more gelatin
than hams with normal water-holding
Pale, soft, exudative muscle (PSE, watery
properties. Large pig meat processors do not
pork)
consider PSE to be a serious problem because
In healthy, rested pigs the amount of lactic acid their batch processing techniques and use of
produced shows a gradual increase after polyphosphates make the differences become
slaughter and the muscle pH falls from 7.0 to less evident.
about 5.5 over a period of 4-8 hours. Watery Watery pork generally affects the leg, loin
pork is a direct result of a rapid fall in muscle and fillet. A condition termed travel oedema,
pH after death. Muscle which is normal in which may be analogous to PSE meat, is
appearance at the time of death can become occasionally encountered in New Zealand in
affected, and this occurs when pH values of lambs slaughtered after an arduous journey, in
about 5.5 are attained within an hour or so of which the carcase, particularly the shoulders, is
slaughter while the temperature of the muscle unduly watery. To alleviate the condition, the
is still above 35°C. Under these conditions, animal must be properly rested and the carcase,
changes occur in the properties of the muscle particularly in the summer months, transferred
proteins and the flesh becomes watery, assumes immediately to the chiller to ensure rapid
a pale, unattractive colour and lacks flavour. reduction in temperature. Careful selection of
Many factors have been associated with this breeding stock is necessary for the long-term
condition, e.g. high environmental control of this particular condition.
temperature, rough ante-mortem handling, Besides pro-slaughter stress, there are
fighting, physiological differences between indications that the actual slaughter procedure
breeds and individual muscles, inefficient may influence the onset of DFD and PSE. The
slaughtering techniques and handling of following procedures will help reduce the
carcases. incidence of PSE and DFD meat.
Certain breeds are particularly susceptible to 1 Animals should be handled gently and
stress because of endocrinological imbalances quietly at the farm and the meat plant.
induced by selective breeding. The modern 2 Loading ramps should be provided at the
bacon pig carries more muscle and less fat than farm and efficient unloading facilities at the
earlier types, has relatively greater oxygen meat plant.
requirements, and certain breeds (Danish 3 Stock should be kept in their original social
Landrace, Pie train and Poland China) appear to groups as far as possible and there should be
be prone to rapid post-mortem glycolysis and no mixing within the last vital 24-48 hour
the production of watery pork. Work has period before slaughter.
shown that crossing a pig of high PSE incidence 4 Lairage pen design and race arrangements
with one having a low incidence of PSE results should allow for easy and efficient movement
in an intermediate incidence. Since PSE and of stock.
leanness are closely related, it has been S Water should be provided at all times in the
suggested that steps should be taken to select lair age, and food when necessary.
64 Meat Hygiene
6 The use of sticks and electric goads should be incidence of PSS and PSE. On a practical basis,
avoided. 80-100 pigs from at least six and preferably
7 Aggressive animals should be isolated in the eight or more sires are tested to obtain a reliable
lair age as should females in oestrus. estimate of the status of the herd in relation to
8 The use of overhead fine sprays of water in PSS and PSE.
lairages has been shown to reduce the Pigs aged 3-11 weeks are subjected to full
incidence of PSE. This is thought to be due to halothane anaesthesia and their reactions
the cooling effect. determined as positive when extreme rigidity
9 Careful selection of stock for slaughter is of the hind limb occurs. An obvious
important so that the period of time animals disadvantage of the test is the high mortality
spend in the lair age is the optimum for the (which may reach over 8%) among the positive
particular species, sex and time of year. reactors. Study of the positive and negative
10 Feeding of sugar in liquid form to pigs in the reactors shows that the former have
lair age is recommended to replace depleted significantly shorter and leaner carcases, fewer
liver glycogen reserves. pigs born alive in litter, poorer meat quality and
higher mortality in general.
The halothane test is only capable, however,
Porcine stress syndrome (PSS) of detecting the homozygous recessive animals
Allied to the PSE condition are the porcine which have received the halothane gene from
stress syndrome (fatal syncope, herztod, shock both parents. A DNA test which can identify the
heart failure syndrome) and malignant presence of the specific gene has been
hyperthermia. Fatal syncope is relatively developed in Canada and should have the
common in the Pietrain and Landrace but not in potential to eliminate the gene from a pig
the Large White. The condition is characterised population.
by sudden death, preceded by elevated
temperature, skin blanching, erythema and
dyspnoea in fat pigs which have been subjected
to stress. Post-mortem examination shows INFLUENCE OF FEEDING ON ANIMAL
diffuse and severe degeneration of skeletal TISSUE
muscle with excess pericardial fluid.
The condition is similar to malignant The effect of feeding on the colour and texture
hyperthermia in man occurring during of animal tissue is much more evident in fat
inhalation anaesthesia, usually with halothane. than in muscle. The fat in grass-fed cattle is a
Susceptible patients (about 1 in 20 000) are rich yellow colour, particularly noticeable in
affected with a very high body temperature, animals which have come off grass in early
muscular rigidity, tachycardia (very rapid heart summer; in animals coming off grass later in
rate) and other heart abnormalities, elevated the year and in stall-fed cattle, the fat is almost
metabolic rate, acidosis, increased creatine white.
phosphokinase levels and profound shock The yellow colour of fat due to grass feeding
which may lead to death. The condition is linked to the presence of carotene, a pigment
appears to be associated with a halothane- converted in the animal body into vitamin A
induced calcium activity in skeletal muscle, and abundantly present in fresh young grass,
especially in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, some varieties of maize, certain root crops such
necessitating immediate cessation of as carrots, and linseed and cotton cake.
anaesthesia and surgery and correction of the Mammalian fat consists of three substances-
metabolic acidosis, etc. Halothane anaesthesia olein, stearin and palmitin-which are present
has been used as a test for pigs prone to PSS as in varying proportions. Palmitin acts as a
there is a definite association between solvent of carotene so that animals such as
halothane sensitivity, liability to fatal syncope cattle, horses and, to a lesser extent pigs which
and the occurrence of PSE meat. Studies have have a large proportion of palmitin in their fat
shown that halothane sensitivity in pigs is will accumulate carotene if fed on carotene-
caused by a single recessive gene, which containing foods and produce fat of a yellow
suggests that selection using the halothane test colour. However, where such animals are fed on
would be an effective method of reducing the foods such as grain, hay or straw, which contain
 Anatomy! Meat Composition and Quality 65
little or no carotene! the fat remains white in certain male animals. The causes of abnormal
colour. odours in meat may be classified as follows.
In the case of sheep, goats and buffaloes very
little palmitin is present in their fat so that they
assimilate only small quantities of carotene and Feeding
the fat remains white in colour irrespective of The most common example of abnormal odour
the nature of the feed. If the body fat should be acquired as a result of feeding is that which
lost! however! as in under-nourishment or occurs from excessive feeding on fish meal
postnatally in cows, such carotene as is present resulting in pork or bacon with a fishy odour
in the body fat is either used up more slowly or and taste! while the carcase fat is soft and
completely left behind! so that it becomes more greyish-yellow. Fishiness in pork or bacon is
concentrated and the fat becomes yellow in attributed to the high percentage of fat in fish
colour. meal and it can be avoided if the fat content of
In Jersey and Guernsey breeds of cattle the meal is lowered to between 3% and 7%.
yellmu fat is! however! a normal breed Although it is claimed that the fishy odour of
characteristic, probably due to a genetic factor pork can be obviated if the feeding of fish meal
influencing the deposition of carotene or other is discontinued 6 weeks prior to slaughter! it is
pigments from grass! etc. In the young calves questionable whether this period is sufficient.
the fat is white! but it becomes yellow when the Feeding pigs cod-liver oil, particularly the
animals are taken from their mothers and fed cheaper brands! also produces pork or bacon
on grass or other foods. The deep yellow with a fishy odour and brownish coloration of
coloration of the fat occasionally seen in sheep the fat. In Denmark the feeding of cod-liver oil
carcases is a condition well known in Iceland is discontinued after the animal has reached 50
and Ireland; it is attributed to a recessive factor kg liveweight. Where pigs are fed on restaurant
which prevents oxidation of the yellow swill, the flesh may possess an odour and taste
pigments! the xanthophylls, in their foodstuffs. similar to that of pigs fed on fish meal.
The coloration may be so marked as to render In cattle! an abnormal flesh odour is
the carcase unmarketable. observed when animals are slaughtered after
Pigs fed too long on swill develop a fat being moved from grass in the autumn and
which is soft and unattractive and possesses an feeding on turnips has commenced; this
insipid taste. The soft fat of swill-fed pigs turnipy odour is present only during the first
renders the carcase difficult to cut up! causes week of turnip feeding and the continuance of
heavy loss in frying and contains a high root feeding after that period produces no
proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, leading odour. A turnipy odour may also be present in
to early rancidity. Feeding pigs on fish meal bovine carcases slaughtered due to obstruction
produces fat of a brownish yellow colour, a or rupture of the oesophagus by a portion of
condition known as brown fat disease and root and may be so marked as to render the
attributable to an acid-fast pigment caused by carcase unmarketable.
the presence of excessive unsaturated fatty The recently introduced practice of feeding
acids in the meal. cattle with ensiled poultry litter is said to be
associated with an abnormal meat odour and
also! on occasions! with the onset of disease! e.g.
botulism. Various food factory wastes! e.g.
ABNORMAL ODOURS AND TAINTS orange skins! are sometimes used as feed for
livestock, usually cattle and pigs! and can give
Abnormal odours are commonly encountered rise to undesirable odours in meat. An
in meat, and may often be acquired from abnormal and persistent garlic odour in meat,
outside sources! e.g. from the consumption of resulting in carcase condemnation! has
certain foodstuffs! from drugs administered as followed the feeding of vegetable waste
medicine or by the absorption of the odour of containing decomposing onions to cattle (M.
strong-smelling substances whilst the meat is Fussey 1990! private communication). A leek
stored. Abnormal odours may also be intrinsic! taint in beef carcases has been reported by Lund
as in the odour of acetone in the carcase of cows et al. (1991). Four intensively reared bulls had
affected with ketosis or in the sexual odour of been fed on vegetable waste obtained from a
66 Meat Hygiene
wholesale market garden at an inclusion rate of are likely to require emergency slaughter. Apart
50-60% of the feed (barley straw, ensiled grass from abnormal odours caused by the
and maize). The final ration was estimated to administration of drugs shortly before
contain 1-2% of leek waste. The genus Allium slaughter, abnormal odours may occasionally
includes several species of onions (cultivated occur owing to the inspiration of air containing
and wild), chives, garlic and leeks and all contain the vapour of chlorine or carbolic acid used in
the toxic principle n-propyl disulphide, which the cleansing of transport vehicles. The
has caused haemolytic anaemia, sometimes drinking of water impregnated with tar may
ending fatally, in cattle and horses (Humphreys, likewise render the flesh unmarketable, as may
1988). The feeding of waste materials, of chlorine leaking from a refrigeration system.
whatever type, is clearly fraught with danger. Certain of the chlorinated hydrocarbons,
In sheep, the feeding of turnips rarely including DDT, used externally on animals as
produces an abnormal odour of the flesh, but a insecticides and acaricides may accumulate in
rancid odour and soapy taste may occur in the fat as a result of spraying or by the animal
sheep fed on fermenting beet; this would consuming contaminated feeds. Organo-
appear to be due to the beatine present in beet, phosphorus compounds are also used externally
for the feeding to cows of sugar-beet tops in for a similar purpose but do not create a hazard
excessive quantities is known to produce an to the consumer when properly used on animals
abnormal flavour of the milk. The carcases from destined for slaughter, provided immediate
lambs fattened intensively in houses and fed on slaughter is not carried out.
a mixture of fish or soya bean meal and barley In the imported meat trade the absorption of
have sometimes shown an abnormal flavour. In abnormal odours by refrigerated meat during
some cases the fleeces of such lambs are very transport or storage is a common cause of
damp and possess a 'pig' odour, which may depreciation and even of condemnation.
taint the hot meat during dressing operations. Contamination by the odour of citrus fruit may
Intensively fed lambs receiving these diets have occur during a sea voyage if the fruit becomes
very soft fat in their carcases. The problem over-ripe or unsound and the excessively
would appear to be nutritional in origin, the generated gas filters through to an
carcase fat containing many unsaturated fatty accompanying meat cargo. Such odours are
acids. The eating of young garlic leaves by readily absorbed by meat, particularly by the
rabbits and sometimes by cattle may give the fat; odours of oil or tar in meat may occur in a
carcases a strong odour resembling similar way.
phosphorus.
A boiling test should be performed in all
cases of suspect odours. Products of abnormal metabolism
The existence of a peculiar odour, described as
sweet but repugnant, is frequently observed in
Absorption of odours
the flesh of cattle which have been affected with
Abnormal odours and taste of flesh due to the fever or which were close to parturition prior to
administration of drugs are commonly slaughter; it is often apparent in cows suffering
encountered in cattle, particularly dairy cows, from milk fever which have been slaughtered
and attention should be paid in emergency- owing to failure to respond to treatment by
slaughtered animals to the stomach contents; calcium injections. This odour is caused by
detection of a drug odour calls for an appreciable amounts of acetone present in the
examination of whether the odour is also flesh and is most readily detected in the large
present in the flesh. The odour of drugs persists connective tissue sheets, in the kidney fat or in
longest in the thickest parts of the carcase. the muscular tissue. The odour, which does not
Drugs which may affect the meat adversely in disappear from the meat even when grilled,
this way are linseed oil, turpentine, carbolic may be sufficient to render it unfit for sale and
acid, ether, chloroform, asafoetida, nitrous for this reason a boiling test should always be
spirits of ether, aromatic spirits of ammonia and applied on the flesh of animals slaughtered
aniseed. In addition, it is inadvisable to while suffering from fever or in an advanced
administer aloes, magnesium sulphate, treacle, stage of gestation, especially where the liver
chloral hydrate and bromides to animals which shows evidence of fatty change.
 Anatomy! Meat Composition and Quality 67
Sexual odour either their usual bacon or the previous week's
supply. Of the 13% who classed the aroma of
In male animals the meat may possess an the boar bacon as much stronger than that of
abnormal odour and taste! which may be so their usual bacon, only 0.6% of the total sample
marked as to lower its value and marketabilitv. rated it as much or very much less appetising.
This sexual odour! which is specific for each Strangely, a strong aroma, far from being
animal and may be described as resembling disagreeable, was positively liked by the
stale urine! is markedly apparent in the boar consumers. The survey concluded that,
and male goat! though of little or no assuming that the householders and the pigs
significance in bulls or rams. The sexual odour selected for the test were representative
in boars is caused by a steroid substance, samples, it was safe to market bacon from boars
androstenone; the odour becomes apparent in under current rearing and processing
the flesh when the carcase exceeds 63 kg procedures (Ulster Curers Association,
weight, though it can be prevented by Technical Division).
treatment of the animal with oestrogens. It is commonly contended that the
Experiments immunising boars with luteinising slaughtering of gilts and sows during oestrus is
hormone releasing-hormone (LHRH) at 30 kg likely to result in taint of the bacon or ham
and again at 90 kg has demonstrated that this subsequently prepared. In the case of the home-
technique is effective in reducing the level of cured product, there is a possibility that the
androstenone in the carcase fat when the pigs lowering of the glycogen content of the muscle
were slaughtered at 105 kg (Bonneau et al. due to the restlessness and excitement
1994). In castrated boars, i.e. stags, the degree of associated with oestrus may be a predisposing
odour depends on the length of time between factor to the onset of adverse bacterial changes.
castration and slaughter, as well as on the age of Some support for the empirical objection
the pig and the length of time it has been used against the slaughtering of gilts while in oestrus
for breeding; it is most marked in older, coarser is provided by Dutch workers who have
animals. Boar odour persists in flesh for a detected organoleptically what is described as
considerable time after the animal is castrated 'boar odour' in the flesh of gilts and have
and can be completely obviated only if the boar suggested a relationship between oestrus and
pig is castrated before it is 4 months; about 11 this abnormal odour. The odour is said to
days after castration the meat is odourless, but disappear in 3 weeks after slaughter but may
the boar odour persists in the fat for 10 weeks persist in subcutaneous fat for 2Y2 months. The
before it finally disappears. A pronounced odour is most marked in the parotid salivary
sexual odour may also be present in the flesh of gland, and it is practice in Denmark to apply a
cryptorchid pigs. The carcases of hermaphrodite boiling test to this gland, other samples of meat
pigs often possess an abnormal odour which, and fat being examined if the test is positive.
however, is distinguishable from the odour of The alleged dark fat and lack of setting of the
boars. carcases of cows affected with cystic ovaries
Male sexual odour is most apparent in the may conceivably be due to the depletion of
meat immediately after slaughter, particularly glycogen resulting from the excitement
in the fatty tissues and while the carcase is still associated with nymphomania in which there
warm. The odour largely disappears as the are short and irregular intervals between heat
carcase cools but may reappear when the meat periods and the periods themselves often
is boiled or fried, and for this reason animals prolonged.
exhibiting a marked sexual odour immediately A taint in poultry meat, referred to as 'off-
after slaughter are detained for 24 hours in flavour' or 'musty taint', was reported in
German, Danish and Dutch abattoirs and a England by the Food Research Institute in 1972.
boiling test is then applied to portions of the It is caused by chloroanisoles released by
flesh. microorganisms from the wood preservatives
A survey in Northern Ireland involving 525 in certain types of wood shavings, which are
households in which bacon was eaten at least used in deep litters. Very low levels of
once a week showed that less than 3% of eaters chloroanisoles can produce the taint: 4 mg
marked boar bacon much less pleasant and no tetrachloroanisole in 106 litres of water can be
more than 1% very much less pleasant than detected by smell. Fortunately, incidents of this
68 Meat Hygiene
taint have been isolated ones, and the problem processing methods, although some may be
is not considered to be a risk to human health. malicious in origin. (See Food tampering.) The
The problem is considered to be essentially one absence of or presence of faulty metal detectors
of food quality by the UK Advisory Committee is occasionally responsible for the inclusion of
on Taint, which consists of representatives from pieces of metal in minced meats. Recent
the Agricultural Research Council, the detections have included portions of
Laboratory of the Government Chemist and the hypodermic needles and of wire from car tyres
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. and chicken fencing which have been
discovered in pig tongues. Some dangerous
foreign bodies are displayed in Fig. 2.17.
Judgement of abnormal odours Current meat inspection routines are
In Britain, the meat of boars, castrated boars concerned with a visual inspection of carcase
and cryptorchid pigs (rigs) is of lower value meat, which fails to detect deep-seated lesions
than the flesh of sows because of the boar which include small abscesses that are only
odour. The flesh of these animals and of sows is, discovered by the consumer during the
however, used regularly as an ingredient of preparation of a meal. Research work is being
sausage, and the existence of a sexual odour conducted on sonar technology in an attempt to
cannot be regarded as a justification for seizure detect these lesions at meat inspection. While
of the meat as unfit for human food. In the presence of a few flukes in livers may cause
addition, the low price paid for such meat is no harm in terms of food poisoning they are,
sufficient to ensure that the practice of nevertheless, aesthetically unacceptable.
slaughtering boars is not encouraged, while the Most of these problems could be averted by
boar odour is minimised if the carcase is responsible husbandry methods at the farm,
expeditiously cooled after slaughter, and during meat inspection and meat processing.
largely disappears during the mincing and
preparation for sausage. It is, however, not
advisable to add more than one part of boar
Food tampering
meat to 20 parts of other meat ingredient. In Malicious tampering with food has become a
Great Britain, the Fresh Meat (Hygiene and major concern for food companies and
Inspection) Regulations 1995 (para. 13(2)) authorities. The display of various kinds of
requires that fresh meat from breeding boars products on supermarket and other shelves is
and cryptorchid or hermaphrodite swine an opportunity for the criminal to introduce
should not be sold for human consumption deleterious materials on and into food, usually
unless it has undergone one of the treatments for purposes of extortion. Attacks have
which would render it a 'product' under EU occurred on meat companies and butchers'
legislation and has been specially marked. shops, although the main forms of food product
Flesh with a pronounced odour of drugs or
disinfectants must be regarded as unfit if the
abnormal taste and smell are still apparent by a
boiling test after the carcase has been detained
for 24 hours. A marked and persistent fishy
odour in pork may be regarded as sufficient to
render it unmarketable, and it should be
condemned. In imported meat the odour
caused by the absorption of gases from cargoes
of fruit during storage, and also superficial taint
in meat due to oil or tar, can be removed almost
entirely by subjecting the meat to long periods
of ozonisation.
Fig.2.17 Metallic foreign bodies recovered from
Other abnormal constituents manufacturing meat imported into England from
Europe. The objects include nails, needles, paper
These are more likelv to occur in comminuted clips, pieces of wire and irregular lumps of metal.
meats and usually gain access through careless Some of the material on the left is solid purple dye.
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 69
involved have been packaged entities other combined with hygiene is taken in its removal,
than meat. Nevertheless, the threat to meat and the valuable fillet can be damaged by knife cuts,
meat products is very real, mainly because of resulting in drying and deterioration. There is
the animal connection. Even though most of the now general agreement that since the KKCF
threats are bogus, panic and fear are created, represents 3.75% of the carcase weight,
and with media publicity involvement there is weighings may be made with or without it
a resulting loss of consumer confidence, present.
institution of laboratory tests, and recall and Although there are similarities between
destruction of product, all of which entail much English and American methods of cutting beet
monetary loss. there are marked differences in the sub-primal
Control measures include close liaison with and retail cuts. The American cuts reflect a
police authorities, the creation of an emergency consumer preference for grilling steaks,
management team and plan, the establishment convenience foods and grinding beef for
of a security system, alerting of all staff to this hamburgers.
menace, the appointment of a public relations
officer to deal with the media, formulation of a
recall plan, liaison with independent Hot boning of meat
laboratories, and use of tamper-proof The traditional method of cutting up meat has
packaging where appropriate. generally been carried out after the carcase has
been cooled for 18 hours or more, although hot
bull beef has been used for manufacturing
CUTTING OF MEAT purposes in Germany and the United States for
many years. The integration of slaughtering
Traditional methods of cutting up carcases of and cutting operations on the one site makes
meat are based on their division into reasonably hot boning, with direct preparation and
large wholesale or primal cuts convenient for vacuum packing of the primal cuts, a
the butchers to handle. The shape and size of possibility.
these primal cuts depend to some extent on the EEC legislation stipulates that hot boning
anatomy of the animal, but they also have must be carried out in a room separate from the
regard to the suitability of the final smaller cuts slaughterhall but within the same group of
for cooking. The cutting involves sawing across buildings and sufficiently close for the meat to
bone and seaming along groups of muscles. In be transferred in a single operation. Cutting
the past wholesale cuts were supplied to the must be carried out immediately after transfer
retailer with the bone in, but it is more common and, following appropriate packaging, the meat
now to trade in boneless primals. The final must be chilled. The temperature of the cutting
retail cuts, across the grain of the meat, are room, in all circumstances, must not exceed
made as required. 12°C and the room must be equipped with a
In England, beef fore- and hindquarters are recording thermometer or recording
commonly separated between the 10th and 11th telethermometer.
ribs, but the point of separation varies The hot deboning procedure removes meat
regionally. Within EEC countries there is also a from the bones as intact groups of muscles,
demand for 'pistola' fores and hinds, which are although the traditional cutting method can be
officially recognised for the purpose of adopted. The former seaming method is
'intervention buying'. The pistola hind has preferred, however, because of the reduced
eight ribs attached, leaving a five-rib pistola bacterial levels (the cut surface of a muscle is
forequarter with all the thin flank (normally much more susceptible to deterioration than a
part of the hind) attached. For intervention muscle with the connective tissue covering or
purposes the kidneys, kidney fat and channel epimysium intact). After removal, the muscles
(pelvic) fat (KKCF) are removed. The KKCF are vacuum packed, using different shapes and
constitutes about one-third of the fat which has sizes of bag. The packs may be held at lOOC for
to be sold over the counter. Removal of the 24 hours, then chilled to 0-1°C. Alternatively, a
KKCF at the warm carcase stage means that three-stage cooling system may be used in
there is less variability in carcases. None the which the hot-boned joints are chilled at 15°C
less, there is no doubt that unless great care for 7 hours, 7°C for 24 hours and final holding
70 Meat Hygiene
at 2°C. With all chilling regimes after hot- sealing the bag. The package may then be
boning, however, tenderisation of the carcase passed through a heat tunnel which causes
by electrical stimulation is considered to be a the bag to shrink tightly around the meat,
necessary prerequisite to avoid toughening of forming a firm seal.
the meat due to cold shortening (q.v.).
The secondary shrinking of the vac-pac
The advantages claimed for this method are produces a broad seal which reduces the
that: incidence of 'leakers', and retains the drip
1 More efficient and quicker chilling of the meat around the meat, preventing it from spreading
results in reduced refrigeration costs. around the bag and appearing unsightly.
2 Since only the usable meat is chilled, Because of the commercial success of vac-pac
approximately 65% of the carcase, less beef there is now a demand for the vacuum-
refrigeration, is needed. packing of pork and lamb. Shelf-life is shorter
3 Meat yield is higher owing to reduced (2-3 weeks) than with beef. Punctures from
evaporative weight loss of up to 1%. bone are said to be more common with lamb
4 Reduced amount of drip in the vacuum pack and pork, but this can be reduced by protecting
saves weight loss and avoids staining of the the ends of bones with plastic caps or padding.
fat. Whichever system is used it is essential to
5 Colour uniformity is better. pay close attention to the following
6 Warm meat can be moulded. requirements:
1 Initial bacterial levels in the meat must be low.
The disadvantages include: 2 Handling must be hygienic throughout the
process.
1 operational difficulties in the synchronisation
of slaughter and boning lines; 3 Packs and boxed packs must be treated with
care. For fresh chilled trade, the packs are
2 fat being more difficult to trim; usually transported in rigid baskets rather
3 the unconventional shapes of cuts; than cartons, so as to reduce rupturing of the
4 the absolute need for high standards of pouch.
hygiene throughout the whole operation; 4 The meat must have a low pH, preferably
5 the fact that hot boning virtually always below 5.8. At a high pH, hydrogen sulphide-
requires tenderisation of the carcase by producing bacteria can grow, leading to the
electrical stimulations; development of putrid odours and the
6 need for very high standards of knife hygiene. conversion of the muscle pigment at the meat
surface to green sulphmyoglobin.
5 A temperature of 0-2°C must be maintained.
Vacuum packing 6 The film must not be punctured until the meat
In addition to the sale of wholesale cuts in a is ready to be used, and then the surplus fluid
fresh or chilled form, a considerable trade has must be drained. Meat will normally take
developed in vacuum-packed deboned primal about 10 minutes to regain bloom. Once
cuts. This process started in the United States in opened the meat will have the same shelf-life
the early 1950s and was introduced into Great as fresh carcase meat.
Britain after the foot-and-mouth disease
epidemic of 1967-68. When the United
Kingdom refused to accept further shipments Modified-atmosphere retail packs
of bone-in-beef from South America, vacuum- The fact that vacuum-packed meat retains the
packing was the only practical alternative to purple colour of myoglobin, rather than the
freezing. Two basic systems of vacuum bright red colour of oxymyoglobin associated
packaging have been developed: with quality by the consumer, has limited the
1 Drawing a low vacuum within a plastic film use of chilled vacuum-packed retail cuts. This
of copolymers with polyvinylidine chloride, requirement for colour has led to the
sealing the bag with a metal clip, and then Widespread use of modified-atmosphere
heat shrinking in hot water for 2 seconds. packaging (MAP) where the meat is contained
2 Creating a much higher vacuum inside a within an impermeable plastic pack in an
nylon/polythene laminate film and then heat- atmosphere of selected gases. Beef placed in an
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 71
atmosphere of 60-80% O 2 and 20-40% CO 2 completely inhibited when the meat is stored at
within a gas-impermeable pack can retain a temperatures below freezing. Conditioning is
bright red colour for at least a week. This is not brought about by bacterial action.
sufficient to allow for centralised cutting and Tenderness of meat is influenced by the
distribution and a five-day 'best-before-date'. breed, age, condition of nutrition and amount
With cured meats and poultry, oxygen is not of muscular exercise of the animal from which
required to maintain the optimal colour, so an it is obtained; it depends primarily on the
atmosphere of 75-80% nitrogen with 20-25% amount of connective tissue present between
CO 2 is used. (Carbon dioxide is used for its the muscular fibres and, to a lesser extent, on
bacteriostatic effect.) the thickness of the muscle fibres themselves.
The following problems may be encountered The muscle of the thin flank, for example, is
with MAP. three times as rich in connective tissue as the
1 Drip from the meat can be unsightly when it muscle of the fillet or undercut.
accumulates within the MAP. Trays are Tenderness of meat post-mortem depends
therefore designed with patterned bases to on changes which occur during the first 24
disperse the liquid, but in most cases hours after slaughter within (1) the myofibrils
absorbent pads are also included. and (2) the connective tissue surrounding the
2 Condensation can occur on the inside of the myofibrils which consists of collagen and a
lid of the pack. This can be avoided by proteinaceous ground substance, proteoglycan.
minimising temperature fluctuations in the The changes which occur in the myofibrils are
display cabinet and by anti-fog coating on the due to calcium-activated proteases. the calpins,
inner surface of the lid. and lysosomal cysteine proteases, the
3 Leakers can be difficult to identify until the cathepsins. These cause a degradation of the Z-
meat has spoiled. discs which separate the sarcorneres, the
4 Where MAP is to be used strict attention must functional units within the myofibril. The
be paid to temperature control and hygienic loosening of the myofibrillar structure allows
production. The meat should be chilled to the myofibril, when stretched, to fracture
< 2°C prior to packing since the gas space along the Z-discs, resulting in the reduction
around the meat makes further chilling in toughness. The actomyosin complex
difficult. formed during the onset of rigor mortis
5 If MAP is to be used, it is usually necessary to remains intact.
utilise accelerated conditioning through, for Evidence available suggests that there is
example, electrical stimulation, since no more little post-mortem enzymatic breakdown in the
than 4 days of conditioning is recommended. connective tissue surrounding and supporting
the myofibrils. The type of collagen present,
however, and the extent of cross-linking within
the structure of the molecule vary with the age
Conditioning <tenderising) of meat of the animal and plays a significant role in
When meat is stored above freezing point at meat tenderness. This helps to explain why
temperatures between ooe and 3°C, all the older animals produce tougher meat.
changes that usually occur at higher A procedure recommended for the
temperatures take place but at a reduced rate. commercial ripening of beef is:
Atmospheric oxidation of fat, leading to 1 The dressed carcase should be cooled for 1-2
rancidity, proceeds very slowly as meat is days at -0.5 to 3°C.
usually stored in the dark, and enzyme action 2 The sides or quarters should be held for 10-12
in the fat which leads to the production of free days at 2 to 3°C.
fatty acids is also very slow. The action of
3 Before cutting up or removal for retail sale,
bacteria is retarded but not arrested at these the quarters should be held at ordinary room
temperatures, while the proteolytic enzyme of temperature or, if that is too high, at 4.5 to TC
the muscle fibres is active and brings about a for 24 hours. In commercial practice,
desirable change known as conditioning or conditioning of meat is limited to from 2 to 6
ripening, which is manifested by a marked weeks, and when beef is cut into small joints
increase in flavour, juiciness and tenderness of the greatest increase in palatability is ensured
the meat. The action of enzymes is almost by a storage period of about 9 days.
72 Meat Hygiene
Conditioning of lean meat is of value in the be achieved by the tenderstretch method.
preparation of canned meats for, if properly Although aitch-bone hanging slightly alters the
matured, the muscle fibres are softened, the appearance of various cuts, there was no
meat is more easily sliced and the pink colour is difficulty in cutting, nor was there any
more vivid. Again, the hanging of venison and reduction in the amount of saleable meat,
game for long periods need not be regarded as juiciness or flavour. Hanging of beef carcases
evidence of a perverted taste but as an from the ischium bone may produce the same
appreciation of the fact that improved flavours effect and is believed to be safer provided the
will develop and that, unless these foods are proper long hook is used.
allowed to hang, the abundant connective
tissue which is developed as a result of exercise
will not be broken down into more tender
Tendercut process
substances and the food may therefore be so Another method of altering the tension on
tough and stringy as to be almost inedible. individual muscles in the suspended carcase is
Tenderness of meat can also be improved by to sever selected bones and ligaments. This
hammering and muscle stretching, which method may be easier to implement than
breaks down the muscle fibres; by 'quick' tenderstretch on commercial slaughterlines
freezing before rigor mortis sets in (due since it allows the carcase to be suspended
probably to the mechanical effects of freezing); normally by the Achilles tendon. The process
by the application of the enzymes papain and has been carried out in both cattle and pigs and
bromelin (obtained from the papaya and measurements indicate very significant
pineapple), which act on the structural improvements in tenderness over controls
components of muscle; and by electrical when the process is carried out within 45
stimulation. minutes of slaughter.

Tenderetreicn method of hanging beefsides Tenderising by electrical stimulation

While stretching of muscles tends to produce a Electrical stimulation (ES) was first introduced
tenderising effect (with little or no alteration in in New Zealand in an attempt to avoid the cold
their appearance), shortening of muscles results shortening of muscle resulting from too rapid
in considerable toughening. The traditional cooling of lamb carcases. Its use however, was
system of hanging beef sides is by means of a suggested by Harsham and Deatherage in the
hook inserted behind the Achilles tendon. Work United States as far back as 1951. With
carried out originally at the Texas A&M appropriate stimulation it is claimed that beef is
University showed that hanging beef sides as tender at 4 days after slaughter as non-
from the aitch bone (by means of a hook stimulated meat is at 10 days of normal ageing.
inserted into the obturator [oramen or 'pope's The effect of ES is to advance the process of
eye'), which allows the hind limb to assume a rigor mortis by producing a pH of about 6.0 in
relaxed position, largely prevents the muscles 2-3 hours after slaughter. Pulses of electricity
from shortening and becoming tough. The hot are passed through the carcase immediately
beef side or quarter must be suspended by the after slaughter, the current causing the muscles
aitch bone within 175 hours of slaughter. After to contract and thereby use up glycogen, ATP
24 hours in the chiller it can be hung by the and creatine phosphate. A number of muscle
Achilles tendon. Subsequent work at the UK contractions are made to occur in a short time,
Meat Research Institute showed that five thereby accelerating the onset of rigor.
important muscles from the hindquarter were The operation is carried out using two
more tender than muscles from carcases treated electrodes, one live in contact with the carcase
by the conventional method of hanging; neck muscles or nose and the other earthed
although the psoas major muscle was tougher, through the overhead conveyor rail and hook in
it was still one of the most tender cuts. The the hock. It is important that good electrical
improvement in tenderness of the rump, thick contact be maintained between the electrode
flank, striploin and scotch fillet is said to be and the carcase.
equivalent to 3 weeks of ageing at 2°C. Similar The ES unit may be sited on the dressing line
improvements in sheep and lamb carcases can between the evisceration and carcase-splitting
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 73
points or just before the weighing area. In the while the carcase is still warm and the pH is
latter site it is claimed that a large proportion of high (Marriott and Claus, 1994).
the blood which would normally drip in the
coolers is removed on the carcase dressing floor,
a distinct advantage from a hygiene, neck
cleanliness, labour and plant effluent Pre-slaughter tenderising
standpoint. Since tenderness is generally regarded as being
A typical installation for beef carcases may one of the desirable qualities of meat, it is not
use a voltage of 500-1000 V, 5-6 amps of current surprising that, in addition to normal ageing of
being pulsed at 25 pulses per second for 2 meat by adequate hanging, attempts have been
seconds about 30 minutes after slaughter. made to increase tenderness in meat by
Lower voltages « 100 V) can be used, which artificial means. Many different enzymes
avoid expensive safety measures. Low voltage originating in certain fruits and in bacteria and
is effective only for a few minutes after death fungi have been used in addition to trypsin
and is normally applied during bleeding. In all from the pancreas. Proteolytic enzymes are
cases voltages must be adequate to overcome used extensively in the baking industry, in
resistance at the electrodes and ensure enough cereal manufacture, in brewing and in meat
flow of current through the carcase. products. Those most commonly utilised are:
In addition to preventing cold shortening, ES papain, a proteolytic enzyme of the Carica
will also avoid thaw shortening, a phenomenon papaya or pawpaw fruit; ficin, a protease
which occurs in muscles that have been frozen derived from figs; and bromelin, a proteolytic
at any stage up to almost the full rigor point enzyme of the pineapple. These substances may
and subsequently thawed. Both cold and thaw be used separately or in combination.
shortening occur more often in muscles that are Enzymes may be applied directly to meat
severed at dressing, but can take place in cuts as a solution or a powder, being most
muscles fixed at both ends. effective with steaks or thin cuts of meat.
The benefits of ES can be summarised as Disadvantages are lack of uniform action,
follows. discoloration and surface mushiness or
1 Accelerates tenderness and reduces ageing granulation.
times. Another method utilises the vascular system
of the living animal to distribute the enzyme
2 Avoids cold and thaw shortening. throughout the body tissues-the so-called Pro
3 Allows rapid chilling. Ten Process of the Swift Company of Chicago,
4 Promotes better flavour and colour. USA, developed in the late 1950s. In this way
S Allows for hot boning on the dressing line there is an even distribution of enzyme in the
since cuts can be chilled rapidly. meat and the activity is controlled; the raw
meat contains about four parts per million of
6 Improves neck cleanliness in carcase. the enzyme. This process comprises the
introduction by gravity of a solution of papain
into a jugular vein. The amount used varies
between 300 and 500 ml, the dose being
Tenderising by infusion of calcium chloride carefully controlled according to the breed, age,
Research has demonstrated that post-mortem, sex and weight of the animal. After the injection
pre-rigor, infusion or injection of calcium the animal must be slaughtered within 10-15
chloride can accelerate the tenderisation process. minutes, the optimum time range for maximum
Measurements suggest that after one day of tenderness. The enzyme is activated and
ageing calcium chloride-infused bovine muscle therefore tenderises when the meat is cooked, at
was similar in tenderness to control cuts that an optimum temperature of 60-71°C. In the
had been aged for 7-14 days (3-7 days for normal untreated animal the proportion of
lamb). The precise mechanism of action for this carcase meat which is suitable for grilling is no
process is unknown, but it presumably involves more than 35%. Pro Ten treatment increases this
the calcium-activated proteases, the calpins, to 75%.
which are involved in the breakdown of the Advantages claimed over conventional
myofibrillar proteins immediately post-mortem methods of tenderising meat include:
74 Meat Hygiene
1 Shorter time to achieve a uniform tenderness. In the screening methods the bones are
2 No loss of weight due to shrinkage or crushed and then pressed against a fine screen
trimming. which allows the soft bone to pass but not the
3 Lower cost. solid bone.
Pressure methods employ a powerful press
Disadvantages include the facts that: to compress a charge of uncrushed bones
against a series of channels, meat being
1 The tongue, liver and kidneys of the treated
animal become over-tender when cooked. separated from a column of compressed bone.
Other methods, some of which are as yet
2 Some animals display an anaphylactic only in the experimental stage, include the use
reaction to the process, resulting in very
marked rigors and death in some cases, of liquid or gas jets, brushes or flails, freezing
necessitating total condemnation of the followed by flotation in cryogenic liquids and
carcase and organs. digestion by proteolytic enzymes.
3 The texture and flavour of the tenderised The composition of mechanically-recovered
meat does not appeal to all palates. meat varies with different methods. Essentially
it consists of comminuted red meat, bone
4 There are animal welfare and ethical
concerns. The UK Farm Animal Welfare marrow, collagen, bone and fat (this in addition
Council in its report on the Welfare of Livestock to marrow fat). The marrow content can be
(Red Meat Animals) at the Time of Slaughter reduced if long bones are excluded from the
described the process as 'an unnecessary bones to be treated. The amount of actual bone
interference to an animal for a non-veterinary is very important and must be kept to a
purpose which can create additional stress minimum since large amounts, especially if
and suffering for the animal at the time of they contain large particles, could be harmful to
slaughter', a conclusion with which we agree. the consumer. In 1976 there was considerable
consumer resistance to the use of MRM in the
Where the process is used, regular tests must United States, but a subsequent investigation
be carried out to ensure that moisture pick-up by the US Food Safety and Quality Service of
in the tenderised product does not exceed 3% the Department of Agriculture showed that
and to determine the degree of proteolysis or there was no health hazard and that such meat
tenderness. Any faults can result in product might actually benefit the consumer by
rejection. providing better nutrition. New regulations
were brought into force which controlled bone
particle size and fat content, although the panel
Mechanically recovered meat (MRM) concluded that existing particle sizes and lipid
The need to recover as much meat as possible content were no worse than those in manually
from bones has always been a part of good deboned meats. It was also arranged that
butchery practice. Carried out in the mechanically-recovered meat should be
conventional manual way using knives, labelled so that people on strictly limited
however, it is a laborious and time-consuming calcium intakes could avoid it. EEC regulations
practice, and even when performed efficiently stipulate that, in contrast to the American
does not collect all the meat. Mechanical and regulations, the calcium content should not be
other equipment employing wet extraction, higher than 0.25%.
screening and pressure systems can remove In addition to particle size and calcium
several extra pounds of meat per carcase, a great content, the US panel concluded that fluoride
saving in a cost-conscious industry. As much as content of MRM posed no threat to adult
an additional 5% net yield has been reported. consumers but it advised caution in the case of
The wet extraction methods involve cooking young children. High amounts may cause
the bones or agitating them in cold brine in mottling of the teeth and other changes in
order to loosen the meat and produce bone infants who normally ingest significant
stock. For those processors who are able to amounts. The levels of cadmium, selenium,
utilise the liquid extracts in meat products this strontium-90, copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, zinc,
is a useful method, but it is otherwise limited. arsenic and mercury were not considered to be
Steam cooking with the use of ultrasonics is a of importance. Arsenic has not been found in
newer variation. MRM in the United States and mercury does
 Anatomy, Meat Composition and Quality 75
not accumulate in bone, while the zinc content is Preparations (Hygiene) Regulations 1995,
about the same as in manually-deboned meat. which enacts the European Directives on
Chlorinated hydrocarbon residues have been minced meat and preparations, 88/657/EEC
detected only in minute quantities well below and 92/110/EC, adds to this definition a
the established tolerance levels. Tetracyclines requirement for the meat to have 'been passed
accumulate in the bones of young animals but through a fine mesh such that its cellular
these are below the tolerance levels. structure has been broken down and that it
Providing good and hygienic manufacturing flows in puree form'. There is no definition for
and quality control practices are adopted, the poultry MRM.
bacterial content of MRM should be low. It is The advent of bovine spongiform
essential that the initial raw material is low in encephalopathy (BSE) has led to a prohibition
bacteria and that the bones are treated without on the use of the bovine vertebral column for
undue delay and handled at low temperatures. the production of MRM. The definition of the
It is recommended that the bones are stored at a vetebral column excludes the coccygeal
temperature not exceeding +3°C and processed vertebrae. The export of MRM from the UK to
within 24 hours. If the procedure involves a another Member State is at present banned.
method in which the temperature is raised, the
resultant MRM must be cooled down quickly
and held at freezer temperature, especially if it REFERENCES
is not to be used immediately. Frozen MRM
should be kept at a temperature not exceeding Alien, D. (1990) Meat Industry, International Edn,
-18°C and processed within 3 months of November, 7.
production. All comminuted meats are liable to Bonneau, M., Dufour, R., Chouvet, c.. Roulet, c.,
acquire microorganisms unless great care is Meadus, W. and Squires, E. J. (1994) f. Anim. Sci.
72(1), 14-20.
taken over hygiene, method and temperature. Humphreys. D. J. (1988) Veterinary Toxicology, 3rd
They are also liable to oxidative colour changes. edn. London; Bailliere-Tindall.
The European Fresh Meat Directive Lund, L. J. et al. (1991) Vet. Rec. 128,263.
91 1497IEEC defines mechanically-removed Marriott, N. G. and Claus, J. R. (1994) Meat Focus Int.,
meat as 'meat obtained by mechanical means 372-375
from flesh-bearing bones apart from the bones Sissons & Crossmans (1975) Anatomy of the Domestic
of the head, the extremities of the limbs below Animals, 5th edn. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
the carpel and tarsal joints and, in the case of Taylor, A. A. (1995) Meat Focus Int., 280-285.
swine, the coccygeal vertebrae, and intended
for establishments approved in accordance
with article 6 of Directive 77/99 IEEe', i.e. EEC- FURTHER READING
approved products plants. MRM may not be
used to make minced meat, but under some Varman and Sutherland (1995) Meat and Meat
circumstances may be incorporated into meat Products, Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology.
preparations. In Great Britain the Minced Meat London: Chapman & Hall.
 Chapter 3
Meat Plant Construction and Equipment

Since the cost of providing and maintaining an plant including full processing facilities on one
abattoir is very high, it is essential at the outset or more floors or an abattoir adapted solely for
to ensure that there is a need for a new plant slaughter and dressing. The factory abattoir
and that it will operate at maximum requires regular full-time operatives to deal
throughput. All too often, particularly in with all the livestock; it is a method that ensures
municipal abattoirs, vested interests have economic handling of the by-products
caused abattoirs to be built which have including hides, offals, glands, blood and
incurred, and are still incurring, serious condemned material. It also reduces overheads
financial losses due to inadequate business. on buildings, equipment and labour.
Inspection of efficient modern plants The overall number and siting of abattoirs in
provides positive, as well as negative, design any country should be geared closely to the
information. It is essential to appoint competent demands of livestock production, due attention
architects, engineers and other experts who being paid to transport (journey to be as short
have had experience in abattoir construction. as possible) as well as the need for casualty
The use of efficient and durable equipment, slaughter.
even if more expensive, cannot be
overemphasised, nor can the need for future
modifications. Equally important is the Site
employment of a competent maintenance staff
to ensure smooth mechanical operations. A suitable site for an abattoir should have the
Most basic legislation stipulates separate following facilities.
slaughter for horses and swine. Indeed, so 1 Mains water and electricity supply (daily
specialised is the slaughter and dressing of pigs usage of water can be in excess of 10 000
that separate abattoirs for handling them litres/tonne dressed carcase weight).
should be considered. At least special sections 2 Mains sewerage.
for pigs must be provided under EU legislation 3 Contiguity with uncongested road and rail
where two or more different species are systems.
slaughtered.
Pigs must be slaughtered at different times 4 Proximity with public transport.
and scalding, depilation, scraping and singeing S Proximity to supply of varied labour.
must be carried out in a place clearly separated 6 Freedom from pollution from other
from the other slaughter line by a 5-metre space industries' odours, dust, smoke, ash, etc.
or a 3-metre-high wall. Construction, layout 7 Ability to separate 'clean' and 'dirty' areas
and equipment must all be geared to promote and access.
efficient and hygienic operations. 8 Remoteness from local housing and other
The first step in planning an abattoir is to development to avoid complaints about noise
ascertain the ultimate maximum daily kill of and smell.
each class of animal and the proposed disposal
9 Good availability of stock nearby.
and treatment of the edible and inedible by-
products. The actual system of operation must 10 Ground suitable for good foundations
also be determined, bearing in mind local including piling, and freedom from flooding.
conditions. It may comprise a complete meat 11 Sufficient size for possible future expansion.

77
78 Meat Hygiene
The actual site need not be a flat one. Indeed, bodies in the event of any appeal or public
slopes can provide suitable loading bays for enquiry.
stock and product and are of value when two or
more floors are contemplated. In general,
therefore, urban sites should be avoided; rural
and nominated industrial sites are preferred. Submission of plans
It is usual to submit two sets of drawings and
four sets of specifications to the responsible
authority for approval. The latter must include
Environmental statement
details of proposed throughput and capacity,
It will be important at a very early stage in the number of employees, building construction,
planning and design of a meat plant to consider water supply, plumbing, drainage, sewage
the possible effects of the operation of the plant disposal, hot water supply, refrigeration
on the local and wider environment. Planning capacity, lighting, ventilation, equipment and
authorities will often require the production of operations. Details for pest control, fly
an Environmental Statement (ES) which will be screening and the methods to be used for
used in determining the suitability or otherwise steam and vapour removal must also be
of the proposed plant in the particular location. supplied. Proposed flow lines for product,
Before an environmental statement can be equipment, personnel and packaging must be
produced, an Environmental Assessment (EA) indicated.
must be carried out. The EA will consider the Guidance notes for prospective applicants
outputs to the environment, not only from the and their consulting architects and engineers
plant in normal operation but during the are normally available from government
construction phase. In the case of a meat plant it departments and these should be carefully
is likely that the following would be studied beforehand.
considered: The site plan (scale 1:500) must show the
• Effect of increased traffic movements in the complete premises and the location in relation
locality to roads, railways, waterways and adjoining
properties and their function. Catch basins,
• Noise and dust during construction phase
water and sewer lines, storage tanks, etc. must
• Operational noise also be shown. The floor plan (scale 1:50 or
• Odour 1:100) relates to layout of walls, doorways,
• Emission of combustion gases windows, partitions, rail systems, equipment,
• Waste water disposal. benches, platforms, toilets, chutes, conveyors,
staircases, hot and cold water connections,
The Environmental Statement will normally ventilation fans, work positions of operatives,
include the following elements: etc. The position of drainage gutters and floor
• Justification of the need for the development gradients must also be included.
The plumbing plan gives details of the
• Description of site and processes
drainage system, which must ensure that toilet
• Identification of outputs to the environment and floor soil lines are separated until outside
• Report of established baseline data (ambient the building and that the former do not connect
air quality levels, traffic flows, etc.) with grease traps.
• Anticipated environmental impacts at both In addition to compliance with planning,
construction and operational stages hygiene, health and safety and EC regulations it
• Proposed measures to mitigate impacts. is necessary in the UK to adhere to the Building
Regulations 1991, which deal with good
The Environmental Statement is likely to be building standards and practices as well as Fire
a substantial document and will normally be Regulation requirements.
accompanied by a non-technical summary for Since specialised knowledge is required in
use by lay persons. These documents will be the design and construction of a meat plant, it is
available to all interested parties and will be vital that competent architects, veterinarians
used by the planning authority in determining and engineers with years of experience are
a planning application and possibly by review employed along with reputable contractors.
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 79

Area size animals, the slaughter of such animals, the

storage of detained meat and the storage of
Careful consideration must be given to the size seized meat.
of the site, with allowance for the various
buildings and traffic circulation. Modern 8 Sufficiently large chilling or refrigerating
rooms.
livestock and meat transport vehicles have very
large turning circles: 14 m for a vehicle 15 m 9 An adequately equipped, lockable room for
long. Completely separate routes for stock and the exclusive use of the veterinary service and
meat vehicles should be provided. Approach a laboratory suitably equipped for
roads should be at least 6 m wide. When all the microbiological and trichinoscopic tests when
such tests are compulsory.
various buildings are considered, it will be
realised that a large area is necessary. 10 Changing rooms, wash basins, showers and
Generally, a small abattoir (up to 30000 flush lavatories which do not open directly on
units/year) will occupy 1-2 acres, a medium to the work rooms. The wash basins must be
near the lavatories and must have hot and
plant (50000+ units/year) 2-4 acres, and a large
cold running water, materials for cleansing
meat plant handling over 100000 units annually and disinfecting the hands and hand towels
about 4-6 acres. (One adult bovine is equivalent which can be used only once. There should be
to two pigs, three calves or five sheep.) a receptacle for used towels.
The 64/433 Directive of the EEC, as
11 Facilities enabling the required veterinary
amended, states that there must be an adequate inspections to be carried out efficiently at any
partition between the clean and dirty sections, time.
ideally with completely separate entrances and
exits for traffic involved. If only one entrance is 12 Means of controlling access to and exit from
possible, such vehicles must be routed in the plant.
different directions after entry. 13 An adequate separation between the clean
Lairage accommodation should be sited and the contaminated parts of the building.
away from main roads or alternatively screened 14 In rooms where work on meat is undertaken:
from them. waterproof flooring which is easy to clean and
disinfect, rat-proof, slightly sloping and
which has a suitable drainage system for
Facilities draining liquids to drains fitted with traps
The European Council Directive No. and gratings and smooth walls with light-
64/433/EEC, as amended, requires the coloured, washable coating or paint up to a
height of at least 3 m with coved angles and
following basic facilities for cattle, sheep, pigs, corners with a radius of at least 75 mm.
goats and solipeds:
15 Adequate ventilation and steam extraction in
1 Adequate lairage or, climate permitting, rooms where work on meat is undertaken.
waiting pens for the animals.
16 In the same rooms, adequate natural or
2 Slaughter premises large enough for work to artificial lighting which does not distort
be carried out satisfactorily. Maximum colours or cause shadows. High-intensity
slaughter rates for the different species must lighting is now being demanded in many
be specified. countries, e.g. 600 ux for pm, offal, boning +
3 A room for emptying and cleansing stomachs inspection rooms with 220 ux elsewhere
and intestines. (Australia).
4 Rooms for dressing guts and tripe if this is 17 An adequate supply, under pressure, of
carried out on the premises. potable water only. Non-potable water may be
5 Separate rooms for the storage of fat and used in exceptional cases for steam
hides, pig bristles, horns and hooves which production, provided that the pipes installed
are not removed on the day of slaughter. for the purpose do not permit this water to be
6 A separate room for preparing and cleaning used for other purposes; in addition, non-
offal, including a separate place for storing potable water may be allowed in exceptional
heads if these operations are carried out but cases for cooling refrigeration equipment but
do not take place on the slaughter line. these pipes must be painted red and must not
pass through rooms containing meat.
7 Lockable premises reserved respectively for
the accommodation of sick or suspect 18 An adequate supply of hot potable water.
80 Meat Hygiene
19 A waste water disposal system which meets be carried in separate lines and identified as
hygiene requirements. such.
20 In the work rooms, adequate equipment for
cleansing and disinfecting hands and tools, and as
near as possible to the work stations. Taps Electricity
must not be hand-operable; there must be hot Industrial three-phase electricity should be
and cold running water, cleaning and supplied, and a stand-by generator installed.
disinfecting materials and hand towels which Central steam boilers may be fuelled by oil or
can be used only once. For cleaning of gas, which require storage tanks of adequate
instruments the water must be not less than
82"C. size.
21 Equipment for dressing to be carried out as
far as possible on the suspended carcase. Drainage
Where flaying is carried out on metal cradles,
these must be of non-corrodible materials and This most important function should have
high enough for the carcase not to touch the floors in wet areas that slope uniformly to
floor. drains, the gradient being 1:50. Good drainage
22 An overhead system of rails for the further also depends to a large extent on the type of
handling of the meat. floors provided. Floor drains should be fitted at
23 Appropriate protection against pests. the rate of one drain for each 40 m' of floor area.
Low places where water and blood could
24 Instruments and working equipment of non- collect are to be guarded against. Where blood
corrodible and easily cleaned material.
tends to collect, e.g. under dressing rails, special
25 A special section for manure. provision must be made to supply drainage
26 A place and adequate equipment for valleys which should slope to drains in the
cleansing and disinfecting vehicles. valleys at a gradient of at least 1:25. The valleys
themselves should be 60 cm wide and should
Similar provisions are made in the case of
continue under dressing lines for the collection
poultry by EEC Directive No. 71/118/EEC as
of all blood and bone dust.
amended.
Catch basins for grease recovery and traps and
vents on drains must also be provided, both to
be properly sealed and easily cleanable and the
Water latter to be effectively vented to outside the
Mains water supply usually provides an ample building.
supply of potable water in the UK and most Special arrangements have to be made for
parts of the world. In many countries it must dealing with stomach and intestinal contents,
pass standard tests, such as the EEC Directive the drains for bovine material to be at least 20
relating to the Quality of Water Intended for cm in diameter and for the smaller species 15
Human Consumption (80/778/EEC). In the UK cm.
mains water will meet the requirements of In the UK it is recommended that all drains
potable (drinking or wholesome) water. Water in the slaughterhall be trapped with 4 mm
must be distributed to all parts of the plant screens, to prevent the possibility of
under adequate pressure, which in the mains contamination of the effluent with pieces of
pipeline should be at least 20 psi. Hot and cold nervous tissue greater than 1 g-the possible
water are necessary; the hot from a central infective dose of BSE.
heating system, at not less than 82°C. On-site Grids covering drains should be made of cast
water storage tanks holding at least one day's iron or other approved material.
consumption are usual. The recommended Close attention to drainage is essential for
water requirement is 454 litres/ day per pig, 272 hygienic operations besides assisting in
litres/day per bovine, 45 litres/day per sheep, cleaning procedures.
plus 25% at a reasonable pressure of 15 psi.
Bacon factories and manufacturing operations
require special assessment. Lighting
If non-potable water is used for steam Adequate natural or artificial lighting must be
production, refrigeration or fire control, it must provided throughout the meat plant. Natural
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 81
lighting should take the form of efficient north be wide enough to allow easy passage of
lights. North-facing windows will largely personnel, carcases and offal on conveyorised
preclude solar gain/ but frosted glass or glass lines and trucks/ and their jambs should be
fitted with solar film will also reduce solar protected with metal covers (they should be
radiation. solid where necessary/ self-closing or in the
The type of lighting must not distort colours. form of double-action doors). Hard-wearing
It is generally recommended that the overall materials are also essential.
intensity should not be less than: High levels of humidity combined with low
540 lux (50 foot-candles) at all inspection temperatures and the nature of the operations
points make for varying degrees of condensation/
depending on the time of the year. Good
220 lux (20 foot-candles) in work rooms
ventilation/ insulation and easily cleaned
110 lux (10 foot-candles) in other areas. surfaces will do much to minimise this
These intensities of light are usually taken at nuisance/ but additional extractors may be
necessary on occasion.
levels of 0.9 m from the floor/ except in
Abattoir operations entail wet floors on
inspection areas where the height is 1.5 m.
which are usually present quantities of fat and
Protective shields must be fitted to lights in
blood. While floor finishes should be easily
areas where fresh meat and offal are exposed to
cleaned/ they should also be non-slip.
prevent contamination from shattered glass.
Operatives are required to wear easily cleaned/
safety (non-slip) footwear/ and no one should
be allowed on a slaughter hall floor/ in
Ventilation particular/ without proper footwear. In certain
Adequate ventilation must be provided to places it is wise to incorporate carborundum or
prevent excessive heat/ steam and condensa- aluminium oxide in order to provide a non-slip
tion. Ventilation prevents the accumulation of surface. Pin-rolling or tamping of the surface
odours/ dust/ etc., but it should not cause also assists in preventing slipping.
draughts and thus problems for staff. Walls and floors may be made of concrete/
Particularly in multistorey plants/ draughts granolithic concrete or tiles (ceramic/ quarry
arising from lift wells/ stairways/ chutes/ etc. steel-surfaced/ cast iron or polymers). Wall
should be prevented. Opening ventilators and sheets are often used in the form of plastic
windows should be screened and internal laminates/ aluminium/ polished asbestos/ PVC-
window sills sloped. faced rustless metal or stainless steel. Although
it is the most expensive/ stainless steel is
undoubtedly the most satisfactory; it is very
Floor and wallfinishes strong/ easily cleaned/ completely non-
All parts of the meat plant must be capable of corrosive/ and does not flake/ cause
being easily cleaned. This means that all floors discoloration or affect the taste of meat and
and walls should be non-toxic and non- offal. Studies on the cleanability of various
absorbent/ the floors also being non-slip. The materials carried out at the University of
floors of slaughter halls/ lairage, work and chill Michigan/ USA/ showed that stainless steel
rooms should be coved at wall junctions. ranks almost equal with glass and china.
It is recommended that walls should be faced
with a smooth/ durable/ impermeable material
with a light-coloured washable finish up to a Doors
height of not less than 3 m from the floor and These should be wide enough to allow passage
preferably reaching the ceiling/ which should of product without contact with the doorway. A
also be smooth/ hard and impervious. width of 1.37 m (4.5 ft) is usually adequate.
The types of operations encountered in Doors must be constructed of rust-resistant
abattoirs inevitably involve impact damage. material. If made of wood/ they should be
Good design and layout can do much to covered with rust-resistant smooth
prevent this/ as can the employment of careful, impermeable material. Double-acting doors
skilful operatives. Surface materials should be should have a glass (reinforced) panel at eye
capable of withstanding impact doors should level. Plastic strip doors/ because of difficulty of
82 Meat Hygiene
cleaning and their liability to scratch, crack or While these measures may be useful in some
break, are unsuitable except where packaged instances, avoidance depends on a high level of
product is moved. hygiene and the discouragement of
anthropomorphic attitudes to providing food.
An effective final means of control is the use of
Equipment design narcotic baits (alphachloralose and
Since mechanical handling systems and other pentobarbitone sodium baited on wheat with a
types of equipment used in meat plants usually sticker oil, e.g. risella oil).
form the major part of the overall cost, it is wise Rats and mice are also attracted by the
to consider design aspects as well as operating presence of food and may gain entrance from
efficiency, durability, etc. Faults in construction adjoining properties or be transported into the
and design include: plant in fodder, etc. Mice have been known to
1 Use of wood for equipment and tools. Wood be introduced into an abattoir in polystyrene
cannot be cleaned and disinfected with ease insulation for use in chill rooms. Droppings and
and is liable to deteriorate rapidly in moist musk trails are indicators of their presence.
surroundings. Control is effected by ensuring cleanliness,
2 Use of unsuitable fastenings which can work absence of food scraps and the use of specialist
loose and contaminate the product. pest control firms. A sketch plan of the premises
3 Provision of ledges and corners where meat,
indicating numbered bait points should be
fat, etc. can lodge and cause bacterial build- produced and a record of usage of each point
up. noted, as well as dates of inspection and any
4 Badly recessed nuts, bolts and screws can also structural defects. These should be inspected
gather scraps and hinder cleansing. regularly and if increased activity is seen
further control measures must be taken.
5 Use of expanded metal for decks, walkways
and staircases especially near conveyors. All Insects are drawn into food premises mainly
these should be constructed from non-slip by the presence of pre-digested food, such as
solid plate. excreta, and by warmth. Nearby breeding
6 Metal joints which are rough. Joints should be grounds such as waste tips, stagnant ponds and
welded and then ground to a smooth finish. sewage works may be responsible for the
advent of flies. Plant location and design are
7 Fixed covers for conveyors that make
cleaning difficult. important factors in prevention of fly
infestation, for example, the manure bay must
The design and location of equipment be sited away from meat areas.
should be such as to allow for ease and Scrupulous cleanliness, the avoidance of
efficiency of cleaning and disinfection. direct sunlight in rooms, the use of air curtains
with horizontal air draughts, strip door
curtains, ultraviolet light, electrocutors, mesh
Pest control
screens, etc. are of value, especially cleanliness.
The ingress of birds, rats, mice and insects such Insecticidal sprays should be used with
as flies and cockroaches can cause serious discretion and confined to non-meat sectors.
problems since in addition to the dirt they
create they may carry food-poisoning
organisms, even those responsible for zoonoses.
Birds, especially sparrows, starlings, feral Small abattoir units
pigeons and gulls inhabit areas where food and While larger meat plants are capable of greater
nesting material are available. They feed on throughputs per man, they have high fixed
meat scraps, dung, insects, grain and food overheads which can be a problem for their
scraps discarded or even on occasions operators. Under these circumstances the
purposely laid by personnel. smaller plant has advantages, particularly in
In some food factories sparrows have remote areas, by being sited close to production
become an even greater problem than mice, regions, thereby cutting transport costs.
defying air curtains and currents, netting, The FPE plant (Food Processing Engineering
flashing lights, bird distress noises, anti-perch Ltd, Thankerton, Biggar, Lanarkshire MLI2
gel, etc. 6PA, UK) is a prefabricated unit 9.14 m (30 ft)
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 83

Static Animals

,
lairage facility in
I

Cl:
= =
0 Slaughterhall Hydraulic
f- Carcase
u
« chilling
dressing and ---T- slaughter
Cl: inspection area
f-

L D I

rn
Fleece removal Engine and
Hygiene unit
and pig scald equipment
(staff living facilities)
area room

DIMENSIONS
Main slaughterhall (including hydraulic extension) 17.0 m
Trailer unit (scald area + engine room) 7.5 m
Hygiene unit 9.0 m

Fig. 3.1 General layout of the mobile slaughterhall.

long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide and 4.6 m (15 ft) high in awaiting slaughter cannot be overestimated,
the slaughter section combined with since a period of rest before slaughter can often
refrigeration, cutting and boning and by- have a markedly beneficial effect on the
products facilities, etc. It is capable of handling appearance and subsequent marketability of
10 cattle, 20 sheep and 10 pigs daily. Deer can the carcase.
also be catered for as well as casualty animals. The livestock reception area should preferably
A recent innovation is the concept of a mobile be roofed to protect animals and staff,
slaughterfacility, which has been developed by particularly during identification, handling and
the Humane Slaughter Association (Humane sorting of stock. If at all possible the off-loading
Slaughter Association and Council of Justice of dock should be about 1.2 m high to permit
Animals, The Old School, Brewhouse Hill, careful offloading, especially of stock carried on
Wheathampsteal, HertsAL4 8AN, UK (Fig. 3.1). upper tiers of lorries. Although such vehicles
This is based on a large trailer unit on an HGV should have a lowering device, all too often
tractor. Fitted with a stunning box, it includes injuries and fractures are sustained. A suitable
hoists, bleeding area, dressing cradles, chill office for reception area staff is an essential, as
room and storage for by-products, detained are efficient cleansing facilities. Sufficient room
and effluent material. The unit operates from a should be allowed for manoeuvring and
home base and visits farms on request, the temporary parking. A weighbridge, suitably
farms providing basic facilities of water, located, is a useful facility.
electricity, lairage pens, toilet and changing The entry point to the meat plant for
rooms. While the advantages in animal welfare livestock is a suitable place for the instruction of
are obvious, the organisation of the important all and sundry in the careful handling of
items of ante-mortem and post-mortem animals and disease control measures. A useful
inspection must be given careful attention. notice is 'All stock must be handled gently and
quietly', which is a reminder for lorry drivers
and lairage personnel. Irregularities in
LAIRAGE transporation can be noted at the reception area
and the appropriate action taken.
A knowledge of animal behaviour is In the handling of livestock it must be
fundamental to lairage design. The importance remembered that animals prefer walking up
of suitable lairage accommodation for animals slopes rather than down steep gradients. Drain
84 Meat Hygiene
inlets in the centres of passageways should be plant this race can be 36 m long, with stop gates
avoided since stock will refuse to walk across to prevent the animals going backwards, 80 cm
them. Every effort must be made to avoid sharp wide, and reach to about waist height.
corners and projections of any kind and gates Catwalks must be provided alongside the race
should preferably be placed at the end, not in to enable handlers to control stock movement,
the middle, of the pen side. If tubular partitions check identification, etc.
are used, the horizontal bars should be correctly All too often animals will baulk on
spaced to prevent strangulation. Lairage floor approaching the stunning pen because of the
gradients should be at least 1:50. noise generated by the pen doors. Equipment
Instead of straight passageways or lanes it is manufacturers must recognise the need for
advantageous for them to be curved, especially noise-free equipment. Gates located in the drive
the main passageway leading from the holding race and sliding or one-way gates in the single-
pens to the single-file chute prior to the file race should be made of expanded metal or
stunning box. Associated with this curved lane closely-spaced bars to enable the animals to see
is a series of elongated pens, each 3-3.7 m wide, through them.
and set at an angle of 60° to it. The pen gates are Every effort must be made to avoid
longer than the drive lane, eliminating sharp frightening the animals. Constant vigilance is
corners. The movement of stock is in one required to ensure that there is no bullying by
direction. The main curved holding lane has dominant individuals and these, in addition to
solid sides, gates to separate different lots and a females in oestrus and horned stock, must be
catwalk for lairage personnel. There would kept separate.
appear to be no reason why cattle, sheep and In the United Kingdom the Ministry of
pigs cannot be handled in this system, Agriculture, Fisheries and Food recommend
providing the species can be separated towards the following pen sizes for the housing of
their respective slaughter areas. livestock in abattoirs:
Animal behaviour is an important Cattle (loose) 2.3-2.8 m'
consideration in lairage design and operation,
particularly the reaction of animals to extreme Pigs (bacon and small porkers) 0.6 m'
change in environment. Strident voice and Heavy pigs, calves and sheep 0.7 m 2
noises, dark objects (especially if these are
moving), sudden movements of personnel,
drain openings in the centres of passageways, Ante-mortem (AM) inspection facilities
sharp corners, etc., are contraindicated. The The essential task of veterinary AM
animal has good depth of vision in front of it examination requires ample natural or artificial
but not laterally. Cattle, indeed all the herd lighting, which should be even and diffuse, and
animals, will follow a leader and use can be an isolation pen with a crush where a suspect
made of this in utilising trained goats or sheep animal can be clinically examined.
to lead stock forward.
While durable tubular fencing has been
found satisfactory for holding pens, final drive Cattle lairage
races should have solid sides, non-slip floor A suitable lairage has a series of pens with wall
surfaces and lighting to encourage the animals or tubular partitions and 2.4 m wide gates (at
to go forward. In larger plants it is necessary to the end of each pen) which can be used for the
have two single-line crushes for cattle to allow pens and/or closing the adjoining passageway.
for stock movement should an animal fall in For cattle, pens may be 7.6 m x 6 m, large
one race. Side gates should be installed to enough to hold 20-25 cattle.
handle such emergencies and also to provide Drinking water must always be available to
escape gates for personnel in the drive race animals and each pen should be provided with a
when they are confronted with wild animals. gravitational water supply; one cistern is
The length of the final race is determined by the sufficient to feed three troughs. Automatic water
overall throughput of the meat plant. It is an bowls, though satisfactory for cows, tend to
important area for ensuring an even flow frighten young cattle if they are not used to
forward, checking slaughter sequence numbers them. In a lairage of the tie-up type, long water
and other forms of identification. In a large troughs in front of the cattle are quite satisfactory
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 85
and are more easily cleansed than individual rac ks shou ld also be provided above the level of
troughs or bowls. Hayracks must be provided the sheep's heads .
and regulations require that animals m ust be fed Straw should be p rovided for solid floors to
twice dail y except on the mornin g of the day of he lp keep the sh eep d ry. Clean or expanded
intended slaughter or the afternoon preceding metal floors will ach ieve th e same purpose.
the morning of intended slaughter. Horses, There is no objecti on to catt le and sheep
howev er, m us t be fed on the afternoon lairages being p rovided in the same build ing ,
p reced ing the day of intended slaughter. b u t while p igs and sheep may be hous ed
Hyd ran t points should be placed tog ether without detrimen tal effec t, cattle do
conv eniently, so that all parts of the lairage can not appear to rest well in the compa ny of pigs.
be reached by a sufficient supply of water for
cleansing; an adequate estimate is 680 litres per
beast sla ughtered . An important factor which Pi g lairage (Figs 3.2 and 3.3)
facili tates cleansing is a lairage with a passage Pig pens are preferably constructed with solid
wide enough to admit entry of a vehicle for the walls. If rails are used they should be stronger
removal of manure and dead an imals. Whatever than tho se required for the she ep lairage; the
sys tem of lairage is adopted, special emphasis low er horizontal rails of the pen should not be
must be placed on ease of cleansing, comfort for more than 15 cm apart to prevent pigs putting
the animals and ease of handling them. their heads between the rails. The feeding
troughs should be so designed that the p igs
cannot gain access to them while the tro ughs
Sheep Iairage
are bein g cleansed and filled. The pens sh ou ld
Sheep pens should be 0.9 m high with passages be lon g and na rrow to allow more p igs to rest
0.9 m wide between them. To preven t animals against the wa tts.
p u tting their heads through the lowe r rails of In most Danish pig plants the handling of
the pens, these rails should not be more than 15 pigs in pens is carried out manually using gates
cm apart. Double-hinged gates should be used mounted on side rollers for emptying the pens
in all sh eep and pig pens, as they greatly (Fig. 3. 2). The driveway towa rds the ra ce
facilitate entry and exit of stock; two adjoining connected with the stunning area, howeve r, is
pens can accommodate an overflo w of ani mals normally fitted with mec ha nica l p us h gat es .
if a slidi ng gate is provided between the pen s. A recent innovation in Danish pig plan ts is an
Since sheep drink quite freely, sheep pens must ouionuuic lnimge system with pens divided into
be prov ided with water tro ughs, placed some sections each holding a maximu m of 15 pigs.
50 cm from the floor to prevent fouling . Hay- Automatic filling and emptying of the pens is

Fig. 3.2 Danish pig lairage

showing long pens with concrete
wall and manually-pushed gates
on rollers for forward emptying of
the pens. (By courtesy of Danish
Meat Research Institute, Roskilde,
Denmark)
86 Meat Hygiene

Fig. 3.3 Danish automatic latrege

sys tem show ing lifting /driving gates.
(Bv cocrtcsv of Danish Meat Research
Institute. R~ki1de. Denmark)

achieved using Pl.C-controlled lifting/driving nervous nature of these anima ls, which arc wry
gates. The system is said to improve welfare subject to stress, it is essential that good
standards with reduction of damage due to facilities for holding and slaughter are
fighting. Two single files a re employed in the race provided. It is also vital that expert handlers are
section where some manual assistance is required. on hand.
A fine water spray and /or litter in the lairage The UK Fann Animal WelfareCouncil (FAWq
pens are useful means of reducing fighting has recommended. that the slaughter of deer
among pigs, cooling them and redu cing the should take place on ly in specially licensed
incidence o f pale, soft , exudative (PSE) pork. premises, and that deer shoul d not be slaughtered
while other species are being
han d led / slaughtered unless separa ted from
Deer lai rage (Figs 3.4 a nd 3.5) those other activities by solid walls to exclud e
Altho ugh the majority of fanned deer in Britain noise.
arc still slau ght ered by shoo ting in the field, The Far med Ga me Directive 94 /495
some arc han dled in sp ecia l farm aba ttoirs and im plemen ts their recommendations. Reception
others in la rger abattoirs. Beca u se of th e areas for unl oading and lairagc pens should

Fig 3.4 Deer lairage showing pen

with high partitions. (By courtesy of
Or T. J. Fletchcr]
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 87

Fig. 3.5 Deer lairage showing pen

/ with revolving crush. (By courtesy of
Or T. J. Flctcher)

have smooth high-impact walls, and a circular manure obt ained from the stomachs and
crush gate of 5 m ma ximum diameter with two intestines of slaughtered animals requires
solid swing gates, centrally hung at least 1.83 m separate trea tment. It is sometimes used as
(6 ft) high. Unlike the requirements for cattle com post for horticultural purposes, and
and sheep, lighting should be su bd u ed recently in the United States as cattle feed, after
th roughout the lab-age and stunning areas, dehydration (see Chapter 4).
which should interconnect (FAWC, 1985).

Toilet and handwashing fac ilities must be

p rov ided in the vicinity of the Iairage.
SLAUG HTERHA LL
Bootwashing equipment is an essen tia l
The transfer of animals from lairage to
component for lair-age staff. Electric goads
slaughterhall is easy if th e aba ttoi r is well
sho uld be regulated to the lowest effective
designed (see also Cha p ter 7). If an upper kill
vo ltage - less than 50 v AC.
floor is used and the site is on a slope, the animals
can be walked directl y on the slaughter floor;
Washing of li vestock alterna tively, a ram p can be provided . Ca ttle and
Although washing of animals, c.g. cattle, bison, sheep can readily be dri ven up a ramp <1S steep as
hor ses etc., is p racti sed in tropical an d 1 in 6, though the ramp shou ld be provided with
subtropical countries. it is contrain dica ted in battens and a catwa lk. In some cases animals are
temperate regions, e.g. the Uni ted King dom, stunned on the gro und level then hoisted after
except possibly for pigs. Fac ili ties u su a lly bleed ing for subs equen t d ressing on the top floo r.
consist of a foot bath spray system or bath an d This procedure is no t recommended because of
an ad equate draining area prior to slaughter. A the problems of mu scle sp lashing and poor
sys tem for recovering solids and a final potable bleed ing brought about by delayed sticking.
wa ter w ash must be included . The size and type of slaughterhall for cattle
depends on which of the sla ughtering systems
is adopted, but in all cases it should be an open
Man ure d isposa l hall, wi th generous floor space, an d well
Consid erable quantities of lairage waste in the ventilated and lighted .
form of bedding and d ung require periodic
rem ova l, preferably to an elevated, cove red site
Stunnin g area
near th e lairagc. from which it can be
con ven ien tly reloaded for remova l. It is (See also Chapter 7.)
con ven ient to load it directly on to a large trailer The area in fron t of the stunning pen should
which can be removed as n ecessary. The be at least 3 m in w idth to the opposing wall or
88 Meat Hygiene
bleeding trough and be fitted with upright bars means. For meat plants of small capacity,
5 cm in diameter and 1.2 m high, spaced at 40 individual containers are used for holding the
cm intervals for safety purposes should blood; with large throughputs and high rates of
improperly stunned animals regain their feet. slaughter, several blood draining knives (as
The floor must be properly drained and possess many as 14) can be used in a 'carousel' which
high-impact and non-slip properties. A raised rotates synchronously with the bleeding
sturdy frame of expanded metal on to which conveyor. Arrangements must be made for
the animal is ejected aids cleanliness and routine sterilisation of the knives and adequate
reduces wetness. Every effort must be made to staff to man this additional operation.
reduce hide contamination. The hollow knife is made of stainless steel in
two sizes, for cattle and pigs. Various designs are
available, but they usually consist of a tubular
Bleeding area handle with a deflector plate and two blades set at
No meat plant should be built without careful right-angles to each other. They are easy to strip
consideration being given to the full utilisation for sharpening and cleaning and are combined
of by-products, edible and inedible. Blood is too with an anticoagulant dispensing tube. The broad
valuable a commodity to be discarded, as in blade should be directed in the longitudinal
past customs. Edible is more valuable than direction of the animal and, provided the animals
inedible. have been properly stunned, it is not necessary to
The bleeding trough should be at least 1.5 m fix forelegs, still less to indulge in pithing, a totally
wide, possess a good gradient, side walls of the unnecessary practice in modem meat plants. A
same height, and two drains, one for blood only suitable form of tubing, e.g. made of collagen,
and the other for water when cleansing only. connects the knife to containers where the blood
The length of the bleeding line will depend on is cooled prior to collection.
the throughput and the system of conveying A system which correlates each batch of
carcases, but should be generous, since the blood to the carcase from which it originates
majority of blood flow requires 6-8 min. The must be operated so that if a carcase is
bleeding trough has two points for the reception subsequently condemned the blood from that
of blood: one at the actual point of sticking animal may also be condemned.
where the greater volume of blood will be The bleeding trough for sheep and pigs
handled; and thereafter a longer gradual slope should preferably be enclosed on both sides as
that collects 'drip' blood classed as inedible. The for cattle and have a width of 1.1-1.2 m with the
overhead bleeding rail should be about 4.9 m overhead bleeding rail 2.7 m high, and dressing
above the floor of the dry landing area, dressing rails 2.3 m high for sheep and 3.4 m high in the
rails about 3.4m high. The bleeding trough must case of pigs.
have a smooth impervious surface, often a Subsequent leg, hide or fleece removal,
suitable grade of stainless steel. evisceration, carcase splitting, inspection,
Efficient arrangements for bleeding of stock kidney and channel fat (KKCF) removal,
will make for better-quality meat and cleaner carcase washing and shrouding stations must
conditions on the carcase dressing floor. have platforms at suitable positions and heights
Various systems of hygienic bleeding of for operatives and inspectors to work efficiently
livestock, mostly cattle and pigs, are in use and and without unnecessary stooping and labour.
these mayor may not be combined with an in- Of particular importance is the position of the
plant blood processing department. The viscera inspection table, especially for adult cattle
specialised nature of blood processing, as with (see Fig. 3.6), where the top of the moving-top
inedible by-product processing, means that it table should be about 2.7 m from the top of the
may be more satisfactory to collect these items conveyor rail and the vertical centre of the
efficiently and then consign them to an outside carcase positioned at the edge of the viscera
central plant for final processing. inspection table (1.5 m wide).
For hygienic bleeding for edible purposes, the
stainless hollow knife combined with cleanliness
and a sodium citrate/phosphate anticoagulant
On-the-rail dressing
is used. The knife is held in the wound by The development of line dressing of carcases
hand, by a rotating endless screw, or by other originally emanated from Canada. Essentially,
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 89

Sheep pens
I I r-

LE .
Restrainer
Il:
r-,
.. Bleed
"'--'
1'1' Carcase dressing

~1~~~~~~~~_.
(),Id Id Id
~ 0

/1 ~OHiC~
• •
• •
•
• ••• cp •
•
•I
•
: :
•I
•
De ~ Ul Viscera inspect ion conveyor
It :• ')
) =
v:v- :!
l t:l l ~ i 1 i l 11 i ' ! Il l Il ltSl l 10
'11 v:v- tl v:v- ~ d
v:v-
1 •
•
J
:

.L....J --------- ~-
..- - - - - , - - -, -- - - - - - - - ----- -- - -- - --- - -- -- -
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

Electrica l
:: ! ~- D-et~i~- - - ~ ~ ~
~ 'm m m _m } /
stimulation Wash area hown

We igh 2/3 per minute

'n
Chill a rea
1'1'

Fig. 3.6 Typi cal layo ut of sheep fa cility for

.......... th ro ughput of 12D-200 per h o ur.
.....
....
......

the carcase is conveyed by gravity or power curren tly in operation in New Zealand, is to
along an overhead rail; after stunn ing and allow one opera tive to follow the carcase through
bleeding, the process o f dressing is di vided up several operations. Besides reducing the labour
in to va rious stages, each undertaken by a load, this arrangement also makes for better job
separate operator as the carcase reaches him . satisfaction. A comb ination of several machines,
Although most plants use the traditional one tools and correlated items of equipment (brisket
man-one job approach, a more modem method, saw, hock cu tters, hide puller, aitch bone cu tter,
90 Meat Hygiene
etc.) enables complete dressing to be carried out 0
The carcase can be revolved a full 360 while
at high rates of slaughter. on the rail, allowing the operator to work all
Without the line method of slaughter it sides from one position. Associated with all line
would be impossible to reach the production systems are platforms which can be varied in
achieved in modern meat plants, which may be height and position, enabling the operator to
as high as 5000 cattle, 10000 sheep and 3500 carry out his task more efficiently.
pigs every 10 hours.
Several systems of line dressing are in
operation, the type depending mainly on the
,Canpak'system
level of throughput, equipment design and This is a continuous conveyorised method in
species, being most complicated in cattle. which the carcases are suspended by heavy
Constant research is undertaken with a view to beef trolleys or runners from the overhead rail;
effecting more efficient methods of line no spreader or gambrel is used. Developed and
dressing. patented by Canada Packers Ltd. Toronto,
There are four main types of line dressing for Canada, it is probably the most common form
cattle: of line system now used in large modern meat
plants. Rates of slaughter from 50 to 150 cattle
or more per hour can be achieved depending on
Gravity rail system the type and extent of associated equipment
In this method the carcases, suspended from a and the number of operators.
spreader and single-wheel trolley or runner, A typical sequence of operations on a
are gravitated to each station and stopped by modern line system is shown in the beef
a manually-operated stop on the overhead slaughter flow chart in Fig. 3.7.
rail. In the UK a number of additional tasks are
The system is used for lower slaughter rates carried out to remove the bovine specified
of 10-40 cattle/h. It is probably the most offals, and to check their removal.
compact and economical of the systems. Being
the simplest in design, there is less chance of Advantages of line dressing
serious breakdowns with consequent loss of
production. Various items of equipment may be 1 Since carcases are conveyed to each dressing
used with the gravity rail, e.g. a moving-top station, there is no need for operatives to be
idle while carcases are being hoisted or
viscera inspection table or a paunch truck, but, positioned.
because throughput is small, a mechanical
hide-puller is rarely used. Adequate ceiling 2 The line system is said to be safer for
operatives than traditional slaughter systems.
height is necessary because of the pitch of the
rail to gravitate the carcases. 3 Because carcases do not touch the floor and
their dressing is more conveniently carried
out, 'on the rail' dressing is hygienic.
Intermittent powered system 4 Elimination of the handling of heavy
This system can be used for rates of 10-75 shackles, trolleys and spreaders, the
cattle/h. It involves the mechanical moving of comfortable platform position for personnel
the carcases suspended on a spreader (gambrel) and the use of mechanical tools reduce
tedious labour.
and trolley along a level rail at intervals by
means of a variable timing device which can be 5 The reduction of lost motion and unnecessary
pre-set to suit the slaughter rate. movement of the carcase saves space.
6 An efficient line system increases throughput
and enhances the value of the carcase, hide
Continuous powered system and offal because of superior workmanship.
In this method the dressing line is in continuous
motion and is used for higher rates of kill,
Possible disadvantages
40-120 cattle/h. More sophisticated equipment
is associated with this slaughter line, e.g. The line system, however, being mechanically
mechanical hide-puller, moving top inspection complex, demands a high standard of
table as with the 'Canpak' system. engineering maintenance, and when
I
Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 91

f
--------1
_-----=_L-.-,--__
Animal pathology
evaluation
1
--.----=--
Stunning

Hide opening
in the neck

Sticking

Dehiding:
opening
skinning
hide removal

Head removal Knife trimming, steam

vacuum or other

•
Animal pathology
app roved carcase
cleani ng system can be

~
evaluation applie d throughout flow

Variety meats •
Evisceration

•
Chilling •
Splitting
• IAni~valaluation
pathology
• •
1

Packaging Trim rail

storing
distribution •
Final wash
Scientifically proven
antimicrobial •
Chill
intervention(s) can be
applied at one or multiple
locations in the flow
•
Carcase cutting
.. ICarcase shipping I

I I
+ t
Trimmings: Primals:
cutting cutting
packing packing
storing storing

Fig.3.7 Beef slaughter, cutting and packing.

breakdowns do occur production ceases findings, an efficient recording setup and

completely. The repetitive nature of the work adequate time for the examination of each
can be largely offset by job rotation if personnel carcase. At the higher rates of slaughter,
are so trained. Meat inspection is sometimes separate recording staff should be utilised,
said to be made more difficult and possibly less particularly for detailed information. A system
efficient. An efficient system of meat inspection of audio links can be used for communication
on a line system involves proper carcase and between inspectors and recorders, one of whom
offal conveyor synchronisation, a good is required for each line.
identification system, adequate, efficient and A line system of slaughter with a rate of
conscientious inspection staff, proper 60-75 cattle/h needs approximately nine meat
inspection points with ability to coordinate inspectors and one veterinarian for initial and
92 Meat Hygiene
final inspection. Correspondingly smaller 16 Eviscerate thorax
numb~rs are .necessary for pig and especially 17 Weigh and tag
sheep inspection, Adequate space and facilities 18 Final wash.
for inspection must always be provided. Indeed
the all-too-common tendency to over-save on
space when installing line slaughter systems The feet should be removed with a special
must be resisted. instrument, avoiding the usual practice of
For new beef installations, consideration individual removal with the skinning knife and
should be given to the performance of hot the all-too frequent littering of the floor with
boning subsequent to the dressing line. This these parts.
practice allows for the preparation and chilling The New Zealand Meat Industry Research
of cuts without the problem of cold shortening. Institute (MIRINZ) have developed a superior
method of automatic pelt removal to produce
blemish-free and hygienic carcases with the
Sterilisers minimum of labour. The valuable hindquarter
An adequate number of efficient sterilisers is completely untouched and there is no
operating at S2°C for hand tools, shackles etc. stretching of the pelt. Termed the 'inverted'
must be provided on all slaughter/dressing method, the carcase is suspended by the
floors, all conveniently placed for operator use. forelegs or in a near-horizontal position on
Bootwash/apronwash facilities are necessary twin conveyors. A 'V' cut is made from forelegs
for operative cleanliness. to throat releasing the 'vee' flap, which is fed
into the brisket skinner to clear the foreleg
pockets. The two shoulder flaps are then
pulled down and the 'vee' flap is split by hand.
Sheep slaughterhall (Fig. 3.6) The head is removed and discarded under
Though larger installations are best served by veterinary control. The pelt is further prepared
retaining the cattle slaughterhall for cattle only, for automatic removal by skinning the belly
in smaller establishments where cattle and and groin. The carcase is now ready for the
sheep killing are not likely to take place at the operation of two pelting machines - the
same time a portion of the cattle hall can be shoulder puller and the final puller, the former
adapted for slaughter and dressing of sheep. In drawing the shoulder flaps in a
th~ ~a~ter, sheep are driven to a passageway downward/backward direction while the
adjoining the slaughterhall, carried by hand latter (a hydraulically-operated arm and
into the slaughterhall and placed on crates clamp) grips the fleece centrally and strips it
(cradles, cratches, crutches) preparatory to downwards off the hindquarter and shanks.
stunning and dressing. The fleece is then released through a floor
Line slaughter is frequently carried out on chute to the pelt room.
sheep and a line employing 17 operatives with
a potential production of 150 sheep/h would
have the following stations: Pig slaughterhall
1 Pen sheep and stun Pig slaughter is better carried out in a separate
2 Shackle and hoist hall from that used for cattle and sheep, as the
moist atmosphere, which is inseparable from
3 Stick
the scalding of pigs, is not conducive to the
4 De-elevate to crutch conveyor good setting and drying of beef and mutton
5-9 Conveyor dressing (remove feet, commence carcases. EEC regulations require that in
fleece removal, saw brisket) slaughter premises where both pigs and other
10 Elevate to overhead rail animal species are slaughtered a special place
11 Clear tail and commence backing must be provided for slaughtering pigs.
12 Back and chute fleece However, such special place shall not be
compulsory if the slaughter of pigs and that of
13 Remove head
other animals takes place at different times; but
14 Eviscerate abdomen in such cases scalding, depilation, scraping and
15 Wash singeing must be carried out in special places
 -.
--
Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 93

Distribution
nozzles
Channel for recirculated air

80 mm stainless steel
insulating elements

-*--*-Ht---- Humidifying zone

Circulation chamber

Fig. 3.8 Vertical scalding of pigs showing cross-section of humidifying chamber, channel for recirculated air
and humidifying zone. (By courtesy of SFK AmbA, Copenhagen, Denmark)

which are clearly separated from the slaughter Scalding and dehairing
line either by an open space of at least 5 m or by The factors to be considered relating to scalding
a partition of at least 3 m high. and dehairing are: hourly rate of slaughter; size
After bleeding, pigs are scalded and then of pig to be handled; ease of operation of the
scraped to remove the hair. In the smaller machines; efficiency of cleansing; and
abattoirs scraping is done by hand, but in large corrosion.
abattoirs and bacon factories a mechanical Because of the unhygienic circumstances
dehairing machine is used. It is estimated that if associated with the typical scalding tank, it is
there is a regular throughput of some 200 pigs likely in the future that other systems of
on 2-3 days per week, a dehairing plant is removing hair and cleaning the surface of the
necessary. An extraction system, which skin will become commonplace. It has been
removes steam from the canopies over the shown in West Germany, for example, that
scalding tanks and keeps the temperature of the before operations begin there can be as many as
steam raised by heated air, serves to prevent 39 400 bacteria per ml in the tank, rising to
condensation and fogginess. Provision must 45-800 million organisms per ml after the
also be made so that the offals from each animal scalding of 600 pigs. Among these were aerobic
can be easily identified with the carcase. and anaerobic spore-forming bacteria, cocci and
A typical pig slaughter operation of up to 350 organisms belonging to the coli-proteus groups;
pigs/h would consist of the operations shown of 220 samples of scalding water, Salmonella
in the pork slaughter flow chart in Fig. 3.9. paratyphi and S. typhimllrillm were isolated on
94 Meat Hygiene

,---_-,--,-,L--_ _--, (Including suspect holding pens,

L -_ _-,--"----_--' ante-mortem inspection, etc.)

(Including toenail removal)

Fig. 3.9 Pork slaughter flow chart (skin-on carcase). "The majority of industry operations remove the head
following evisceration or splitting. In these situations the head removal step should be followed by an
antibacterial intervention and the step be designated as a critical control point (CCP).

one occasion. In Holland, it has been discovered controlled by a thermostat at 61-64°C. The
that developmental types of Salmonella could cooling water from the condenser in the tunnel
occur in the sludge of the scalding water and is used to flush the pig carcases during the
that a deep infection of the pig meat can arise dehairing process. Before entry into the tunnel,
from the bacterial flora on the surface. In the carcase should hang for 3 min and then lie
addition to microorganisms, parasites such as on its side for 2 min. The pig carcases are then
Ascaris suum and whipworm (Trichuris transported to the tunnel on a rising rail so that
irichiura), hair, epithelial cells, Balantidium coli, the head is lower than the other parts of the
and moulds such as Aspergillus and Mucor may body during the whole scalding process, which
be found. Many of these can gain entrance to lasts 6 min. Trimming and singeing take place
the lungs and to the blood vessels in the stab afterwards. Vertical scalding is claimed to
wound (see also Chapter 9). greatly improve the bacteriological standard of
the pig meat, produce bacteria-free lungs and
reduce muscular degeneration. This reduced
Vertical scalding incidence of PSE (pale, soft/ exudative muscle)
Vertical scalding (Figs 3.8 and 3.10) of pig is said to be due to the fact that vertical scalding
carcases involves the use of a double-walled does not produce a rise in body temperature to
tunnel in which steam, generated from a water above 41°C as in normal scalding operations.
bath in its bottom, is blown over the carcases Dehairing is also said to be better with this
and through a ventilator located over the method, and operating costs are also claimed to
condenser. The temperature in the tunnel is be reduced.
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 95

Fig.3.10 Vertical scalding of pigs.

View of circulation
chamberI humidifying zone with
pig emerging. Cross-contamination
is eliminated bv humidified air al
6t....(H"C being blasted on to the
carcase without immersion. (By
courtesy of SFK AmbA,
Copenhagen, Denmark)

T he isolation b lock <em ergency sla ugh te r some sma lle r p lants it may be p ossible to
u nit) combine species. utilising the hig h rails for
This essential facility is actuallv a miniature double-ti ered pork an d lamb ca rcases. A
aba ttoir, with a lairage for up to four cattle, a numbe r of small rectangular chill roo ms will
slaughter hall and hanging room . It should be reduce the time d uring w hich the chill room
situated near to the suspect meat detention room , doors are open, speed up the ch illing process
and should also be in direct communication with and increase efficiency by red ucing the mi xing
the by-prod ucts department. of hot an d cold carcases.
The carcases must be hung in su ch a way as
to allo w free movemen t of cold air around
Refrigeratio n acc om m od atio n
them; rail spacing should be 0.9 m for beef, 0.7
EEC Direct ive No. 64/ -B 3/EEC, as amended, m for p igs and 0.5 m for lambs. The minimum
provides that fo r the approval of slaughter- space between carcases on rail s should be
houses the re must be sufficiently larg e chilling 0.3-0.4 m.
or refrigerating rooms. Fresh meat in tended for It is essenti al to record tem peratu res in order
in tra-Commu nity trad e mus t be chi lled to control the ch illing p rocess, p referab ly on a
Immed iately after the post -mortem inspection continuou s basis using charts or co mp uter-
and kep t at a cons tant tem perat ure of not more ge nera ted record s. The recording of relative
tha n 7"C for carcases and cu ts or 3"C for offal. hum idi ty is also of valu e as is the occas iona l
Except in the case of hot boning of me at after checking of air sp eed . Temperature recording
sla ugh ter, it is essen tial that th e speci fied f acilities are required by the legislation of most
tempe ratu res be ach ieved quickly in order to cou ntries.
offset bacterial spoilage. bu t no t too quickly EEC regul ations forbid the use of exposed
(see Cold sllOctenillg). Wh ere hot bonin g is wood for ch ill d oo rs; these sh ould be made of
carried. out, the res ultant joint s must be ch illed durable, high-impact mate rials suc h as stain less
before d ispa tch. steel, alumini um or reinforced p last ics. The y
Since the Di rective implies a continuous may be sliding or single- or double-hinged, and
m ovemen t of ca rcases into chill following if hinged s ho u ld open ou twards.
slaughter, it becomes necessary to p rov ide a In tern al finishes should be du rab le and
series of chi lling u nits suited to the capacity of impervious, with good ins ula tion and floor
the meat plan t and possessing a system of high drainage. Areas of walls where contact wi th
rails for beef and low rails for sh eep and pigs. In carcases occ u rs on load ing shou ld be protected
96 Meat Hygiene
with stainless steel or aluminium or plastic recording equipment are also necessary. A
sheeting. hydraulic lift stand is an advantage for detailed
It is vital that chill and freezer doors be close- examination and trimming of beef carcases. If
fitting and that they be provided with an this particular department is situated adjacent
internal opening device to avoid personnel to the meat plant laboratory, this is an added
being closed in the rooms. advantage, since microbiological, pathological,
The EEC requirements stated above present parasitological and biochemical examinations,
problems under commercial abattoir as well as photography, can be more
conditions. To begin with, the temperature of conveniently carried out. This room should be
7°C is too high a temperature for long-term enclosed and entry restricted to authorised
storage of meat. Secondly, since many abattoirs personnel. It must be lockable.
wish to operate on a 24-hour schedule it is
impossible to reduce the temperature of deep
tissues to 7°C in this period without the onset of
Condemned meat room
cold shortening. If a longer chilling period is All too often the condemned meat room does
possible, a pre-chilling period of 6-8 h will not receive the attention it deserves at the
usually offset this undesirable result, which is planning stage of the plant, especially with
more liable to occur in lamb. regard to space. In order to arrange for proper
As with chilling, different authorities specify sorting and holding of materials unfit for
different temperatures for freezing, which human consumption prior to dispatch,
begins at temperatures below -2°C. In its adequate space, refrigeration and drainage
regulations for 'intervention freezing' the EEC along with the supply of durable and lockable
stipulates that beef quarters must be frozen to containers and weighing facilities are essential.
below -7°C, and pork to below -15°C, and A suitable rail linkage with the detained meat
stored at below -17°C for beef and below -20°C room and other means of handling materials
for pork; freezing times are not specified. These complete this important area, which must have
temperatures are considered to be low in lockable doors.
comparison with current UK and USA practice.
Hide and skin store
Detained meat room Although primarily intended for the stacking
Carcases detained for further examination and cooling of hides and sheep skins awaiting
should be routed by a special rail to the detained collection, the hide and skin store can
meat room, which should be located adjacent to conveniently be used for the reception of cattle
the main slaughterhall inspection points in and sheep feet.
order to achieve close liaison over disease Careful thought should be given at the
findings. All parts of the carcase must be planning stage to suitable arrangements for all
identifiable pending the final decisions. From areas where by-products are held pending
this detained meat room the overhead rail must dispatch, not only in relation to their position,
reconnect with the main slaughter line for size, layout, chute system with slaughterhall
direction of carcases either to the chill rooms or floor, etc., but also in connection with the
to the condemned meat room. It is important facilities for easy loading on to vehicles. A
that there should be ample space for the system of handling hides and skins in palletised
examination of carcases which, being hot at this containers is of value, as is gravity feeding of
stage, and prior to final inspection, should not vehicles which collect feet. As for by-product
be allowed to touch each other. If they are to be handling, gravity feeding of hides and skins is
held for any period, for example, pending easier if the slaughterhall floor is on a higher
laboratory examination, chilling accommoda- level, and connected with the various by-
tion is necessary. products departments by stainless steel chutes.
Good lighting which does not distort colours
and is of an intensity of not less than 50 foot-
candles (540 lux) is required. The normal Gut and tripe room
facilities of good drainage, easily cleaned The initial separation and emptying of
surfaces and adequate sterilisation and stomachs and intestines is normally carried out
I
Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 97
in the gut and tripe room. Usually it is Inedible area
, convenient to have this room associated with All materials unfit for human consumption,
moving-top tables, with an arrangement for with the exception of hides and skins, should be
discharging to a macerator or holding pending sited away from edible areas. One of the
collection for composting, etc. Heavy cattle difficulties associated with the inedible area is
stomachs should be handled either by the arrangement for handling items such as
mechanical equipment or by suitable gradients. omasa after separation from cattle paunches,
The cattle-paunch emptying table should be at since improper handling of these organs can
a convenient height in relation to the moving-
result in unhygienic conditions.
top table or be provided with a power-operated
hoist for elevating paunches to the higher level.
The table must be fitted with an 'umbrella' of
spray rods for cleaning the inside and the Equipment wash
outside of the paunches.
A properly designed equipment wash adjacent
Subsequent processing of stomachs and to work rooms is essential to avoid buggies,
intestines should take place in a separate unit.
bins, and other equipment being washed in
work rooms, corridors or other inappropriate
Red offal room places. There should be a one-way system
Offal such as liver, lungs and kidneys should be through the wash room, to avoid the mixing of
trimmed and then placed in a chill or freezing clean and dirty equipment, good drainage and,
room depending on the ultimate system of most importantly, good steam extraction.
disposal. Offal for edible purposes must be held
at a temperature not exceeding 3°C.
Fresh meat dispatch area
The edible fat room
The fresh meat dispatch area must be sited
This is a completely separate holding room,
away from the dirty part and access to it
usually situated near the gut room and where
restricted to vehicles associated with meat and
edible fat is held pending dispatch.
offal for human consumption. If at all possible,
the floor level of the loading bay should be at
Cutting rooms vehicle floor height and the whole area should
The hygienic procedures undertaken with the be roofed so that personnel can work in
initial carcase dressing are continued in the inclement weather conditions. A system
cutting rooms. So vital are these rooms and the whereby the meat plant rails coordinate with
techniques employed in them that legislation those of the meat transport vehicles is of great
usually gives special consideration to them. value in efficiently and hygienically loading
There are separate EEC conditions for the meat for delivery. There must be protection
approval of cutting plants, whether or not they against pests of various kinds as well as stops to
are an integral part of the abattoir. Building prevent damage to plant walls. This is best
services, equipment and hygiene conditions are achieved by a docking system whereby there is
similar to those applying to abattoirs. no air movement from outside the premises
During the cutting process the temperature into the dispatch area or vehicle. If quartering
of the building must not exceed 12°C and the of carcases or any other butchering takes place
rooms must have sufficient refrigeration in this area, it should be refrigerated to 12°C.
accommodation to keep meat at an internal
temperature of not more than 7°C. There must
also be a thermometer or telethermometer Manure bay
installed in the cutting room.
Adequate facilities are necessary in the form This should be sited near the lairage on the
of suitable equipment, an adequate supply of dirty side of the plant. In some cases stomach
hot, potable water to keep the whole area and intestinal material is handled along with
hygienic, and a waste disposal system that manure or it may be processed separately. Size
meets hygiene requirements. and design depend mainly on throughput but
98 Meat Hygiene
in all cases ease of transfer to transport vehicles employee's personal and work clothing, if
should be made a priority, which usually means alternative means of storing work clothing and
having the bay in an elevated position. Its floor equipment is not provided. Soiled working
and sides should be impervious, with provision clothing should not be stored in lockers but be
made for overflow liquors to be drained away. directed to the laundry.
In certain weather conditions there may be a Urinals should be installed in toilet rooms
need to treat the manure to prevent problems for male personnel.
with flies. It is well worthwhile giving close
Disposal of waste material must be carried consideration to the layout and design of
out without creating objectionable conditions. changing facilities for staff. Ventilation in these
areas is of great importance, as is a code of
practice for their use.
In addition to the changing areas, it is
Vehicle washing necessary to have mess rooms for the staff,
access to which should be restricted to
An often neglected facility is that for the
hygienically clad individuals. Separate welfare
cleaning of meat transport and animal
facilities may be provided for those employees
transport vehicles.
working in inedible and other unwholesome
The former should be provided in the clean
areas.
side of the plant and have adequate high-
The efficient operation of a meat plant
pressure hoses with hot water and detergent
depends greatly on the well-being of its
along with good drainage for vehicles and
personnel. Although a fully trained industrial
wash area. For animal lorries it is sufficient to
nurse and a well appointed first aid room are
provide a supply of cold water under pressure
considered beneficial, especially for the
along with provision for disinfection. As for the
larger premises, not only to deal with the
meat vehicle wash area, suitable floor gradients
many cuts and other problems associated
are necessary in the plant dirty section. It is not
with slaughtering operations but also to
unreasonable, in view of the great importance
assist materially in raising hygiene standards
of having clean vehicles, to insist on the
and preventing the onset of zoonoses, they
cleaning of all meat vehicles before loading and
have mostly been replaced by a trained first-
all stock lorries after unloading.
aider.
A laundry and conveniently-sited car park are
necessary departments of the modern meat
plant and a comprehensive system of
Facilities for personnel communication comprising internal telephones,
In addition to the full complement of locker a staff location system of the VHF-radio type
rooms, a sufficient number of water closets, and loudspeaker equipment should be installed
showers and wash-hand basins must be along with adequate securityarrangements.
provided (one for every 15 employees). In UK abattoirs, it has to be remembered that
Alternatively, individual wash-hand basins the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
may be replaced by suitable communal hand- operates in addition to the Slaughter of Animals
washing facilities of an elongated or circular (Hygiene & Inspection Regulations 1995).
type which are more easily maintained.
Separate units must be provided if both sexes
are employed.
The dressing rooms should be properly
separated from the toilets and these must not Veterinary office
open directly on to working areas. An adequately equipped lockable room for the
Lockers should be of metal construction with exclusive use of the veterinary service is
sloping tops and placed 40 cm above the floor essential for intra-Community trade meat
in order to facilitate cleaning. A plastic, stainless plants, and a larger one is necessary for the
steel or wooden bench along the front of the meat inspectors. The rooms should be provided
lockers at this level completes the furniture. with hand-washing and shower facilities, and
Separate lockers should be provided for each lockers for clothing (work and personal) and
 Meat Plant Construction and Equipment 99
meat inspection eq uipm ent. A convenien t UK Meat and Livest oc k Commission (1979)
means of clean ing footwea r before entry into Gu idelilltfi. for Export Slauglrlm lOlISl'S .
cha nging rooms is an advantage. US Department of Agriculture, Food Safctv and
lnspectton Service (1984) A Guide 10 eollstrllctioll.
£quipmell / and WyOld. Agricultural Handbook
Veterinary labor atory No. 570.
Under EEC regulations, a room eq uipped for
carrying out a trichinoscopic test is compulsory
where pigs or horses are slaughtered In the LEG ISLATION
larger premises, a well-equipped laboratory is
essentia l, not only for the preliminary diagnosis EEC
of animal disease and monitor ing of potential Directive 89/778 concerning the qua litv of water
path ogens but also to maintain the overall inte nded for human consumption. .
hygiene standards. These premises are very Document 7491/91 (19 Julv 1991) extends Directive
often a lso utilised for the training of meat 64/433 (wit h amendments).
inspectors and oth er employees. Directives 71/11 8, 75/ 431, 78/50 and 86/642 an.' the
main poultry Directives .

FURT H ER READING

Food and Agriculture Organiza tion (FAO) (1978)

S IImghterllO lIse and Slallglltrrslab Desig n and
Construction. FAO Animal Production and Health
Pape r No. 9. Rome: FAD.
 Chapter 4
Preservation of Meat

The primary purpose of food preservation is to Shrinkage

prevent food spoilage. Whether food spoilage is
Shrinkage or loss of weight occurs as a result of
mild or extreme, the primary cause is the action
of microorganisms - bacteria, moulds or yeasts
evaporation of water from the meat surface;
carcases cut into quarters dissipate water
- aided by enzymes. As living organisms they
vapour rapidly and continuously and retail
can survive and develop only under particular
joints even more so. On the other hand,
environmental conditions; under unfavourable
evaporation is inhibited by membranes such as
conditions they die or fail to develop.
the pleura and peritoneum and, in carcases of
The underlying principle of all food pre-
well-nourished animals, by the solidification of
serving methods, then, is the creation of con-
the superficial fat and drying of the connective
ditions unfavourable to the growth or survival
tissue. A freshly-killed carcase dissipates body
of spoilage organisms by, for example, extreme
weight slowly, losing 1.5-2.0% of weight by
heat or cold, deprivation of water and some-
evaporation during the first 24 h of hanging.
times oxygen, excess of saltiness or increased
Further loss of weight during storage depends
acidity. The methods by which meat foods
on the humidity of the storage room: the drier
may be preserved are drying, curing, cold,
the air the greater the amount of evaporation.
heat, chemicals, irradiation, and high pressure.
The high-velocity cold air system (Turbo-Chill)
Preservation by chemicals may be achieved
reduces body heat of freshly killed animals by
by artificial means, e.g. the addition of sulphur
increasing the rate of heat removal from the
dioxide to foodstuffs, but this and the use of
surface of the carcase and hence reduces surface
other chemicals is greatly restricted by food
temperature quickly. Avoidance of all
regulations in most countries, although
evaporative weight losses by high humidity
research continues to find an acceptable
facilitates the formation of moulds, so an
chemical means of preservation.
accurate balance between temperature and
Chemical preservation by natural means, as
humidity must be maintained; the dry,
in the smoking of meat and fish, is employed as impervious film on the carcase surface is
an adjuvant to commercial salting and pickling.
perhaps the best protection against the growth
For preservation of food from meat animals
of spoilage organisms.
to be successful it is essential that all livestock
are correctly managed on the farm, in transport
and in the lairage to ensure the supply of clean, Sweating
healthy animals to the meat plant, and that the This denotes the condensation of water vapour
operations there are carried out in an on meat brought from a cold store into ordinary
exemplary manner (see Chapter 7). The meat room temperature. The condensation occurs
from animals properly handled and processed because the refrigerated carcase lowers the
will have a low pH value which will aid in the temperature of the air to below the dewpoint.
preservation process. In the winter months in Britain the dewpoint is
generally below 4SC and sweating is unlikely
Physical changes in stored meat to occur, but in the summer the dewpoint is
Meat undergoes certain superficial changes as a always over 7°C and moisture will be deposited
result of storage, chief of which are shrinkage, on the carcase. If the quarter or side is cut up
sweating and loss of bloom. immediately after removal from the chilling

101
102 Meat Hygiene
room, sweating will be extended to the process of refrigeration is largely based on the
individual joints. principle of drying, i.e. the removal of water
available for microbial growth. Again, salting
Loss of bloom largely owes its preservation action to the
extraction of water by osmosis.
Bloom is defined as the colour and general It is essential that as little water as possible is
appearance of a carcase surface when viewed put on sheep and cattle carcases during
through the semitransparent layers of connec- dressing.
tive tissue, muscle and fat which form the car-
case surface. If these tissues become moist, the
collagen fibres in the connective tissue swell
and become opaque and the meat surface
assumes a dull, lifeless appearance. Loss of sur- Water activity or water availability (a)
face bloom in beef carcases may also be caused Water activity or water availability, a.; is a
by dehydration or undue oxidation, but it may measure of the partial vapour pressure of the
be prevented by avoiding temperature fluctua- foodstuffs compared to that of pure water at its
tions that permit alternate drying and dampen- surface. Water molecules are loosely orientated
ing of the carcase surface. It is also important to in pure liquid water and can easily rearrange.
keep the relative humidity of cooling chambers When solutes are introduced, these orient the
high and ensure free circulation of air. Muscular water molecules around them and make them
tissue also tends to become brownish on expo- much less available for use by microorganisms.
sure to air as myohaemoglobin changes to the With the exception of Staphylococcus aureus and
brown pigment methaemoglobin, but the actu- most moulds, microorganisms are poor at
al amount of exposed muscle in a side of beef is competing with solutes for the water
so small that this is of little or no consequence. molecules.
Refrigeration has little effect on the carcase fat The a; varies little with temperature over the
except in the case of frozen meat which has normal growth range of microorganisms. Pure
undergone a prolonged period of storage, in water has the highest a" possible (1.0) and the a"
which case rancidity may develop. decreases with the addition of solute (always
<1).
Various NaCl solutions will give the
Chemical changes in stored meat following a".
The chemical changes that take place after %NaCl (w Iv) a"
slaughter are indicative of a slight degree of 0.9 0.995
breakdown in protein, due either to endoge-
nous enzymes or to those of microorganisms. 3.5 0.98
The odour of the meat becomes progressively 7.0 0.96
more marked but never undesirable; the 16.0 0.90
flavour may be described as stale, rendering the 22.0 0.86
meat unpalatable but not repulsive.
The storage life of meat is more dependent
on the chemical changes that take place in fat The a" may greatly affect the ability of an
rather than in muscle, for fat rancidity, even if organism to survive heat. The thermal death
only slight, is objectionable. The condition of time (D 60 ) for Salmonella typhimurium at 60°C is
the fat therefore determines the length of 0.18min at an a" of 0.94.
storage, for whilst the lean muscle of a carcase The a" stated for an organism is usually the
may be still improving in flavour the changes in minimum at which growth will take place, but
fat may render the meat repugnant and growth will increase with increasing a". Lower
unmarketable. than minimal G" will not necessarily kill the
organisms, and they will remain infectious. It is
difficult to standardise an G" for a specific food
Drying
as this may vary depending on the source, the
Although drying as such plays only a minor age of the food and even different parts of the
role in preservation today, the whole vast food.
 Preservation of Meat 103
MEAT CURING in the size of the intercellular spaces as a result
of loss of water.
While curing may be applied to all kinds of Curing may be defined as the addition of salt
meat, it is best adapted to those with a high fat (NaCl) and nitrate/nitrite or nitric oxide to the
content, e.g. pork or fine-fibred beef intermixed meat, which results in a conversion of the meat
with fat, and it is for this reason that brisket and pigments, predominantly myoglobin, to the
flank of beef make high-quality pickled meat. nitroso or cured form. Myoglobin in freshly cut
On the other hand, lean beef, veal or mutton uncured meat is in the reduced form (purple),
become dry and unpalatable on pickling. which in contact with air is rapidly oxygenated
to oxymyoglobin, which is bright red and
Salt responsible for the 'bloom' on meat. If oxidised,
these pigments are converted to metamyoglobin,
Salt is the principal preserving material used in
which is unattractive and gives a brown or grey
curing on a commercial scale, though it appears
colour. Under suitable conditions these pigments
to have little directly harmful effect on bacteria;
can be converted to the nitroso form (nitro-
large quantities of salt or sugar produce the
somyoglobin) by the addition of nitric oxide.
same result as would be obtained by the
During the curing process nitric oxide is formed
extraction of water. Indeed, the osmotic
by reduction of nitrites formed by bacteria from
pressure of the strong salt or sugar solution
nitrates. Nitrosomyoglobin gives freshly-cut
removes the water necessary for bacterial
cured meat its bright red colour, but is unstable
growth from the meat. Halophilic (salt-loving)
and rapidly oxidises to the brown and grey
bacteria require salt for optimum growth and
forms. However, on heating, the nitrosomyoglo-
are not affected; they are, however, slower
bin is converted to nitrosohaemochrome, a pink
growing than non-halophilic bacteria.
colour (e.g. of cooked ham or corned beef) as dis-
Distinction must be made between salted
tinct from the grey and brown of the cooked
meats (beef, pork) and cured meats (bacon,
uncured meat (e.g. roast beef).
ham, corned beef). In salted meats the dry salt
first dissolves in the surface fluid and then
Ingredients used in curing
passes slowly inwards until it is evenly distrib-
uted throughout the meat substance. A consid- Basically to produce a cured meat only sodium
erable amount of the moisture is removed when chloride and a source of nitric oxide (nitrate or
the salt draws to the surface some of the fluid in nitrite) are required. However, with a demand
which it dissolves. Microscopically, salted meat, by consumers for a greater variety of cured
compared with fresh meat, shows a diminution meats in relation to saltiness and other flavour

Table 4.1 Curing salts and additives.

Level in curing
Ingredient brine Function

Sodium chloride 15-30% Preservative; improves texture

Sodium nitrate* 0.15-1.5% A source of nitrite
Sodium nitrite" 500-1000 ppm Preservative; reduced by meat enzymes to NO, which combined
with myoglobin (the uncured meat pigment) forms
nitrosomyoglobin, the cured meat pigment
Polyphosphates 2-4% Reduce cooking losses, e.g. during smoking; improve texture
Sugars, e.g. sucrose, 1-4% Improves flavour by masking the harshness of the salt
maple syrup
Liquid smoke t ca. 1% Flavouring agent
Sodium ascorbate 0.2-1.0% Reducing agent. Improves colour formation and stability by effecting
rapid reduction of NO, to NO, in the meat

'" In the UK, levels must uot exceed 500 ppm NaNO. and 200 ppm NaNO. in the final product.
. :;. Varies considerably; refer to manufacturer's instructions.
104 Meat Hygiene
components, a wide range of substances can be On leaving the furnace, the carcases are
used (Table 4.1). Each ingredient has a specific sprayed with cold water and scraped and
function and is used accordingly. polished in a tunnel containing banks of
stainless steel scrapers and nylon brushes until
the burnt brown epidermis has been removed
PRODUCTION OF BACON AND HAM and the pig appears white. These procedures,
however, recontaminate the surface of the
Pork may be cured by either salting or pickling. carcase to the order of 10· bacterialcm". The
Dry salting gives a less consistent product and majority of these are spoilage bacteria,
takes longer and is therefore more expensive. predominantly acinetobacieria, moraxellae and
The raw material, a 85-90 kg liveweight pig, pseudomonads; with enteric organisms such as E.
is slaughtered and eviscerated to produce a coli and Campylobacter at single figures per cm".
70 kg carcase. White-skinned pigs have The carcases are then ready for evisceration,
traditionally been preferred as the bacon rind inspection, weighing and grading followed by
has a more attractive appearance. A pig with immediate transfer via overhead rails to the
light shoulders, long, level back, deep and level chills where they are chilled to <4°C within 24
flanks with broad hams is most likely to yield a hours.
carcase well-endowed in the region of the most
valuable bacon cuts, for in a side of bacon the Cutting
collar and foreleg together should not weigh Under modern systems very few Wiltshires
more than 25% of the whole side. (full sides of bacon) are produced, it being more
After stunning, and bleeding for at least 6 common to reduce the side to individual primal
minutes, most pig carcases in the British Isles cuts before curing. The butchery processes vary,
are scalded, delzaired, singed and scraped in but generally commence on removal from the
preparation for bacon production rather than chillers with the removal of the head and
being skinned. The scalding water may forelegs while the pig is still suspended on the
contain different types of bacteria originating overhead rail. This produces two sides which
from the pig's skin and gastrointestinal tract, are dropped on to a moving steel conveyor,
including Salmonella. The temperature of the before the removal of the jaw flap from the fore.
water in the drag-through scalding tank at The hind leg is cut mid-way through the hock,
60°C is generally sufficient to reduce and the fore-end is removed by a band saw at
vegetative growth. The skins of scalded pigs the level of the third and fourth rib. The fillet
have low numbers of both enteric pathogens (also known as the tenderloin) runs from the
and spoilage bacteria, but the subsequent third most posterior rib back along the dorsal
dehairing process recontaminates the skin. surface of the abdominal cavity to the gammon.
The bacterial content of the muscle and viscera This is carefully removed and any loose pieces
does, however, appear to be affected by the of meat, e.g. the diaphragm, are trimmed off the
type of scalding equipment. Vertical scalding side. The gammon, the hind leg, is removed by
of pigs on the line in a 'steam cabinet' reduces a band saw, mid-way between the head of the
the opportunity for contamination of the femur and a part of the sacrum known as the
carcase via the stick wound. After dehairing, oyster bone. The pelvic bones are removed and
the carcase is hoisted on to a greased skid rail the gammon is trimmed.
and transferred to a singeing plant, which The spinal column, or chine bones, are
consists of two vertical half-cylinders lined removed using a circular saw and the middle is
with heatproof bricks. The carcase is singed by slit into belly and back cuts. The ribs may be
a fired combination of oil and air at a removed individually, by a process known as
temperature of 1371-1537°C. Singeing colours single ribbing, or in sheets. Finally, excess fat is
the skin brown, removes any hairs still trimmed off, and in most cases the rind is
remaining, hardens the subcutaneous fat, removed.
enhances the keeping quality of the meat and
sterilises the external surface of the pig so that
Application of the pickle
following singeing the bacterial load on the
carcase surface is of the order of 10 Salt for the cure may be kept in a large silo
bacterial cm'. through which water filters to produce a
 Preservation of Meat 105
saturated salt solution. This is chilled to -2 or cement mixer with sharp stainless steel blades
-3°C and nitrite added to a concentration, at an in a rotating drum, or massaged in a 'Bel Lagan'
average of 160 ppm. Usually nitrate is not used massager. In general, small pieces of meat are
as a constituent of the pickle. This is because tumbled while large pieces are massaged. The
nitrate is only effective in so far as it is machines rotate for 7 minutes in every hour for
converted into nitrite by bacteria present in the 18 hours, moving the meat around and
cover brine. Sodium ascorbate is added as a ensuring that a uniform cure and colour are
source of ascorbic acid, a reducing agent, which attained. The physical action also tenderises the
aids the formation of nitrosomyoglobin and muscle and aids fast penetration of the curing
hence ensures that the bacon or ham has good agent, thus saving on curing time. The process
colour formation and stability. In a maple cure, releases the albuminous protein myosin from
sugar, maple crystals and seasoning give the the meat, leaving its surface in a gelatinous
bacon a unique flavour. Polyphosphates aid state. When cooked, the meat binds together,
water retention in the cured meat during the the myosin acting as a seal, aiding water
cooking process, so reducing shrinkage during retention.
cooking, making the hams more succulent and When removed from the tumbling or
improving the texture of smoked product. massaging process, the product may be allowed
In 1971 the amount of curing salts which to rest for up to 24 hours, or it may be
could be used was restricted to 500 ppm of immediately further processed.
sodium nitrate and 200 ppm of sodium nitrite. Large pieces are manually packed into pots
This was in recognition that nitrites can react with pressure lids and cooked for 14 hours to a
with secondary and tertiary amines to form core temperature of 70°C. Smaller pieces are
nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic. Earlier automatically fed into presses which extrude
methods of curing, by hand injection of the pork into pre-soaked fibrous casings. These
pumping brine (called stitching) followed by are semi-cooked for 4-5 hours to a core
immersion of the sides in cover brine for at least temperature of 42°C in preparation for slicing
4 days, have largely been superseded. The brine and vacuum packing.
or pickle is now introduced into all sides of the To ensure consistently high quality, a mid-
prepared cuts by automatic pumping machines process analysis is carried out. A random
which introduce pickle under pressure through sample of product, selected from different cuts,
needles approximately 2cm apart. The addition is analysed for levels of nitrite, salt and added
of pickle increases the weight of the piece by water. There is a standard declaration of not
approximately 10%. more than 10% added water for middles, backs
Immediately after pumping, the middle cuts, and streak. Massaged or tumbled product is
back and belly, are vac-packed and heat-sealed. allowed up to 20% added water.
They are held in cellars at a temperature below
-l°C for at least 48 hours before going for blast
freezing (-6°C for 5 h), slicing and packing. The
Traditional dry cure bacon
freezing process suspends curing and assists Although described as dry cure, some brine is
high-speed slicing. injected by hand into the eye muscle of the back
The gammons, after pumping, are immersed and deep into the gammon. Both cuts are then
in traditional tiled or stainless steel tanks of sprinkled with the dry cure mixture, which
cover brine for 3 days. The cover brine is used contains nitrite, before being covered in salt.
for approximately 3 weeks before it is discarded The middles are stacked, cut surface up, for 5
and is constantly monitored bacteriologically. days, after which excess salt is shaken off and
In former times cover brine was used the sides are turned rind up, and left for 2-3
indefinitely and was thought to impart unique weeks. The gammons are packed into tanks
flavours to the product. with salt for 4 weeks. On removal, all cuts are
washed down to remove some of the salt. They
are then hung on racks and singed with a
Production of cooked hams blowtorch to remove any slime on the surface
Re-formed cooked hams are produced from de- and dried over night, in a room with circulating
fatted lean cuts. Following pickle injection, air at 10-20°C. The bacon produced may then
these are tumbled in a machine that looks like a be smoked, if required, and prepared for
106 Meat Hygiene
dispatch by trimming the gammons, and 4 Rancidity in frozen bacon may be identified by
rolling and placing the middles in stockinette. pronounced yellowing of the fat. Although all
bacterial growth stops when bacon is frozen,
certain chemical reactions can proceed at
New dry cure -s-c.
A new type of dry curing entails placing fresh S Browning. The cured meat pigment
rindless pork backs on racks, freezing, pressing nitrosomyoglobin changes to the brown
into shape, allowing to temper and slicing. As it metamyoglobin owing to dehydration caused
by low humidity, high temperature and
comes to the end of the slicing line, the product oxidation caused by prolonged exposure to
is sprayed on both sides with salt and nitrite air, excessive nitrate and poor packaging.
solution and then packaged. Curing takes place
6 Greening may be caused by excessive nitrate
in the bag, there being not more than 3Y2% salt and by bacterial contamination.
in the final product.

Smoking Bacteria on cured product

Smoking of cured pork improves its keeping Spoilage
properties further, as well as imparting an The most common form of spoilage found on
appetising colour and flavour. Traditionally, cured meats is mouldiness, which may be due
smoking was carried out over several days in a to Aspergillus, Alternaria, Fusarium, Mucor,
brick oven with smouldering oak, hickory or Rhizopus, Penicillin and other moulds.
hardwood sawdust and hot ash piled on the Micrococci are resistant to salt and
floor. consequently are most common where salt
It is now more common to use an insulated levels are high, especially the fat. Lactobacilli are
steel cabinet enclosing a heat-exchanger less resistant to salt but more resistant to smoke.
system. The cuts to be smoked are hung on These, together with Acinetobacter, Bacillus,
racks and placed in the cabinet and the Pseudomonas and Proteus may result in the
temperature raised to approximately 32°C for fermentation of sugars in the product to
30 minutes. Smoke, produced by a smoke produce sours of various types. Pickling cannot
generator consisting of a hopper which be relied upon to destroy parasitic infections,
automatically feeds dry hardwood sawdust on e.g. cysticerci in beef or pork.
to a cast iron hotplate, is drawn into the cabinet
for 1-2 hours. It is important to ensure that the
temperature does not rise above 37°C or the fat
may melt. REFRIGERATION
The chief bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal
substances in wood smoke is formaldehyde. The modem meat industry is based on efficient
The combination of heat and smoke usually refrigeration. Carcases of freshly slaughtered
causes a significant reduction in the surface animals have surfaces that are warm and wet
bacterial population. In addition, a physical and thus provide a perfect substrate for the
barrier is provided by superficial dehydration, growth of pathogenic and spoilage organisms.
coagulation of protein and the absorption of Chilling immediately post-slaughter reduces the
resinous substances. surface temperature to a value below the
minimum growth temperature for many
pathogens. The combination of low
Common defects in cured meat temperatures and surface drying inhibits the
1 Fiery red areas are caused by lack of available growth of spoilage bacteria. To provide a long,
nitrite - miscure. This may occur in deep meat safe, high-quality shelf-life, the temperature of
cuts. the meat needs to be kept at a temperature close
2 Jelly pockets are caused by injection of brine to its initial freezing point. Combining a high
into connective tissue, which it denatures. standard of hygiene and packaging with a
3 Areas of discoloration may be caused by temperature of -1 to + O.5°C during storage,
bruising or blood splashing. This can be very transport and display can routinely extend shelf-
obvious in the cooked product. life to 12 weeks. If longer periods are required,
 Preservation of Meat 107
then freezing the meat will extend the storage The surface growth of mould on meat is
Jf period into years. Scientific studies show that controlled not only by the temperature but by

I freezing has little if any affect on the eating quality

of red meat. Overall the studies indicate that the
the relative humidity of the atmosphere. Some
moulds are capable of growing on the surface of
meat may be slightly more tender after freezing. meat at several degrees below freezing point,
Freezing does increase the ultimate amount of but they require the presence of water in the
drip from meat and this makes the meat less surrounding atmosphere as otherwise they lose
attractive. However, the increased drip does not water by evaporation and wither. For the
influence the eating quality after cooking. prevention of mould the temperature and
In the process of refrigeration, heat is relative humidity must therefore be kept as low
extracted from the carcase in the chillrooms, two as possible.
basic laws of physics being involved in this There is an obvious need to control the
process. First, the boiling point of a liquid - the whole cold chain, not just in specific processes,
temperature at which it is turned into vapour - to achieve truly effective refrigeration. This
depends on the pressure. At normal atmospheric requires attention to the specification, design,
pressure (1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg; 29.92 commissioning, testing, monitoring and fault
inches Hg; 14.7lb in-, 1013.25 Nm-2 at sea level) rectification at every stage.
water boils at lOO°C but at a pressure of 0.1
atmosphere it boils at 46°e. Conversely, water
vapour at 50°C and 0.1 atmosphere can be
condensed back to water by increasing the
ED regulations on refrigeration
pressure to 1 atmosphere. When a liquid passes The regulations concerning the temperatures at
into a vapour it absorbs heat which is given off which meat, offal and meat products are held
again when it condenses. vary in different countries.
Refrigerants are liquids or liquefied gases The EEC Directive 64/433 (as amended) and
with low boiling points, e.g. ammonia or Directive 69/349, in addition to requiring that
hydrofluorocarbons, which, in the refrigeration abattoirs should have sufficiently large chilling
cycle, extract heat at low temperature when or refrigerating rooms, lay down the following.
evaporated and give off this heat to the outside 1 Meat must be chilled immediately after post-
air when re-condensed. mortem inspection and kept at a constant
The preservative action of refrigeration is temperature of not more than +7°C for
based on the prevention of multiplication of carcases and cuts and +3°C for offal.
harmful bacteria, yeasts and moulds by the 2 Cutting plants must have cooling equipment
artificial lowering of the temperature. The in the cutting rooms to keep meat at a
failure of bacteria to grow at or below freezing constant internal temperature of not more
depends mainly on the removal of the available than +7°e.
water as ice; about 70% is removed at -3.5°C 3 Cutting plants must have a thermometer or
and 94% at -10°e. A further factor is the telethermometer in the cutting room.
inhibition of the life processes of spoilage 4 During cutting the temperature of the
organisms at low temperatures, though the building must not exceed +100e.
actual lethal effect is small. At a temperature of
- 8°C the multiplication of all microorganisms In connection with poultry, EEC Directive
stops and only resumes when the temperature 71/118 specifies that after inspection and
is raised later to a suitable level. Neither fast evisceration poultry meat must be cleaned
(cryogenic) nor slow (blast) freezing completely immediately and chilled in accordance with the
destroys the bacteria commonly found in beef hygiene requirements and afterwards kept at a
carcases; frozen meat which is thawed yields an temperature which may not at any time exceed
abundant supply of water and forms an +4°e.
excellent medium for bacterial growth. In Transport of fresh meat (red and white) in the
addition, the pH of muscle, which remains European Union must be carried out under
constant while the meat is frozen, falls rapidly conditions which maintain the above
after thawing, but then rises rapidly to create an temperatures. These standards apply to trade
environment which favours bacterial within the EU and also to imports from outside
multiplication. the ED.
108 Meat Hygiene
Carcases of beef and veal which are destined of FAO and/or WHO, the Commission
for freezing for intervention purposes must be expressing the view that they might pr~vide
chilled immediately after slaughter and up to useful checklists of requirements for national
the time they have been taken over and, when enforcement authorities. While not actually
taken over, must have an inner temperature not specifying temperatures, these excellent
exceeding + 7°C. documents, in relation to refrigeration, make
In South Africa detailed regulations the following practical points:
prescribing temperature, relative humidity and
air circulation rates are in operation as follows: 1 Meat passed for human consumption should
be removed from the dressing area without
1 For initial chilling of 'warm' carcases, sides or undue delay and placed into refrigeration
quarters, the temperature must be maintained under close supervision of the inspector. Pre-
below 7°C and the mean air speed at a level rigor cutting and boning is permitted in
above 0.75 m/so In the terminal stages of temperature-controlled rooms, but there
chilling, the air temperature must be should be no delay and immediately
maintained at a level between -1QC and 2°C. thereafter the meat should be transported to
For meat packed in cartons or on trays the chilling or processing rooms.
temperature must be below 3°C and the air
speed above 0.75 m/ S. 2 The following provisions should apply where
carcases, parts of carcases, or edible offals are
2 For sioraoe of chilled carcases, sides, quarters placed in chilling rooms, freezing rooms or
or portions, Qthe temperature must be within frozen storage as the case may be:
the ranze -l C to 5°C and the mean air speed (a) Entry should be restricted to personnel
over th~ product above 0.5 m/ S. The relative necessary to carry out operations efficiently.
humidity (RH) must be maintained below
95% or, if the product is stored for longer than (b) Doors should not be left open for
extended periods and should be closed
72 h, below 90%.
immediately after use.
3 For the storage of offal, the temperature must
(c) No chilling room, freezing room or
be maintained below - 2°C or, if stored for freezer store should be loaded beyond its
longer than 72h, below -100C.
designed capacity.
A very useful adjunct to the South African (d) Where refrigerating equipment is not
manned, automatic temperature recorders
regulations is the requirement for a plate
should be installed.
outside each refrigeration room which gives
(e) If no automatic device is installed,
details of cubic capacity, type of product which temperatures should be read at regular
may be chilled or stored within maximum intervals and the readings recorded.
permissible product loading in kg; for chillers, 3 Where carcases, parts of carcases or edible
the mean product temperature reduction in °C offals are placed in a chilling room for
and the minimum period in hours for this chilling:
temperature reduction to take place; and for the
(a) There should be a reliable method of
storage of chilled meat, the maximum monitoring the chilling.
permissible mean temperature at which a
product can be introduced into the storage (b) Meat should be hung or placed in
suitable corrosion-resistant trays with
room. adequate air circulation.
It is very evident that in different countries
different temperatures, relative humidities and (c) Drips from one piece of meat to another
must be avoided.
air speeds are utilised, reflecting differences in
operating practices as well as opinions of (d) Temperature, relative humidity and air
flow should be maintained at suitable level.
refrigeration engineers and meat scientists.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission of the (e) Condensation should be prevented by
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme the efficient operation of refrigerating
published in 1976 Recommended International facilities combined with, for example, the
proper insulation of walls and [Link] and
Codes of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Meat,for Ante- the application of heat near the ceilings. If
mortem and Post-Mortem Inspection of Slaughter overhead refrigeration coils are installed,
Animals and for Processed Meat Products. The insulated drip pans should be placed beneath
Codes, which are advisory in nature, were sent them. All floor-type refrigerating units should
to all Member Nations and Associate Members be placed within curbed and separately
 Preservation of Meat 109
drained areas unless located adjacent to floor revival of interest in ammonia as a refrigerant
drains. for larger plants because of the lesser effect on
4 Where carcases, or parts of carcases, or edible the ozone layer. Today the chloroflourocarbons
offals are being frozen: (CFCs) - primarily the freons - are being
(a) Meat which is not in cartons should be replaced by hydroflourocarbons (HFS), again
hung or placed on suitable corrosion-resistant because of the absence of chlorine and hence
trays with adequate air circulation. Cartons lower ozone depletion potential.
should be stacked to permit adequate The temperature utilised in refrigerating
circulation. chambers falls into two main categories
(b) Drips on to uncartoned meat must be according to whether the meat is chilled or
prevented. frozen, but whichever method is employed the
(c) The base of any tray should not be in important points are constant temperature,
contact with the meat stored beneath. good air circulation and the right humidity.
(d) Refrigeration coils should be defrosted
frequently to prevent loss of refrigerating
efficiency. Provision should be made for the Chilling of meat
removal of water without affecting the
product. Chilling scarcely affects the flavour, appearance
or nutritional value of meat and is particularly
S Where carcases, or parts of carcases, or edible
offals are placed in any freezer store: useful for short-term preserving. The meat is
maintained at about + 1°C and preferably in the
(a) No meat should be placed in a freezer dark, for light accelerates the oxidation of fat
store until its mean temperature is of an
with the liberation of free fatty acids and the
acceptable level.
production of rancidity. The atmosphere is kept
(b) Meat should not be stacked directly on dry to hinder the formation of moulds, which
the floor but on pallets or dunnage with
are more likely to attack chilled meat than
adequate air circulation around the stacks.
frozen.
(c) The temperature of the freezer store In recent years, emphasis has been placed on
should give adequate protection to the
product. Temperature fluctuations should be shorter chilling cycles and lower temperatures
kept to a minimum. Where unpackaged meat - 'quick chilling' - for the following reasons:
is stored, the temperature difference between 1 Both time and building space are saved and
the evaporator and the meat should be kept to higher rates of product handling are
a minimum. achieved. Overheads in labour are reduced
(d) Refrigeration coils should be defrosted and capital investment in buildings is
regularly to prevent loss of refrigeration minimised.
efficiency. Provision should be made for the 2 The meat is said to have a better keeping
removal of water without affecting the quality because lower air temperatures
product. (usually below - 3°C initially) retard the rate
of growth of bacteria on the surface of
The Codex Alimentarius standard proposed carcases where their concentration is most
for beefchilling calls for a temperature of 15°C or pronounced.
lower at the centre of the round within 20 h. 3 Shrinkage of meat is reduced substantially -
an important economic factor.
Mechanical refrigeration 4 The 'bloom' is said to be enhanced by quick
chilling.
Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide were at
one time commonly used as cooling liquids In order to achieve the above objectives,
I refrigerants) but carbon dioxide is different time-temperature schedules exist for
uneconomical and sulphur dioxide is corrosive the different kinds of carcases. Surface
and toxic. discoloration and freezing of the carcase must
Ammonia, first introduced in 1876, is still be avoided.
used extensively today, although it is somewhat In pre-war years it was customary to hang
corrosive and has a penetrating odour so that beef carcases at ambient temperatures for 24h
leaks can affect stored products. There is a before placing them in chill rooms. (Indeed, in
110 Meat Hygiene
many abattoirs at that time refrigeration was Hanging of carcases from the hole in the
non-existent.) Chilling times of 36-48 h for aitch bone (obturator foramen of the os coxae)
lowering the deep round temperature of beef and adequate maturation improves the eating
carcases to 7°C are still common. quality of the meat.
Quick chilling refers to a rapid lowering of
carcase temperature starting not later than 1 h
after slaughter and avoiding freezing.
EU legislation
Low temperatures and high air speeds incur According to EEC Directive 64/433 as amended
a risk of cold shortening. Pig carcases, however, (81/476/EEC), fresh meat intended for intra-
should be cooled as quickly as is economically Community trade must be chilled immediately
feasible as they are less susceptible to cold after the post-mortem inspection and kept at a
shortening. constant temperature of not more than +7°C for
The phenomenon of cold shortening was first carcases and cuts and +3°C for offal. Except for
encountered in New Zealand when rapid meat for immediate distribution, +7°C is too
cooling schedules for lamb freezing were first high for good keeping quality. This maximum
introduced. Toughness of the meat occurred temperature of +7°C applies also to meat in
owing to extreme contraction of muscles transit, but many operators aim at keeping the
subjected to temperatures of around lOoC before air temperature in vehicles below +2°C.
the muscles were in normal rigor, i.e. while the There is now a derogation from this
pH was still above 6.2 and adenosine requirement which, for technical reasons relating
triphosphate (ATP) was still present. Cold to maturation of the meat, may be granted by the
shortening can also occur with beef carcases and competent authority on a case-by-case basis for
even in parts of the carcase, e.g. the loin, with the transportation of meat to cutting plants or
fairly slow chilling. It can be avoided by butcher's shops in the immediate vicinity of the
delaying the start of chilling, e.g. for 10-12 h meat plant, provided that such transportation
when the pH will be below 6.2 and rigor will takes no more than 2 hours.
have taken place with the complete All chill rooms should have room air
disappearance of ATP from the muscle, or not temperature indicator-recorders, and carcase
chilling to below lOoC in less than 10 h. Cold temperature indicator-recorders should be
shortening can also be prevented by the use of fitted to the control panel so that proper
electrical stimulation, which advances the onset adjustments to the chilling cycle can be easily
of rigor (see Chapter 2). carried out when necessary.
Various schedules are in operation for the Air circulation rates are high in quick-chilling
chilling of meat, but many of these pay little operations, often 70-110 times the room volume
attention to the time required for heat to be per hour. The carcase is initially warm and wet
extracted from the centre of heavy muscle and but evaporation from the surface is rapid. In
dispersed at the surface. Important issues are order to minimise loss of carcase weight while
the velocity of air over the carcases, the maintaining a short chilling cycle, high air-
uniform air flow throughout the chill room circulation rates are necessary to lower the
(although this depends also on the evenness of carcase temperature and carcase surface-water
carcase hanging), temperature and relative vapour pressure as quickly as possible. Later,
humidity. Higher temperatures and air when the carcase temperature has been
velocities and low relative humidity increase sufficiently lowered, slower air circulation rates
the weight loss due to drying out. The Meat are more beneficial.
Research Institute in Britain estimated that The Food Safety and Inspection Division of
beef carcases stored in chill rooms can lose as the United States Department of Agriculture
much as 0.1% per day, while lambs can lose advises that, for carcase-chilling coolers, rails
0.5% in a relative humidity of 90%. Smaller should be placed at least 0.6 m from
items of meat lose relatively more because of refrigerating equipment, walls and other fixed
their relatively larger surface area. On the parts of the building and 0.9 m (especially for
other hand, high relative humidity increases header and traffic rails) from walls in order to
spoilage. A relative humidity of about 90% promote cleanliness and protect walls from
appears to be suitable for commercial chilling damage. The top of the chill rails should be at
and for retail purposes. least 3.3 vm (for beef sides) from the floor level;
 Preservation of Meat 111
Table 4.2 Chilling shrinkage of pig carcase example, pork may be stored at -18°C, which
ea. 60 kg dressed weight. prevents oxidation and resultant rancidity.
During sea transport a temperature of - 9°C to
Chilling - 8°C is maintained in the holds, while the air is
Air Air shrinkage
kept dry and in circulation.
temperature speed (%)
(0C) (m/s) A B
In the UK, it has been customary to hold
meat in cold stores at temperatures of - 20°e. It is
Quick chilling )6 l4 1.9 1.5 now generally recognised that lower
Rapid chilling -7 2 1.4 1.0 temperatures are more satisfactory since they
reduce deterioration of carcase meat, and
A: 24h after slaughter. B: 1 h after slaughter. temperatures no higher than -18°C, even
Source: Cooper, R. (1970) Proc. into Inst. Refrig., Leningrad. - 30°C, are now being advocated. It was
believed that very low temperatures resulted in
excessive dehydration; this is now known to be
2.7m for headless pigs and calves; 2.2m for beef incorrect.
quarters; and 2m for sheep and goats. Entry of the UK into the EEC led to more
It is necessary to have several chill units, attention being paid to freezing rates and
rather than one large chill room, with dimen- storage temperatures for frozen meat because
sions 18-30 m long (maximum), 7.6-15m wide of the requirements for intervention freezing,
and 4.8 m high (minimum). Refrigeration an essential part of the price-support system for
requirements for the above cycle would be beef and pig meat. These EEC regulations lay
approximately 755-880 kcal/h per carcase of down that beef quarters shall be accepted for
290 kg weight (dry) with about 9.9-11.3m3 /min freezing at a temperature not above +7°C and
of air circulated per carcase. frozen within 36h to an internal temperature of
Pork carcases, because of their smaller size, -7°C or below. The acceptance temperature of
the presence of a skin and relatively greater fat pig sides is below +4°C; they must be frozen at
content, can tolerate much lower air - 30°C and held in the freezer until all the meat
temperatures and consequently shorter quick- is at - 15°C or below. Frozen storage for beef
chilling cycles, even as short as 4-7h, but most must be at a temperature of -ITC and at - 20°C
British abattoirs produce pork, like beef and for pig meat. The meat must be wrapped in
lamb, during a 24 h cycle, the carcases usually polyethylene film at least 0.05 mm thick and in
being chilled in air at 4°C and at an air speed of stockinette. Such low temperatures can be
0.3 m/ s. Work at the British Meat Research attained only in special blast freezers with air
Institute showed that ultrarapid chillingof pork in temperatures of around -34°C, air speeds of
air at - 30°C and 1 m/ s for 4 h resulted in about 3-5 m/ s and holding times of up to 25 h.
complete loss of heat in this short time with a The form of wrapping greatly affects the
100 saving in evaporative weight loss compared freezing time; if it is loose, the pockets of air or
with the control carcases handled in the cartons act as insulation and thereby increase
traditional manner. But while early cutting and freezing times. Wrapping in moisture-proof
packing was possible and there was no packaging can offset water loss.
difference in appearance and bacteriological Cold stores are designed to hold frozen meat
quality, loins showed a marked increase in drip and other foods at a required temperature,
loss and were tougher than controls. although various temperatures and air speeds
are used in different premises. While the meat
trade in Britain is resistant to the use of very
Freezing of meat
low temperatures for cold storage, work at the
The chief types of meat foods preserved by UK Meat Research Institute at Bristol has
fre-c:.ing, as distinct from chilling, are mutton, shown that at -lOoC weight losses of meat are
Iamb, pork and rabbit, but there are rather wide much greater than at - 30°C because the amount
differences of opinion as to the proper freezing of water vapour that air can hold before it
temperature. In Germany the temperature is becomes saturated increases as temperature
maintained at - 6°C and in Australia -11"C. In rises.
South America much lower temperatures may The commonly held belief that frozen meat
be used in 'what are termed sharp freezers; for will keep indefinitely is not true. The practical
112 Meat Hygiene
Table 4.3 Practical storage life (PSL) (months) at conventional types which utilise large volumes
different storage temperatures. of cold air on the product. Higher operating
efficiency and low running and maintenance
PSL(months) costs are also claimed. Being constructed in
stainless steel and capable of being quickly
stripped down, the freezer tunnel can be
Beef carcases 8 15 24 rapidly and thoroughly cleaned.
Lamb carcases 18 24 >24 Mobile meat containers are now nitrogen-
Pork carcases 6 10 15 cooled using either the gas, at -196°C from a
Edible offals 4 1-2 18 tanker via a towed distribution unit, or the
liquid as a coolant. The latter can reduce the
Source: Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre, temperature of the container more quickly but
University of Bristol, Churchill Building, Langford, Bristol, UK. requires heavy storage vessels to be carried and
is thus relatively expensive. There is also a
tendency towards discoloration of the carcase
storage life of frozen carcase meat is given in
and condensation on unloading; exposure to
Table 4.3.
the air may restore the colour, while the use of
For optimum results in chilling andfreezing and
the prevention of growth of spoilage and food- loading hatches with an awning can reduce
condensation. The cost, however, is some four
poisoning bacteria, the following criteria
should be adopted: times that of mechanical refrigeration.

1 Initial design of refrigeration space must Refrigeration instrumentation

consider product tenderness, weight loss,
possibility of spoilage, size of individual Good monitoring of refrigeration performance
units, space required, rail height, and floor should always be insisted upon. Chill and
and wall surfaces. freezer rooms should have temperature
2 Temperatures must be checked regularly. indicators, preferably with recording facilities,
3 Overloading must be avoided and carcases on the outside wall. There are a variety of
must not touch each other. portable instruments available for measuring
4 Door opening and closing must be kept to a temperature, air velocity and relative humidity.
minimum. A thermograph is a chart recorder which can
record temperatures for a period up to 7 days
S Adequate air flow around carcases is
essential. over a range of - 25°C to 40°C. A ihermo-
hygrograph which can measure temperature and
6 Carcases of different species must not occupy relative humidity (range 10-100% RH ±3% RH)
the same area.
is also available. 'Spear' thermometers may be
7 Cold shortening must be avoided by not inserted into carcases and cuts. Modern
chilling below 10°C in less than 10h. electronic and thermistor probe thermometers
give accurate results and are durable.
Liquid nitrogen Instruments which can record temperature on
charts may be obtained and an anemometer
This refrigerant is increasingly being used in (records air velocity and some can also record
the food industry, especially for freezing and temperature) is available.
automated production lines. A moving belt Various types of relative humidity meters are
carries the food through a tunnel and under a available. These are electronic and
liquid nitrogen spray at the outlet. The food is instantaneous in measurement. A hair type
frozen and the vaporised nitrogen is extracted thermohygrograph (using hair as a humidity
by fans and discharged to the atmosphere. The sensor) is also a useful means of measuring and
liquid nitrogen is stored in vacuum-insulated recording relative humidity (RH). This is the
tanks. proportion of moisture to the value for
This form of cryogenic freezing is said to saturation at the same temperature.
produce less dehydration (usually less than Temperatures measured can range from
0.3%) and better flavour, colour, aroma, texture - 40°C (in blast freezer) to +40 DC
for freshly
and nutritive value in the food than the slaughtered meat.
I
r
!
Preservation of Meat
The relative humidity in chilled rooms after
chilling is completed is around 85% RH, but
Facultative bacteria may or may not be
suppressed by carbon dioxide, while lactic acid
113

when fresh carcases are first put into the chill bacteria and anaerobes are virtually unaffected.
room the air is supersaturated with moisture On the other hand, the highly aerobic bacteria
and in this case the humidity meter or and yeasts and moulds are selectively inhibited
thermohygrograph would read 100% RH. Infra- by carbon dioxide, and the storage of meat in an
red thermometry is now being more widely appropriate concentration of this gas will
adopted. therefore retard surface decomposition, though it
will not prevent deep-seated anaerobic spoilage.
Mould growth can be arrested completely at ODC
Freeze drying or lyophilisation if 40% CO 2 is used, but any concentration over
This is the process of removing water from 20% rapidly produces methaemoglobin on the
frozen foods. The food products must be in exposed muscle and fat, and the bloom is lost.
comminuted form (sliced or diced) and packag- Experiments have shown that in 10% CO 2 the
ing must be completely moisture-proof since the storage life of meat at ODC is double that of meat
dried products are hygroscopic. At the present stored in ordinary air at a similar temperature,
time beef, pork, chicken, shellfish and other and in this way the storage life of chilled meat
foods such as mushrooms, fruits, peas, can be extended to 60-70 days.
vegetables are preserved by this process. Since
meat has a relatively high moisture content, it is
relatively expensive to preserve by freeze-drying
Refrigerated meat transport and storage
methods, which at this stage of development can Depending on the type of trade and length of
be regarded only as a supplement to traditional journey, meat may be transported by road in
methods of refrigeration. properly insulated and refrigerated (mechanical
or liquid nitrogen) vehicles or insulated or non-
insulated non-refrigerated vehicles. Only
Vacuum packing refrigerated transport can be considered
This is a process in which primal cuts of meat adequate; all other modes are totally ineffective,
are placed in a gas-impermeable form of plastic especially the non-insulated type, particularly for
(polythene, nylon/polythene, polyester / chilled meat.
polythene) laminate bags at 2---4°C and a pH of A well-designed refrigerated road vehicle should
5.5-5.8. Two basic systems are used: (1) have the following qualities: high standard of
'Cryovac', in which the air is sucked out and insulation, good internal lining, air-tight door
then the pack is passed through either a water seals, water-tight flooring, rigidity of
dip or a hot air tunnel. (2) Drawing a vacuum construction, efficient refrigeration unit, provision
without heat shrinkage. The advantage of (1) is of temperature indicators in the driving cab and
that drip is reduced and there is less possibility properly spaced overhead rails. In addition, it
of the package being torn. The packs are stored should be economical, lightweight and noiseless.
at between -18 and 1De. The residual oxygen is Solid carbon dioxide is sometimes used, either as
consumed by tissue respiration and carbon solid blocks or crushed, and provides a
dioxide accumulates. In the absence of water temperature of 0-10°e. The van cooler is provided
and air bacterial multiplication is significantly with a fan which blows the cool air over the
reduced and shelf-life can be maintained for up carbon dioxide and load. A thermostat switches
to 3 months, provided that the meat is of good off the fan when the desired temperature is
microbiological standard. In the absence of air reached and a micro switch ensures that the unit
the meat assumes a bluish discoloration, but on does not operate when the vehicle doors are open.
re-exposure to air regains its normal red colour. The maintenance of the internal temperature
is influenced by the difference between the
inside and outside temperatures, insulation, the
Carbon dioxide gas number of times the doors are opened and
Great success in mould inhibition has been closed, loading temperature of the cargo,
achieved by a process that depends on the ability capacity rating of the refrigeration system,
of carbon dioxide gas, when present in high respiration rate of the product, etc. Vehicles left
concentration, to prevent the growth of moulds. standing with doors wide open in high summer
114 Meat Hygiene
temperatures attract not only heat but also These are appealing as 'convenience foods'
undesirable arthropods. for the consumer and as an added-value
An efficient insulating medium is provided product for the manufacturer. Freshness is
by urethane foam sprayed between inner and regarded as being healthier than, for example,
outer linings. This material expands to fill all in traditional heat processed foods and the
crevices and has a low heat loss factor, a low sensory quality will be more 'natural'.
water absorption rating and a density of 23-38 Healthier foods, in the consumer's view, should
kg/ cubic metre. Lining materials must be not contain 'chemical' preservatives, and this
smooth, impermeable, durable, easily cleaned has resulted in lower levels of salt and nitrates
and able to withstand detergents and hot water. in preserved meats. Consumers often do not
They must also be non-toxic and as far as appreciate that added-value chilled foods are in
possible free from seams. Typical lining fact processed.
materials are glass-fibre-reinforced panels,
special non-marking aluminium (bare
aluminium can mark fresh unwrapped hanging
meat), plastic-coated and stainless steel sheeting. CHANGES IN FROZEN MEAT
Floors should be very durable, water-tight
and easily cleaned. There should be no crevices Two outstanding and unfavourable changes
or sharp corners throughout the inside of the take place as a result of the freezing of meat:
vehicle which would hinder cleaning. 1 The physical state of the muscle plasm
While construction of transport vehicles is (globulin and albumen proteins) is
normally suitable for hanging quarters of beef, considerably altered. When meat is frozen
lamb carcases, packaged meat, etc., the same below - 2°C the formation of ice crystals so
does not hold for offal which is not in cartons. It raises the concentration of these proteins that
is important that for the retail delivery of meat they become insoluble and do not regain their
solubility when the meat is thawed. A similar
and offal there should be good handling irreversible change may be observed if eggs
facilities; it must not be placed in an are frozen.
unwrapped state on the floor. Loading should
2 The freezing point of meat lies between - 1
be effected into a previously chilled vehicle and -lSC, when crystals begin to form: at
which has its own refrigeration unit and is well- -1.5°C, 35.5% of the muscle water is ice; at
insulated, should be direct from the cold store - 5°C, 82% is ice; and at -10°C, 94% is ice.
into the vehicle and, whenever possible, should During freezing, the water present in the
be made using an enclosed loading bay. This muscle fibres diffuses from the muscle plasm
prevents temperature increase during the to form crystals of ice. In the past it has been
loading operation. The vehicle temperature believed that the speed of freezing has an
during transit should be monitored and important bearing on the size of the ice
recorded. crystals and the future quality of the product.
When the vehicle is unloaded, either into a It has previously been postulated that when
transit cold store or at its final delivery point, meat is frozen slowly the largest crystals are
formed between the temperatures of - O.5°C
product temperature should be checked before and - 4°C and are largely located outside the
unloading, and transfer to the chilled storage muscle fibres; this temperature range is
should be immediate. known as the zone of maximum ice formation,
Over the last ten years, the market in chilled and where meat is subsequently stored within
or refrigerated, as against frozen, foods has this range the ice crystals continue to grow in
shown a marked increase in Europe, USA and size during storage. It has also been surmised
Japan. The increase has been both in terms of that if meat is frozen rapidly to a temperature
value, including shelf space in the lower than - 4°C, the ice crystals are small and
supermarkets and in the range of products lie mainly within the muscle fibres; if
available. These include those sold directly to lowering of the temperature is sufficiently
fast, many of the crystals are ultramicroscopic
the consumer and food service (catering) sales, in size, and all of them are smaller than the
where chilled products are sold in cells in which they are formed. Doubt is now
delicatessens, 'work place' cafeterias, being cast on this theory as the rate of freezing
restaurants or institutions for consumption on appears to have minimal effect on thawing
the premises. drip loss. Quick freezing of meat has made
 Preservation of Meat 115
rapid strides and is applied to lambs, calves, Durability of frozen meat
pigs, poultry, fish and various wholesale cuts,
the latter being distributed wrapped in Frozen meat stored too long becomes dry,
cellophane or a latex rubber container base. rancid and less palatable, the most important
The temperature of a food may be reduced by change being the breaking down of the fat into
quick freezing to as low as - 46°C by contact glycerine and free fatty acids, with the
with metal against which streams of brine at production of rancidity. The better the quality of
very low temperatures are directed; some meat the less trouble one encounters in its
methods use atomised sprays of cold brine, storage. The storage temperature, the degree of
which produce no distortion of the muscle fluctuation in the storage temperature and the
cells and practically no 'drip' on thawing. It type of wrapping (packaging) in which the
is, however, unlikely that the quick freezing
of whole quarters of beef will become a meat is stored are generally thought to have the
commercial proposition, for a temperature of main influence on frozen storage life.
- 275°C would be required to quick-freeze a Temperature fluctuation is of limited
quarter of beef in 30min. importance when the product is left at a
temperature below -18°C and the variation in
temperature is only l-2°e. Well-packed
'Weeping' or 'drip' products and those that are tightly packed in
Weeping denotes the presence of a watery, palletised cartons are also less likely to show
quality loss. However, poorly-packed items are
blood-stained fluid which escapes from frozen
meat when it is thawed and consists mainly of severely affected by temperature changes.
water, together with salts, extractives, protein
and damaged blood corpuscles. The latter are Freezer bum
responsible for the pink coloration of the fluid
This occurs on the outer surface of frozen offals,
and are readily recognisable on microscopical
particularly liver, hearts and kidneys, and is
examination. Weeping is an undesirable feature
caused by loss of moisture from the outer
and is caused partly by the rupture of the
tissues. It may sometimes be seen where a
muscle cells and tissues by crystals of ice, and
carcase is stored, unwrapped, close to the
partly by irreversible changes in the muscle
opening of a cold air duct. The meat or offals
plasm. The amount of drip is greater in beef
have a brown, withered discoloration. This can
than in mutton, lamb or pork, but the better the
be prevented by using suitable packaging or
original quality of a beef carcase the less on
cryogenic freezing.
average will be the drip from the meat after
thawing. Quarters of frozen beef defrosted at
10°C for 3 days and cut into large wholesale
joints lose about 1-2% of their weight during Effect of freezing on pathogenic micro-
the following day, while smaller joints of the organisms and parasites
retail trade lose 1.5-2.5%. Some bacteria are destroyed by freezing, but
It is claimed that drip is minimised if thawing low temperatures merely inhibit the growth
is very slow. One method employed for beef is to and multiplication of most until conditions
subject the meat to a temperature of oDe with 70% favourable to their growth appear. Freezing is
humidity, gradually increasing the temperature therefore of no great value in rendering a
to loDe and the humidity to 90%; the forequarter carcase affected with pathogenic bacteria safe
requires 65 h for complete thawing and the for human consumption, nor are the bacteria
hindquarter 80 h. The major effect on drip is the commonly found on beef carcases destroyed by
final temperature on thawing. slow or sharp freezing. Anthrax bacilli can
It is known that the faster the rate of withstand a temperature of -130°C, while
breakdown of ATP in muscle the more rapid is Salmonella can withstand exposure to -175°e
the onset of rigor mortis and the greater the for 3 days, and tubercle bacilli have been found
release of fluid from the muscles. If the rate of alive after 2 years in carcases frozen at -10°e.
breakdown of ATP could be slowed, i.e. rigor The virus of foot-and-mouth disease can
mortis delayed, less free fluid would be remain viable for 76 days if carcases of animals
available for drip formation on subsequent slaughtered during the incubative stage of the
freezing and thawing. disease are chilled or frozen immediately
116 Meat Hygiene
afterwards. Under similar conditions the virus further processing in the retail store. The most
of swine fever may remain infective in bone successful technology is called modified
marrow for at least 73 days, and has also been atmosphere packaging (MAP). MAP utilises
shown to be viable in frozen pork for 1500 days. sealed high-barrier packages in which the air
Freezing is, however, a valuable method for the has been replaced with a mixture of gases
treatment of meat affected with certain parasitic which will reduce the rate of deterioration of
injections. For example, pork affected with the meat. Most often these gases include
Cysticercus cellulosae can be rendered safe if held 10-50% carbon dioxide, which inhibits the
for 4 days at -10.5 to - SOC as can beef with growth of many microorganisms that cause
Cysticercus bovis by holding for 3 weeks at a spoilage of refrigerated meats. For fresh red
temperature not exceeding - 6.5°C or for 2 meats the gas mixture often contains 20-50%
weeks at a temperature not higher than oxygen so that the myoglobin will be in the
- 10.5°C. Trichinella cysts in pork are destroyed oxygenated cherry-red form. The meats must
by holding the carcase for 10 days at - 25°C but be sealed in high-barrier films which will keep
this is unreliable if the pork is more than 15 cm the air out and prevent the modified
thick. atmosphere from escaping.

Storage of fresh meat HEAT - THERMAL PROCESSING

Meat cutting in supermarkets is labour-
consuming and, as the cost of labour continues The underlying principle of all food preserving
to increase, means to reduce these costs are methods is either the creation of unfavourable
being sought. Deboned and trimmed meat, in environmental conditions under which
the unfrozen state offers cost savings in labour spoilage organisms cannot grow, or the
and transportation and requires less energy for destruction of such organisms. In commercial
storage than does frozen meat. This has canning, carefully selected and prepared foods
resulted in a shift to more centralised meat contained in a permanently sealed container are
cutting at packing plants where the carcase is subjected to heat for a definite period of time
reduced to smaller sections called primal and and then cooled. In most canning processes, the
subprimal cuts which may represent one-fourth heat destroys nearly all spoilage organisms and
to one-eighth of a whole carcase. These cuts are the permanent sealing of the container prevents
vacuum-packed in high-barrier bags and reinfection.
paperboard boxes for shipment to retailers, Current canning practice, known as aseptic
where they are further reduced to retail-sized canning, involves the use of high temperatures
cuts. They are then repacked in the familiar tray for shorter periods. The food is sterilised at
and overwrap packages. Beef and pork may be 120°C for 6 seconds to 6 minutes depending on
vacuum-packed in a high-barrier film and the food, before it enters a sterilised can which
stored at O°C (unfrozen) for up to 3 weeks. Such is then closed with a sterilised lid. This method
meat acquires the purplish colour of myoglobin is said to improve the flavour and the vitamin
at its cut surfaces. When the film is removed, content of the canned product.
the myoglobin re oxygenates to oxymyoglobin Aluminium or coated aluminium may be
and the meat reddens. Such meat is further cut used as alternatives to mild steel and tin in the
into retail portions and wrapped in an oxygen- fabrication of cans. While it has the advantage
permeable film for consumer purchase. It also of lightness (and thereby lower transport costs),
has been proposed that consumer cuts be and freedom from sulphiding and rust, it
centrally prepared and wrapped in oxygen- buckles fairly easily. Efforts are being made to
permeable film and then vacuum-packed as a produce an alloy strong enough to withstand
group in an oxygen-impermeable overwrap. the stresses of processing, packing and
When the latter is removed, the individual units transport.
would redden and be ready for direct sale. Flexible pouches made from laminates of
Most recently, new technologies have been thermoplastic and aluminium foil are widely
developed which are designed to allow used in Japan and are now being adopted in
centralised processing and packaging of retail Europe and the United States. They will not,
cuts, thus eliminating entirely the need for however, withstand the high internal pressure
 Preservation of Meat 117
developed during processing and must amount of metal in cans has been reduced and
therefore be sterilised in media (water or steam soldering, which involved the use of lead, has
and air) capable of providing an external long been discarded. The process of can
pressure sufficient to balance the internal one. manufacture begins with sheets of tinplated
For the thermal processing of the open or steel (Fig. 4.2) (1). Some of these may be coated
sanitary can, flame sterilisation, e.g. the Tarax with lacquer and dried in ovens for 15-20 min.
flame steriliser developed in Australia, Lacquers are used to prevent contact between
combined with rotation of the can, is now used food and tinplate and vary in type according to
for certain products. This system has the the class of food to be canned - acid foods like
advantage of being relatively cheap and is fruit, high-protein foods such as meat, etc. The
capable of providing very efficient heat transfer lacquer-coated sheets are cut into lengths and
in those products with some liquid. widths for specific can sizes (2, 3). Individual
Future forms of thermal processing may strips are then rolled into cylinders (4) and the
involve the use of microwave energy, two edges of the cylinder drawn together with
hydrostatic sterilisers using high-efficiency an overlap which is electrically welded (5). At this
steam and fluidised-bed systems. stage the cylinders are given a further coat of
When bacteria in a suspension are exposed lacquer on the seams and dried in an oven. A lip
to heat, the number remaining alive follows a is next formed on each end of the cylinder (6).
logarithmic course (survivor or thermal death- Separate ends (lids and bases) (7) are made in a
rate curve) against the length of heating time at different area and the rims of these ends are
a constant temperature. The D value or decimal curled and a sealing compound is injected into
reduction time is the time taken at a constant the curl (8) (Fig 4.1). The base is next joined to
temperature to reduce the surviving bacteria in the cylinder body, the sealing compound
a suspension to 10% of their original number. forming an airtight seal. The cans, with their
Total sterility is never achieved and the effect of separate lids, are now ready for use by the food
any thermal processing is measured against the processor.
activity of the spores of Clostridium botulinum, The two-piece drawn and wall-ironed can (DWI)
the most heat-resistant pathogenic form known. consists of two pieces of tinplate, the body and
In modern canning operations there must be
sufficient heat to reduce the population of Cl.
botulinum spores by a factor of 1012, i.e. a heat
process equal to 12 times the D (decimal
reduction time) of Cl. botulinum spores. Foods
with a pH of less than 4.5, in which Cl.
botulinum spores do not germinate, may be
subjected to milder heat treatments.

Traditional canning methodology (Figs 4.1

and 4.2)
As a food container, the metal can - first
developed by Nicholas Appert in France in
1795 - has certain virtues possessed by no other
type of container for heat processed foods. It
has a high conductivity, which is of importance
during processing, it cannot easily be broken
and, being opaque, any possible deleterious
effects of light on the foodstuff are avoided.
There are currently three main methods of
can manufacture, the most common being the
traditional three-piece food can. Constant research
and development are in operation to improve Fig. 4.1 Modern food can showing section through
techniques and designs. Over the years the seam. (By courtesy of Metal Box Ltd)
118 Meat Hygiene

CD
5 6

.... ~-==

Ill-Ill
-
8 9

Fig. 4.2 Stages of can manufacture. (By courtesy of Metal Box Ltd)

base being formed from one piece of metal and of the surface of certain foodstuff, known as
the lid from another. The body and base are sulphiding, may also occur and is avoided by
shaped from a thick piece of tinplate which is use of a phenolic meat lacquer or a sulphur-
drawn up, ironed and ridged for strength and resistant lacquer. An alternative method of
then given a coat of lacquer. avoiding sulphiding is now being extensively
The drawn and redrawn (DRD) can is employed for meat packs and consists of
manufactured from two pieces of tinplate, the chemical treatment of the inside of the can to
body being made from a disc-shaped piece, form an invisible film, the solution used being a
lacquered on both sides, and drawn up to form strong alkali bath containing phosphates and
a shallow cup and then redrawn a second and chromates.
third time to make a deep cup.
Although the term tin can is applied to
currently used containers, this is something of a Treatment of food to be canned
misnomer as they are constructed of mild steel The food to be canned must be clean and of
with a thin coating of pure tin representing good quality; the use of any material showing
about 1.5% of the can's weight. Coating of the obvious signs of spoilage will result in
steel plate is necessary to prevent corrosion, deterioration in quality of the product. Many
and in some foodstuffs, such as fish or fruit, a foods, particularly fruit and vegetables, are
fish or fruit lacquer is used. Unsightly staining scalded or blanched before treatment, to cleanse
 Preservation of Meat 119
the product, to produce shrinkage which in fruit packs, to reduce chemical action between
permits adequate filling of the can, to remove the food and container, and to avoid hydrogen
gases, and to prevent oxidative changes which swells. Although the production of a vacuum
might cause deterioration. A firm, dry pack is probably has little effect on microorganisms,
required for meat foods without any excess of experience has shown that tins containing a
free liquor in the can; the moisture content of vacuum keep better than those with air in.
meat is therefore reduced by parboiling in Exhaustion of a can may be carried out in
steam-heated water, which produces up to 40% two ways:
shrinkage in corned beef, 32% in ox tongues
1 Heat exhausting, in which the contents are
and 30% in pork tongues. Highly fattened filled cold into the can, which is then passed
animals are unsuitable for corned beef, as the through a steam-heated chamber before
meat is too fat and the finished product has an sealing. The ends of the can are loosely
objectionable taste and appearance. The meat is attached to permit the escape of air, sealing
therefore obtained from cattle which are older being completed when the cans leave the
and leaner than those furnishing the supply of exhauster.
chilled or frozen beef. 2 Vacuumising, in which the cold material is
After meats have been parboiled they are filled into the can, which is then closed in a
taken to the trimming table where inedible vacuum-closing machine, the can being
parts such as bones, cartilage and tendons, subjected to a high vacuum during the sealing
together with surplus fats, are removed. operation.
Following closure, the cans are usually
Canning operations washed, before processing, in water at 80-85°C,
containing a non-ionic detergent.
Cans may be filled either by hand or by
automatic machinery, the next process being
exhaustion or removal of air from the can
before it is sealed. When meat with gravy is
Processing
being canned it is important to put the gravy in With the exception of such foods as sweetened
first in order to ensure freedom from air condensed milk or jam, all canned foods are
bubbles, which could aid bacterial growth. It is processed, i.e. given final heating, after
essential to make sure the cans are not being hermetic sealing. The term 'processing' is an
overfilled. exact one; it is not sterilisation since certain
canned foods after processing may still contain
living organisms. Although canned foods will
Filling keep with certainty if sterilised, they are then
It is important that the correct weight is filled liable to alteration in colour and texture. Food
into each can. Overfilling can result in to be canned is threatened on the one hand by
underprocessing and distortion of the can's bacterial spoilage and on the other by danger of
seams. Underfilling may result in air pockets overheating. The canner therefore chooses a
within the product which may interfere with middle course, the minimum heat employed in
the transfer of heat by conduction during processing being controlled by the nature of the
processing. Any delay between filling and food in the can and the types and number of
processing may allow bacterial growth with a bacteria likely to be present.
resulting loss of quality. During processing, heat penetrates to the
centre of the can by conduction and by
convection currents. In solid meat packs the
Exhausting heat diffuses by conduction only and the process
Exhaustion is necessary for the following reasons: is therefore slow; the convection currents in
to prevent expansion of the contents during loosely packed foodstuffs transfer heat faster.
processing, which may force the seams; to produce Solids loosely packed in a liquid will, therefore,
concave can ends so that any internal pressure heat more rapidly than those that are tightly
may be readily detected and warrant rejection of packed. Canned ham, being the largest and
the can; to lower the amount of oxygen in the can most solid pack of all the canned foods, requires
and prevent discoloration of the food surface; and, very careful processing.
120 Meat Hygiene
In non-acid foods, such as meat, the effective treatment. In commercial practice,
destruction of bacterial spores is slow; cans are water-cooled to 38°C and the residual
temperatures of about 115°C are required for heat dries the exterior and prevents corrosion.
adequate processing within a practical time
limit. In commercial practice, the cans are
placed in metal baskets in closed retorts and
processed by pressurised steam.
Can washing
The amount of heat used is based on that Cans that have just been cooled are dirty and
required to destroy the spores of Cl. botulinum, greasy on the outside, and are therefore washed
the so-called botulinum cook. It is quantified as in a bath with soap or saturated with fatty
the 'D-value', which is a measure of the time alcohols and rinsed to facilitate subsequent
taken to achieve a Ill-fold reduction in the handling, lacquering and labelling.
bacterial numbers at a given temperature. The
accepted standard for a safe heat treatment is
the time/temperature combination which will
achieve a reduction in Cl. botulinum by a factor
Outside lacquering
of 10, otherwise expressed as 10D. (Directive Commercial lacquer or enamel is a colour
92/5 refers to the F value. This is a measure of varnish containing vegetable or synthetic resin.
the LETHAL effect of the heat process to destroy Lacquer may be applied to the outside of the tin
spores or vegetative cells, and is expressed as to prevent external corrosion, particularly when
minutes spent at 250 - so an F value of 3.0 is
0P
the cans are destined for humid climates.
the lethal heat equivalent of 3 minutes at 250°F. Although external lacquering is not common in
Z Value refers to the degrees F required for the the canning of vegetables and fruits, it is almost
destruction curve to traverse one log cycle.) universal in the salmon canning industry, not
Monitoring of this CCPI must ensure that the only because the UK market insists on
time/temperature and pressure parameters are shipments finished in this way, but also because
measured continuously and automatically to the loss through rusting would otherwise be
ensure all cans receive the correct 'cook'. The enormous.
system must also ensure that processed and
non-processed cans cannot be mixed.
Container handling
Cooling The contents of hot, wet cans may be infected if
Prompt cooling after processing is important, as the cans are subjected to mechanical abuse and
it checks the action of heat and prevents undue exposed to excessive concentrations of
change in texture and colour. In addition, microorganisms around the seam or seal areas,
cooling reduces the considerable internal e.g. from operatives' hands. Thus, manual
pressure of the cans which builds up during handling of hot wet cans must be avoided, and
processing. The cans may be placed under cold it is wise to discard cans manually handled
water showers, immersed in a cold water tank while, for example, clearing run-way
or pressure-cooled in the retort. The standard of blockages. Surfaces coming into direct contact
the cooling water should be that acceptable for with cans must be checked for efficiency of
public drinking water supply, i.e. it should be cleaning «10 du/ cm-),
clean and wholesome. Reliance cannot be
placed on chlorination alone, which has little
effect on any organisms if organic matter is
present; river water will require sedimentation Canning of meats
and filtration before final chlorination. The Corned beef is perhaps the best known of the
amount of chlorine added to cooling water canned meat products, although considerable
should be enough to produce, after 30 min quantities of canned ham, ox, sheep and pig
contact time, a free residual chlorine content of tongues and spiced hams are now
0.5 ppm or more, and a chlorinated water manufactured. The preparation of corned beef
supply should show no coliform bacteria in will illustrate the procedure normally adopted
100 ml water, a standard readily obtained by in the preparation of canned meats.
 Preservation of Meat 121
Corned beef produces a 'pasteurised' ham which will have
potentially a greater bacterial flora. The cans
Corned beef is prepared from beef pickled in
should be stored at O°e.
salt, nitrite and sugar, boiled for 1 h and then
trimmed of soft fats, tendons, bones and
cartilage. The texture and the fat content Foods packed in glass
depend on the taste of the country for which it
A great variety of foods is packed in
is intended, some countries preferring a lean
hermetically-sealed glass containers and,
corn beef, others a higher fat content; that for
though the treatment of these differs somewhat
the UK market generally contains about 10%
fat. Pickling is essential, for without it the meat from foods packed in cans, the principles of
preservation are the same. The disadvantages
after processing would be very much shrunken
and dark in colour, while the can would contain of the glass container are that its greater weight,
fragility, lessened output for the same amount
liquid and dripping. The meat is machine-cut
of equipment and labour, together with the
and packed automatically into cans. The
extra expense in packing, limit its use for the
shrinkage from original fresh boneless meat to
higher-grade products. On the other hand, it is
its weight when finally packed is 40--45%. The
less susceptible to attack by the product it
cans are then capped with the vent open, and
contains and the contents may be readily
sealed under a vacuum. In some cases
inspected. The metal caps of glass containers
exhaustion is carried out, with the vent open, in
are usually lacquered tin plate, with a paper
a process retort for 45 min at 104.6°C; the can is
liner inside to prevent discoloration resulting
then removed and the vent is closed as soon as
from corrosion of the metal. The cap is held
it ceases blowing.
firmly against a rubber gasket on the rim of the
Subsequent processing varies in different
glass container and thus forms a hermetic seal.
plants. In some cases the cans are put into
Glass-packed foods are processed for a
retorts and processed at a pressure of
longer period than canned foods but at a lower
0.632 kg£! cm" for 2Y2 h or more, depending on
temperature, as there is risk of fracture of the
the size of the can. A 453 g tin of corned beef
glass, and both heating and cooling must
requires 21Y2 h at 104.6°C, a 2.7 kg tin 5 h at
therefore be carried out more slowly. The
105SC, and a 6.3 kg tin 6 h at 10S.3°e. In other
modern method is to process in pressurised
cases, the cans are immersed in boiling water
steam-heated water. At the conclusion of
for 3/:;--4 h. Processing is followed by cooling,
processing, the steam is shut off and cold water
degreasing and lacquering.
is slowly admitted to the retort but the air
pressure is still maintained to prevent the cap
from being blown off by the internal pressure
Canned hams which develops in the container.
Hams are boned by hand and forced into a
pressure mould to produce the required shape.
The metal container for hams is double-seamed,
Spoilage in canned foods
though without a rubber gasket, sealing being It was at one time thought that the keeping
done by hand-soldering followed by qualities of canned goods depended upon the
exhausting and soldering of the vent hole. The complete exclusion of air. Later it was
hams are finally cooked without pressure at suggested that the heating destroyed all
93.5°C for several hours Cooking at a higher microorganisms, while the sealing of the can
temperature for a shorter time in a pressure prevented the entry of others, and that
retort is contraindicated, as it produces decomposition, when it occurred, was due to
deleterious changes in the ham texture and faulty sterilisation or to entry of bacteria
heavy weight loss due to exudation of fat and through a fault in the can. Neither of these
gelatin. An increase of only 10min in cooking at views expresses the whole truth because living
these higher temperatures can increase the bacteria can often be found in sound and
overall cooking loss to 5%. Large hams 1.4 wholesome food, and bacteriological methods
kg-7 kg, would be unpalatable if cooked at show that any canned meats or meat products
normal canning temperatures and should be contain living organisms, even after modern
subjected to SO°C for up to 60 min. This processing methods. The mere presence of
122 Meat Hygiene
living organisms is of little or no significance in through the flipper and springer stages and these
assessing the soundness of canned goods. two conditions must be regarded as suspicious
The organisms responsible for spoilage in of early spoilage of the can contents. A change
canned goods may be spore-forming and in the appearance of the gelatin surrounding
therefore resistant to commercial processing, or meat packs is usually associated with the
they may be non-sporing organisms which gain formation of gas, the gelatin being discoloured
access via leakages after processing. Aerobic and more liquid in consistency. It should be
spore-forming bacteria may be present in sound remembered however, that in hot weather the
samples of canned goods. Spores probably gelatin of meat packs is likely to be of a more
remain dormant under the anaerobic conditions fluid nature. These abnormal cans are brought
of a properly sealed can but, if supplied with air about by imperfect canning operations such as
through faulty sealing, may develop and inadequate exhaustion of air before sealing,
produce enzymes which decompose the overfilling and the so-called 'nitrate swell' which
foodstuff. arises during thermal processing and is
Non-sporing proteolytic or fermenting recognised during subsequent cooling, but
bacteria, e.g. Proteus and E. coli, may cause whose nature is not fully understood.
decomposition of canned foods; no single type A leaker is a can with a hole through which
of organism is responsible for microbial air or infection may enter or its contents escape.
spoilage. The problem of spoilage in canned An overfilled can is one in which the ends are
goods is not the simple one of the presence or convex due to overfilling, but filling by weight
absence of such bacteria, but why in some cans or accurate measurement has done much to
bacteria of this type decompose the contents, obviate this condition and most tins classified
while in others they remain inactive. Though as overfilled are actually in the early stage of
yeasts and moulds are of great importance as a blowing. Though an overfilled can cannot
cause of unsoundness in acid substances properly be regarded as a spoiled can, it must
containing sugars, e.g. canned fruits, they are of be differentiated from a blower, and it emits a
less importance in canned meats and marine dull sound when struck, whereas a blown tin
products. The presence of yeasts, moulds and emits a resonant note. The term slack caps
non-sporing bacteria in canned meat foods is denotes a can which has a movement of one of
evidence of leakage after sealing and can make the ends similar to that of a can in the early
the food unsound. Canned goods which, on stages of blowing but is now rarely, if ever,
opening, show such evidence should be encountered, and the great majority of cans
condemned. classed as slack caps are blown and should be
treated as such.
Spoilage of canned goods may be of
Types of spoilage
microbial origin or chemical origin due to
Canned goods are classified as spoiled when deleterious influences such as rust or damage.
the food has undergone a deleterious change, or
when the condition of the container renders
such change possible. Spoiled cans may show Microbial spoilage
obvious abnormalities such as distortion, Bacteria of the decomposing or fermenting type
blowing, concave ends or slightly constricted are the most important as regards canned
sides; or they may present a perfectly normal foods, while spore-forming bacteria are the
external appearance. most resistant. There are three main types of
A can with its ends bulged by positive spore-forming organisms which can resist
internal pressure due to gas generated by normal processing and may cause spoilage in
microbial or chemical activity is termed a swell canned foods; gas-producing anaerobic and
or blower. Aflipper has a normal appearance and aerobic organisms with an optimum growth
though one end flips out when the can is struck temperature of 37°C; gas-producing anaerobic
against a solid object it snaps back to normal organisms growing at an optimum temperature
under light pressure. A springer is a can in of 55°C; and non-gas-producing aerobic or
which one end is bulged but can be forced back facultative anaerobic spore-forming organisms
into normal position, whereupon the opposite with an optimum growth temperature of about
end bulges. All blown cans pass successively 55°C, which produce 'flat-sours'.
 Preservation of Meat 123
Processing is not a substitute for cleanliness have been exceptionally hot; it is, however,
and will destroy a small number of bacteria comparatively common in tropical and
rather more easily than a large number. Bacteria subtropical countries, or in cans imported from
subjected to heat or other harmful influences them.
are destroyed in accordance with a definite law Ham spoilage may be caused by faecal
which prescribes that where two different streptococci, e.g. Streptococcus liquefaciens,
suspensions of the same organism are subjected which may liquefy jelly and cause off-colour,
to heat under uniform conditions, the number off-flavour souring.
of bacteria will be reduced by the same
percentage over equal periods of time.
Insufficient processing is a cause of Chemical spoilage
unsoundness of canned goods, though not the Hydrogen swell may occur quite independently
all-important factor generally assumed. of fermentation or bacterial decomposition, and
The bacteria found in canned meat or fish are is associated with the formation of hydrogen
nearly always secondary invaders gaining gas in the can following internal corrosion.
access through a leak. Microbial spoilage may Imperfections or scratches on the inner tin
thus result from underprocessing or from coating may expose small areas of steel, and,
leakage through the seam. Leakers may be where the contents are acid, an electric couple
detected by the disappearance of the vacuum may result, the reaction producing hydrogen
from the sides and ends of the can, and bubbles gas. Electrolytic action is accelerated by oxygen
appear if the can is held under water and and by the colouring matter (anthocyanins) of
squeezed. Another test for leakage is to heat the red fruit. Cracks in the inner lining of lacquer
can to 38°C in the interior and allow it to cool serve to concentrate electrolytic action on the
slowly; if a leak is present, there will be no areas of steel exposed and increase the rate of
concavity of the sides or ends. The detection of hydrogen release. Cans affected with hydrogen
leakers by striking the suspect can with a mallet swell may show varying degrees of bulging
has little value in industrial practice. The from flipping to blowing. If the tin is
commonest form of leaking occurs at the seams, punctured, there is emission of hydrogen gas,
and may sometimes be detected by liquid or which is colourless and burns on the
stain on the can surface. Mould formation on application of a flame. The condition is chiefly
the surface of canned meats is also indicative of associated with foods containing organic acids
leakage, but cannot be detected until the can is such as fruits, particularly plums, cherries,
opened. raspberries, blackcurrants and loganberries.
Flat-souring in canned goods produces a sour The range of acidity most favourable to the
odour of the foodstuff but the can is not blown. production of hydrogen swell lies between pH
Canned foods susceptible to flat-souring are 3.5 and 4.5, and the less acid fruits therefore
those containing sugar or starches, and meat give more trouble than those of higher acidity,
products such as sausages or pastes containing but with proper precautions there should be
cereal. True flat-sours are caused by very little trouble from hydrogen swells in
thermophilic organisms (B. coagulans, B. commercially-packed English fruits for at least
stearothermophilus, B. circulans) which are a year after canning. The condition is seldom
exceptionally heat-resistant and attack encountered in canned vegetables and is
carbohydrates, producing acid but not gas. practically unknown in canned meat foods, but
Sourness in canned foods may also arise due to it is sometimes seen in tinned sardines.
leaking cans, or it may have developed in the Although the contents of a can in hydrogen
foodstuff before processing. This latter form of swell may be quite harmless, the routine
spoilage is most likely in packs cold-filled in methods employed in the examination of
warm weather, particularly if the cans are open canned goods render it impossible to
for even short periods prior to processing. distinguish between tins blown owing to
Flat-souring of canned goods due to hydrogen swell and those blown as a result of
thermophilic spore-forming organisms cannot deleterious changes due to bacteria or yeasts.
be detected until the can is opened and its All blown tins, whether fruit, meat, vegetables
contents are examined, but is unlikely to occur or condensed milk, must be regarded as unfit
in temperate climates unless storage conditions for food, and leakers, springers and flat-sours,
124 Meat Hygiene
together with tins whose contents show foodstuffs, and may then proceed to blow; such
evidence of mould, should likewise be self-sealing cans may blow at any period of
condemned. their storage life, whereas an underprocessed
Purple staining on the inner surface of cans in can will blow early in its life, generally within
which sulphur-containing foods are packed the first few months. Where unfilled cans are
may occur with all fish and meat products, stored and allowed to rust internally before
especially liver, kidneys and tongue. It is due to being filled, the can edges may become rusted,
the breakdown of sulphur-containing proteins with the result that during processing a
in high-temperature processing by the chemical action may take place between the
thermophilic Clostridium nigrificans ('sulphur rust and meat juices and give rise to an
stinker'); hydrogen sulphide is liberated and a unsightly grey precipitate of iron phosphate in
thin layer of tin sulphide is formed on the the meat jelly.
inside of the can. This discoloration does not Considerable significance should be attached
involve the foodstuff itself and varies from a to cans damaged by rough handling, the
light pink to a dark purple, but it may be important factor in their judgement being the
accompanied by a blackening of both the inside extent and location of the damage. Marked
of the can and surface of the foodstuff if the deformation of the can seam is attended by
hydrogen sulphide attacks the steel base- considerable risk of leakage and such cans
forming iron sulphide. It is of more serious should be condemned. Slight indentations on
import than the deposition of tin sulphide, as it the can body are permissible, but severe dents
may lead to pitting of the steel and on the body may cause seam distortion and
disfigurement of the surface of the meat pack. such cans should be rejected; any can having a
Discolorations of both types may be prevented dent at one end should also be rejected for it is
by a sulphur-resisting lacquer, the basis of possible to reduce a springer to normal, at any
which is copal gum dissolved in a suitable rate temporarily, by hitting it upon the corner of
solvent to which are added substances capable a box. Nail holes in cans caused during the
of uniting with the volatile sulphur gases closing of packing cases may also be
released while the food is being processed. encountered, and such cans should be rejected
even if the contained foodstuff appears
perfectly normal. It is important to reject any
Rust or damage
can which is in the least suspicious or which
Cans showing external rust require careful shows lack of concavity of the ends.
consideration. It is a condition particularly
liable to occur beneath can labels when the
adhesive contains hygroscopic substances.
The public health aspect of canned foods
Cans in which the external surface is slightly Improvements in the canning industry during
rusted without noticeable pitting of the iron recent years, together with greater appreciation
may be released for immediate sale and of its hygienic requirements, have done much
consumption, but if the rust is removed with a to remove the public prejudice against canned
knife and inspection with a hand lens reveals foods, which were thought to cause food
the iron plate to be definitely pitted, there is poisoning. Food poisoning is usually the result
danger of early perforation and the cans should of improper handling of food during
be condemned. Minute perforations of the tin preparation or storage, and, with the exception
plate, known as pinholing, permit the entrance of botulism, food poisoning outbreaks are
of air and lead to spoilage of the can contents. nearly always caused by bacteria which would
Pinholing may originate from the outside, but be destroyed during processing. Salmonellae are
also from the inside of the can where the tin destroyed with certainty by the temperatures
plating is imperfect or has been fractured attained in commercial processing. The
during seaming, and in this case lacquer lining minimum standard of processing now
aggravates the trouble, as the cracks that occur universally recognised by reputable canners
in the lacquer aid in concentrating the chemical ensures the destruction of Cl. botulinum spores
action on a small area. A can which is a leaker in low- and medium-acid foods (see Botulism).
or pinholed may occasionally seal itself by A lower processing temperature is, however,
blocking of the holes with the contained permissible in cases such as cured meats, in
 Preservation of Meat 125
which the curing salts have an inhibitory effect containers of meat products, attention should
on the growth of the organism and the be directed at the standards of methods used at
production of toxin. the point of production (quality assurance), viz.
Staphylococci, and more rarely streptococci, hygiene levels, temperatures for heat treatment,
are now recognised as a cause of food water supply, etc., which should supply more
poisoning mainly in prepared or unheated important information than the microbiological
foods, such as cheese, salad, milk or ice cream. testing of numerous containers, which would
These organisms are ubiquitous in nature but not only be wasteful but would be unlikely to
their main source is the human or animal body, detect entities such as botulism.
where they are normally present on the skin, in Examination of the quality of containers is
the intestine and the respiratory tract. important to ensure that there are no damaged,
Staphylococci, however, are relatively rusty, blown, etc. cans. If there is reason to
susceptible to heat, and even the more resistant suspect that a consignment of meat products in
staphylococcal enterotoxin, which may hermetically-sealed containers is unsatisfactory,
withstand a temperature of 100°C for 30 min, is sampling and inspection procedures should be
destroyed during commercial processing. Cans adopted anlong the lines recommended by the
may occasionally become infected by these Codex Alimentarius Commission (1983). The
organisms through a leak, and in the absence of number of samples to be taken is assessed
accompanying gas-forming bacteria, there will according to the expected hazard and the
be no 'blow' and the can will appear normal. laboratory facilities available in the case of
Most cases of food poisoning now associated shelf-stable canned products. For non-shelf-
with canned foods are the result of stable products, five containers are examined
contamination after the can is opened, but a visually and their contents examined
number of cases of typhoid fever associated microbiologically. Both aerobic and anaerobic
with canned foods have occurred in Britain. microbiological techniques are undertaken,
The outbreak in Aberdeen in 1964, in which decisions as to rejection or approval being
there were over 400 confirmed cases, was based on bacterial plate counts (Sampling and
attributed to the post-processing entry of Inspection Procedures for Microbiological
contaminated cooling water in a 2.7 kg tin of Examination of Meat Products in Hermetically
corned beef of South American origin. sealed Containers, Codex Alimentarius
Viewing the question as a whole, canned Commission of FAO/WHO 1983).
foods are considerably less likely to be a source
of food poisoning than ordinary fresh foods.
The possibility of secondary contamination of OTHER METHODS OF MEAT
canned foods with pathogenic bacteria also PRESERVATION
raises the question of the wisdom of leaving
food in a can after it has been opened. From the Antioxidants
public health standpoint there is no reason why An antioxidant is defined in the UK
an open can, properly stored, should not be Miscellaneous Food Additives Regulations
used as a food container; it should, however, be 1995 No. 3187 (as amended in 1997) as 'any
covered to prevent contamination and kept substance which prolongs the shelf-life of a
cool. food by protecting it against deterioration
caused by oxidation, including fat rancidity
_\ficrobiological examination of canned meats and colour changes'.
Antioxidants often improve flavour in
Where suspected outbreaks of food poisoning cooked meat and some prevent colour changes.
attributed to canned food occur, the normal
laboratory procedures for isolation of the
responsible organism (Salmonella, Staphylococcus,
Preservatives
Clostridium, etc.) are adopted, care being taken in
the sampling, transport, identification, handling, A preservative is defined in the above
etc. of the suspect food. regulations as any substance which prolongs
In order to ensure the safety and stability of the shelf-life of a food by protecting it against
large consignments of hermetically-sealed deterioration caused by micro-organisms.
126 Meat Hygiene
Schedule 2 of the 1995 regulations gives a list exposure, temperature, pH, relative humidity
of permitted preservatives and antioxidants. light intensity and degree of contamination.
In the assessment of any additive for use in a The wavelength for maximum bactericidal
food, three criteria have to be considered: activity of ultraviolet rays is about 2500 A,
which can be produced by mercury-vapour
1 benefit or need accruing to the food industry,
retailers and customers; lamps. As would be expected, spores and
moulds are more resistant than vegetative
2 safety in use;
organisms, yeasts being only slightly more
3 satisfactory standard of purity of the resistant.
chemical. Ultraviolet rays are currently used in the
Other substances are added to foods for ageing of meat at relatively high temperatures to
specific purposes, e.g. emulsifiers, stabilisers, control the growth of surface organisms. The
acids, non-stick agents, air excluders, bactericidal effect is also due to shorter
phosphates, humectants, sequestrants, firming wavelengths which convert atmospheric
agents, anti-foam agents, colouring agents, oxygen to ozone, an additional bactericide.
flavours and solvents, in addition to nutritive
substances such as vitamins A B, (thiamin), C
and D, nicotinic acid and calcium. While some Ionising radiation
of these additives contribute to the shelf-life,
they are not normally regarded as true Irradiation of food can be achieved by using
preservatives. either gamma-rays produced by a radionuclide,
usually cobalt-60, or high-energy machines.
Both gamma-rays and electrons produce
Irradiation ions which induce a sequence of chemical
changes in the food, thus causing the particular
Electromagnetic radiation is known to inhibit effect for which the irradiation was applied, e.g.
the growth of microorganisms and a the killing of bacteria. These chemical changes
considerable amount of work has been are not unique to irradiation but are also
expended in an attempt to use it for the produced by other conventional processing
sterilisation of foods. Close attention has been methods such as heating and cooking.
paid to the effect on the nutritional value of the Although the two sources of ionising
treated foods, as well as the possible production radiation produce similar reactions in a food,
of carcinogens and induced radioactivity. they may not be equally suitable for all food
applications because of their different
penetrating powers. High-energy electrons are
Infrared radiation
less penetrating than gamma-rays, the extent of
Infrared rays have been mainly used to dry penetration being influenced by the energy
fruits and vegetables and for heat blanching in (maximum permitted level is 10 MeV (mega-
the same way as high-frequency radiation. electron volt) and density of the product.
Infrared rays have a wavelength of 3 x 10-4 cm. Double-sided irradiation allows an increase
in the effective thickness of a package, but
electrons are not suitable for treating large bulk
Ultraviolet radiation
packages although they can be used for thin
Ultraviolet rays occur at wavelengths of packs or for surface irradiation. With gamma-
radiation between 100 and 3000 A and are irradiation, pallets of up to 1 m thickness can be
invisible (the Angstrom, k is a unit of length used.
equal to 10-10 metre or 0.1 nanometre). They The main features of an irradiation plant are
have a bactericidal action which is especially the irradiation room, which contains the source
valuable for destroying air-borne bacteria, and of ionising radiation, and an automatic convey-
are utilised in storage vats and other tanks to or system which transports the food into and
destroy microorganisms on or above the out of the room. Around this room is approxi-
surface of foods. The penetrating effects of the mately 2 m of concrete. In the case of a gamma-
rays are generally considered to be low and are irradiator, the radionuclide continuously emits
influenced by factors such as the length of radiation and when not in use must be stored in
 Preservation of Meat 127
a water pool, whereas machines producing amines, etc. Hydrogen sulphide odour is lost on
high-energy electrons can be switched off and subsequent storage, and different odours
on. This naturally influences the financial feasi- develop. While beef is especially susceptible to
bility and a plant needs to be in continuous the development of these unpleasant odours
operation. and flavours, pork is much less affected.
Irradiation doses up to 10kGy can be applied
Uses Some of the uses of ionising radiation
to frozen poultry (-18°C) without causing any
are as follows:
unacceptable organoleptic changes because in
1 Decontamination of food ingredients such as the frozen state the chemical reactions that
spices. bring about the desired effects of irradiation are
2 Reduction in the numbers of pathogenic hindered and a higher dose is necessary to
microorganisms such as Salmonella, achieve the same objective.
Campylobacter and Listeria in, for example, When treating frozen products, time in the
meat and meat-type products. irradiator should be kept to a minimum so that
3 Extension of shelf-life of fruits, vegetables, any temperature rise is not significant. Similar
meat and meat products. considerations regarding dose and irradiation
4 Insect disinfestation of grain, grain products conditions also apply to other products such as
and tropical fruits. frogs' legs and shellfish.
5 Inhibition of sprouting in potatoes, onions Other requirements The benefit to be gained
and garlic. from using irradiation whether, for example, to
control food-poisoning microorganisms or to
Effectiveness The effectiveness of the process disinfect grain, will only be achieved if the food
depends on the quality of the raw material, the being treated is of excellent quality and is
dose applied, temperature during irradiation, stored under suitable conditions before and
type of packing and storage conditions before after irradiation. This often involves chilled or
and after irradiation. even frozen storage, and, depending on the
Pathogens such as Salmonella and product, humidity control may also be
Campylobacter are sensitive to fairly low levels necessary. The need to combine irradiation with
of ionising radiation. As the radiation dose suitable storage highlights the point that
increases, more microorganisms are affected, irradiation is not a technology that can stand
but a higher dose may simultaneously alone. It is one technology among many others
introduce organoleptic changes, and there which in some cases may have advantages over
needs to be a balance between the optimum the more conventional food preservation
dose required to achieve a desired objective and methods.
that which will minimise any organoleptic The UK Food (Control of Irradiation)
changes. With fresh poultry carcases, an Regulations 1990 require licensing of premises
irradiation dose of 2.5 kGy (kilogray) will which can carry out irradiation. The seven
virtually eliminate Salmonella and extend the permitted descriptions of food are: fruit,
shelf-life of the food by a factor of about 2 if the vegetables, cereals, bulbs and tubers, spices and
storage temperature post-irradiation is condiments, fish and shellfish and poultry.
maintained below S°c. (The gray is the SI unit
of absorbed radiation dose, equivalent to
transfer of 1J of energy per kg of product being High pressure
treated (1 J/kg).). Irradiation of poultry was
An interesting development, currently
approved in the USA in 1990.
attracting a great deal of worldwide interest, is
Organoleptic changes Higher doses will give the use of high pressure. The pressures
an even greater reduction in the numbers of involved are immense, greater than at the
microorganisms, but at doses of about S kGy or bottom of the deepest ocean, which is over 6.5
above, odour and flavour changes may be tons per square inch. Work in Australia has
produced in the food during storage which will shown that the cooked tenderness of meat can
render it unacceptable. These are caused by the be improved by such treatment, either before or
formation of volatile sulphur-containing after rigor mortis, and Japanese workers have
substances - hydrogen sulphide, carbonyls, demonstrated that the time required for
128 Meat Hygiene
conditioning can be decreased . The is very much in its infancy and is likely to
microbiological quality of comm inuted meat involve further capita l investment and many
produc ts can be improved, offering potentially hours of development to bring hig h-pressure-
inc reased shelf-life. The water b ind ing of beef treated meat and mea t p roducts into the
patties is increased. However, all of th is work market place.
 Chapter 5
By-products Treatment

The economics of the world's meat industry and from 5% to 6% of the liveweight of
require that animal by-products are utilised so chickens. Biologically, most non-carcase
that the livestock industry generates viable material is edible, with appropriate cleaning,
products. Whenever possible, this means handling or processing, but variable use is
creating added-value foods or products, which made throughout the world owing to custom,
entails further processing. The cost of the live religion, palatability and reputation of the
animal often exceeds the selling price of its product. The most commonly used organs for
carcase and therefore the value of the by- human consumption are liver, heart, tongue,
products must pay for the cost of slaughter and kidney, tripe and, in areas free from BSE,
provide a profit for the meat plant. Even when sausage casings, sweetbreads and brain. Some
some by-products are worthless, they must be cultures will use other parts of the animal - pig
disposed of in a hygienic, environmentally- and poultry feet, pigs' ears, etc.
friendly, cost-effective manner. Additional non-carcase material is usually
By-products are divided into edible and separated into categories of decreasing value to
inedible, although the distinction is not absolute. provide sausage material and other edible by-
Bovine liver is a valuable edible by-product products, e.g. fat; pet food; animal feed; and
when passed as fit for human consumption, but fertiliser.
when affected with fascioliasis it is inedible, Edible by-products, in general, owing to
although it can still be utilised by the their higher glycogen content and lesser fat
pharmaceutical and pet food industries. covering, are more perishable than the carcase
For animal by-products to be effectively and they must be chilled quickly and handled
utilised there must be a practical commercial hygienically. They should be kept at a
process for converting the animal by-products temperature of not more than 3°C. Freezing
into a usable commodity, and there must be a does not significantly decrease the bacterial
large enough volume of economically priced numbers in edible by-products but a
animal by-product material in one location for temperature of -12°C will arrest all microbial
processing. Highly trained operatives with growth. Vacuum packaging will also increase
specialised technical skills are needed. the shelf-life, which in some cases can be
Satisfactory storage of the perishable product doubled using this technique. Some of these
prior to processing is critical, as the material used products can also be cured, smoked, pickled
is ,"ery susceptible to bacterial contamination and and/ or canned.
decomposition. Storage post-manufacture will The petfood industry utilises many materials
depend on the type of by-product, some requiring which are not suitable for human consumption
refrigeration and some only ambient storage, e.g. and those which, although edible, have a low
dried greaves. Once produced, there must follow monetary value, such as sow's liver. The
an actual or potential market for the commodity. handling and storage should be as for products
intended for human consumption but there
must be complete separation from edible
EDIBLE BY-PRODUCTS material as some of the pet food products will
not have passed veterinary inspection, e.g.
The yield from meat animals ranges from 20% bovine liver with fascioliasis, which could pose
to 300 0 of the liveweight for beef, pork and lamb a potential risk.

129
130 Meat Hygiene
Although chilling, followed by cleaning and A room will also be required for the storage
trimming and a final freezing of offals for of hides and pelts. The size will depend on
dispatch to pet-food manufacturers was the whether salting takes place on the premises or
normal practice, there is now a preference for if they are removed at the end of each day.
fresh chilled product generally sent to the Although, in the United Kingdom,
manufacturer fresh, chilled in insulated processing of bovine intestines for sausage
containers for processing to be carried out casings is illegal, as they are included in
within a few days of slaughter. specified risk material (SRM), there is still a
The use of specialised glands for demand for further processing of sheep and pig
pharmaceutical purposes, although still carried intestines and, of course, also bovine in other
out, has decreased owing to the biotechnical parts of the world. This can be an unpleasant
manufacture of medicines, which allows for a task but is greatly facilitated when the room or
more consistent product. rooms in which it is carried out, are supplied
By-products of the meat industry and their with good ventilation and drainage.
uses are given in Appendix 1. Condemned material should be deposited in
clearly labelled bins or trucks and forwarded as
soon as possible to the condemned chill or
BY-PRODUCT PREMISES condemned skip to await disposal. It is
essential that it should not come in contact with
Premises should be situated so that raw material edible product and the chill and containers
can be conveyed to them with minimum should be kept locked. Staining of the material
handling. They should be spacious, well lit and will allow it to be easily identified and will
ventilated, with impervious walls and floors. prevent improper usage.
Floors should be sloped to open channels leading The secret in the production of high-grade
through fat traps to the drains. There should be a animal by-products lies in the prompt
good supply of hot and cold water and steam. treatment of the raw material. As animal offals
Although steam is no longer used in the cleaning decompose rapidly, it is essential that no raw
process, it is required for heating water and in the material is left untreated for any length of time
production of fat. Offals should be treated after a day's slaughtering.
quickly as storage space is expensive. There
should be separate rooms for green offal. The
room for handling stomachs and intestines should
be adjacent to the slaughterhall but completely B~PRODUCTTREATMENT
separate from it, the only open space being
sufficient to allow the hygienic movement of the The by-products that must undergo some forms
gastrointestinal tract for further processing. If not of processing before final use are fat (edible and
processed in a separate room, stomachs should inedible), hooves, horns, hides, skins, glands,
only be treated by means of closed-circuit condemned material and offal.
mechanical equipment which ensures no cross- It has been calculated that of 170 kg of bovine
contamination. Another room will be required by-product going for inedible rendering there is
for the handling of edible red offals such as liver, 45kg carcase bone, 10kg head, 7kg manifold,
heart, kidneys, tongues, heads, ox tails and thick 30 kg intestines, 10 kg feet and 5 kg spleen,
skirt. Alternatively, a separate area of the thymus, spinal cord and tonsils.
slaughterhall may be acceptable. These meats can In pigs there is a relatively higher percentage
be transported via mechanical overhead rails or of edible fat and a greater amount of edible
hung on stainless steel racks for manual product, the figure for carcase and edible
movement to trimming and packing rooms. Feet product is often as high as 80%.
and heads, not required for edible purposes or for
inspection, are either conveyed by shutes into
skips on the outside of the slaughterhall or put Fats
into wheeled trucks, marked condemned With the exception of the hide, the most
material, and removed to a designated area as important abattoir by-product is the fat
soon as possible, and certainly during all breaks trimmed from the intestines, kidney area,
and at the end of the day's production. channel and other internal organs of cattle. Fats
 By-products Treatment 131
Table 5.1 Average breakdown of 450kg steer and ensure that the FFA content remains low by
a 25kg lamb. means of initial cold storage of the raw material
where it is not immediately used, followed by
Steer Lamb keeping the processing temperatures as low as
(%) (%)
possible and the cooking times minimised.
Carcase and other edible products 62-64 62-64 There are three main methods of processing
edible fat: wet rendering, dry rendering and
Edible raw fat 3-4 5-6
continuous low-temperature rendering.
Blood 3-4 3.5-4
The wet rendering method involves the use of
Inedible raw material 8-10 6-7 pressure batch cookers in which the pre-cut raw
Stomach and intestine contents 8 5.5 material is injected with live steam to a
Hide (pelt and wool in lamb) 7 15 temperature of 140°C under pressure, for 3-4 h.
After this time the pressure is slowly released
and the fat is run into a receiver and further
purified by gravity or centrifugation to settle
are graded 1 edible fat and 2-6 inedible fat. The out the water and fines. The proteinaceous
grades are dependent on free fatty acid (FFA) solids or greaves are emptied from the cooker,
content and colour. Caul (omentum and its and the fat is removed by pressure and solvent
contained fat droplets) and kidney fat are extraction. They are then ground and dried.
rendered to produce premier jus, which is The dry rendering process uses heat in the
separated into oleo oil and oleo stearin (suet). form of steam and water over a period of lYIh at
Dripping is made from caul, kidney and body atmospheric pressure to drive off water
fat. Grades 2-6 are used in animal feeds, soaps indirectly from the fat in the cooker. The rest of
(mainly 2-4), and the chemical industry the process is the same as for the wet rendering
(predominately 6). The latter uses them in such method.
diverse products as toothpaste, lubricating oils The continuous low-temperature wet rendering
(where they can be used in two-stroke marine system uses heating, separation and cooling on
biodegradable fuel), plastic, cotton and liquid a continuous basis, and is usually regarded as
washing detergents. More traditionally they the ideal process (Fig. 5.1). The process involves
have been used in the dressing of leather, and mincing of the raw material; melting by live
production of commercial glycerine, which steam injection at 90°C; continuous separation
itself is used in medicinal preparations, of solids from the liquid fat in a decanter
nitroglycerine, gunpowder, cordite and centrifuge; further heating; centrifugation to
dynamite. remove the fines; and cooling in a plate heat
Fat occurs in many regions of the pig carcase, exchanger to below solidification point.
the best quality fat being obtained from the An important principle in the rendering of
peritoneal lining (leaf fat), the next best from fat is the prevention of the breakdown of fat
the back fat, mesentery and omentum. The into fatty acids and glycerides by the action of
surplus fat of pigs is worked up into various the enzyme lipase, which is active at
qualities of lard. A pig of 90 kg liveweight yields temperatures of 40-60°C. Above 60°C lipase is
about 6.3 kg of lard. inactivated. The continuous low-temperature
Sheep fat is rendered in the same way as beef system utilises this action and at the same time
fat or lard and, though it is not converted into minimises undesirable chemical activity,
oleo oil or oleo stearin because of its flavour, it burning, oxidation and off-flavours.
may be used as dripping when blended with
other fats. Mutton fat is firmer and contains
more stearin than ox or pig fat, and is used as a Stomach and intestines
preservative layer on the top of glass jars of The contents of the rumen/reticulum are
meat paste. generally emptied in the gut room and the
intestines are separated from the stomachs. In
the UK the bovine intestines are collected, along
Edible fat rendering
with the other specified risk material (SRM) and
High-quality fats have low FFA values and are rendered and/ or incinerated. Specified risk
usually stable. Efficient rendering processes material also includes the bovine head,
132 Meat Hygiene
RAW MATERIAL

~ Raw material-cold 1. Dosing conveyor

• Raw material-heated 2. Mincer
• Gelatinous process liquid 3. Melting tube
~ Greaves (decanter solids) 4. Melting tank
o Fines (separator solids) 5. Decanter centrifuge
o Fat 6. Intermediate tank
7. High-speed-self-cleaning
• Steam 3-phase separator
8. Clarity control
9. Automatic 3-way valve

Fig. 5.1 Continuous low-temperature wet rendering system. (By courtesy of Messrs Alfa Laval Fish & Meat
Engineering AS, Copenhagen, Denmark)

including the tonsils but excluding the tongue, 5 Burning, which is not cost effective.
spinal cord, thymus, spleen and intestines, and 6 Composting of paunch waste into an organic
in the sheep the head, excluding the tongue, the fertiliser. This method of disposal is simple
spleen, and the spinal cord of sheep over 12 and part of the natural cycle of life, but it
months. requires special equipment and ample space
The rumina 1 contents are transferred via a to produce compost commercially.
rotating screw, which removes most of the Tripe is produced from the first stomach
water, into a skip. Methods of disposal of (rumen, paunch) and second stomach
rumen or paunch contents include the (reticulum) of the ruminant. It can also be
following: derived from the stomach of the pig. The
1 Land fill, which is an undesirable and stomachs are first emptied and washed and the
uneconomic approach, and is becoming less fat is trimmed off. The pillars of the rumen
common. (mountain chain) may be removed, trimmed,
2 Use of lagoons and waste-water treatment is packaged and frozen for consumption in Japan,
usually impractical and costly. and other countries. The remaining material is
3 Spreading of untreated raw paunch manure cleaned in one 'Parmentiere' and then
directly on to agricultural land is transferred to a second 'Parmentiere' (which
environmentally questionable but still a quite has a roughened interior) where the external fat
common approach. is removed. A 'Parmentiere' is a stainless steel
4 Use of ensilagedlsilaged paunch manure as a drum which operates rather like a cylindrical
feed for livestock has cost implications and washing machine, The stomachs are then
the unfavourable perception of feeding waste scalded in water containing washing soda,
to animals. scraped and placed in cold water to clean them,
 By-products Treatment 133
and finally cooked for 3-3 V, hours at a and soaking tank. This breaks the intermucosal
temperature of 49-60°C. In some countries the membrane and separates it from the rest of the
omasum is made into tripe, in others it is intestine. Next, the intestine goes through a
considered uneconomical because of the mucosa stripper, which looks and acts
difficulty of removing the mucous membrane. essentially like the 'manure' stripper above.
Rennet is manufactured from the abomasum of Potable water at 42°C is again used to keep the
the calf. operation sanitary. Any remaining string-like
material and mucosa are removed by rolling.
After cleaning, the casings are placed in a cold
Intestines salt solution and held overnight. The next day
Animal small intestines can be utilised for a they are graded, salted with fine salt until they
variety of purposes such as surgical sutures, have absorbed 40% salt and packed into barrels.
collagen sheets (used for bum dressing), strings
for musical instruments and sports equipment,
sausage casings, human food, pet food, animal
Blood
feed, tallow or fertiliser. The cleaning and If blood can be collected hygienically, it can be
removal of various internal and sometimes utilised for human consumption. To be cost-
external layers, is necessary to convert the effective this can only be achieved in a meat
intestines into a useful casing. Although there plant with a high throughput. Smaller plants
are many factors which influence the quality of generally have blood spread on land, a practice
the casing, such as the animal's health, species, not appreciated by environmentalists or
age, breed, feed and environment, and the neighbours.
portion of the intestinal tract utilised, the most Approximately 4.5% of the liveweight of an
important factor is how the product is handled animal is collectable blood, which represents
and processed after the animal is slaughtered. around 10% of the protein available in an
Quality is based on cleanliness, strength, animal. Dried blood is high in protein (80-90%)
length, caliper, curing and packaging. and rich in lysine.

Casing preparation Edible blood

After the intestines have been separated from Blood is collected via a hollow knife inserted
the attached organs, they are dispatched to an into the blood vessels where sticking is
area in the meat plant where further processing performed. Normally an anticoagulant such as
can take place. They are highly contaminated sodium citrate (0.2% w Iv) is supplied to the
and fragile and therefore cleaning must be knife-point through a hollow pipe in the knife
carried out immediately after slaughter of the handle. It should be collected in a primary tank
animal. and held there until the animal from which the
The first operation in handling intestines is blood originated has passed meat inspection.
'running', that is separating them from the Should the animal not pass meat inspection,
mesentery. This is by means of a hand-operated only the small holding tank of blood need be
knife. The next step is to run the intestine condemned.
through a 'stripper' comprising large rollers A typical blood meal plant is shown in Fig.
(which resemble a laundry wringer), to squeeze 5.2 in which the actual separation of the two
out the residues within the intestines. This step fractions is accomplished in the high-speed
requires the use of a great quantity of potable centrifuge or separator. After separation, the
water to wash the casings and to keep the plasma is frozen or spray-dried at low
operation clean. The casing should then be temperature in order to maintain its solubility
soaked in water for approximately 30 minutes and binding properties. The red cells can be
at 38-42°C. In some areas of the world, casings used for black sausages or blood puddings or
then go through a fermentation cycle, but in dried into blood meal.
other countries (e.g. UK, USA) casings It is important to prevent haemolysis or
processed by fermentation are no longer rupture of the red cell membranes during
acceptable. Intestines which have not been processing. Haemolysis will occur if the red
fermented are run through a crushing machine cells come into contact with solutions of lower
134 Meat Hygiene

RAW
BLOOD

• Strained raw blood 1. Blood collecting tank

Coagulated blood 2. Positive pump
D Dewatered blood proteins 3. Coagulator
D Blood meal 4. Decanter centrifuge
• Blood water 5. Dryer
6. Foam damping tank

Fig. 5.2 Blood meat production. (Bycourtesy of Messrs Alfa Laval Fish & Meat Engineering AS, Copenhagen,
Denmark)

osmotic pressure, causing the absorption of Drying of blood meal by removing the water is
water and bursting of the corpuscles, and the carried out in three main ways:
presence of fat, which will dissolve cell
membranes, bringing about haemolysis. The 1 Direct batch drying carried out in batch dryers
same problem can be caused by sudden similar to rendering batch coolers. The raw
variations of temperature, freezing and damage blood is dried to 2-10% moisture by simply
through rough handling. boiling off the water.
2 Batch coagulation followed by batch drying. The
raw blood is initially coagulated by injecting
Inedible blood direct steam into an open tank containing the
For inedible purposes blood can be collected raw blood. The coagulum, which is around
very easily by placing troughs below the 25% total solids (TS) is then separated by
carcases. They should be designed so that they draining or hand pressing and dried in a
are easily dry-cleaned with rubber squeegees. It batch dryer.
is essential that water does not come in contact 3 Continuous coagulation before drying. This is the
with the blood for two reasons: (1) water will most common method of processing blood.
cause haemolysis of the red blood cells and Strained blood from a blood holding tank is
prevent the adequate separation of plasma and pumped into an intermediate pre-heating
red blood cells, and (2) should blood get into tank equipped with a low-speed agitator and
the blood is pre-heated to 60 e by steam. The
0

the plant effluent system it will greatly increase blood then passes to the coagulator and as a
the BODs by around ten times and the result of steam injection nozzles, positioned at
suspended solids by three times. several points in the coagulator, at the exit,
Before being allowed to enter the collecting the blood is at an optimum temperature of
tank, inedible blood should be strained to 90°C. A decanter then separates the solids,
exclude foreign matter. which are dried, and the liquid.
 By-products Treatment 135
Bones Pig hides are scalded and dehaired and this
The amount of bone available for processing generally makes their skin unsuitable for
[Link] on the type of operation being carried further processing. Pigs can be skinned with a
out, l.e. whether or not deboning is performed. knife, but considerable skill is required owing
If the abattoir is concerned solely with slaughter, to the .softn~ss of. t~e fat. Mechanical pulling of
the [Link] amount of bone produced is usually the hides IS gammg popularity because of
ener~y and labour ~avings when compared to
consigned to ~n .outsi?e inedible rendering
plant, where It IS mixed with other raw scaldmg. However, It results in a 6-8% loss in
materials, such as fallen animals, condemned carcase weight and it is slower (150-300 per
hour) than scalding (150-850 per hour).
meat and offal, and ~eat and fat trimmings.
Bone maybe classified as 'edible' or 'inedible' Goat skins are more valuable than sheep
skins [Link] they are larger and produce a
~e~en~ing on its source and its handling.
better-lastmg leather. Sheep skins require a
EdI?le. bone must be handled speedily in a
longer time (up to several hours) to cool after
hygienic rr;a~er., Today there is an increasing
~laugh~er than other hides owing to the
amount of edible bone available because of the
large amount of boneless meat being produced msulatmg properties of the wool and the
presence of grease.
at source. The end-products of edible bone
processing are fat, bone meal and gelatin, with As well as for leather, hides and skins are
use~ .in food, cosmetic ingredients and
meat-and-bone meal being produced when
there is meat in the original raw material. Some, medicinal prosthetics such as skin grafts and
mainly pig bone and chicken necks, are sutures. In the case of pig skins, food is the
main use, where it is utilised as a major source
emulsified and used in pet food.
Owing to its high calcium and phosphorus of gelatin, snack foods and sausages as well as
being part of primary pork and cured cuts.
content, bone meal is used as a constituent of
After flaying, hides and skins should be
poultry feeds and fertiliser. Calcined bone
cured quickly to arrest bacterial and enzymatic
obtained by roasting in air, is used in the
manufacture of high-class pottery and china, in decomposition or spoilage. In areas with low
relative humidity they may be air-dried for
the refining of silver and in copper smelting.
pre~[Link], .but salt is mainly used as the
Bo~e. charcoal is utilised in bleaching, sugar
curmg ingredient. Salt-pack curing involves a
refmmg and case-hardening of compounds in
fl~sh-sid.e up stack of hides, usually 90-130 cm
the manufacture of steel. Special bone powders
high, WIth an equal weight of salt to hide
are employed for the removal of fluorine from
spread evenly over the flesh-side of each hide
drinking water.
in the stack. This draws moisture out of the
Gelatin is produced from 'edible' bones
hides. Preservatives are often used with salt-
subsequent to the extraction of fat and under
pack curing. Curing takes 20-30 days for
carefully controlled pressure. It is used in
cattle.
making brawn, pies, ice cream and capsules for
Hides and skins constitute the most valuable
medicines, in photography, as a culture
material removed from the animal carcase.
medium for bacteria and in the production of
Skins come from smaller animals e.g. sheep,
smokeless gunpowder. Some of the gelatin
calves and goats, while larger skins such as
used for these purposes comes from veal and a
t~ose from cattle, horses, elephants are called
small~r amount from beef. Nowadays pig skin
hzdes. Leather from cattle hides is used to
supplies a large quantity of gelatin.
produce shoes, garment leather, upholstery
leather and accessory leather. Pig skin, the
Hides and skins second most common leather-making raw
The quality of ~eather to a large degree depends material worldwide, is thinner than cattle hides
on the techmques used for hide removal and is primarily manufactured into garment
(flaying) and the processing that follows. leather. The largest producer of pig skins is the
~ovine ~ides can be removed manually, People's Republic of China. In other countries
which req~Ires great skill to avoid damage, but pig skin is emulsified and used in the
nowadays m commercial meat plants hides are manufacture of sausages. Cattle hide can be
remo~ed mechanically by hide-pulling use? to make reconstituted collagen sausage
machmes following initial knife work. casmgs. Sheep and goat skin leathers are
136 Meat Hygiene
produced in many areas of the world primarily High- and low-risk animal waste
for garment leathers.
Material can be divided into high- and low-risk
animal waste. Examples of high-risk animal waste
are:
Hide curing
1 Animals that have died, or been killed on the
Ox hides arrive at the tannery either fresh from farm but were not slaughtered for human
the abattoir or more usually salted and dried to consumption.
prevent putrefaction. After soaking in water to
2 Animals killed in the context of disease
cleanse and soften them, they are placed in pits control.
filled with milk of lime for 1--4 weeks to loosen
the hair and open up the fibre. The hair on the 3 By-products, including blood, originating
outside, and flesh and meat on the inside, are from animals which have been condemned on
meat inspection.
then scraped off and, after removal of lime by
washing in weak acid, the hides are tanned. 4 Carcases that have not passed meat
Tanning may be done by a vegetable process inspection, including those with unacceptable
levels of residues.
using the barks of trees, or by a chemical
process known as /chrome tanning'. The 5 Contaminated meat.
tannery process, from raw hide to finished 6 Parts of the carcase, except hides, skins,
leather, takes about three months. The hide hooves, feathers, wool, horn, hair, blood and
from bullocks and heifers, when tanned, is used similar products, of animals slaughtered in
as sole leather or for belting. Sole leather is the normal way which are not presented for
obtained from the butt, the area of the hide post-mortem inspection.
lying on either side of the backbone. 7 Fish which show signs of disease.

Low-risk animal wastes are animal products

other than high-risk animal waste, including
TREATMENT OF CONDEMNED MEAT hides, skins, hooves, feathers, wool, horns, hair,
AND OFFALS blood and similar products when used in the
manufacture of feedingstuffs.
The main purpose of meat hygiene is to ensure Animal waste must be collected and
that only food fit for human consumption is transported in suitable containers or vehicles
allowed to pass inspection. A properly trained which prevent leakage. The containers or
officer will be able to separate the following vehicles must be adequately covered and all
categories: must be maintained in a clean condition. The
1 Meat and offal that are sound and 'wholesome container should be labelled 'Not for human
and can be placed on the market without any consumption'.
restriction. The high-risk material should be processed in a
2 Meat affected with some condition which high-risk processing plant, which has been
requires further treatment before it can be approved by the governmental authorities or
released. disposed of by burning or burial where transport
3 Meat and offal that does not pass meat to the nearest high-risk material processing plant
inspection owing to public health concern or might expose a risk to the environment or the
aesthetics. quantity and distance to be covered does not
justify collecting the waste. Burial must be deep
The meat inspection laws of the EU, United enough to prevent carnivorous animals from
States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and digging it up and must be in suitable ground to
Switzerland, as well as the Codex Alimentarius prevent contamination of water tables or any
(FAO jWHO), recognise the economic and other environmental problems. Before burial the
public health justification for the second waste must be sprinkled with an approved
classification, their legislation allowing for disinfectant.
release of the meat subject to further treatment, Low-risk material must be processed in a high-
which may be boiling, adequate refrigeration or risk or low-risk processing plant, in a petfood
other means. plant or in a plant preparing pharmaceutical or
 By-products Treatment 137
technical products, or disposed of by burning vehicles carrying high-risk material must be
or burial. disinfected before departure or before leaving
the unclean section of the processing plant.
There must be a waste-water disposal system
HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS FOR which hygienically removes waste-water and a
ANIMAL-WASTE PROCESSING PLANTS laboratory to carry out the required testing or of
the services of an outside agency.
The premises of the processing plant must be
adequately separated from the public highway
and other premises such as meat plants.
Premises for the processing of high-risk Hygiene requirements relating to the
material must not be on the same site as meat operation of animal-waste processing
plants, unless in a completely separate part of a plants
building. Only authorised personnel should be Animal waste must be processed as soon as
allowed access. possible after arrival. It must be stored properly
The plant should have a clean and an until processed.
unclean section, which must be clearly Containers, equipment and vehicles used for
separated. The unclean section must have a the transport of animal waste must be cleaned,
covered area to receive the animal waste and washed and disinfected after use.
must be constructed so that it is easy to clean Personnel working in the unclean section
and disinfect. Floors must be laid to facilitate must not enter the clean section without
the draining of liquids. The plant must have changing their clothes and footwear.
adequate lavatories, changing rooms and Equipment and utensils must not be taken from
washbasins for staff. In the unclean section, the unclean to the clean area.
where required, there must be adequate Waste-water originating in the unclean
facilities for de-skinning or de-hairing of section must be treated to ensure no pathogens
animals and a storage room for hides. remain.
The plant should be of sufficient size, and There must be a systematic method to
have enough hot water and steam to process prevent the ingress of birds, rodents, insects or
hygienically the waste received. The unclean other vermin.
section must, if appropriate, contain equipment Animal waste must be processed under the
to reduce the size of animal waste and equip- following conditions.
ment for loading the crushed animal waste into
the processing unit. A closed processing instal- 1 High-risk material must be heated to a core
lation is required in which to process the waste, temperature of at least 133°C for 20 min at a
and where heat treatment is required this instal- pressure of 3 bar. The particle size of the raw
lation must be equipped with measuring equip- material prior to processing must be reduced
to at least 50 mm by means of a prebreaker or
ment to check temperature and, if necessary, grinder.
pressure at critical points, recording devices to
record continuously the results of measure- 2 Recording thermographs must be provided at
the critical points of the heating process to
ments and an adequate safety system to pre-
monitor the heat treatment.
vent insufficient heating.
To ensure that there is no cross- 3 Pressure-monitoring devices should be
installed to record pressure at different stages
contamination of finished processed material in the process.
bv incoming raw material there must be clear
separation between the area of the plant where 4 The particle size should be monitored
the incoming raw material is unloaded and regularly and corrected when wear or
damage to the breaking equipment is noted
processed and the areas set aside for further that could allow particles larger than 50 mm
processing of the heated material and the to enter the process.
storage of the finished processed product.
5 For continuous systems a residence time-test
There must be adequate facilities for should be completed under normal operating
cleaning and disinfecting the containers in conditions. Markers, e.g. manganese dioxide
which animal waste is received and the vehicles (Mn0 2) , should be introduced into the
in which it is transported. The wheels of the continuous systems at time zero. Samples of
138 Meat Hygiene
product leaving the process are taken to away from food outlets and be large enough to
monitor the recovery of the insoluble marker handle material from a large area.
until the majority of the marker is expected to The best and most economical method of
have passed throughout the system. processing unfit meat and offal is by heat
treatment in a jacketed cylinder, which gives
The installation and equipment must be kept complete sterilisation and maximum return
in a good state of repair and measuring from the rendered material. A number of
equipment must be calibrated at regular different methods are available for handling
intervals. inedible material, all of which are concerned
The finished products must be handled and with the separation of the three main
stored at the processing plant in such a way as constituents, fat, water and fat-free substance,
to prevent recontamination and the hides must and the production of sterilised technical fat
be salted using sodium chloride. and meat-and-bone meal.
There are four categories of rendering
systems, three of which are:
Quality control
1 Conventional batch dry rendering with
In the case of high-risk materials, samples of the mechanical and/ or solvent defatting.
finished products, taken directly after heat 2 Continuous dry rendering with screw press
treatment, must be free from heat-resistant defatting (Fig. 5.3).
pathogenic bacterial spores (Clostridium
3 Semi-continuous wet rendering with
perjringens must be absent in 1 g of the product). centrifugal defatting.
Samples of the final products from both low-
risk and high-risk material taken during or The batch systems are more labour intensive
upon withdrawal from storage at the but less expensive to install than continuous
processing plant must comply with the svstems.
following standards: - In these three systems the raw material is
Salmonella: absence in 25 g: 11 = 5, c = 0, m = 0, cooked to sterilise the components (water, fat
M=O and meal) for separation, the fat being finally
Enterobacteriaceae: 11 = 5, c = 2, m = 10, M = 3 x purified. There are major differences in the type
10' in 1 g and order of the various operations.
In the continuous dry rendering process (which
where n = number of units comprising the resembles batch dry rendering except that the
sample; m = threshold value for the number of operation is continuous), the system operates at
bacteria - the result is considered satisfactory atmospheric pressure. After cooking, the
if the number of bacteria in all sample units material is pre-strained and discharged to a
does not exceed m; M = maximum value for screw press for defatting. The length of the
the number of bacteria - the result is cooking process depends on the method of
considered unsatisfactory if the number of filling and the cooker size.
bacteria in one or more sample units is M or 4 Continuous wet pressing and centrifugal
more; and c = number of sample units the defatting.
bacterial count of which may be between m
and M, the sample still being considered Various models of this process have been
acceptable if the bacterial count of the other developed but the main principle consists of
sample units is m or less. mincing of the raw material, melting to liberate
the fat, wet pressing and drying/sterilising.
Water, fat and fine solids are separated by
centrifugation. A disadvantage of this process is
INEDIBLE RENDERING PROCESSES that, similarly to continuous to dry rendering
with screw press defatting, it does not fulfil
While some meat plants have rendering depart- existing sterilising regulations in some
ments for the treatment of condemned and countries, necessitating a further sterilisation of
other inedible material, it is better, from a pub- the meal.
lic health standpoint as well as the efficiency of The Commission of the European Union has
processing that the premises should be located set out minimum conditions concerning
 By-products Treatment 139

Condensed steam

Percolator and
pre-press Fatandfines
~~~~~~I---------'
to purification

Meat to
grinding

Fig. 5.3 Continuous dry rendering process. (Bycourtesy of Messrs Alfa Laval Fish & Meat Engineering AS,
Copenhagen, Denmark)

processing waste of ruminant ongm by six Effluents can be divided into four categories:
different methods. These do not apply to the 1 Non-toxic and not directly pollutant but liable
production and processing of: to disturb the physical nature of the receiving
1 Pet food containing only low-risk material water.
2 Gelatin 2 Non-toxic and pollutant due to organic
matter content of high oxygen demand.
3 Hides and skins
3 Toxic- containing highly poisonous materials.
4 Glands and organs for pharmaceutical use
4 Toxic and pollutant due to organic matter of
:; Blood and blood products high oxygen demand and toxic in addition.
6 Milk
7 Rendered fats The first priorities are to separate effluent
8 Casings from storm water, to lessen the quantity of
material requiring treatment, to separate solids
The production of feather meal requires from fluid and to lessen the amount of
feathers to be hydrolysed and cooked under treatment required.
r ressure. This can be achieved by the use of grills over
drains, fat traps and other preliminary
treatments, along with continuous dry cleaning
TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT or 'clean as you go' during the operation of the
plant and at breaks in production.
The processing of carcases and the resultant by-
products give rise to large amounts of highly
polluting waste-waters, semi-solids and solids, Pollution parameters (see also p. 160)
which must be separated and treated before Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure
being discharged into the environment. of the readily biodegradable material in an
The objective of effluent treatment is to effluent. It is obtained by measuring the oxygen
produce a product that can be safely discharged consumed by aerobic organisms, when a
into a waterway or sewer in compliance with known volume of the effluent is added to a
the recommended limits for discharge. known volume of oxygen-saturated water and
140 Meat Hygiene
incubated at 20°C for 5 days. It is generally used effluents. Ammonia in solution is toxic to aquatic
to determine the concentration of pollutant life; the maximum discharge to sewers is 40
remaining after treatment and prior to mg/litre. High nitrate concentrations in natural
discharge. waters encourage algae and other plant growth,
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure thus blocking water courses. The maximum
of the oxygen required for the oxidation of all level in potable water is 0.5 mg/litre.
organic matter in a known volume of effluent, Pathogenic bacteria: Potable water should not
using a standard technique. The COD is often contain any coliform organisms.
used as a cheaper and more accurate means of Suspended solids (SS) refers to matter which is
determining the oxygen requirements of an insoluble and is suspended in the water. It
effluent before treatment. consists of both organic and inorganic
BaD values vary greatly in the various food components. The organic material will
processing operations (Table 5.2). eventually be degraded and add to the BaD.
It is the biodegradable material which will Temperature should not be more than a few
have a more direct effect on flora and fauna and degrees above the temperature of the receiving
therefore BaD is a more appropriate water in order not to disturb the natural
measurement than COD for discharge consents. biocycle.
Chloride (Cl) is a measure of salinity. Turbidity and colour: Effluent should be clear
Dry matter (DM) or total solids (TS) is the final and colourless
weight of a known amount of effluent that has Volatile solids (VS) are used as a measure of
been dried to a constant weight at 105°C over biogas production.
24 h. It is measured in g/litre or mg/litre.
Grease, fat and oil are a group of substances
having common properties of immiscibility Treatment
with water and a lower specific gravity, which
Standards are set for the discharge of effluent,
cause them to float. Concentrations are
and these will depend on the volume and
measured by the amount of solvent required for
strength of the effluent and the sensitivity of the
the effluent to become soluble. Some water
water course or underground stratum to which
authorities in the United Kingdom will accept a
it is being discharged.
level of 100 mg/litre. The substances tend to
Air pollution with regard to odours is
coat treatment systems, clogging pipes,
measured subjectively and is related to the
pumping systems and screens. They reduce
effect the odour has on the public, i.e. the
oxygen transfer and can seriously reduce the
degree of 'nuisance'.
efficiency of aerobic treatment systems.
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
an aqueous solution. Pure water has a pH value
of 7.0.
Preliminary treatment - screening
Nitrogen (N) occurs in three forms in Preliminary treatment is based on the removal
effluents: organic nitrogen, ammonium salts of solids and this is best done by letting all
and dissolved ammonia gas, and as nitrates water pass through one or more screens. These
which are found in aerobically-treated screens should be non-clogging and self-
cleaning, adaptable to different water flows,
easy to clean automatically or manually (when
Table 5.2 Average BOD values for some food required) and noiseless. After the removal of
processing operations. coarse solids, the effluent stream still contains
finely suspended solids, fats and grease. For
Source BOD mg/litre small quantities of low-grade material, a simple
fat trap is all that is required. This is in the form
Poultry meat plant 1000-1200 of a minimum-turbulence, flow-through tank.
Pig meat plant 1500-2000 Settlable solids can remain long enough to
Cattle/sheep meat plant 1400-3200 settle out on the bottom of the tank, while
Fish processing 1000-3000 grease and fine solids rise to the surface.
Continuous sludge removal and skimming of
Dairy (washings) 600-1300
the surface to remove scum are essential.
 By-products Treatment 141
Dissolved air flotation is a successful method process and the addition of a balanced effluent
of removing suspended solids, fats and grease, is essential. Too much protein can destroy the
and is particularly useful when disposal is to a process and therefore blood must not be
sewer. It causes a physical separation of introduced. There is a high capital cost, the
suspended matter, fats and grease by the operatives require extensive training and the
production of micro-bubbles of air that attach surplus treated effluent requires further
themselves to the suspended material, lifting it aerobic treatment before it can be discharged
to the surface to form scum, which is removed, into water courses.
while the supernatant liquor is discharged
continuously either to a sewer or for further
biological treatment. The addition of chemicals Activated sludge process
that aid flocculation makes the process easier to Aerobic digestion is less sensitive to shock
control automatically and assists in the loading; the retention time is shorter and
production of a more consistent effluent. A therefore the tanks are smaller and cheaper. Air
large range of flocculants is available, e.g. ferric can be forced in through compressed-air
chloride/sulphate, ferrous sulphate, svstems or surface aerators. The factors which
aluminium sulphate (alum), sodium carbonate affect aeration of the reactor are concentration
(soda ash), calcium carbonate (lime), of dissolved oxygen, the hydraulic retention
polyelectrolytes and others. The pH of the time and substrate-loading rate, pH,
effluent has to be maintained and varies temperature and toxic substances.
depending on the flocculant used. The addition The dissolved organic matter, colloidal
of caustic soda or hydrochloric acid controls residues and fine solids are oxidised to carbon
this. dioxide and water. Proteins are broken down
Balancing tanks may be required when strict into nitrates and sulphates by a mixed culture
control of hourly and daily flow rates is of microorganisms in the reactor. The major
required or when production is cyclical product of the process is new cells (biomass).
throughout a 24-hour period. The biomass, together with material which has
resisted biodegradation, is separated out from
the treated effluent in settling tanks (clarifiers).
Secondary treatment The supernatant liquor from the clarifier is
Secondary treatment is carried out using discharged over a weir for disposal or further
biological treatment systems, which involve treatment, if required. A proportion of sludge
maintaining under controlled conditions a which settles out at the base of the clarifier is
mixed culture of microorganisms which utilise returned to the reactor vessel to maintain the
the continuous supply of organic matter critical concentration of biomass. The
present in the effluent to synthesise new cells. remainder is drawn off to be concentrated and
Anaerobic digestion is carried out in totally may require further treatment before disposal.
enclosed systems to prevent the entry of air. It Where sludges are to be applied to land which
will result in a fast reduction of organic material is fallow or is to be seed-bed for arable crops,
with the production of biogas. With a BOD the application is unlikely to become a problem
higher than 2000 mg/litre it becomes unless the land is close to urban development,
advantageous. The system operates as a two- when odours may cause a nuisance. Low-
stage fermentation process in which the stages trajectory agricultural slurry spreaders can be
occur simultaneously within the digester. used. When sludges are to be applied to
During the first stage, bacteria break down grassland, there is a greater risk of grazing
complex organic substances into simpler stock ingesting any pathogens present. In the
compounds, the most important being volatile UK a minimum holding period of 4-6 weeks is
fatty acids (VFA). In the second stage, required for animal slurries. However, in some
methanogenic organisms utilise the VFA to EC Member States a period of 6 months is
vield methane and carbon dioxide. mandatory. Alternatively, sludge can be
Maintaining the pH at around 7.0-7.2 is very injected into the soil; application rates will vary
important. Overproduction of VFA will lower with soil type, field capacity and type of crop.
the pH and stop the process, which can be Rates in excess of 120 m 3 / h a are most likely to
difficult to re-start. This is very much a 'living' lead to run-off by leaching or via land drains.
 Chapter 6
Plant Sanitation

Reasons for cleaning and disinfecting plant Cleaning incurs costs and is often seen as a
necessary but unproductive evil, but it is rare to
It should not be assumed that all the reasons for
find these costs being fully analysed and
cleaning and disinfecting meat plants are fully
controlled in a meat plant. Often only the
understood and appreciated by those
obvious elements such as chemicals are stressed
responsible for plant hygiene. The technology
rather than the complete context of the hygiene
of plant cleaning and disinfection is complex
budget. Full hygiene budgeting should
and changing, with many details to be
properly include a factor relating to the possible
constantly observed and acted upon. It is, more
catastrophic effects of hygiene failure and the
than ever, essential that the importance of plant
protection of investment made in plant and
hygiene is recognised and that the scientific
brand image. Only with a full understanding of
principles and professional management
the business risk can the direct costs of hygiene
techniques are understood and employed by all
be seen in their genuine context.
concerned.
Typical costs for hygiene in a meat plant
Food plants are cleaned for many reasons:
break down as follows:
• To meet national and ED legislation.
Labour and supervision 65%
• To reduce the risk of litigation.
Water supply, treatment, purchase 2%
• To engender and maintain a general quality
ethos. Water heating 8%
• To meet customers' quality expectations. Cleaning equipment 8%
• To satisfy the increasing number of Chemicals 7%
customer Hygiene Audits. Corrosion 2%
• To allow maximum plant productivity. Monitoring 5%
• To project a hygienic visual image. Effluent 3%
• To ensure the safety of operatives and Downtime +?
maintenance staff.
• To help secure the shelf-life of the products. Often, cost pressures on the large labour
• To avoid food poisoning or foreign body element are brought to bear upon cleaning
contamination. teams, whether contract cleaners or in-house
• To avoid pest infestation. cleaners. These may encourage the cleaners to
• To protect marketplace reputation. combine or leave out individual steps in the
cleaning sequence. This action may appear to
Although the most subjective of all, the visual save money in terms of the cleaning costs alone.
image that a factory projects to a visitor can However, it may easily lead to increased
strongly influence getting or losing a customer indirect costs in terms of the shelf-life and
contract or an ED licence and has a direct safety of the food product and the hygienic
bearing on employee morale and the image of the factory. All of these factors could
development of a Total Quality ethos. For these affect the viability and profitability of the meat
reasons, visual cleanliness and the absence of plant.
deposits in the plant are goals as important as Chemicals and water (purchase, heating,
the control of actual microbiological risks. treatment and disposal) costs may also be

.143
144 Meat Hygiene
significant, but it is important to understand the which depend greatly on a number of variables,
overall cleaning programme and the related which we will now consider.
effects of changing these variables.
Over the last 10 years, under pressure more
The soil
from commercial quality factors than from
legislation, the average standards of design of In a meat plant the most common soils or
food plants and their maintenance and cleaning deposits originate from the animals themselves
have risen markedly. It is still definitely the and from any other ancillary additives or
case, however, that the standards reached and components used in the manufacturing
maintained, and the professionalism with process. These product-derived soils include
which hygiene is managed, vary greatly the following:
between different sectors of the food industry,
between different plants in the same sector, and
between countries.
Fats, oils and greases
EU legislation has had (and will continue to These are often triglycerides of fatty acids and
have) an important effect on the design of new can vary from waxy solids to liquids. They are
meat plants or the refurbishment of older insoluble in water and can vary in their
plants. EU directives also have something to structure and properties depending on their
say about the requirement for routine cleaning origin, differing between different parts of the
and disinfection of food plants. But same animal species and between different
enforcement of the EU norms varies greatly species. Poultry evisceration fats are very waxy
internationally and some of the directives are and difficult to remove, for example, compared
vague and inadequate as practical guides to to beef tallow. Fats, oils and greases can change
hygiene. It is true that poorly designed, when exposed to air for some time (particularly
outdated and badly run plants should and can those containing unsaturated fatty acids) and
be closed down owing to failure to meet the may oxidise or polymerise to become harder
legislative requirements. Any food plant 'worth and more closely bonded to the surface.
its salt', however, will see legislation as a bare Exposure to very high temperatures, such as in
minimum set of standards and will, through a ovens, will cause fats to carbonise. Fatty or
total quality ethos and good manufacturing greasy deposits can be recognised by their
practice, aim for a consistent level of hygiene greasy feel and water repellence and, when
well above this minimum. aged and oxidised, they take on a cheesy,
opaque nature which can be scraped fairly
easily with a fingernail. Polymerised oils can
'Scotoma' or 'factory-blindness'
become almost plastic in feel and hardness.
It is well known that any person working (This effect is utilised when linseed oil is
routinely in an environment such as a meat applied to cricket bats.)
plant can gradually become mentally 'blind' to
hygiene standards and potential problems in
their plant. This 'scotoma' effect can be Proteins
surprisingly powerful and can mean that These are complex, large molecules that are
visitors (be they EU inspectors or customers) to normally too large to dissolve easily in water.
the plant will often see serious hygiene They have a specific shape that may change
inadequacies missed by the plant personnel when exposed to high temperatures, a process
themselves. The scotoma can only be overcome known as denaturation, usually making them
by vigilance, training and systematic harder and more insoluble. (The best known
monitoring and inspection procedures, perhaps example is the white of an egg.) This property
with the help of outside assistance. of proteins is important in the processing of
foods and in the temperature of water used to
wash off protein deposits. In meat plants, the
THE CHEMISTRY OF CLEANING bile proteins and other gut-based soils may give
rise to a green or yellow tenacious deposit on
Cleaning is essentially a physiochemical evisceration equipment. In pig-dehairing
process involving a wide range of reactions equipment, heavy, hard protein deposits are
 Plant Sanitation 145
common. Blood proteins in abattoirs can create vary very considerably in their ease of
particular problems on porous surfaces, often cleaning and their resistance to corrosion
giving rise to green/brown, very resistant either by the factory environment itself or by
staining. Aged protein deposits can be quite contact with cleaning chemicals. Smooth, non-
hard, normally not scraping off easily with a porous, abrasion-resistant, inert surfaces are
fingernail. ideal.
Stainless steel, of a high grade, is the best
choice for many surfaces, but, especially in its
Carbohydrates and starches cheaper forms, is liable to pitting corrosion in
the presence of chlorine and stress
These, too, are large molecules, which may be
corrosion/ cracking at elevated temperatures.
insoluble, especially after exposure to heat.
Mild steel will rust rapidly in moist and salty
Their source is usually plant-derived materials
environments and should normally be avoided
such as may be used in producing sauces,
in meat plants.
coatings, etc. Carbohydrate deposits can vary
Zinc (as a sacrificial coating on steel) and
from soft and powdery to quite hard.
aluminium are both commonly found but are
Other soils may originate, not from the food
problematical because of their susceptibility to
production process itself, but from water,
attack by strong alkalis, acids and some process
surface corrosion, vehicles and other outside
fluids. At worst they can be heavily corroded,
materials. Such deposits include:
embrittled or encrusted, none of which is
• Limescale from water drips and leaks or in helpful in maintaining hygienic surfaces. As a
hot water tanks, cooking kettles, etc. rule they should be avoided where the nature of
• Corrosion deposits of steel, zinc, aluminium, the production or cleaning process poses a
brass, etc. corrosion risk
• Rubber marks from fork lift trucks, etc. Terrazzo and concrete may both become
• Adhesives from labels, etc. porous and cracked if mistreated and are liable
to damage by acids.
• Inks and dyes from stamps. Paints and other similar coatings can vary
• Algae in moist areas with high condensation. enormously in their resistance to attack by
• Fungi in cold moist areas, especially near chemicals and hot or pressurised water and,
chills and freezers and in silicon sealants once flaking, present a risk of foreign body
throughout the plant. contamination to the food. Chemical-resistant
resins are available but it is important to match
These deposits may or may not present
the coating to the production and cleaning
hygiene risks in themselves but are at least
environment expected.
unsightly and at worst can act as absorbent
Plastics and rubbers also vary greatly. At their
substrates for other soils or microorganisms.
worst they can swell on contact with some
Chemically they are very different from each
detergents (which may affect smooth running
other and may therefore need very different
of machinery) or become embrittled by heat,
cleaning approaches. This is especially true
light or chlorine. Some are surprisingly
because multiple types of soil are found
absorbent of soils, especially colourings,
frequently in the same plant, often combined in
mineral oils, smoke, etc., and may even play the
the same deposits. Physically this usually makes
generous host to moulds and fungi.
them harder, more adherent and more difficult
The main point to look for in choosing
to remove. It is important, therefore, to identify
surface materials is compatibility with the
the soils present in each plant area by their
production environment (physical and
origins and by their appearance. Only then is it
chemical) and with the cleaning regime.
possible to design the correct cleaning regime.
Compatibility with each other is also very
important, particularly when two different
metals (such as mild steel and stainless) are in
contact in a moist environment. Galvanic
The substrate: materials of construction
corrosion invariably takes place, causing the
:\lany different materials may be found in 'lower' metal to corrode rapidly. This will also
meat plants and while none is perfect, they do occur in poorly executed welds.
146

Energies of cleaning
Meat Hygiene
,
Water
I
Detergent solution
A principle of prime importance is that every c=::>
cleaning process, of whatever kind, always
Hydrophobic surface
involves a combination of four factors:
1 Thermal energy, in the form of hot water or Wetting of hydrophobic surfaces.
steam. As a rough guide, an increase in
temperature by lOoC in a detergent solution
doubles the rate of the chemical reactions Water alone is not sufficiently wet to displace
involved in cleaning.
many types of soils or even to displace air from
2 Mechanical energy, in the form of brushes, water-repellent or 'hydrophobic' surfaces (for
water jets, turbulent flow in pipes or even the example, water droplets on a Teflon frying
micro agitation produced by the bursting of
foam bubbles. In circulation (CIP) cleaning of pan). In these cases the water curls up under its
pipe systems, a flow rate of about 2 m/ s is own surface tension into droplets. Lack of
needed to ensure turbulence and avoid wetting will prevent cleaning taking place.
laminar flow. To achieve wetting of such surfaces, chemical
3 Chemical energy, which depends on the nature agents which have particular surface properties
and concentration of the detergent used. are employed: 'surfactants' or 'wetting agents'.
4 Time, which varies from hours in the case of These are organic molecules which are different
soak cleaning to seconds in the case of tray or at each end. One end is essentially hydrocarbon
crate washing. in nature and closely resembles grease, oil or fat
(i.e. 'hydrophobic'). The other end is either
It is essential to understand the interrelation ionised to give a positive or negative charge or
between these factors. Failure to do so will consists of oxygen-containing groups. In either
often lead to very poor cleaning results. While it case this end strongly attracts water (i.e. it is
is impossible, because of the complexity of the 'hydrophilic'). The result is a dual-nature
cleaning reactions, to be absolutely molecule which concentrates itself at the
mathematical about it there must be a balance interface between the water and the surface and
between the four factors. If one or more factor is allows wetting to take place as shown above.
limited by the cleaning conditions (e.g. mild The nature of the surfactant - whether it
chemicals must be used to avoid corrosion of a foams or defoams, how it wets different
surface and/or contact time is very limited), surfaces and emulsifies different fats, or how
then one or more of the other factors must be biodegradable it is - depends upon its exact
raised to compensate (e.g. high-pressure water design. There are many hundreds commercially
jets at high temperature). available, which may be used in detergents and
disinfectants, either alone or in combination.
Penetration. Wetting is the first essential step
Chemical and physical reactions of in the removal of the soil. As wetting agents
cleaning
allow the detergent to displace air from
Detergency involves many different reactions, surfaces, detergents are able to penetrate deep
physical and chemical, which depend on the into porous dry deposits much faster than
nature of the soils to be removed and the nature water alone. In doing so, the other active
of the detergent employed to remove them. components of the detergent are enabled to
react with soil components deep in the deposit
at a much earlier stage.
Physical reactions Emulsification. Emulsions are suspensions of
The primary physical reactions are the small droplets of one fluid in another. Milk, for
following: example, is an emulsion of milk fats in water,
Wetting. Wetting is defined as the stabilised by other molecules present in the
displacement of one fluid from a solid surface milk. Fats, oils and greases will not naturally
by another. The displaced fluid may be air or disperse in water. First the oil needs to be
some liquid or semiliquid such as grease. The released from the surface it is resting on.
fluid displacing it is, for the purpose of our Wetting is the first stage in this as the detergent
discussions, water or a detergent solution. undermines the oil-surface attraction and starts
 Plant Sanitation 147

Detergent solution
soils are too hard to emulsify easily. Here the
solvents penetrate the grease and soften or
liquefy it.

Chemical reactions
The most important chemical reactions include
the following:
surface Hydrolysis of proteins and carbohydrates.
These large molecules are made up of smaller
Wetting, roll-up and formation of emulsion. subunits (peptides and amino acids in the case
of proteins). Hydrolysis involves splitting the
molecules at the joints of the subunits, thereby
to displace the oil, which starts to roll up into releasing smaller, water-soluble molecules.
droplets. This is accelerated if the temperature Hydrolysis takes place most rapidly at extreme
is high enough to soften or fully liquefy the oil pH and is the main reason why alkalis and
or grease and/or if mechanical energy is acids are used in detergents. While alkaline
applied to the soil. The oil droplets break away hydrolysis is usually more effective, bile
from the surface and float freely. Unless proteins in evisceration areas respond very well
prevented from doing so, these droplets would to acid hydrolysis. In some cases the acid and
coalesce as they contacted each other at random alkaline hydrolyses may snip the larger
and would eventually become large enough to molecule in different locations, neither of which
redeposit elsewhere. To prevent the alone is enough to produce small enough
coalescence, surfactants, either those involved molecules. In such circumstances (e.g. old
in the wetting or other specialist emulsifiers, blood stains), alternation of alkaline and acid
coat the surface of the oil droplets and stabilise detergents may help dramatically.
the emulsion. Saponification of fats, oils and greases is a
Dispersion. This is similar to emulsification particular form of hydrolysis in which an alkali
except that it involves the breaking up and reacts with triglyceride fat molecules, cutting
suspension of solid particles rather than fluid the molecule in three places to give glycerol and
droplets. Dispersion is often carried out in a soap, both water-soluble. In practice, the
detergent by components other than formation of the soap can be either helpful,
surfactants. usually inorganic materials such as because it acts as a wetting and emulsification
carbonates, silicates or phosphates or, in more agent in its own right, or harmful, because it
advanced formulations, by special water- produces unwanted foam in machine or
soluble charged polymers. The mechanism of circulation cleaning. In hard water the foam is
maintaining a stable dispersion, thus allowing less of a problem, but formation of scum (i.e.
the soil particles to be rinsed freely away calcium soaps) may make the clean less
without re-deposition, involves coating the efficient.
particles with electric charges which mutually Chelation of insoluble metal ions such as
repel. Dispersion is particularly important in calcium, magnesium and iron. These ions may
circulating cleaning systems (CIP) where be present in scale already formed on a surface
sludge can build up, unless dispersed, in where they provide anchorage for soil deposits
slower-moving parts of the system. and may become incorporated in the matrix of
Solubilisation. This process is simply the the deposit itself. Alternatively, they may be a
taking up of soil components into a true problem in hard water which undergoes
solution (rather than an emulsion or a heating or evaporation. Chelating agents
dispersion). While some soil components are (sometimes known as chelants or sequestrants)
naturally water-soluble under the right bind the metal ions in water-soluble cages,
conditions, others need the assistance of removing scale or preventing it. In mixed
solvents in the detergent solution. These scale/soil deposits the chelates can have a very
solvents must be taint-free and of low toxicity pronounced effect on the break-up of the
and are usually based on alcohols, glycols or deposit. These typical chelating agents (e.g.
glycol ethers. They assist most where greasy EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid), NTA
148 Meat Hygiene
(nitrilotriacetic acid), gluconate, etc.) are that the design of a detergent may be quite
restricted in their economy by the fact that they complex. In general, the more complex and
must be present in ratio to the metal ions varied the soil, the more different components
needing to be chelated. In very hard water or in need to be employed in the detergent. Other
large volumes of water this may be prohibitively critical variables are the water hardness, the
expensive. In recent years, these conventional temperature and method of application, the
chelants have been supplemented by what are safety considerations for operators and plant
known as substoichiometric chelants, usually surfaces and the possible effects on the effluent
water-soluble-charged polymers. These act in system. To meet these varying requirements,
two ways: (1) They inhibit the growth of scale the detergent manufacturers will have a range
microcrystals by blocking the corners of the of different formulations. The main
crystals (where growth occurs), forcing the components, which mayor may not be jointly
crystals to become spherical. Any scale which present, include:
does form is thus made soft and powdery and • Alkalis: caustic soda, caustic potash,
non-adherent to surfaces. (2) They act as carbonate, silicate, phosphate.
dispersants, stringing microcrystals like pearls • Acids: phosphoric, nitric, citric, glycolic,
on a necklace and preventing them from sticking sulphamic, hydrochloric.
together and precipitating. Whatever the mode • Chelating agents: EDTA, NTA, gluconate,
of action, these polymeric chelating agents do glucoheptonate, citrate, polymeric.
not need to be present in fixed ratio to the metal
• Solvents: isopropanol, propylene glycol,
ions, but instead function at only several parts butyl diglycol, ethers.
per million, even in very hard water. Their main
action takes place at low alkalinity, e.g. during • Surfactants: anionic, cationic, nonionic,
amphoteric (hundreds of different types
the rinse stage. They normally do not actively exist).
remove previously formed hard scales.
Oxidation of coloured materials, starches etc. • Inhibitors: organic, inorganic.
Some soil components respond well to chlorine, • Enzymes: protease, lipase, amylase.
in the form of alkaline sodium hypochlorite. • Oxidising agents: hypochlorite,
Coloured deposits may be bleached and some isocyanurates.
protein or fat deposits may be readily broken • Stabilisers.
down. • Viscosity modifiers.
Corrosion inhibition. Certain chemical
components may inhibit the corrosion which Anyone detergent formulation may contain
normally takes place when aluminium (and to a between 2 and 15 components, blended
lesser degree, zinc) come into contact with carefully to the application and all its
detergents at very high or low pH. Silicates, for variables.
example, in the presence of caustic soda, can In order to cover all the needs of the food and
render the latter practically non-corrosive on beverage industry, a detergent product range
aluminium although this is usually associated may comprise several hundred different
with a less effective clean with the risk of scale formulations, but for anyone plant the choice is
formation. usually narrowed down to 2-10 products. The
Enzymolysis. Protease, lipase or amylase skill of the user, in conjunction with the
enzymes may find use in specialist detergents supplier, is in choosing which of the many
where they can be quite effective at mild pH products to use. In meat plants, the biggest
conditions. They split the large organic single volume of detergent used is normally an
molecules similarly to hydrolysis but alkaline foam cleaner of some sort, with non-
sometimes more thoroughly. They are generally foaming cratewash detergent, manual neutral
difficult to formulate in a stable product. detergents and acidic foam descalers also
finding use. Depending on the degree of further
processing, other specialist products may be
DETERGENTS: DESIGN AND CHOICE needed. As a rule, when choosing products for
particular applications, the mildest, safest, least
It can be seen, from the physical and chemical corrosive options should be tried first, with the
tasks needed for detergents to remove deposits, 'heavier guns' being brought in as needed.
 Plant Sanitation 149
Detergent formulations may vary very whether meat residues or bacteria. These
substantially in their effectiveness; failure to oxidising disinfectants include chlorine,
perform is usually not a question of a 'poor' iodophors and peracetic acid. These agents are
product (though active ingredient levels can be usually rapid-acting and broad-spectrum in
inadequate in some cases) but rather of the terms of the organisms they can kill, but they
choice of the wrong product, applied and typically lack a residual effect. They may not be
controlled in an inappropriate fashion. stable in hot water and may be corrosive on a
While a 'detergent' is designed to remove range of metals and other surfaces, but they are
soils, another term - 'sanitiser' - is often used usually low-foaming.
for some products of a similar type. In Europe, It is sometimes wrongly assumed that a
the term 'sanitiser' is taken to mean a combined chlorine foam can act fully as a cleaner and a
detergent-disinfectant, while 'disinfectant' disinfectant and that subsequent disinfection is
means a product designed to kill microbes, but not needed. This is partly a false assumption,
without deliberately employing a soil-removal based on the perception of chlorine as a
effect. disinfectant. Depending on the pH, there is an
equilibrium in chlorine solutions between
HOCl and OCl-. The active biocide in chlorine
PRINCIPLES OF DISINFECTION products is the hypochlorous acid molecule
HOCl, which, as it is uncharged, can penetrate
Soil deposits in a food plant would be bad the bacterial walls. In chlorine foam cleaners,
enough if the problem was simply their rather the pH is usually around 10-11. The chlorine is
unsightly appearance. But the fact that they therefore mostly present as the hypochlorite
harbour, nourish and protect spoilage or ion OCl-, which acts principally as a detergent
pathogenic microorganisms that are invisible to and oxidising agent, helping with the removal
the naked eye makes the job somewhat harder. of proteins and grease and the bleaching of
The soil must, of course, be removed as some coloured substances. This pH effect and
completely as possible by effective cleaning lack of free HOCI makes the disinfectant
using the detergents discussed above. Typically properties of alkaline chlorine solutions much
the reduction in the total viable bacteria count weaker (up to a hundred times) than a straight
achieved by cleaning is of the order of 3-4 logs hypochlorite disinfectant solution without
per cm-. If the initial loading was -10 6 / cm', alkalis, etc. The better cleaning performance of
which is frequently the case, there will remain the chlorine foam physically removes much of
counts of 102-103 / cm- after cleaning. It is often the bacterial load along with the dirt, but in
necessary to reduce the bacterial numbers areas where a very low surface bacterial count
further, by the process of disinfection, to levels of is desired, a separate disinfection stage is
less than a few hundred. Complete sterilisation needed. This should normally not be a
(elimination of all microorganisms) is neither hypochlorite solution because of the risk of
practical or necessary in the disinfection of food corrosion (even on stainless steel) of the
I'lant surfaces. breakdown products of the hypochlorite. The
lack of heat and light stability of the chlorine
means that no residual bactericidal effect is
Biocidal active components maintained after a relatively short time.
The class of chemicals known as disinfectants Non-oxidising disinfectants are typically
share some components with detergents but based on quaternary ammonium compounds (or
others are very different. Their function is to kill 'uuats', a class of cationic surfactant),
bacteria and other microorganisms that are left amphoterics (another class of surfactant with
on the surface after cleaning. They can kill the twin positive and negative charges), alcohols,
microbes by several different methods, biguanides or aldehydes. The non-oxidising
depending on which components are used in agents are usually heat-stable and less
the disinfectant. Some affect the integrity of the corrosive and have a residual biocidal or
cell wall, while others interfere with critical biostatic effect if left on surfaces. The
metabolic reactions inside the cell. surfactant-based disinfectants are often high-
Some disinfectants are oxidising and will foaming, which may prevent their use in some
tend to react with most organic material, applications.
150 Meat Hygiene
DISINFECTANTS: DESIGN AND detergent and a disinfectant. Usually this is a
CHOICE quat-based neutral or mildly alkaline product
for manual use. In generat however, the one-
The method of kill and the point of attack on stage product approach does not give as
the defences of the microorganisms may be consistent or as effective a final result as the two
different in each case. Unless carefully stages separately.
formulated, disinfectants could have Under no circumstances should phenolic,
weaknesses at lower temperatures or against pine or other highly-perfumed disinfectants be
some more difficult to kill bacteria such as used in a food plant, even in the offices. The risk
pseudomonads. This could be criticat for of taint, even from very small airborne
example, when disinfecting a chill. concentrations, is high, especially in fatty foods.
Well-formulated disinfectants may employ The risk is compounded by the presence of
several different biocidal components, often chlorine, even at low levels in factory water.
with surfactants and chelants to help in the Chlorocresols and chlorophenols may be
killing action. This also helps eliminate the formed which can taint meat at levels as low as
possibility of resistance developing among the parts per billion (ppb).
population of microorganisms. (Such resistance
to antibiotics is well known and increasing in
the medical and veterinary fields, but to date is
rarely seen in food plant disinfection.) HYGIENE EQUIPMENT AND
Disinfectants can be affected by residues of APPLICATION METHODS
detergents left on surfaces, perhaps owing to
inadequate rinsing. Anionic surfactants in the Detergents and disinfectants can often be
detergent may neutralise the cationic surfactant applied in a number of different ways, dictated
of quats, rendering them ineffective. by the nature of the cleaning task.
Disinfectants should be chosen in
conjunction with the supplier, taking into full
account the surface materials to be disinfected, Manual cleaning
the soil residues likely to be present after
The agents may be applied manually using
cleaning, the safety to operators and product,
cloth, mop, squeegee, brush, green pad, etc.
the specific organisms, if any to be controlled,
This is usually reserved for small areas on
the ambient and solution temperature and the
machinery that is non-waterproof or which
time scale (rapid or residual) required. Cleaning
needs dismantling. It is labour intensive and
and disinfection may in some cases be
usually requires safe, neutral chemicals.
adequately combined into one operation using
Detergents or sanitisers (combination
a sanitiser, which has the action of both a
detergent-disinfectants) may be used in this
way, but not normally disinfectants, as the
repeated immersion of the brush, pad or cloth
Aldehydes, surfactants in the solution after contact with the surface
Quats, biguanides would tend to reduce or nullify the disinfectant.
Cytoplasmic Manual cleaning varies significantly with the
membrane \ skill, commitment and time available to the
operator. While once common, it is not
normally used today for cleaning large plant
areas.

Foam cleaning
This is the established method for the cleaning
of large or intricate plant and equipment and is
standard procedure in the vast majority of
meat, poultry and other food and beverage
Action of biocides on bacteria. plants worldwide. A foam blanket, created
 Plant Sanitation 151
using a wide range of available equipment (see station which pumps the solution, as a liquid
later), is projected from a nozzle, and allowed to under pressure, to numerous outlets on a
act on the soil for 15-30 minutes, after which it pipework system throughout the factory.
is rinsed off with the released deposits. Large Compressed air is injected into the outlet 'foam
areas such as floors, walls, stands, conveyors, boxes' to create the foam of the desired flow
and tables and intricate machinery such as rate and air content. Advantages include
fillers, defeatherers, blackscrapers, etc. are consistent chemical strength throughout the
normally suitable for foaming. plant with single-point control, no handling of
The foam itself is merely the carrier for the concentrated chemical and the avoidance of
detergent, to enable it physically to function. drums of chemical in the factory production
The quality of the foam may differ greatly, the areas. The elimination of preparation and put-
best being creamy in consistency rather than away time is also of benefit, saving about 30
either too dry or too wet. The foam should be minutes per operator per day. Chemical usage
applied as a thin, uniform layer. Coverage rates is typically 20-25% lower than with mobiles
are quite rapid and overall economy is good as owing to the lack of waste. Disadvantages
manual scrubbing is unnecessary and a little include capital cost and the versatility of the
detergent concentrate generates a lot of foam chemicals, but the latter can be remedied by
(up to 500-fold). using hybrid centralised/satellite foam boxes at
Only specially designed chemicals are chosen locations (Fig. 6.1).
suitable for foam cleaning. The foam itself is Satellite foam systems are normally driven by
created by a special surfactant system which is centralised rinse systems using wall-mounted or
present in the product in addition to the actual trolley-mounted foam boxes equipped with
cleaning components. Normal detergents venturi injectors at each outlet. Compressed air
which at first may appear quite foamy will give is injected at each box in low and medium
a very rapidly collapsing foam and should not pressure rinse systems «40 bar water pressure)
be used for this purpose. Many speciality foam to create the foam, but with high-pressure rinse
detergents and foam sanitisers are available, systems (» -70 bar) atmospheric air alone can be
from caustic through neutral to acid, plus drawn using special venturi foam lances.
chlorine or quat, etc., if needed. Recently Advantages of satellite foam systems include
developed advanced foams give a much low capital costs (in addition to those of the rinse
improved cling to smooth vertical surfaces and system) and complete versatility of chemical
can remain in contact with complete coverage choice and concentration at each outlet.
for 20-30 minutes or more. Older or less well- Disadvantages include chemical drums in the
designed formulations can often collapse production area and lack of central control-of-
rapidly and slide off before the cleaning action use rates. As mentioned previously, hybrid
is complete. central! satellite systems are available which
combine all the advantages of the two systems
(see Fig. 6.1).
Foam application equipment

This can be classified as mobile, centralised or

Gels
satellite, although there is some overlap.
Mobile [oamers may be based on pressure Gel cleaning uses special chemicals and spray
vessels (like beer kegs), air-driven pumps, or equipment to give a thick, viscous layer of
venturi injector attachments to pressure detergent that clings strongly even on vertical
washers. Advantages include low capital cost surfaces. This is normally confined to small
and versatility in using different chemicals in areas where very long contact time of several
different areas. Disadvantages include potential hours is needed for burnt-on or otherwise very
lack of chemical solution strength control, stubborn deposits. Gel chemicals may
maintenance problems due to abuse, waste of sometimes be foamed with certain types of
unused chemical solution and preparation and foam equipment, but the high viscosity of the
put-away time. gel is effectively increased within the foam even
Centralised foam systems are based on an further. This leads to a slowing down of the
automatic chemical dilution, tank and pump cleaning reactions (which depend greatly on
152 Meat Hygielle

- - -
,,' .I.
t -sr '':
,f- ,...-->\:;r
- ......- y
I

Fig 6.1 Demonstration room show ing insta llations of cen tral and satellite foa m and rinse stations.

d iffusion o f detergent components into the soil Fog ging

and of so il com ponen ts out of the deposit). For
this reason , gels arc not economical for routine Aerial fogging uses compressed air or other
equi pme nt to ge nera te a fine mist of
general cleaning of large factory areas, where
disinfectant solution, whi ch hangs in the air
time cons traints usually d ictate contact times of
15-30 minutes. Ensu ring compl ete rinsing of long enough to d isinfect airborne organisms
gels can sometimes be difficult. and which settles on walls and surfaces to give
a bacte ricidal /bacteriosta tic eff ect. Fogging
systems can be sma ll portable devices or bu ilt-
Spray in automatic cen tral sys tems. Foggin g is only
worthwhile if the rest of the hygiene
Spra y clea ning us es a lance on a pressure prog ramme is properl y carried o ut. The
w asher (w ith chemical ind uction by ventu rl) or imp ortant parameters for effective fogging are
a bac kpeck sprayc r. This method is o ften the mat ching of the vo lume of liquid being
wasteful of chemical. w hich ru ns off rapid ly, is fogged to the vo lume of th e roo m, the
slower th an foam ing , and produces more tempe ratu re, relative hu midity and rate of air
aerosol. Cleaning pe rformance is inferior to tha t change. Ideally saturation of the air wi th very
of foaming. The foaming nat ure of the chemical fine droplets w hich stay suspended for a long
is usually not critical in this application as air is time gives the best results. Failure to satu rate or
not injected into the liquid . to have fine enough droplet size can mean tha t
 Plant Sanitation 153
only the uppermost surfaces of the plant receive cycle, including timed pre-rinse, cleaning and
the disinfectant as it rains down and the air rinsing stages, and is nowadays usually
itself may remain largely unaffected. automated or semiautomated with a system of
valves, pumps and detergent tanks, often
controlled by microprocessor. The main points
Machine washing to consider include:
Industrial machine washing is typically done 1 The flow velocity, which in all parts of the
with an automatic or semiautomatic continuous system should be sufficient to cause turbulent
traywash or buggywash machine with spray flow. This is generally around 1.5-2 m/ s.
nozzles arrayed on booms in separate chambers Where pipe diameters vary in the one system,
of the machine or in separate cycles (for the largest pipe should have this flow rate.
Failure to comply with this flow rate means
detergent, rinse and sometimes disinfectant). laminar flow at the boundary layer close to
An alternative machine design uses submersion the pipe surface, with little or no mechanical
tanks or flumes, through which the trays are energy to help the cleaning.
slowly pulled. A less effective design is the
2 The spray pressure and pattern where
circular carousel (which runs the risk of sprayballs or rotating jets are used for the
contamination of clean trays by dirty ones as interiors of large tankers or vessels. Again, if
there is only one entry/exit point). Other impingement is too gentle or blind spots are
machines, especially for buggies, may wash protected from the impact of the spray, there
each item individually in a batch process. All will be insufficient energy to have an effective
machine types represent an expensive capital clean. Typical pressures are 1-3 bar for low-
investment and are critical to the hygiene of pressure systems and 6 bar for high-pressure
direct food contact surfaces. Wash machines systems. Flow rates of approximately 2 times
generally are large consumers of chemicals and the vessel's volume per hour are normally
water, especially if not properly maintained needed to achieve the desired results.
and controlled. Filters should be cleaned 3 The temperature, which has a big bearing on
regularly and blocked nozzles cleared. the rate of the cleaning reaction. Generally,
Prevention of liquid carry-over from one temperatures of 85°C are used.
chamber to the next is also important. Traywash 4 Detergent control, which is typically by a
machines can also be a contamination risk to temperature-compensated conductivity
the rest of the factory as they can produce large probe and pump. Conductivity closely
quantities of fine, contaminated aerosols which follows free caustic levels in CIP solutions
may drift with natural air flows into critical and allows for fully automatic control.
areas. Chemicals used in these machines must Manual dosing, in contrast, runs the risk of
chemical strength being too high or too low.
be low foam or even actively defoaming and
should be automatically controlled and dosed S Chemical energy andfoam control depend on the
by conductivity probe, with the probe being choice of detergent type. The main detergent
cleaned regularly and the concentration in CIP is normally an alkali, frequently caus-
tic-based. The additional components, such as
checked. Location of the probe is important in surfactants (for preventing foam and aiding
obtaining representative readings.

Cleaning-in-place (CIP) (Fig. 6.2)

CIP, or cleaning-in-place, is used very
Foam control? Temperature?
extensively for the interior cleaning of pipes,
vessels, tankers, heat exchangers, fillers, etc. in
liquid product plants such as breweries and
dairies. The technique is increasing in use in
meat and poultry plants where giblets or other
materials may be automatically transferred
through pipe systems or where sauces, »Flow rate?
marinades and other liquids are used in added-
value products. CIP involves a programmed CIF parameters.
154 Meat Hygiel1e

-~ - ~. ::; ',
.,..<'

I
~ '"i
Q •
"
••

Fig. &.2 Various foam an d rinse systems in use. (By courtesy of Kleencare Hygiene, Cheadle, Cheshire, UK)

wetting) and chcla ting agents (for removing centrifugation can so metimes be used to
scales such as calcium ph osphate) ma y be extend the life of the solution.
included in the deterg ent formulation as sup*
plied (when it is called a built detergent) or
they may be supplied separately as a caustic
additive. For formulation reasons. additives Rinse syste ms
are techn ically superior and more economical Meat and poultry plants need effective r inse
but require parallel dosing pumps for caustic systems for washin g down the plant before and
and additive. after the foam ap p lica tion and in some cases fo r
6 Recyclillg of de tergent solutions is econo mical, generating th e foam itself and applying
environme ntally-friend ly a nd reduces the disinfectant. A number of di fferent systems are
load ing on effluen t plants. Solutions ma y possible. The rule govern ing them all is that the
normally be used many times, depending on cleaning im pact of a wat er jet on a surface is
the amo un t of di rt they pick up on each proportion al both to the pressure of the liquid
clean ing cycle and on the suspension and
chc lating power o f the detergent. If too at the point of contac t a nd to the volume of
hea vily load ed , detergent so lutions may liq uid per second in the jet.
red epo sit old soil or scale in slower-mov ing Traditional steam hoses, which mi xed live
pa rts of the sys te m. Filtra tion or steam w ith cold wate r a re now out of favour for
 Plant Sanitation 155
a number of reasons, principally cost, safety, volume per second higher, the jet retains most
humidity and condensation. Although it may of its impact even at several metres distance.
be thought that the very high temperature of a This means that rinsing can be faster, with a
steam hose had a disinfecting effect, this is in better sluicing-away effect. The extra water
fact not the case, as expansion at the nozzle consumption per second is more than
causes rapid cooling even at short distances, compensated for by a shorter rinse time. Water
while conduction of heat away from the point consumption in total, compared to a high-
of impact by the surface (usually a metal) pressure system, is more or less equivalent, but
means that sufficiently high temperatures are labour savings (in the most time-consuming
never reached. Live steam can also carry stage of the cleaning sequence) are significant.
corrosion products from pipelines or carry-over
of boiler treatment chemicals, neither of which
is desirable hygienically. Water temperatures
Similarly, low-pressure (around mains Although the EU regulations call for 82°C water
pressure or less than 10 bar) water systems are to be used for knife sterilisation, such high
inadequate for rinsing meat or poultry plants, temperatures are impractical for most plant
because the water jet lacks sufficient energy to cleaning operations (with the main exception of
assist in the cleaning process. CIP) for a number of reasons:
At the other extreme, high-pressure rinse • The steam, humidity and condensation
systems, based on either mobile pressure obscure vision and encourage microbial
washers or built-in pump systems have been growth.
widely used. Their use is now in rapid decline • Proteins are denatured on the surfaces and
for a number of safety, maintenance and hard-water scale formation is increased.
hygiene reasons. These systems typically
• The load on the extraction and cooling
function at 60-120 bar using piston or plunger systems is increased.
type pumps. These create a vibration in the
system, which can affect the life of the • Thermal shock can damage surfaces owing
to differential expansion.
pipework, which is narrow-bore and expensive.
The design of the pumps (positive • Pipework lifetime is reduced.
displacement) causes pressure in the system to • The lances are too hot to hold and the water
drop precipitously if the maximum flow rate is jet is dangerous.
exceeded, e.g. if one person too many uses an • Energy costs are too high.
outlet simultaneously or if one nozzle is • Foam quality deteriorates at very high
missing or worn out. The high velocity of the temperatures.
water from the nozzles causes the jet to break
up at a distance of about 1 metre into a fine The temperature which gives the best
mist, which has lost virtually all its momentum compromise between effectiveness and
and impact. Rinsing of surfaces therefore needs economy is 60-65°C which is enough to soften
to be carried out at close range. This is time- the fats encountered in meat plants, without the
consuming for the operators and in addition drawbacks shown above. In fish plants, because
causes the soil deposit to be broken up of the low denaturation temperature of the
violently, creating contaminating aerosols. proteins, rinse water at -35°C is used.
High-pressure water is also dangerous and may
penetrate the skin or damage eyes.
Medium-pressure rinse systems (25-50 bar)
are the currently favoured option. Using CONTAMINATION AND
relatively inexpensive multistage (boiler feed RECONTAMINATION
type) pumps and wider bore, medium
pressure-rated pipework, these systems are Meat plant surfaces will be exposed to
vibration-free and insensitive to sudden microbial contamination by direct contact with
fluctuations in water usage at the various the exterior of the animal prior to and after
outlets. The nozzle used is usually adjustable slaughter and to the gut contents during and
from a conical flood to a fine concentrated jet after evisceration. The dressing process and
and, as the water velocity is lower and the subsequent production stages are designed so
156 Meat Hygiene
as to reduce further direct contamination of All plant personnel must be trained in hygiene
food product with these microorganisms. While and the proper clean protective wear supplied.
viscera are kept physically separate from edible Hand-washing facilities must be conveniently
materials, plant surfaces in evisceration areas located close to production stations and
will have high bacteria counts. Personnel and entrances. Bactericidal, non-perfumed soaps
external material such as pallets, vehicles, etc. must be supplied, together with alcoholic hand
also bring microorganisms into the plant, disinfectant in high-risk areas.
especially on to the floors. Surfaces which are inadequately cleaned may
During cleaning these microorganisms, recontaminate entire pieces of equipment. For
whether spoilage, pathogenic or harmless, may example, one badly cleaned roller on an
be disturbed in such a way as to be transmitted, otherwise spotless conveyor belt can, in one
perhaps directly on to food product itself or on rotation of the belt, smear it with grease and
to previously cleaned surfaces. This accidental dirt. Similarly, cutting blades in saws, slicers,
recontamination is carried by a number of dicers, etc. must be very effectively cleaned.
possible vectors, which, unless understood and
controlled, can nullify the effectiveness of the
cleaning procedure.
CLEANING PROCEDURES
Air can carry dust from hide-pullers, fleeces,
feathers, etc., especially in dry weather. This
The previous sections on soil, substrate,
dust is likely to contain faecal bacteria, among
detergents, equipment, methods and
others. Air can also carry aerosols created by
recontamination should demonstrate that the
water jets during rinsing or by washing
cleaning of a meat plant is a complex job. Only
machines. Such aerosols can be very fine and
with systematic procedures can a consistently
can drift with natural air movement for
hygienic plant be maintained. These procedures
considerable distances. Listeria, E. coli and
form part of the Cleaning Schedule, a working
Salmonella are very frequently found on floors
reference document which defines standards,
and drains, which makes the rinsing of these
methods, frequencies and materials for all
potentially problematic. Hot water or steam can
cleaning and disinfecting operations in the plant.
also create aerosols which condense on cold
The schedule should form part of the Quality
overhead surfaces, later to drip on to
Manual of the plant and be available for
unprotected foodstuffs positioned below. For
consultation or inspection. Simplified extracts of
these reasons, great care must be taken to
the schedule, employing pictograms, may be
ensure that all product is removed from areas
used as wall charts for individual plant areas.
being cleaned. Differential air pressures must
cause air to move from clean to dirty areas and Hygiene suppliers often assist in the preparation
and upkeep of the hygiene schedules.
not vice versa. Pressure hoses must not be
To secure a Due Diligence defence in the case
inserted into drains.
of prosecution it would normally be necessary
Water collecting in hollows on the floor or in
to show that a properly designed cleaning
blocked drain openings can quickly become
schedule was in place and was being followed.
highly contaminated. Splashes caused by people
As mentioned earlier, cost pressures may
or vehicles going through the puddles can
directly contaminate surfaces. Water used in encourage the cleaners to combine or leave out
individual steps in the cleaning sequence. This
washing the plant may be stored in holding
tanks feeding the pumps. These may also should be avoided. Anyone responsible for
food industry hygiene, and in particular in the
become contaminated and, with warm water
driving off chlorine reserve, the rinse water itself methodology of cleaning, should have a clear
understanding of what methods are correct for
may become a source of recontamination. Hoses
the cleaning of food plants and the dangers of
supplying product make-up water to bowl
choppers and the like can support microbial incorrect or inadequate cleaning procedures.
(especially fungal) growth on their insides.
Personnel are the biggest single source of The cleaning sequence
contamination risk in a plant, from dirty
protective clothing, inadequate handwashing, The correct sequence for general routine surface
hair, jewellery, sneezes, coughs, cuts and sores. cleaning of a food plant is:
 Plant Sanitation 157
1 Gross clean/preparation should be carried out dry by hand-picking,
2 Pre-rinsing scraping and shovelling. All rubbish/waste
3 Detergent application collected should be put in bags/bins and
4 Post-rinsing removed entirely from the area. It should go
without saying that all edible foodstuffs and
5 Disinfection product packaging should be removed at or
6 Terminal rinsing. before this stage. (It is a constant source of
amazement how often this simple fact is
Some of these steps may sometimes be ignored.)
skipped or combined (perhaps where the
nature and quantity of the soil is light, or
during brief intermediate cleaning in 2. Pre-rinsing
production breaks) but for systematic daily The purpose of pre-rinsing is to remove
cleaning the sequence is very important. We deposits which cannot easily be removed by
look at each step in more detail. picking/ scraping/ shovelling, e.g. blood,
manure, small meat pieces and particles, etc.
The rinse waterjet should not be used as a brush
1. Gross clean/preparation for chasing large amounts of pieces around the
This is the step that is most often incorrectly floor and towards the drain. This would result
carried out or completely ignored. Food residue in waste of water and time, blockage of drains,
that is left on the equipment, surfaces and floors loading of effluent water with high BOD /eOD,
has many negative effects on the cleaning and unnecessarily high humidity.
performance: Pre-rinsing is particularly important in the
case of cutting boards, where the thick deposits
• It protects surfaces and the bacteria on them
from the attack of the detergent. of grease would make true cleaning of the
surface grooves and crevices impossible. Where
• It reacts with and consumes the detergent so fresh blood is a problem, the rinse temperature
that its function is weakened or chemical should be below sooe to avoid coagulation.
wasted. After pre-rinsing it is important to remove
• It holds bacteria (often at very high levels) any water that may be lying in pools on flat
which can recontaminate surfaces at a later surfaces as these would dilute the detergent
stage in the cleaning, especially during the solution and make it less effective. Any
rinsing stage. squeegee used to scrape off the excess water
• It can directly recontaminate surfaces with must be used only for food contact surfaces and
grease and protein which can act as nutrient not for floors.
for microorganisms and as a barrier to
disinfectant. This is particularly true on
moving machinery such as conveyors. 3. Detergent application
• It can end up washed into the drainage The purpose of a detergent is to remove the thin
system, either causing blockage in traps or tenacious layers of protein, grease etc. that are
high solids/BOD (biological oxygen still on surfaces which may already look fairly
demand) in the effluent. clean. Detergents are not designed for
• It encourages the cleaning team to miss removing large pieces of meat or thick layers of
areas, not to check their work, and also to fat. Although they may seem to help in the
cut other corners. removal of such large quantities, they will
usually fail to remove the last residues actually
A poor gross clean is the singlebiggest reason for bonded to the surface if these residues are
poor or inconsistent bacterial counts on surfaces and protected by the thicker layers above them. It is in
for high bacterial contamination in aerosols caused these thin residues that many bacteria can easily
by rinsing. survive and grow and they can also make any
In a properly managed cleaning programme, disinfectant, which is applied later, ineffective.
all pieces of food product, meat, etc., which are Foaming should be methodical and
larger than a fingernail are removed before thorough and the operator should check to see
application of detergent. Where possible this that all surfaces have been covered in the foam,
158 Meat Hygiene
both top and bottom. Foam concentration, to dry before production (if necessary) but not
dryness, thickness of application and contact so early that remaining microorganisms are
time are all very important in ensuring the able to recover and multiply significantly
correct results at a controlled, optimised cost. before production recommences.
This rinsing should be much quicker than
post-rinsing after foaming or pre-rinsing before
4. Post-rinsing foaming, as no contaminating particles of soil
Post-rinsing is again a very important stage. should be present. The microbiological quality
Care should be taken to minimise the amount of the water is very important. It must be
of splash and aerosol formed, which may potable or else it can be a source of
recontaminate previously cleaned surfaces or recontamination itself.
blast particles of dirt high up on walls and
ventilation socks, etc. After post-rinsing, the
surfaces should be free of all visible particles,
layers of soiling and residues of detergent and MONITORING OF HYGIENE
should be 'optically clean'. (The soil and
detergent residues and any soaps formed by Monitoring of cleaning and disinfection
alkaline hydrolysis of fats, will tend to effectiveness is partly a matter of trained visual
neutralise the disinfectant properties of quats.) assessment and partly of microbiology. A plant
It is important to check the efficacy of the rinse, that is not visually clean still presents a risk of
especially where parallel production lines are microbial contamination. The control and
cleaned in sequence and splash could avoidance of these risks are best achieved using
recontaminate previously cleaned surfaces. The a HACCP (Hazard analysis by critical control
rollers of conveyors are particularly important. points) approach. Legislation strongly
After rinsing, any pools of water should be recommends the use of HACCP principles to
removed from surfaces and vessels, whether secure a Due Diligence defence, but a simple
disinfection is to follow or not. logical approach is preferable in practice to an
over-ornate, unwieldy bureaucratic system.
The critical points in the cleaning and
5. Disinfection disinfection programme should be identified
and measurement and control protocols set up.
Disinfection should only be carried out on a
Some of the CCPs (critical control points) will
visually clean, well-rinsed surface, with
be readily measurable, e.g. the solution
minimal amounts of surface water. Direct food
concentration of a detergent or disinfectant,
contact surfaces should be disinfected at least
while others involve checking the procedure
daily, with other surfaces (such as walls, doors,
itself. After each CCP stage in the cleaning
etc.) disinfected on a regular basis. The
procedure, the operator should check for
concentration of the disinfectant is very
effectiveness and thoroughness. This check
important.
should be backed up by the hygiene supervisor,
who, if not satisfied, should ask for a repeat of
the stage. Quality assurance and/ or production
6. Terminal rinsing
personnel should also check the plant regularly,
Most (but not alll) disinfectants are safe to leave looking in particular for old soil deposits not
on surfaces without final rinsing. The residual removed at the last clean, and build-up of
disinfectant often helps maintain a low fungi, corrosion or scale deposits. The hygiene
microbial count for a considerable time after the supervisor and his or her team should also be
cleaning sequence is finished. In some sections periodically audited to ensure that the cleaning
of the food industry, EU directives and national and disinfection procedures are being followed.
regulations require rinsing of food-contact Chemical solution strengths should be
surfaces with potable water after the regularly checked by titration, test kit or
disinfectant has acted unless the disinfectant is conductivity meter. The internal monitoring
specifically designed to remain unrinsed. If can be usefully supplemented by audits from
terminal rinsing is being done, it should, if external experts, such as hygiene
possible, be at such a time as to allow surfaces chemical! service suppliers, consultants, etc.
 Plant Sanitation 159
The microbiological assessment should be TRAINING
carried out on representative and random
sampling points using skilled personnel. Results Training of all operatives and managers
should be reported regularly to management involved in plant cleaning is critically important.
and fed back to the cleaning team for remedial It helps develop and maintain a high self-
action. The advent of rapid methods has meant esteem and status in the cleaning team
that results are real-time and allow action to be (traditionally seen, wrongly, as less skilled than
taken almost immediately. Most systems are production workers) and a problem-solving,
based on the measurement of adenosine self-assessing quality attitude to the job.
triphosphate (ATP), a coenzyme which Training should cover the theoretical
functions in many enzyme-catalysed reactions background in sufficient depth, particularly the
in animals, plants and micro-organisms, acting microscopic 'enemy', the risks of recontarnina-
as a carrier of energy from oxidative processes tion, the importance of procedures and the safe
to cells requiring it. Food residues are rich in use of chemicals and equipment. Practical, on-
ATP, which bacteria, yeasts, moulds, etc., need the-job training should be continuous,
to grow and multiply. When ATP is brought especially when new plant or equipment is
into contact with Iuciferin-luciferase. a reaction introduced or procedures are changed. For
takes place with the production of light - protection of Due Diligence, training should be
bioluminescence. The sensitive light meters in recorded on the personnel records of those
the systems accurately measure the trained.
concentrations of ATP and thus of the
microorganisms and food residues. The fact that
ATP test kits do not (unless a special stage is SAFETY
included) differentiate between somatic (meat-
derived) cells and microbial cells is largely Industrial detergents and disinfectants are
irrelevant, as the result is a measure of overall generally because of the nature of the job they
'cleanliness' and either actual or potential are designed to do, more concentrated and
microbial contamination. Techniques such as more extreme in pH than domestic products.
ATP can be used to optimise the cleaning They should always be applied using the
protocols, evaluate different chemicals, solution correct protective wear; gloves, goggles (or full-
concentrations and rinse water temperatures, face protector), apron, boots, etc. In areas where
and so on. Statistical analysis of results over a high aerosol levels may be created, with a risk
period of time can identify trends more of heavy microbial contamination, a suitable
meaningfully than simply observing daily face mask should be worn. Chemicals must not
variations. be mixed unless under the express instructions
Fig 6.3 shows a range of total counts on of a competent person. All chemical containers
equipment monitored Mon-Fri. must be clearly labelled with product-specific
identification and safety information as per EU
standards. Safety data sheets on all chemicals
must be available which conform to the
legislation. All equipment must be properly
350 .-----------------;~--___,
A-_ maintained.
300 unaccePta~I:>/'
I----'-=-=-="'--I~-----'---T'------=-=-~

250 --- .... '/

EFFLUENT AND ODOUR CONTROL
200
150 I----"""""-=--.-"'=---------------j It is beyond the scope of this discussion to deal
Excellent in depth with these two complex hygiene-
,----::--------,
100 - .. - Conveyors related issues. A number of general points,
50 --.-- Cutting boards however, may be usefully made.
........ Slicers
oL--L----L-.':========~ Effluent systems in meat plants may be
Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri affected by the misuse of some detergents and
disinfectants. If 'slugs' of concentrated or high-
Fig 6.3 Trend analysis of total counts. volume, high- or low-pH chemicals are let to
160 Meat Hygiene
,

• 3
Fig. 6.4 Rapid cleanliness testing. I , Wet the swab with the
p ropri etary swab moistening flu id and swab the sur face in the
normal way. 2, Immerse the swab in the enz yme solution using the
container provided. 3, Place the swab into the UniLite sample
chamber and measure. (By courtesy of Biotrace Ltd , Bridgend,
Glamo rgan, UK)

drain, they may (if not neutralised in the resulting ma lodours) or, by increasing th e
balance tank) upset the microbes in biological potential for filamentous growth , causing
treatment plants. The same is true for chlorine, settlement problems in the final clarifier.
quats and some other disinfectants. If a By d efinition, cleaning ch emicals will
treatment plant (especially the balance tank) is dissolv e, emulsify and disperse organic
undersized for the efflue n t it receives at peak materials and carry perhaps excessive amounts
p eriods, it is possible for 'breakthrough' of to the effluent plant. It is also important not to
organics, including some surfactants, to occur. discharge sudden, very lar ge quantities of
This means tha t instead of being fully heavily-loaded water, such as from scald tanks
biodegraded in the plant, they su rvive to give or cooking kettles. The risk is even higher if the
p ossible foaming problems (especially where wa ter is hot, as fats and oils may be temporarily
aeration occurs) plus high COD/BOO emulsified by the heat and may pass
(chemical and biological oxygen dem and, unhindered through the grease trap prior to the
respectively), plus increased suspended and effluent system.
dissolve d solids. Th is may result in higher The biodegradability of the detergents an d
cha rges from the water authorities or possible disinfectants themselves is also important, but
penalties. It is important in the facto ry pre-clean not because the y contribute greatly to the total
to remove as much organic matter (su ch as food COD /BaD of the plan t effluent. Their
resldues) as possible from production areas contribution, in comparison to that of the food
before detergents arc applied . These larger process effluen t and residual soil carried away
pieces of organi c material are not readily by cleaning, is minor. The re are so me
biodegradable and may block or blind the surfactants, previously common in many
biological treatmen t plant. No bio-plant likes deterg ents and disinfectants, which are no w
varying BO O loedings. Steady conditions arc suspected of pa rtly biodegrading to slightly
preferred if 'shedding' of filamentous growth is simpler, but more en vironmen tally-d amagin g,
to be avoided . In activated sludge p lan ts, the molecules. One group in p articu lar, the al kyl
sudden ingress of high-COD material will phenol ethoxylates (or APEOs), are believed to
result in low dissolved oxygen levels, thus have oest rogenic effects in river waters, possibly
p otent ially turning the plant anaerobic (with affecting the reproduction of aquatic organisms.
 Plant Sanitation 161
They are being phased out of detergent and into the skips themselves. These chemicals act
disinfectant formulations. The chemical to oxidise and breakdown the malodorous
supplier should be asked to supply chemicals, molecules (which are usually relatively small
backed up by specific product data, which volatile molecules containing sulphur). An
conform to the latest environmental regulations. alternative approach is to use essential-oil-
Odour control may be particularly important based sprays to destroy the molecules.
if the factory is situated close to residential Attempting to mask the malodour with a
areas. Odour may arise from the effluent plant perfumed agent is usually not successful.
itself, if aeration is inadequate, loading is
excessive (see earlier) and anaerobic bacteria
are flourishing. Such problems may be helped
by improving aeration and reducing the CONCLUSION
COD IEOD loading to the plant. Other methods
to assist the breakdown of proteins and other Plant cleaning and disinfection has a much
organics include the addition of enzyme higher profile than ever before. Cost pressures
preparations in the effluent stream as it leaves on one side, versus legislative and quality
the plant or even in the factory drain system. pressures on the other, contrive to make the
The enzymes begin the biodegradation process hygienist's job more difficult and the cost of
early and assist the main treatment plant in failure higher. All persons involved in plant
handling its burden. Other odours may arise hygiene must appreciate that it is a skilled
from exhausts from rendering plants and from multidisciplined management task to ensure
waste skips, etc. The most common chemical that the general methods and the fine details
treatments used here involve 'scrubbing' the are kept under constant attention and that
exhaust gases with fine showers containing potential problems are highlighted and dealt
oxidising disinfectants such as chlorine dioxide with early enough to avoid them becoming real
or peracetic acid or spraying the disinfectant and damaging.
 Chapter 7
From Farm to Slaughter

All modern meat hygiene systems should Total number of hides inspected 15268
endeavour to take into consideration the entire Average amount of dung per hide 3.7kg
process of production and processing which is Percentage of hides affected 73%
involved in producing meat or meat products
Percentage of hides with over
as a food from farm animals. Only by ensuring
4.5kg dung 36%
that the animals on the farm are managed in a
responsible manner with respect to drug use, Largest amount of dung/hide
recorded 16kg
husbandry and welfare can the high standards
demanded by the modern consumer be
assured. These demands have changed over the There were significant variations between
last decades in the western developed countries the different regions of the British Isles as
from the immediately post-war call for cheap follows:
meat, to the present requirement for a Scotland 1.85kg
guaranteed wholesome, environmental and England & Wales 2.42kg
animal welfare-friendly, product.
N. Ireland 4.32kg
S. Ireland 5.57kg

PRODUCTION OF CLEAN HEALTHY The above average weight (3.7 kg) of cattle
LIVESTOCK (See Figs 7.1, 7.2) hide faecal contamination may be compared
with that recorded by the author (JFG) in
The monitoring of all aspects of husbandry February 1965 of 4 kg, an indication that there
practices on the farm should be the first step has not been much improvement over a period
in a meat hygiene system. The Richmond of over 30 years. The worst month for the Irish
Committee on the Microbiological Safety of and Scottish hides was February, while the peak
Food (Part II) concluded that farmers can for England and Wales was in April.
contribute to food safety by producing healthy, In addition to conveying the various food
clean and unstressed animalsfor slaughter, and we poisoning pathogens (E. coli 0157 H7,
believe that this simple truth should be borne in Salmonella, Campulobacter, Yersinia, Giardia,
mind by livestock producers and stressed by all Listeria, etc.), faecal contamination of hides and
who provide them with advice'. fleeces is responsible for damage to hides and
eventual leather Ccoarsened grain') by
excoriating the surface layers of the skin and
Levels of faecal contamination of cattle exposing sensory nerve endings and causing
hides pain, thereby making this a serious welfare
Some idea of the degree of manurial pollution problem. Hazards are also created for
of cattle hides can be gained from the excellent operatives engaged in carcase dressing
surveys carried out by the British Leather through knife slips. The entire problem is
Centre in their Hide Improvement Project. In costing the meat industry many millions of
their 1996 survey (Stosic 1996), which covered pounds anually and deserves immediate
the whole of the British Isles, showed the attention at farm (mainly), transport and meat
following main findings: plant levels.

163
164 Meat Hygiene

Fig. 7.1 Unacceptable faecal! soil contamination. (By courtesy of J.A. Ross MRCVS)
From Farm to Slaug1lter 165
166 Meat Hygiene
Causes of dirty livestock of time and should be replaced by brisket, belly
and hip clippingfor slaughter stock.
1
Under typical weather conditions in the British
Isles the production of clean cattle and sheep S Management A high level of stockmanship,
for slaughter is relatively easy where the especially when animals are first housed, is
animals are at grass during the warm summer essential. Individuals who do not settle in a
particular system should be removed if
months. However, in wet weather cattle and possible. It is often necessary to encourage or
sheep all too frequently arrive at the meat plant train cattle to lie in cubicles.
in a very dirty condition. This is especially the
case in those countries in the more northerly 6 Internal parasitism A veterinary-audited
latitudes where livestock are housed during the anthelmintic programme should be followed
winter months. to prevent outbreaks of parasitic
gastroenteritis in housed cattle. Attention
A survey carried out in Northern Ireland
should be paid especially to the risk of type II
(Ingram, 1972) showed that the problem of ostertagiasis in cattle.
dirty cattle was mainly related to bedded courts
with or without open yards. The principal 7 Transport and abattoir lairages Animals
cause was found to be lack of bedding, should leave the farm in a clean condition,
aggravated by high stocking densities, poor and be transported under conditions which
allow them to arrive at the abattoir clean. In
ventilation causing condensation, poor
New Zealand, the use of trucks with
drainage, inadequate floor gradients and expanded-metal floors with a 5 cm clearance
infrequent removal of slurry. In some instances over solid bases for all of the decks means that
deficiencies included incorrect cubicle size, the lambs are standing clean and dry during
improperly positioned or overflowing water
bowls or troughs, blocked slats due to non-
removal of slurry, and cattle lying outside the
transit.
1
Internal parasitism can also cause severe
cubicle or bedded area. The problem appeared problems in sheep, with staining and clumping
to be worse on farms where heavier cattle were of the wool in the perineal region. Sheep folded
housed and fed silage. The growth of long hair on root crops, especially during inclement
during the winter months contributed greatly weather, can become heavily contaminated
to the accumulation of muck on the cattle. with soil, making hygienic dressing of the
The following points should be given due carcase difficult. Sheep for slaughter should be
attention by farmers producing stock for given a oeniral clip at least 16 cm widefrom the neck
slaughter: to the anus. Those folded on root crops should
1 Housing structure and layout Defects in be put on clean grass for at least one week
design, layout, cubicle size and design, before dispatch for slaughter. Cases of scouring
drainage, water bowls, slats, ventilation, etc. in sheep from whatever cause should not be
should be corrected. Regular maintenance is sent for slaughter until cured. There can also be
essential. a potentially serious problem where sheep
2 Bedding Adequate bedding is essential. It is arrive dirty but dry, from clouds of dust which
best to commence with a deep layer and are produced during the removal of the fleece.
subsequently to bed with large amounts at To counteract this, it is normal practice in New
regular intervals. A concrete area that is Zealand to pass sheep through a plunge dip as
frequently scraped will serve to reduce they enter the lairage. It has been
bedding requirements. Regular and frequent demonstrated, however, that although this
removal of slurry is essential.
practice results in carcases with less visible
3 Housing density Either overcrowding or contamination there is in fact an increase in the
understocking of pens can lead to cattle total aerobic bacterial and E. coli count (Biss and
becoming dirty. If there are insufficient cattle
in a slatted pen, the manure will not get Hathaway, 1996)
tramped through and will accumulate. The Richmond Committee suggested that
'abattoir managers should pay farmers a
4 Clipping It is good practice to clip the bellies,
briskets and flanks of cattle before housing to premium to take account of the cleanliness of
prevent the accumulation of matted muck on the animals as one of the components of
the hair. The practice of clipping the backs of quality'. In New Zealand it is an offence to
cattle cosmetically for sale purposes is a waste present dirty stock for slaughter.
 From Farm to Slaughter 167
In Finland, the problem of excessively dirty In the UK, the Clean Livestock Policy was
cattle being presented for slaughter has been introduced during 1977. Cattle and sheep
greatly reduced by the application of a series of considered by the official veterinarian to be
rules agreed by meat inspection veterinarians, dirty are rejected for slaughter during ante-
farmers, the meat industry, the leather industry mortem inspection.
and the state veterinary department. Under this The washing of pigs (Fig. 7.3) where
agreement, excessively dirty animals are necessary is very beneficial for reducing
detained to be slaughtered separately after the scalding tank and carcase contamination.
clean animals. The scheme has resulted in a
decrease in the numbers of excessively dirty
cattle by 85% (Ridell and Korkeala, 1993).
The text of the Finnish Agreement (which is Healthy livestock
combined with detailed advice given to all An ethos of good husbandry and stcckmanship on
parties through education, instruction and the the farm is essential if healthy animals are to be
press) is as follows: produced consistently for slaughter. This is
particularly so where animals are cared for
1 All the parties aim at a situation where the under intensive systems of agriculture, where
animals offered for transport to attention to nutritional balance and preventive
slaughterhouses are as clean as possible. medicine programmes entailing the use of
2 If, however, excessively dungy animals are vaccines, anthelmintics, and feed additives are
offered for transportation, the owner of the of particular importance.
animals is requested to clean them. Animals Careless and unhygienic use of the
are transported after cleaning when the next hypodermic syringe (Fig. 7.4) is responsible for
opportunity arises. much unnecessary pain in animals and for
3 However, if excessively dungy animals must considerable damage to carcases and
be received for transportation to a consequent partial condemnation due to the
slaughterhouse, the procedure is as follows: production of abscesses, and in some cases
necrosis, at the site of injection. If animals are
3.1 If dung can be removed through injected outdoors, a dry day should be selected
cleaning, animals will be cleaned before and the injections should be made on clean
slaughter. animals. It is imperative that needles are
3.2 If dung cannot be removed through changed frequently, e.g. every 6 cattle or 25
cleaning (solid dung layer), the animals sheep, and when there is a break in the work. A
must be slaughtered in the sanitary survey in the USA (Dexter et al., 1993) recorded
slaughter department. If this is not
the incidence of injection-site blemishes in top
possible, the animals may be slaughtered
in the common slaughterhall after clean sirloin butts to be 10.87% ± 2.99%. The average
animals have been slaughtered. All the weight per blemish was 123.39 g ± 5.48 g.
slaughter facilities and equipment must The site of the injection has to be selected
be cleaned thoroughly afterwards carefully and must not be an area which is
according to the instructions of the associated with the more expensive cuts. It is
inspection veterinarian. imperative, for example, that piglets are not
3.3 The extra reasonable costs caused by the injected with iron into the ham, and that the
treatment and slaughtering of the hindleg is avoided when injecting lambs with
excessively dungy animals are billed to antibiotic. Subcutaneous and intramuscular
the seller of the animals. injections should be given either high up on the
4 The inspection veterinarian on duty at the neck or on the lower rib cage. In sheep, the fold
slaughterhouse decides which animals have of wool-less skin behind the foreleg is a useful
to be slaughtered in the sanitary slaughter site. Sharp needles, with a metal rather than a
department or in the common slaughter room plastic mount are less likely to break during the
after the slaughter of the clean animals. injecting process. A 16-gauge needle is
5 The slaughterhouse takes care that the recommended for use in adult cattle and sheep.
animals do not get unreasonably dirty during Some anthelmintics which are injected
transportation or in the lairage of the subcutaneously in cattle and sheep can cause a
slaughterhouse. very severe reaction and staining at the site of
168 Meat Hygiene

Fig.7.3 Pro-slaughter wash ing of pigs. (By courtesy of KEW Cleaning Systems Ltd, I'enrith, Cumbria, UK)

, attachm ent is available which can sanitise the

needle, by pa ssing it through a polypropylene
cap containing a biocide-imp regnated foam,
each time the ne edl e is pushed through the
an ima l' s s kin and withdrawn. Th e system
works well for pigs where injections are made
w ith the sy ringe at right an gles to the surface of
the skin, but less we ll in cattle and sh eep where
subcutaneous injections require the needle to
pass through the skin at an acu te angle.
The us e of anthelmin tics and feed ad d itives

-
requires the p rod ucer to be vigi lant with reg ard
to withdrawal periods. The keeping of good
, d rugs records is both a practical necessity and a
legal requ irement. Th e improper USe of
• drenching gUlls ma y lead to damage to the oral

Fig. 7.4
•
Sterile injection at proper site in lamb. (By
cav ity and subsequen t abscess formation in the
mouth and throat (Fig. 7.5).
courtesy of Meat & Lives tock Com mission, UK) Many admirable livestock ossumnce set/ernes
are opera ting in the Un ited Kingdom, but they
represent onl y a small percentage of the tota l
injection . This makes it imperative not only th at food animal population an d are not always as
sterile technique is observed b ut that the very efficient or comp lete as they should be .
long withd rawal period , of 60 da ys in some
case s, is adhered to .
Wit h the usual multtd ose injectors it is Sa fe d is posa l of an im al waste
impossible for the need le to be disinfected An as pect of good management which is
between each injection . However, a sleeve worthy of di scussion on its ow n merit is the
 From Farm to Sla ughter 169
,; ,0£
Slurry m a y be applied to the pastu re or
arable ground by tanker spreader (Fig. 7.6), rain
gun or injection (fig. 7.7). Th e production of
aerosols by the first two of these methods has
been demonstrated as spreading bacteria in a
high concentra tion for at leas t 5 m iles (lones.
1980). Fo r this reason, as w ell as fo r reasons of
odour control and contamination of river s by
surface run-off, slurry injection must be the
method of choice for application.
The su rvival o f potentially p a thoge n ic
microorganisms in fa rm ya rd manure o r s lurry
is dependent on several factors including the
follo w in g:
1 TIle microorganism Some strains or sero types
of a microo rganism, e.g. salmonellas, survive
longer in the environment than others. Some
'"
Fig,7.5 Efficient restraint of animal is necessary
can assume res istant forms which m ay
survive for several years, e.g. an thrax.
for proper use of dren ching guns. 2 pH The pH of fresh slurry and farmyard
manure varies from 6.2 to 8.0 depending upon
the species of origin and the constituents. In
the case of slurry, the pH drops to below 6.5
correct and safe disposal of animal waste. within the firs t 4 weeks of storage and then
Inco rrect disposal of farm animal excreta can
pre sen t a potential hazard to public heal th,
animal health and the environment. In recent Table 7.1 Quantities of excreta, as slurry,
yea rs the quantity of slurry in particular produced by livestock.
prod uced by intensive systems of agriculture
has beco m e, in some cases, the limiting factor to Type of livestock Outp ut of livestock
the fur the r expansion of production. This is (faeces and urine)
particu la rly so with the pig ind ust ry in the Dairy cow 41 kg/ day
N etherlands, w h ere it has been suggested that
Pigs (fatteners) 4.5 kg / day"
the country is in danger of disappearing Poultry (1000 laying hens) 80U kg/week
benea th a sea of slurrv
Ta ble 7.1 gives figu res for the quantiti es of ' Pigs fed dry . Use of swill or whey may inc,.,.ase this to 1-1-17
slu rry produced by livestock. kg/d ay.

Fig.7.6 Application of slurry by tanker spreader. (By courtesy of NW Water, UK)

170 Meat Hygiene

Fig.7.7 Slurry app lication by soil injection. (By courtesy of NW Water, VK)

grad ually returns to zero. As a result, the survive for more than 11 w eeks in slurrv but for
ma jority of microorgan isms. in the case of only 7-8 days on the pasture [Ra nki n and
salmonella ove r 90%, are destroyed in the first Tavlor, 1969 ),
month of storage. The low foil of peal and 'Comparison of surviva l times for different
acid soils creates un favourab e cond itions for organisms is d ifficult, however, owing to the
the survival of man y pathogens .
Attempts have been mad e 10 sterilise slurry number of va riab les to be considered and
by altering the p H. This has been achieved by d ifferences be tw een experimental design and
the add ition of lime, forma lin, ammonium measure ment tec hnique.
persulphat c and form ic acid, but the expense Experiments have shown that under no rma l
of the procedure makes these techniques fa nning conditions infection of ad ult grazing
suitable onl v for situations where there has animals from conta min a ted slurry on pasture is
been a n outbreak of a serious disease. unlikely. H ow e ve r, if pastu re w hic h has been
3 Sunlight Ultraviolet light ca n have a sp read w ith fresh sl urry is grazed w ithin a few
bactericid al effect. da ys by yo ung or stressed susceptible an imals,
4 Temperature The rise in temperature which infection may occ ur.
occurs during com posting of fa rmya rd O n the basis of current kn owledge the
ma nure is genera lly sufficient to destroy all follow ing recom m en dation s ca n be made :
bacter ial and viral pa thogens excep t for
bacteria l spores. However, since there is no 1 Slurry should be stored for at leas t 60 days
di sce rn ible tem pe rat ur e increase withi n prior to spread ing on land.
stored slurry, microbiological survival time s 2 An y di sease hazard can be virtually
arc generally muc h longe r. eliminated by sp read ing slur ry or farmya rd
manure on ara ble land or grass land used. for
Th e s urviva l of p a thogenic microorga nisms conservation.
in soil is in addi tion infl uenced by the initial 3 Pastu re treated with slu rry should not be
num be r of orga n isms, the ava ilab le moisture grazed for at least 30 days after sp reading.
a nd the presence o f compe titiv e bac teria. On 4 Since young ani mals are gene rally more
pasture, the len gth of grass is im p ortant, susce p tible to disease, they should graze
organisms s urviving longer at the b ase of the treat ed. pasture on ly after a prolonged period
grass than a t the top of the leaf , Althoug h following application.
sa lmone llas , for exam p le, ha ve bee n reported as S Utilisa tion of slurry should be rela ted to the
surviving for ma ny mo nths in soil , it is unu sua l plant nutrient requirements.
for them to survive for more than 14 davs on 6 Slurrv, manure and di ges ted sewage sludge
grass (Findlay, 1972), C, coli haw been sho\\'n to should be ploughed in immediatdy af ter
 From Farm to Slaughter 171
application. Slurry and raw liquid sludge can 3 The prevention, or rapid diagnosis and
be injected to a depth of 50-80 mm in grooves treatment of, injury, disease or infestation.
200-300 mm apart. 4 Freedom from fear and distress.
7 Ground treated with slurry/manure should S Freedom to display most normal patterns of
preferably be ploughed immediately. behaviour.

Some intensive systems of agriculture make

Sewage sludge the attainment of these goals impossible in the
The solid material in sewage sedimentation short term, but national and European
tanks is available for agricultural use in raw regulations on animal welfare are gradually
and dry digested forms. Raw sludge contains moving to make them a legal requirement. The
potentially harmful bacteria and, on occasions, banning of all dry sow stall and tethering
the eggs of tapeworms such as Taenia saginata. systems, which restrict the 'freedom to display
In addition, sludge can contain many most normal patterns of behaviour' by January
undesirable heavy metals such as cadmium. 1999 in the UK was a move in this direction.
In Great Britain the application of wastes However, many pig farmers suggest that
from off-farm sources on agricultural land is keeping sows in groups may, in fact, be more
controlled by the Control of Pollution (Silage, stressful on the animals than a stall system by
Slurry and Agricultural Fuel Oil) Regulations introducing the animals to a competitive
1991, the Collection and Disposal of Waste environment, the possibility of bullying and
Regulations 1988, which allow their use, fighting, and an introduction, therefore, of
without licensing, providing they fertilise, or 'fear'. It should be possible, however, to
otherwise benefit, the land. The use of sludge is measure up any husbandry system against the
governed by the Sludge (Use in Agriculture) principles expressed in the five basic needs.
Regulations 1989. The aim of these regulations Any animal housing system, for example,
is to prevent the build-up of potentially toxic should provide the following:
substances in the soil, the contamination of 1 Readily accessible fresh water, and
watercourses, the spread of disease and the nutritionally adequate food as required.
creation of noxious odours. 2 Adequate ventilation, to control humidity,
Despite these regulations and associated irritant gas concentrations and dust, and a
Codes of Practice, pollution of watercourses is a suitable environmental temperature. (In
regular occurrence, as is the stocking of land controlled-environment houses, e.g. broiler
with farm animals, especially cattle and sheep, and intensive pig houses, there must be a
after organic wastes have been applied. warning system for electrical failure and a
back-up system.)
3 Sufficient light for inspection purposes. Pigs
Animal welfare on the farm should not be kept in permanent darkness.
Within the United Kingdom, Codes of 4 A dry lying area.
Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock S A flooring, whether slats or solid, which
neither harms the animal or causes undue
have been produced under the provision of the strain, injury or distress.
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act
1968 in Great Britain, and the Welfare of 6 The correct stocking density. Both over-
crowding and understocking can cause
Animals (Northern Ireland) Act 1972 for problems.
Northern Ireland. There are now codes
7 Internal surfaces and fittings of buildings and
available for cattle, sheep, pigs, deer, poultry,
pens with no sharp edges or projections.
turkeys and ducks and these are designed to
encourage good stockmanship, particularly in 8 Internal surfaces of housing and pens which
young and inexperienced workers. can be cleaned and disinfected effectively.
All the codes are based on the five 'freedoms'
Intensive methods of husbandry, which
or basic animal needs:
involve automatic feeding systems, and slatted
1 Freedom from thirst, hunger and houses which require little daily cleaning,
malnutrition. greatly reduce contact between people and the
2 Appropriate comfort and shelter. animal. This increases the stress on the animal
172 Meat Hygiene
when it has to be handled for marketing, ns possible to tile point of production in order to
loading and transported . Hauliers report that avoid long journeys. The humanitarian aspects
p igs collected for slaughter from some large of the tra nsportation of animals arc intimately
birth-t o-bacon units are m uch more difficult to linked with the economic ones and these arc of
drive and load than those from finisher units pa rticular consequence in the case of young
where th e pigs will ha ve changed p remi ses one stock, pregnant stock and casu alty animals.
o r more times. 1110Ught should be given to Work by Warriss and Bevis (1986) and w arriss et
enriching the p igs' environment by intr od uci ng al. (1990) in the south of England showed that
toys, such as rub ber balls or chains, or walking the average lamb, at two meat plan ts, sp ent over
through the pens regul arly to increase their 4Y.; hours in transit and travelled a distance of
contact with humans. It has been suggested that more than 200 km. Within the UK, Warriss et al.
leaving a rad io on in a pig-finishing house (1990) estimated tha t 94% of slaughtered sheep
accu stoms the animals to human voices and spend less than 10 hours in transit. A surv ey
ma kes them easier to handle. conducted in 1985 found that although three-
quarters of all pigs w ere killed within l Ohr s of
leaving the farm , over 22% were killed after 8
TR AN SPORTATIO N O F LIVESTOCK hours and some not for 32 hours.

Having produced healthy livestoc k in good

Load ing and unloa di ng (Fig. 7.8)
conditions, and as clean as possible, it is
necessary to keep them free from contamination Load ing and unloading are often the m os t
during the subsequent movement to the point of stressful parts of the transport proccss , for both
slaughter. It is of equal importance that the y be animals and handlers. It is imperati ve that
kept free from injury, stress, loss of weight and proper thought and planning be given to the
disea se during the journey. For all these reason s procedure before co mm encing, to avoid the
it is essential tha t livestock be slnllghff.7ed as close need to use exce ssive force. For pigs in

Fig.7.8 Excellent floor-level

offloading facilities at Dutch
pig abattoir.
 From Farm to Slaughter 173
particular, a proper loading ramp, especially if supplied to the pigs via a pipeline and spring-
a lorry is being used, is essential. However, very loaded bite drinkers at 2-foot intervals on each
steep ramps are undesirable because they deck. The pipelines are rotated manually by a
distress the pigs, may lead to injuries through lockable lever at the rear of the vehicle, allowing
falling, and by increasing the need for coercion nipples to be stowed out of harm's way in a
tend to encourage the use of unacceptable force vertical position during travel. Some lorries
or electric goads. have also been fitted with cooling sprinklers.
Work carried out by Warriss et al. (1991), Much research is still required to establish
indicates that ramp angles up to 20° appear to categorically basic information, for example,
present few problems to pigs whether whether different species lie or stand during
ascending or descending. Above 20° there is a transport and where and how they prefer to
progressive increase in the time, and thus, by position themselves in the vehicle at different
inference, the difficulty with which the ramps stocking densities. Warriss (1995) suggests a
are negotiated. Slopes of 30° and above are, stocking density for pigs during transport of
from a subjective point of view, obviously 0.45 m 2/100 kg. This provides a slightly greater
difficult for some individuals to ascend and, area than that required for sternal recumbency
particularly, to descend. The specification of the and will thus ensure enough space for all
Transit of Animals (Road and Rail Order) 1975 animals to rest and not become fatigued. Pigs
(discussed later) that external loading ramp prefer to lie down in transit.
gradients should be no steeper than 30° would
seem to be a reasonable maximum, but the
specification for internal ramps of 34° may be
too steep. When steep ramps are used, the
Transport legislation
spacing of the cleats may become critical. If it is Most countries have detailed regulations for the
too wide the ability of the pigs to ascend may be humane transport of animals and in Great
particularly impaired. Philips et al. (1988) Britain a series of orders dating back to the
suggested that a ramp sloped at 20-24° with beginning of the century deals with animals
cleats of 10--40 mm, spaced at a distance of being conveyed by road, rail, air or sea. The
50-100 mm, was a feasible design. International Air Transport Association has
Lapworth (1990) describes minimum design drawn up a manual which sets standards in this
standards applicable to cattle loading and sector and is mandatory and binding on all
unloading facilities in Australia. He lATA members - the lATA Live Animals
recommends that ramp floors should be Regulations. The UK Protection of Animals Act,
stepped or cleated. Stepped floors should be of 1911, made it 'an offence of cruelty to conveyor
concrete with 100 mm rises and 500 mm carry, or cause or procure, or, being the owner,
treads. Cleats on wooden or concrete floors permit to be conveyed or carried, any animal in
should be 50 mm wide, 50 mm high and 300 such manner or position as to cause that animal
mm apart. A maximum slope of 20° is again any unnecessary suffering'.
recommended. Under the Animal Health Act 1981 (Section
37) power is given to make orders relating to
the welfare of animals including poultry during
transport within, into and out of Great Britain.
The journey to slaughter The main regulations currently in force are:
The personnel responsible for the road Welfare of Animals during Transport Order,
transport of livestock have a duty to ensure that 1994 (with amendments)
the journey is made in a careful manner, Transit of Animals (Road and Rail) Order, 1975
avoiding sudden stops and starts, fast (amended 1988; 1992)
cornering and unnecessary delays. Due
Welfare of Poultry (Transport) Order, 1988
consideration should be given to all animals
conveyed, irrespective of species. The Transport of Animals (General) Order,
1973
Some transporters have attempted to reduce
one of the stressors on pigs during transport by Transit of Animals Order, 1927
providing them with water. The water is Animals (Sea Transport) Order, 1930
provided from an 80-gallon water tank and Horses (Sea Transport) Order, 1952.
174 Meat Hygiene
Welfare of Animals during Transport Order, plan must indicate the arrangements for the
1994 (with amendments) resting, feeding and watering as outlined above
for the various species, and include a strategy
This Order, taken with the other legislation
for feeding and watering in the event that the
listed, implements Council Directive
planned journey be changed or disrupted. The
91/628/EEC, supplemented by 95/29/EC, on
plan, following approval and stamping,
the protection of animals during transport. This
accompanies the consignment. Although these
legislation applies only to animals transported
plans are laudable in theory, hearsay evidence
for distances greater than 50 km and covers
suggests that the good intentions contained
those individuals or businesses who transport
within this provision are difficult to police and,
animals themselves or for a third party, or
to date, are widely flaunted.
provide a third party with the means of
An interesting development is the
transport. Non-commercial journeys, journeys
imposition of a legal responsibility on the
with individual animals, and journeys with pet
person in charge of any animal transport
animals when the pet is carried by its owner on
undertaking which transports animals in the
a private journey are all exempt from this
course of a business or trade, to ensure that the
legislation. General provisions are made for the
animals are entrusted only to persons
welfare of animals during transport, loading
possessing the knowledge necessary to
and unloading, providing protection against
administer appropriate care to the animals in
exposure to inclement weather and for
transport.
preventing the transport of an unfit animal. An
unfit animal is defined as one which is newborn,
diseased, injured or fatigued, or has given birth Transit of Animals (Road and Rail) Order, 1975
within the preceding 48 hours or is likely to (amended 1988; 1992)
give birth during transport, or for any other
This is a comprehensive Order which legislates
reason.
for the welfare of animals being transported
A requirement to unload the animals, and to
within Great Britain.
provide water, food and rest for 24 hours at
suitable intervals during the journey is
Schedule 1 outlines general provisions for road
included. For cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and
and rail vehicles and receptacles. Road vehicles
must be of a durable construction with rigid
horses the interval must not exceed 8 hours, but
sides and overhead protection. The interior
if the vehicle being used to transport the
should be free from any sharp edges or
animals meets certain specified high standards,
projections which are likely to cause injury or
travelling times may be extended:
unnecessary suffering to the animal. There
• Calves, lambs, kids, foals and piglets may must be sufficient distance between each floor
travel for 9 hours before a minimum rest and the next floor or the roof to enable each
period of 1 hour, followed by a further animal to stand in its natural position. Non-slip
maximum of 9 hours travel. surfaces must be provided and, if necessary,
• Adult cattle, sheep and goats may travel for sand or other similar substances must be
14 hours before a minimum rest period of 1 provided. For calves, i.e. cattle under 6 months
hour, followed by a further maximum of 14 of age, and pigs, the floor must be covered with
hours travel.
an adequate quantity of bedding. Internal ramps
• Pigs may travel for a maximum of 24 hours, (not steeper than 34°) or mechanical lifting gear
provided that they have continuous access must be provided to facilitate movement of
to water during the journey. animals from one floor to another.
• Horses may travel up to 24 hours, provided If necessary, substantial partitions must be
that they are given liquid and if necessary used to ensure that the animals are not thrown
food every 8 hours. about during carriage by motion of the vehicle.
However, it is the duty of the person in charge
For journeys undertaken by cattle, sheep, of the animals to ensure that the animals are not
goats and pigs to or from another Member State so overcrowded that injury or unnecessary
or third country where the journey time exceeds 8 suffering is caused. Partitions must be 1.27 m
hours, the person in charge of the animal high for cattle, other than calves, and horses,
transport must draw up a journey plan. This and 76 cm for calves, sheep, pigs and goats. The
 From Farm to Slaughter 175
pens must not be more than 2.5 m long for animals or items intended to be used in
calves, 3.1 m for sheep, pigs and goats, and 3.7 connection with an animal is loaded into the
m for horses. If the pen is more than 3.7 m long vehicle. This does not apply where a vehicle is
for cattle, the operator must ensure that the used exclusively, in the course of a single day,
cattle are not injured or caused unnecessary for the carriage of animals between the same
suffering by being thrown about by the motion two points, other than between two markets,
of the vehicle. provided that the vehicle and its accessories are
The design and construction of the vehicle cleansed and disinfected as soon as practicable
must enable the vehicle and its occupants to be after the last journey on which an animal is
inspected. This will require an adequate carried on a particular day.
number of inspection doors and hatches, and Powers are given to an inspector to serve
adequate light. notice on owners of vehicles not complying
Figure 7.9 shows a modern design which with cleansing and disinfection requirements; if
caters fully for animal welfare. the owners then fail to cleanse and disinfect
Animals must be loaded or unloaded with a their vehicles at their own expense, the local
ramp, loading bridge or bank, mechanical authority may carry out the work and recover
lifting gear, manual lifting or carrying, except the cost as a civil debt.
where the distance from the ground to the
vehicle is not more than 31 cm. Every ramp
which is carried on, or forms part of the vehicle Welfare of Pouliru (Transport) Order, 1988
and which is used for loading or unloading (amended 1989; 1992)
animals, must be fitted with treads or other Poultry includes live birds of the following
means of providing a foothold to any animals. species: domestic fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks,
The gradient of the ramp when in use must not guinea fowls, pheasants, partridges and quails.
be steeper than 4 in 7 or > 30° when the vehicle
is on level ground. The step at the top of the
ramp must not exceed 21 cm in height and any The Transport of Animals (General) Order, 1973
gap between the top of the ramp and the (amended 1988; 1992)
vehicle must not exceed 6 cm in width. Barriers,
or straps for horses, must be provided to This order covers all mammals, except man,
prevent any animal from falling out of the and any bird or four-footed beast which is not a
vehicle when the ramp used for unloading is in mammal, and all fish, reptiles, crustaceans and
the lowered position. Protection on each side of other cold-blooded creatures of any species
the ramp to a height of not less than 1.3 m must except domestic fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks,
be provided and fitted to ensure that any gaps guinea fowls, pheasants, partridges and quails.
between the side protection, the ramp and the The Order contains a number of general
vehicle will not result in injury. measures that are intended to safeguard the
Schedule 2 deals with the separation of animals welfare of a wide variety of animals during
during transport. The following animals must their carriage by sea, air, road and rail. In
not be carried in the same undivided vehicle, relation to carriage by sea or air, the provisions
receptacle or pen as any other animals: a cow of the Order apply to animals carried on any
with suckling calf or calves; a bull over 10 vessel or aircraft to or from a port or airport in
months of age (except for bulls reared together); Great Britain whether or not such animals are
a sow and piglets; a boar over 6 months of age; loaded or unloaded at such port or airport. It is
a mare with foal at foot; a stallion. There is a a duty of the owner or charterer of a vessel and
long list of stock which may be carried together of the operator of an aircraft in which animals
in the same undivided vehicle but separately are being carried by sea or air, and of the carrier
from other animals: horned cattle, polled cattle, or other person in charge of animals being
calves, bulls reared together, ewes with carried by road or rail, to ensure that the
unweaned lambs, rams over 6 months of age, animals are:
unbroken horses, etc. • fed and watered during the journey and the
Schedule 3 concerns cleansing and disinfection, period of loading and unloading;
which must be carried out as soon as • contained in a receptacle which is properly
practicable after unloading and before any constructed, not overcrowded or liable to
176 Meat Hvgiene

Fig. 7.9 Modem air-conditioned transport vehicle with separate designs for pigs and cattle. For pigs there
are four sections at floor level and two at an upper level. Ventilation is achieved (air volume changed every
minute) by four electric fans, 24 ventilation doors and three roof hatches. Ten recessed lamps provide interior
lighting . A sprinkler system is available for use during higher environmental temperatures. Loading and
unloading is hydraulically adjustable wi th side ga tes and interior doors. Two temperature measuring points
are located in the vehicle and one in the cab where continuous visual monitoring of the animals during
transit is possible. The vehicle is equipped with air suspension on all axles for maximum transport comfort.
(By courtesy of Scan Farrnek 5-532 87, Skara, Sweden)
 From Farm to Slaughter 177
cause injury or suffering, and must be very properly directed towards the prevention
properly labelled to indicate the species of of injury, disease and unnecessary suffering,
animal contained therein and the upright although this is not always achieved. In order to
position of the receptacle; make for better animal cleanliness, it is
• are accommodated in such a way as to considered that cleansing and disinfection
avoid any risk of unnecessary suffering, and requirements should be more stringently
are not carried in the proximity of any enforced. There is a need for more thought to be
goods the presence of which is likely to
prejudice their welfare; given to the provision of sumpsfor liquid manure
and the sealing of upper floors in multitiered
• humanely slaughtered in a manner vehicles, since considerable faecal
appropriate to the species if seriously contamination arises from these sources,
injured, unless the animal can be kept alive
and landed from a ship or aircraft without leakage occurring through pervious floors. The
cruelty or receive veterinary treatment carriage of sheep on open lorry decks inevitably
without delay. leads to wet sheep during inclement weather,
with consequent problems at slaughter and
carcase dressing even if animals are held in
Transit of Animals Order, 1927 lairages for drying out. From an animal welfare
standpoint the practice is a questionable one,
This Order covers cattle, sheep, goats, and all
especially during wet and cold weather when
other ruminating animals and swine that are
some of the insulating effect of wool is lost.
carried on vessels, between ports in Great
Britain and between ports in Great Britain and
Ireland. It contains the structural requirements Loss of weight during transport
for penning the animals on deck, for securing
All animals transported to slaughter will suffer
receptacles, and welfare conditions to avoid
some loss of liveweight during the journey. This
injury or distress to the animals. The
loss is greater than that which would be lost
requirements for experienced staff, handling of
solely by fasting for a similar period and is due
injured animals and cleansing and disinfection
mainly to a loss of water by sweating and
are also included.
respiration, and waste materials in the urine
and faeces. The factors affecting this loss are
bodily condition, state of repletion, season and
Animals (Sea Transport) Order, 1930
journey time. Pigs will lose 2.2-5.4 kg of their
This Order deals with the same areas as the liveweight during 24 hours transport; sheep
Transit of Animals Order, 1927, described lose 0.9-1.8 kg if kept in a lairage for 24 hours
above, but for all other animals. and up to 3.6 kg during transport; a calf of 149.6
kg liveweight loses 4 kg during its first day of
travel and 1.8 kg on the second day; a bullock
Horses (Sea Transport) Order, 1952 weighing 610 kg will lose 30-40 kg during the
first day of travel but only 5-6 kg on
This Order covers specific structural and
subsequent days. Studies indicate that it takes 5
welfare requirements for horses, including
days for cattle to recover this loss.
donkeys, mules and jennets, travelling by sea.
Studies in New Zealand indicate that in lambs
Food and water must be provided to a horse
the loss in carcase weight over the first 24 hours
where a voyage, on average, takes more than 6
in transit is small. However, if the period without
hours.
food extends beyond 24 hours, the loss of carcase
The above regulations, while very weight becomes significant, amounting to
comprehensive, require the close cooperation of approximately 0.5 kg per animal per day.
stock owners, hauliers, attendants and Two loads totalling 500 lambs purchased at
inspectors if satisfactory conditions of animal markets in the UK and transported to southern
cleanliness and welfare are to result. A major France, a journey taking 18 and 24 hours, lost
difficulty concerns their enforcement, which is 7-8% of liveweight. Much of this was regained
frequently difficult and not always possible in 24 hours, with complete recovery of
during the hurly-burly of transport, marketing, liveweight and liver glycogen in 96 hours. The
delivery to meat plants, etc. The legislation is behaviour of the lambs indicated that they were
178 Meat Hygiene
alert and physically fit. They were primarily loss of 12.88% (1.7% tissue loss) regained much
interested in any food that was available upon of the tissue loss in 24 hours after resting and
arrival, and were secondarily interested in drinking water, but not eating. Even after rail
drinking, then resting. transport for 4 days in South Africa during mid-
Of much greater importance, though summer, cattle recovered rapidly if rested with
difficult to quantify, is the actual loss of flesh food and water. In the same country the resting
during transport. With bacon pigs, the loss in of adult Merino sheep for 24 hours with feed
actual carcase weight is about 0.9 kg for every and water after rail transport for more than 3
day of their journey, and it is probable that both days had a beneficial effect on carcase yield.
muscular and fatty tissues are affected, with an Much of the weight loss in pigs during
abnormal loss of water from the muscular transport is believed to be due to loss of water,
tissues. The effect of overexertion, excitement so that it is important for these animals to have
and strange surroundings on pigs during access to water before and after transport.
transit may also cause a loss of 6-7% in the However, it has been shown in Poland that
weight of the liver. resting pigs for 24 hours after transport does
The amount of weight loss in pigs is not help them to recover unless they are fed,
increased with an increase in temperature and and even feeding restores the condition of the
decrease in relative humidity. When Large muscles and liver but not the loss of carcase
White pigs were sprayed with fine sprays of weight.
cold water in an uncovered lorry which In the case of farmed deer it was found that
travelled 80 km, the weight loss was reduced by after a journey of 160 km lasting 3 hours, a
50%. Pigs also lose weight when transported group of 5 hinds lost 1.09% of their pre-
during very cold weather. Relative humidity transport weight when weighed within 90
and temperature also appear to be involved in minutes of slaughter. Three similar groups held
the development of DFD (dark, firm and dry) in a lairage with ad libitum food and water for 3,
meat in cattle, the incidence of which, at least in 6 and 18 hours lost 1.93%, 3.19% and 6.22% of
Britain, seems to be greatest during cold, their body weight, respectively. Although
muggy days of November. liveweight loss increased with lairage time, hot
In the United States cattle transported by rail carcase weight was unaffected (Grigor et al.,
are stated to lose 1.48% of carcase weight on 1997).
journeys of up to 161 km and 2.1% on journeys
of 402-482 km. Tissue shrinkage begins during
Transport mortality
the early part of a journey, continues at a
relatively uniform rate for 90 hours, then tends Death during transport, although objective, is,
to diminish. Some shrinkage occurs even if however, a measurement indicating a severe
animals receive food and water during level of distress in transit. A mortality rate
transport, but is less if these are provided above zero must therefore always be
during long journeys. In the past, cattle from considered unacceptable from a welfare
the northern parts of Australia lost so much perspective. All those involved in the transport
weight on their long overland trek to the of animals must strive to achieve this ideal goal,
slaughterhouses that they were placed on especially faced with increased consumer
pastures for up to a year to regain the weight awareness of the ethics of food, animal
and quality needed to meet export demands. production and transport.
From work in Australia, Thompson et a!. Deaths occur in all classes of livestock during
(1987) report that in a 35 kg lamb of fat score 3, transportation, although in most countries the
the losses of hot carcase weight were in the incidence is less than 0.5%. In a survey of
order of 4% and 6% after 24 and 48 hours mortality rates in 2.9 million slaughter pigs
fasting, respectively, compared to mean losses throughout England, Warriss and Brown (1994)
in 27-32 kg lambs of 2% and 4%. indicated that 0.061% died during transit, while
In relation to weight loss suffered during 0.011% died in the lairage. A study of 136322
transit, it is possible in many cases to restore pigs in England by Abbott et al. (1995) found a
some, if not all, of this loss with adequate rest. death rate during transport of 0.11%. These
Cattle transported by rail for 136 km in figures are very similar to those reported in the
Zimbabwe and sustaining a total liveweight 1970s by Smith and Allen (1976), suggesting
 From Farm to Slaughter 179
that the position has remained fairly stable over Table 7.2 Pig type, stocking density and mortality
the last 20 years. Figures of mortality rates during transit in some European countries.
across Europe, with details of stocking
densities, are recorded in Table 7.2. The Country Pig type* Stocking density %
mortality rate among slaughter sheep (m'/lOO kg) Mortality
transported within the UK was estimated at Denmark SR 0.35 0.03
0.018% (Knowles et al., 1994). UK SR 0.37-0.49 0.07
Extremes of temperature, especially heat, can Italv SR 0.37-0.40 0.10
be responsible for many losses in livestock, Netherlands SR 0.32-0.35 0.16
particularly pigs. More animals die when it is Portugal Mixed 0.36-0.38 0.16
hotter, particularly above 16°C (AlIen and Belgium SS 0.38-0.39 0.30
Smith, 1974), and when animals are left in a Germany SS 0.36-0.49 0.50
stationary vehicle. It has been noted that in
*SR, pig population mainly stress resistant. SS, pig population
summer, pigs transported in the early morning
mainly stress susceptible. Mixed, a range of SR and SS types.
fare better than those transported in the
afternoon. Stress-susceptible strains are much
more likely to die and differences in genotype
explain much of the variation in mortality poor condition that have become fatigued by a
recorded in different European countries (Table long journey by rail or sea without sufficient
7.2). Selection against the halothane gene in food, particularly during the cooler months. It
Swedish Landrace and Large White breeds was is responsible for severe losses in Canada and
associated with a reduction in mortality in the mid-western states of the United States but
transport and lairage from 0.22% in 1982 to has also been reported in Europe and Asia. The
0.08% in 1987 (Petersson and Cahne, 1988). 'disease' probably consists of a number of
The National Livestock Safety Committee of related conditions of the respiratory tract in
the US Livestock Conservation Inc. has which viruses and bacteria play important
developed a livestock weather safety index chart roles. Current theories suggest that various
which, in relation to current temperature and biotypes of Pasteurella haemolytica are the final
relative humidity, indicates in hot weather how cause of the pneumonia but that other
safe stock in transit may be. They have also pathogens such as viruses and mycoplasma may
devised for low-temperature conditions a wind act synergistically to allow the bacteria to
chill chart giving the relationship between become pathogenic.
actual temperatures and the wind speed, which The clinical signs are of an acute, toxaemic
is particularly important if animals are not bronchopneumonia with a high fever, and a
sufficiently protected in moving vehicles. good response to treatment in the early stages.
The post-mortem findings in pigs which have Depression and anorexia are common. Post-
died in transit are usually those of acute cardiac mortem lesions are those of consolidated lungs
dilation and acute pulmonary hyperaemia. The with accumulation of serofibrinous exudate in
left ventricle of the heart is no longer conical the interlobular spaces. A catarrhal bronchitis
but more oval, while the papillary muscles and and bronchiolitis and a serofibrinous pleurisy
muscular ridges, normally apparent on the are usually present and may be accompanied
endocardium as prominent projections, are by a fibrinous pericarditis. The bronchi may
much flattened. Pericardial fluid is increased contain fibrin, mucus, blood clots and pus. In
and there is, in severe cases, a diffuse skeletal chronic cases there are residual lesions of
muscle degeneration. The lungs are heavy and bronchopneumonia with overlying pleural
firmer than normal, finger impressions remain adhesions.
on palpation, and a frothy fluid oozes from the Transit tetany occurs under similar
cut surface. Acute passive hyperaemia of the circumstances, almost invariably in cows,
liver and spleen may be observed. particularly those in advanced pregnancy and
in the warmer months of the year. The disease
has also been reported in pregnant ewes and
Conditions induced by transport associated with hypocalcaemia and in feedlot
Transit or shippingfever is a catarrhal and often lambs. Of 1625 pregnant ewes transported 456
fatal disease which chiefly affects store cattle in km by road in the United States, 41 died during
180 Meat Hygiene
transport and a further 41 over 4 days following useful for drying wet fleeces. Straw-bedded
transit. The disease bears a resemblance to milk pens also provide a satisfactory environment
fever and affected animals usually respond to for sheep, as long as there is good ventilation
calcium therapy. There are no specific post- and drainage, while solid floors with no
mortem lesions. bedding, combined with regular hosing and
Salmonellosis in young animals, especially good drainage, provide satisfactory conditions
calves and lambs, may be precipitated by for cattle and pigs. Adequate hose points
transport stress, and compounded by lack of conveniently placed and providing sufficient
food and water and by chilling. The volume and pressure of water are absolutely
transportation of young calves from one part of essential. So also are hoses with nozzles giving
the country to another, exhaustion, dietary a fishtail spray which can quickly remove soil.
changes and chilling on the journey may The provision of pens with gates which can be
increase their susceptibility to infection and used for closing pens and passageways assists
allow a latent Salmonella infection to assume an the handling of stock and their transfer from
acute and septicaemic form. Other one pen to another, thereby facilitating the
predisposing factors include intensive rearing cleansing operation.
and finishing systems, poor cleansing and The detail of design of animal walkways and
disinfection of transport vehicles, and poor races is important if animals are to move easily
vehicle design. through the lairage. The positioning of a
It has been found that there is a marked drainage gully in the middle of a walkway
increase in the excretion of salmonellae by pigs frequently causes animals to baulk, as do harsh
and poultry after transport, which is attributed shadows, puddles of water or shafts of light. It
to the rapid passage of faecal matter in response is well established that, owing to their natural
to transport stress and to weakening of the curiosity, animals move more readily along
defence mechanisms of the animals. The curved rather than straight passageways, and
increase in the numbers of salmonellae isolated that sharp corners slow movement
with the distance from farm to slaughterhall considerably. A bend in a raceway of 45° slowed
floor is occasioned by a combination of stress, the progress of pigs by about 10%; a bend of 90°
lack of hygiene and crowding in vehicles, or 1200 slowed progress by 19%; and a 180°
markets and lairages. In Israel in 1970 it was bend slowed their progress by 44% (Warriss et
found that of 17 Salmonella serotypes isolated al., 1992a).
from poultry after transport, six were the most Pigs rest more contentedly if they can lie
prevalent in man at that time. The transport of against a solid wall rather than rails, and there
animals, therefore, has an important connection is less fighting if they are confined to long
with public as well as animal health. narrow pens rather than square ones. Either
rails or walls are satisfactory for cattle and
sheep. With walls it is possible to wash out a
LAIRAGE CONSTRUCTION pen without causing stress, by splash and noise,
to animals in neighbouring pens. However,
During the rest period in lairages, animals must animals are much easier to inspect in railed
be kept under conditions which prevent any pens, unless an overhead catwalk is provided.
further contamination of feet, hides, fleeces or Vertical supports should be cylindrical and
skins. Most lairages have solid non-slip floors, tubular to reduce the possibility of injury, and
suitably sloped to adequate drains. Slatted the tops capped to allow effective cleansing and
floors have also been considered for cattle but, disinfection to be carried out. Horizontal rails
while contamination is reduced in most cases, should also be cylindrical and tubular, as they
there are problems in manure removal and are easier to clean effectively with a pressure
disinfection, for example, after outbreaks of washer than rails of tubular box cross-section.
anthrax and salmonellosis, or where In Denmark, the development of automatic
tuberculosis or brucellosis reactors are systems to move pigs through the lairage in
routinely slaughtered. groups has improved both the welfare of the
Movable slats, and especially expanded- animals and the efficiency with which the
metal floors, are particularly useful for sheep, facility operates. The push gates move the pigs
where circulation of air below the floor can be in groups of 15 along the passageways at a
 From Farm to Slaughter 181
steady pace from the loading to a h olding
position . Pigs rest within 20 minutes, con trasted.
wi th an hour under normal lairage conditions;
and aggression is much reduced. (Fig. 7.10 )
Facilities should be chec ked to ensure there
are no d efects w hich could cause bruising or
even death . Projections an d sharp corners are
taboo , and if rail s are be ing used for pe n
p artition s it is essen tia l th at there is no
p os sibility of animals ge tt in g their h eads
bet ween rails and being str angled; rail ga ps
mu st be of the proper width.
10 some countries cattle arc sp rayed wi th jets
of wa ter and walked through foot bath s before
entering the slaughterhouse area. This practice is Fig.7.10 Automatic lairage system for pigs
of benefi t in warm er clima tes where the hair is showing two elevated push gates.
sho rt an d the s kin of cattle is fine, but where ha ir
is long in housed stock and there is a build- up of
manure and dirt on the hair, sp raying would only 5 an office for the use of the veterin arian is
serve to mak e matters worst'. A ligh t sprayin g of useful for the completion of records.
pigs is wid ely considered of va lue in preventing
pigs fighting, and also red uces the build -up of
contam inati on in th e sca ld tank. However,
ANI M A L HUSBA N DRY IN T HE
research work has failed to demonstrate that the
LAIR AGE
sp rays actually reduce figh ting and it has been
su ggested that the imp rovem en t in meat quality Moving an imals within th e leirage
in sprayed p igs is due to a cooling effect, rath er
than a redu ction in stress. The avoidance of stres s in the ani mal in the
The removal of the wool from lambs p rior to period immed iately prior to sla ugh ter is
slaughter would he lp in the p roduction of clean important for economic reasons of meat q uality
carcases. Howe ve r, shearing remains a labour- as w ell as for animal welfare reasons. Animals
in teru...ive operation d espite efforts to produc e must therefor e be ha ndled with considera tion
shearing robots. The use of chemical d ef leeclng at all times with minimal use of force of any
agents, e.g. hyd rosulphide, which cause the type. Electr ical goads ha ve been banned by
partial or complete cessation of wool growt h, so management from many pig lairages and
that it might be removed m echanically, has replaced with gentler driving aids su ch as solid
been an active area of research in Australia. push boa rd s. The attitude of the lalragc
Unfortunately, there is considerable variation in attendants can be all-important to the calm and
individ ual animals' response to the chem icals effi cien t operation of the faci lit y. Persons
used . ex perien ced in anim al husbandry know
Facilities in the lairage which are required for instinctive ly whe re to stand when moving
th e carrying out of ant e-mortem ins pec tion stoc k, and can carry out their tas k us ing only
effectively include: encouraging noises and the occasional tap or
wave of a stick. Inexp erienced opera tives
1a race, with a crush gate for cattle, where the
an imal can be identified; frequently excite, con fuse and an tagonise the
animals, mak ing handling at best d ifficu lt an d
2 an adequate number of well-lit pens , with a
sys tem for iden tification or numbering of at w orst dangerous and impossib le. The good
pens; for inspection purposes, a light intensity st ockman will au tom atically recognise the
of 220 lux is necessary; individual cha racteris tics of an ani mal, and will
3 an isolation pen, wi th facilities for adapt his or he r technique to get the work
exam ination of individual animals; completed in the least stressful way for bo th
4 competent lairage staff to assist with the animal and handler.
identification, move men t and examination of Good. abattoir management committed to
animal'>; and h igh operating standards is essential if anima l
182 Meat Hygiene
welfare in the lairage is to be maintained at an Cattle are more sensitive to high-frequency
acceptable level. sound than are human beings. The auditory
A useful concept which can assist in training sensitivity of cattle is at its greatest at 8000 Hz
lairage staff is that of 'flight zones'. Each animal compared with 1000-3000 Hz in man. Unusual
can be considered to be surrounded by an and especially intermittent sounds are
imaginary zone or personal space which it will upsetting to all classes of livestock. Sheep are
endeavour to maintain. In a semi-wild visibly frightened by the sight and barking of
unhandled animal, such as a range steer, this dogs.
area will be very large (e.g. > 30 m), while in a
dairy cow it will be small. When the handler
Social stress
enters the 'flight zone' the animal will move
away to try to re-establish the space between Mixing strange animals together may make
itself and the handler. The direction in which them fight to establish a new social order; once
the animal moves depends on where, in this is achieved, fighting ceases. Animals may
relation to the animal, the handler enters the be mixed several times during the marketing
zone; for example, if he enters the zone at a process. Work carried out by Moss and Trimble
point in front of the animal's shoulder the (1988) in Northern Ireland showed that if cattle
animal will move backwards, if behind the were mixed and were active, and their muscle
shoulder it will walk forward. glycogen was depleted, it took at least 2 days, in
The movement of sheep through a lairage most cases 3, for this to be replaced.
may be facilitated by the use of a decoy or Aggressive animals and females in oestrus
'Judas' sheep. This procedure utilises the innate must be isolated, as must horned from polled
tendency of sheep to follow one another by stock. Although young bulls reared in groups as
'training' one particular sheep, or allowing it to bull beef may be penned together, breeding
become accustomed to, pass through the lairage bulls and boars should always be penned
leading the others. Use can be made of a mirror, separately. Larger animals will usually be
strategically placed, to assist the movement of aggressive to smaller ones. It is important to
sheep out of a pen (Franklin and Hutson, 1982). recognise, however, that both are stressed. This
It is particularly important when driving sheep can be seen especially in young bulls which, if
to exercise patience and give them time to move mixed in the lairage, can rapidly become
at their own pace. Attempts to rush will result exhausted through constant mounting. Mixing
in those at the rear climbing over or riding on of young bulls is therefore contraindicated and
those in front, resulting in bruising. they should be slaughtered as soon as possible
Pigs can be particularly awkward to drive. after arrival in the lairage. It has been noted that
They move only as a loose group, preferring to if these animals remain in the lairage for only
move along beside rather than behind their 2-3 hours they may produce dark cutting meat.
comrades. The maximum number of pigs which
should be moved as a group is 15. This is also
considered to be the ideal group size per pen at Watering
a stocking density of 0.55-0.67 m 2 / 100 kg. Animals should receive ample drinking water
Excessive or strident noise can be very during their retention in the lairage as this
stressful to livestock, especially pigs. serves to lower the bacterial load in the
Measurements indicate that noise levels intestine and facilitates removal of the hide or
average 75 dB in lairage pens, rising to 100 dB pelt during dressing of the carcase. Stunning of
in the pre-stunning pen. This may arise from animals by electrical means is rendered more
human voices, the use of whips, noisy efficacious if they have received unlimited
machinery, barking dogs, compressed-air water during their detention prior to slaughter.
brakes on vehicles, alarm bells, thunder, etc. The positioning and design of water troughs or
The manufacturers of meat plant equipment drinkers is of particular importance in order
have a duty to ensure that equipment operates that faecal contamination of the water is
as quietly as possible, especially in the stunning avoided. Self-filling bowls are generally more
area and its immediate surroundings. The satisfactory than large concrete troughs for
provision of rubber baffles on doors and gates cattle, and drinkers recessed into the walls of
is essential. the pens are preferred for pigs. Water nipples
 From Farm to Slaughter 183
are not always readily used by pigs, and some and sugar reduced these losses to 3% and 8%/
protrude from the pen wall at a height which respectively. In sheep detained for 2/ 3 or 4 days
renders them a welfare hazard. there is a significant loss in carcase weight and
up to a 29% loss in weight of the liver; even 4
days resting and feeding is insufficient to
Fasting
reverse these effects. A series of experiments
Among butchers throughout the world the with lambs, bobby calves and adult cattle
practice of withholding food from animals conducted in New Zealand, sheds further light
prior to slaughter has long been observed, it on this subject indicating the following:
being contended in support of this practice that
• Bobby calves were very susceptible to
fasted animals bleed better, that the carcase is fasting losses, losing about 0.7 kg after one
easier to dress and that it has a brighter day's removal from their mothers,
appearance. Scientific evidence for such increasing to 1.8 kg after 3 days removal of
assertions is lacking and the hungry animal food.
does not settle as well as the animal that has • The loss of liveweight in lambs varied from
been fed. It is also a known physiological fact 0.14 kg in the case of North Island lambs to
that although cattle and sheep are better able to 0.27-0.36 kg for South Island lambs after
withstand cold than are the other farm animals, one day of fasting. (The North Island lambs
resistance to the shock of a severe fall in were very full when taken off pasture.)
atmospheric temperature is greater in the fed • Adult cattle were different: there were no
animal than in one that has been starved. loss for 3 days after removal from pasture,
However, there is a duty to ensure that but severe body weight losses after 4 days
animals are not presented for slaughter with withdrawal of food.
full stomachs, to prevent carcase contamination
due to accidental incision or rupture of the
In general it would appear that the younger
the animals the greater the liveweight loss
gastrointestinal tract during the dressing
following fasting. Resting periods should
procedure. Guise et al. (1995) reported that the
therefore be geared accordingly, and stock for
stomachs from pigs which had been fed 0.64 kg
slaughter should be drawn from production
of dry matter and slaughtered 18.5 hours later
areas as close to slaughter points as possible.
had on average a wet stomach content of 0.87
kg (0.24-1.33)/ average dry matter 127.4 g
± 69.1 g.
The withholding of food must be closely Resting of animals prior to slaughter
considered in relation to the possible loss of The actual duration of the resting period
body weight, remembering that the fasting necessary to ensure normal physiological
period can be considered as beginning at the changes in the muscle after slaughter depends
time the animals leave the farm. If they have on many factors. These include the species of
been held at a market before consignment, the animals, age, sex, class and condition, time of
total period of time may be very long indeed, year, length of journey, method of
amounting to several hours, or even days in transportation, etc. Where different species are
some countries. It is important to know, handled within the one lairage, it is important
therefore, how long animals can be fasted to ensure that proper arrangements are made
before body weight losses commence and the for movement forward for slaughter after an
extent of these losses. adequate resting period for the particular
Pigs rested for 24 hours after a journey do animals involved. Cows in good condition in
not regain normality unless they are fed. temperate countries should not be held for long
Indeed, the fatigue and restlessness engendered periods during winter because of the possibility
by hunger in pigs, in which a definite of hypomagnesaemic tetany. Spring lambs
excitement pyrexia appears to occur in those require a relatively shorter period of rest than
animals not used to handling, may render the adult sheep, and tend to lose weight with
flesh unsuitable for preserved meat products. prolonged holding.
One authority records a loss of 7% in carcase However, the quality of the rest encountered
weight and 30% in liver weight of pigs rested in the lairage has been brought into question.
for 72 hours without feeding; feeding of milk Cockram (1991) argues persuasively that the
184 Meat Hygiene
novel environment of the lairage, with people mainly psychological stress and support the
moving around, may not provide optimal observation that the majority of pigs, whether
conditions for cattle to rest, as measured by in single or mixed producer lots, cease to fight
lying behaviour. Although conditions may after the first hour in the lairage and settle
improve overnight, with cattle lying down and down to rest (Moss, 1977). A period of rest of
resting, he suggests that the evidence is unclear 2-3 hours for pigs has therefore been
as to whether the meat quality from cattle held recommended. It allows sufficient time to
overnight in the lairage shows a significant recover from previous stresses without
improvement. significantly increasing the problems of long
It has been determined in Australia that the food deprivation, muscle glycogen depletion
ultimate pH in steer carcases was lower in and skin blemish seen after longer periods,
animals that had been rested and fed for 4 days particularly after holding overnight.
than in animals rested for only 2 days after a Excessively long periods of retention only serve
320 km (200 mile) journey. In the same country to make the task of lairage cleaning - one of the
the ultimate pH values in the carcases of rams most difficult tasks in the meat plant - even I'

were higher and the meat colour was darker in more difficult, as well as increasing the .
animals rested for 120 hours after a journey by possibility of cross-infection. It has been found, .
road of 1110 km (690 miles). In Bulgaria, blood for example, that the longer pigs and calves are held
and muscle values in calves transported by prior to slaughter the greater is the build-up of
road for up to 450 km were back to normal in 24 infection, particularly of salmonella organisms, and
hours. the greater the risk of cross-infection. In one
McNally and Warriss (1996) demonstrated experiment with calves awaiting slaughter, it
that as the time cattle were held in the lairage was shown that after a few hours' detention
increased, the amount of bruising increased only 0.6% of the animals harboured
significantly. salmonellae, whereas after 2-5 days 55.6% had
In New Zealand, Purchas (1992), salmonella in their intestine. Other authorities
investigated the effect of decreasing the holding have recorded salmonella in 7% of farm pigs,
time in the lairage from 28 to 4 hours, after 2 25% of pigs in the lairage pen, and 50% of pigs
hours transport. Overall, the dressing-out at slaughter; 75% of lairage drinking water was
percentage based on full liveweights was also infected. It is recommended, therefore, that
significantly lower for the 28-hour group, so young calves be slaughtered as soon as possible
that for the mean liveweight of 483 kg, the extra after arrival at an abattoir because of the risk of
24 hours of holding time led to 4.5 kg less cross-contamination and because it is difficult
carcase weight, with the rate of loss being to induce calves to eat. Small pens with solid
slightly greater for the heifers. Perhaps bases to the partitions, given regular cleansing
surprisingly, if the lairage is to be considered as and disinfection, will considerably lower the
a place of rest, the mean ultimate muscle pH risk of cross-infection with salmonella
was significantly higher for the 28-hour group organisms.
(0.34 pH units), but this effect was much more
apparent for bulls (0.60 pH units) than for steers
(0.27 pH units) or heifers (no change),
PRE-SLAUGHTER HANDLING AND
presumably owing to the greater activity that
MEAT QUALITY
characterises the behaviour of bulls. On the
basis of this work it may be suggested that in
Stress and the animal
order to maximise carcase yield and meat
quality, holding of cattle in the lairage should During the process of loading at the farm, the
be restricted to 4 hours. The number of journey to the abattoir or market, the holding at
variables between lairages, however, means the market, the off-loading, the detention in the
that such a recommendation should be treated abattoir lairage and the subsequent handling
with caution. up to the point of slaughter, the animal is
Warriss et al. (1992), demonstrated that in subjected to a wide variety of stressors, many of
pigs blood cortisol and beta-endorphin levels which have an adverse effect with subsequent
return to normal values after 2-3 hours in the deleterious changes in the carcase. Even death
lairage. These blood constituents measure may occur.
 From Farm to Slaughter 185
Stressors may include physical trauma and While the alarm reaction is immediate, the
fear, and environmental excesses of noise, heat, general adaptive syndrome is the essential
cold, light, wind chill or humidity. These may stress reaction and is longer lasting.
make excessive demands on the animal and Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) is
may result in handling problems which may be produced by the anterior pituitary gland and
reflected in abnormal bodily changes at brings about the production of corticosteroids
slaughter. such as cortisone and hydrocortisone (cortisol),
Fraser (1980) has proposed the following which regulate the general metabolism of
definition of stress: /An animal is said to be in a carbohydrates, proteins and fats on a long-term
state of stress if it is required to make abnormal basis. There is a decrease in carbohydrate
or extreme adjustments in its physiology or metabolism, and an increase in protein
behaviour in order to cope with adverse aspects metabolism, the amino acids being converted to
of its environment and management.' A glycogen in the liver. Fat is metabolised from
husbandry system can be said to be stressful if the fat deposits and is metabolised in the liver,
it makes abnormal demands on the animals. An producing ketone bodies. The overall result is an
individual factor may be called a stressor if it increase in the level of blood glucose and ketones.
contributes to the stressful nature of a system of Other changes in the general adaptation
husbandry. Amoroso (1967) developed a useful syndrome include hypertrophy of the adrenal
mnemonic for stress: Situations That Release gland with reduction in its ascorbic acid and
Emergency Signals for Survival. cholesterol stores, eosinophilia (reduction in the
Seyle (1974) defined stress as a non-specific number of eosinophils), lymphopenia
response in an animal attempting to resist or (reduction in the number of lymphocytes),
adapt to maintain homeostasis, i.e. the polynucleosis (an increase in polymorpho-
tendency for the internal environment of the nuclear leukocytes) and an increased
body to be maintained constant and in susceptibility to disease. Sustained adaptation
equilibrium. This suggests that, whatever the syndrome leads to reduced growth rate in
trigger for the stress, the physiological response young animals and loss of weight in adult
is identical. The currently accepted description animals.
of stress is that it is the normal and complex This non-specific response of the body,
summation of a wide variety of responses to irrespective of the origin of the stress, has been
any environmental change. Stress is, at most, a questioned and adapted by Moberg (1983) and
short-hand term for the essential characteristic others. They suggest that corticosteroids may
of biological adaptation. not be produced as a response to all stressful
There are two main reactions of an animal to stimuli, that different species may react
stress: the alarm or emergency reaction and the differently to the same stressor, and that in
general adaptive syndrome (together termed the some cases other endocrine pathways may be
fight orflight syndrome). The alarm reaction is the involved. It may be wrong to assume, therefore,
result of a sudden adverse stimulus and takes that a lack of adrenal response indicates that
place immediately. It is reflected in an increased there is no stress. There appears to be an
activity of the sympathetic nervous system which important role played by the brain, including
supplies the involuntary muscles, secretory the limbic system, the pituitary and
glands and the heart. The result is an out-pouring hypothalamus, especially in the mechanism by
into the bloodstream of the catecholamines, which animals cope with stress. When an animal
noradrenaline and adrenaline by the medulla of puts substantial effort and resources into coping
the adrenal gland, leading to increased heart rate with a stressful situation, it can be considered to be
and force of cardiac contraction, constriction of suffering distress.
peripheral blood vessels, elevated blood
pressure, dilation of bronchi, cessation of
digestion and mobilisation of liver glycogen with
Stress and meat quality
increases in blood sugar. Glucagon, a peptide The physiological changes described above
produced by the alpha-cells of the Islets of which occur when an animal is stressed can
Langerhans in the pancreas, is more powerful have a very significant effect on the quality of
than adrenaline in the production of blood the meat if the stress occurs in the period prior
glucose by the mobilisation of liver glycogen. to slaughter. In order to understand these
186 Meat Hygiene
changes, it is necessary to have some result in sufficient lactic acid being produced to
knowledge of the biochemical events which cause the required fall in pH, it is necessary
occur in muscle in the period immediately after either to minimise stress, fear, excitement,
the animal's death. fatigue or excessive exertion on the animal, or
After slaughter, the supply of oxygen to the to allow for an adequate period of rest prior to
muscle ceases with the cessation of blood slaughter in order for muscle glycogen levels to
circulation. Normal aerobic respiration in the replenish. Another approach is to feed easily
muscle therefore stops, to be replaced by digestible carbohydrates, such as sugar, while
anaerobic reactions. Anaerobic glycolysis, the the animals are in the lairage. As far back as
breakdown of hexose sugars, results in the 1937, experiments in pre-slaughter feeding of
production and accumulation of lactic acid in molasses to pigs showed a restoration of
muscle, and a characteristic fall in the pH from muscle glycogen and subsequent low tissue
7.0-7.2 to around 5.5. This fall normallv takes pH. Later work emphasised this; the psoas
4-8 hours in pigs, 12-24 hours in sheep and muscle, fillet, had a post-mortem pH of 6.0
24-48 hours in cattle. when pigs were starved overnight, compared
Anaerobic glycolysis results in the with 5.43 when 1.4 kg sucrose was fed 22 and 6
production of much less energy, stored as hours before slaughter. The sucrose-fed pigs
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), than its aerobic also gained more weight during curing, the
alternative. After death, the levels of ATP bacon and ham underwent less shrink while
therefore fall. Energy is required to keep muscle maturing, and a further advantage was a
in its relaxed state. When the levels of ATP fall significant increase in liver weight. Better
to a critically low level after death, the relaxed keeping qualities of bacon and ham were also
state can no longer be maintained. The muscle's reported.
component molecules, actin and myosin, Sugar solutions have been used to
combine irreversibly to form actomyosin, and overcome some of the storage, handling and
the muscle contracts slightly in what is known feeding problems of solid sugar. A study at the
as rigor mortis - the carcase'setting'. bacon factory of Cavaghan and Gray in
The rate of onset of rigor is therefore Carlisle showed that carcase yields were
dependent on the supply of ATP in the muscle increased by 2.8% and liver weights by 27%,
at death. Any external factor which depletes and muscle pH was reduced by 0.2-0.3 units,
this supply of ATP will hasten the onset of rigor when pigs fed a glucose syrup solution and
mortis. This fact is demonstrated in exhausted water and held overnight were compared with
bulls, the carcases of which set rapidly after those receiving water only. When compared
slaughter owing to low levels of glycogen, and with pigs slaughtered on arrival, the
therefore of ATP, in the muscle at the time of differences were 1.3%, 13% and 0.2-0.3 units,
death. These animals will, in addition, have a respectively.
high muscle pH since little lactic acid will have In cattle detained for 2 days in the lairage, a
been produced. It is important to recognise that 25% loss in liver weight may occur. In one
rigor mortis depends only on the availability of plant in Chicago the effects of stress in cattle
ATP, not on the pH of the meat. are reduced by incorporating molasses in the
Pre-slaughter stress, therefore, affects both drinking water. It has also been shown that the
the rate of onset of rigor mortis and the rate and feeding of sugar rapidly restores the energy-
the extent of the fall in muscle pH. Alterations yielding carbohydrate reserve (glycogen) of
in these parameters affect the appearance and the muscles and liver, allowing the
eating quality of the meat, the most common development of normal acidity in the former
manifestations being pale, soft, exudative (PSE) and preventing loss of weight in the latter. The
pork, and dark, firm and dry (DFD) beef. These feeding of up to 1.3 kg of sugar for 3 or more
economically significant conditions are days before slaughter of cattle or pigs has
described in detail in Chapter 2. increased daily weights. Some workers have
found that loss in liveweight can be prevented
by feeding sugar.
Pre-slaughter feeding of sugars Under present-day abattoir conditions it is
In order to ensure adequate pre-slaughter doubtful whether pre-slaughter feeding is
levels of glycogen in the muscle, which will always a practical or economic proposition.
 From Farm to Slaughter 187
TRAUMATIC INJURY hours. Histological methods have been developed
which claim to be able to differentiate between
Bruising is defined as traumatic injury without bruises occurring at various times between 48
penetration of the skin where blood vessels are hours pre-slaughter and stunning (McCausland
damaged to such an extent that there is and Dougherty 1978)
extravasation into the surrounding tissues.
Several studies of cattle bruising have shown
that approximately 31 % of bruises occur in the
loin and hip area, 36% on the shoulder, 13% on Rough handling
the ribs and 20% on other parts of the body. In Observations in over 100 packing stations in the
sheep many of the bruises are due to rough United States have shown that rough handling
handling, resulting either from animals being and the abusive use of clubs, whips and electric
lifted by the wool or grabbed by the legs during goads are responsible for the majority of
sorting, weighing and loading on the farm, injuries. If animals become stubborn or
during unloading or while being handled prior fractious, and refuse to enter or emerge from a
to being stunned. vehicle, they are all too often beaten and
Fasting has been shown to increase bruising shouted at until they fall, or in the case of pigs
and there is some evidence that chronic stress are dragged by the ears, sustaining injuries,
makes animals more susceptible to it. even fractures and bruises. This senseless form
of animal handling is not confined to the United
States - it occurs the world over. McNally and
Warriss (1996), in a survey carried out in the
Time of bruising UK, report that over 35% of cattle bruising was
Although the presence of bruises at slaughter is due to stick marks. Giving animals time and
apparent to the eye, knowledge of the exact space to move is a prerequisite not adopted by
time of infliction is necessary if steps are to be all handlers. Some knowledge of animal
taken to prevent bruising. At slaughter a bruise behaviour, with attention to detail in the design
may be dated approximately by the physical of animal handling/loading/unloading
criteria listed in Table 7.3. facilities, can remove the stress and danger for
A more specific method of dating is based on both handler and animal.
a test which utilises the formation of bilirubin Three categories of sheep were examined for
from haemoglobin in the area of the bruise. A evidence of bruising: sheep transported direct
sample of bruised meat is soaked in Fouchet's from farms and those transported from local
reagent (trichloracetic acid and ferric chloride); and distant markets in Scotland (larvis et al.,
bruises up to 50 hours old give no reaction; 1996). In sheep coming directly from farms,
those 60-72 hours old turn the solution light 93% had no bruises compared with 86% from
blue; those 4-5 days old give a dark green local markets and 74% from distant markets.
reaction. The bilirubin test has been used to Blood biochemistry showed significantly
show, for example, that 90% of poultry bruises higher levels of serum creatine kinase and
are inflicted 0-13 hours before slaughter. plasma osmolality in the sheep from distant
The age of a bruise can also be estimated by markets than in the other two groups,
measuring the electrical conductivity of the suggesting greater muscle damage and
tissue, which increases up to a maximum at 40 dehydration, respectively. However, there were
no substantial differences between the three
groups in terms of packed cell volume, total
Table 7.3 Approximate ageing of bruises by plasma protein and beta-hydroxybutrate.
physical appearance. A survey of 4473 cattle delivered to one
slaughter plant from 21 live auction markets in
0-10 hours old Red and haemorrhagic
England revealed an overall prevalence of
Approx. 24 hours old Dark coloured bruising of 8.1% and of stick marking of 2.2%.
24-38 hours old Watery consistency Differences existed between the prevalences of
Over 3 days Rusty orange colour both bruising in carcase from steers, heifers and

!
,
(bilirubin) and soapy
to the touch.
bulls. Overall, steers had the greatest amount of
carcase damage and young bulls the lowest
188 Meat Hygiene
amount. Variations also occurred in the confined space, for example a cattle wagon or
frequency of bruising (range 2.4-17.9%) and of lairage pen, is due to the natural 'milling about'
stick marking (range 0-9.6%) from different of a mob of cattle rather than to malicious
markets. There was no evidence that longer aggression. Practical farmers, however, are
journeys (distances ranged from 80 to 464 km) unanimous in the assertion that a bad-tempered
were associated with greater carcase damage. animal can create havoc in a mob of cattle,
There was a relationship between a high degree especially under confined conditions, and
of bruising and stick marking at one particular personnel in every abattoir have noticed how
market (McNally and Warriss, 1997). an old cow may persistently harass its fellows.
The same occurs with pigs, where one animal in
a group can persistently bully its mates.
Transport and vehicle design Overcrowding undoubtedly increases
Not enough attention is paid to the design of aggressiveness and may be responsible for a
loading ramps at the farm and unloading high incidence of bruises in animals awaiting
ramps at the abattoir. Floor design of vehicles slaughter. Among the food animals, fat pigs are
sometimes causes injury and stress owing to the most likely to be affected during transport
absence of non-slip surfaces. as their heat-eliminating powers are very
Experimental work with cattle suggests that limited and they soon succumb to overexertion.
packing them tightly for mutual support from
the sides of the vehicle results in more bruising
Stunning box design
than allowing them sufficient space to adjust
their posture and brace themselves against the Bruising can be produced in an animal both
movement of the vehicle and to get up after before and after stunning, but not once the
falling. The greater the distance travelled and animal has been bled when the blood pressure
the greater the number of stops, the higher the drops to zero. The design of the stunning box
incidence of bruising. can, therefore, be of importance in the problem
It has been suggested that the manner in of bruising. In Australia it has been shown that
which the vehicle is driven can have a great over 60% of cattle fall from the stunning box so
influence on both the degree and amount of heavily that they are bruised, the extent of the
bruising. The less braking and accelerating and bruise depending on the severity of the fall and
fewer gear changes, the less bruising. the time between stunning and bleeding.
In Australia, bruising in cattle causes an
estimated annual loss of up to $26 million
Presence of horns (1976), and horn damage plus stunning box
An important factor is whether the animal is bruising accounts for 48% of this loss. The
hornless or horned. The Australian Meat Board incidence of stunning box bruising can be
has shown that approximately half the bruising reduced by a proper design which ensures that
in horned cattle is due to the horns and that the the animal slides out of the box. In some
incidence of bruising in horned cattle is twice as abattoirs the animal is ejected on to a thick
high as in hornless breeds. The tipping of horns, rubber mat.
by the removal of 10-15 cm, has been
recommended but was not found to make any
significant difference to the incidence of Mixing of animals
bruising. The only answer is to have all cattle Bruising and bite marks on the surface of the
polled, either by dehorning young calves or by skin of pigs cause depreciation in market value.
breeding naturally-polled stock. The incidence of this type of damage, severe
enough to result in downgrading, has been
recorded as 7.3% (MLC, 1985) with a difference
Temperament between boars and non-boars of 10% and 5.4%,
The temperament of cattle obviously has an respectively (Warriss, 1984). Most bruises occur
effect on the incidence of bruising and, as every during transport, a minor proportion during
cattle farmer knows, temperament varies loading and unloading. Pigs from different
between breeds and individuals. It is farms loaded on the same lorry behave
considered that the bruising of cattle in a comparatively quietly once the lorry is in
 From Farm to Slaughter 189
motion but start fighting as soon as the lorry 1 Animals must undergo ante-mortem
stops. Reducing the stopping periods by 50% inspection on the day of their arrival at the
reduces the incidence of bite marks by 25%. Pre- slaughterhouse or before the beginning of
mixing of socially unfamiliar groups of pigs in daily slaughtering. The inspection must be
a holding pen for a couple of days prior to repeated immediately before slaughter if the
animal has been in the lairage overnight. The
transport also considerably reduces injuries
operator of the slaughterhouse, the owner or
from fighting. In the lairage, it is important to his agent must facilitate operations for
avoid mixing pigs from different sources, performing ante-mortem health inspections
different social groups, and different ages if at and in particular any handling which is
all possible. Spraying pigs with water on arrival considered necessary.
has been used to decrease the incidence of pale, Each animal to be slaughtered shall bear an
soft, exudative (PSE) pork by cooling the pigs, identifying mark enabling the competent
but care must be taken in cold weather not to authority to determine its origin.
induce hypothermia by leaving the sprays on 2 (a) The official veterinarian must make the
for extended periods. ante-mortem inspection in accordance with
professional rules and under suitable lighting.
Breed (b) The official veterinarian must, in respect
of animals delivered to the slaughterhouse,
Some breeds of cattle, e.g. the Brahmam and check on compliance with community rules
Afrikaner, are notoriously excitable. Certain on animal welfare.
breeds of pigs are so susceptible to the effects of 3 The inspection must determine:
stress, e.g. the Pietrain and Poland China, that (a) whether the animals are suffering from a
steps are being taken to identify the 'stress disease which is communicable to man and to
gene' and remove it from the population by animals or whether they show symptoms or
breeding strategy and genetic engineering. are in a general condition such as to indicate
that such a disease may occur;
(b) whether they show symptoms of disease
Incentives and education or of a disorder of their general condition
The most effective way to educate hauliers and which is likely to make their meat unfit for
animal handlers about the damage careless human consumption; attention must also be
handling can do to stock is to allow them to see paid to any signs that the animals have had
any substances with pharmacological effects
the results on the carcase. Bruises on cattle, stick administered to them or have consumed any
marks on pigs and wool pulls on sheep all leave other substances which may make their meat
their obvious, permanent and costly marks on harmful to human health;
the dressed meat. When producers are made (c) whether they are tired, agitated or
aware that they are losing money through the injured.
loss of carcase weight due to the trimming of 4 (a) tired or agitated animals must be rested
these defects, the pressure to improve handling for at least 24 hours unless the official
facilities and stockmanship to prevent bruising veterinarian decides otherwise.
is increased. (b) animals in which one of the diseases
referred to in para. 3(a) and (b) has been
diagnosed must not be slaughtered for
human consumption.
ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION (c) slaughter of animals suspected of
suffering from one of the diseases referred to
The legal requirement in para. 3(a) and (b) must be deferred. These
The provision of a veterinary inspection of the animals shall undergo detailed examination
live animal prior to slaughter is a basic in order to make a diagnosis.
requirement of most meat inspection systems.
The European Directive 91/497/EEC, enacted Where the post-mortem inspection is
in Great Britain by the Fresh Meat (Hygiene and necessary in order to make a diagnosis, the
Inspection) Regulations 1995, makes the official veterinarian shall request that the
following statements about ante-mortem health animals in question are slaughtered separately
inspection: or at the end of normal slaughtering.
190 Meat Hygiene
Those animals shall undergo detailed post- action to be taken in the event of each condition
mortem inspection supplemented, if the being identified should be assessed and written
veterinarian considers it necessary for down under the 'Control of Substances
confirmation, by an appropriate bacteriological Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988' which
examination and a search for residues of are a series of statutory Regulations made
substances with a pharmacological effect which under the framework of the Health and Safety
may be presumed to have been administered to at Work Act 1974.
treat the pathological state observed. The animal health aspect requires the
The Directive also states that the official veterinarian to identify notifiable disease. It is
veterinarian may be assisted by auxiliaries, the recognised within the state veterinary service
meat inspectors, in ante-mortem inspection, the that it is likely that a serious epizootic, such as
auxiliary's role being to make an initial check foot-and-mouth disease or swine fever, will first
on the animals and to help with purely practical be recognised at an abattoir.
tasks. The ante-mortem procedure allows the
In the United States the authority for ante- veterinarian to assess the welfare implications of
mortem inspection is contained in the Federal the structures and procedures within the
Meat Inspection Act, as amended by the lairage. In the ideal situation, this would
Wholesome Meat Act. The regulations state involve inspections on the farm of origin, during
that: transport, as well as in the lairage prior to
(a) All livestock offered for slaughter in an death.
official establishment shall be examined and Following inspection, the veterinarian may
inspected on the day of slaughter unless, make one of the following five decisions.
because of unusual circumstances, prior 1 Animals may progress for normal slaughter.
arrangements acceptable to the Administrator 2 Animals should not enter the plant or should
have been made in specific cases by the circuit be condemned ante-mortem. In this group
supervisor for such examination and
will be dead, moribund, emaciated or
inspection to be made on a different day excessively dirty animals, and those showing
before slaughter; and
evidence of a septicaemia or other conditions
(b) Such ante-mortem inspection shall be made in
which would result in the meat being unfit for
pens on the premises of the establishment at
human consumption.
which the livestock are offered for slaughter
before the livestock shall be allowed to enter 3 Animals should be slaughtered but may need
into any department of the establishment a special detailed post-mortem examination,
where they are to be slaughtered or dressed or or may need to be slaughtered in a special
in which edible products are handled. area or at a different time from other animals,
owing perhaps to a localised infection or
suspicion of a more generalised condition.
Ante-mortem procedure Animals suspected of being treated with
illegal drugs for the purposes of growth
Ante-mortem inspection has three main areas promotion, or of having residues of
of concern: publichealth, animalhealth and animal therapeutic substances, may be included in
welfare. this group. Emergency on-farm slaughtered
For public health purposes the veterinarian cases will require particular attention.
must separate normal animals from those 4 Stock should be segregated for slaughter
which may be suffering from a potentially under special conditions, e.g. dirty stock at a
zoonotic disease or present a hygiene risk to the slow line speed.
slaughterhall environment owing to their filthy S Slaughter may be delayed, e.g. for excessively
state. Animals which may contain residues of fatigued, excited animals or those requiring
pharmaceutical product must be detained for treatment.
testing post-mortem.
It is also very important that the workers
within the abattoir are alerted to the presence of On the farm
any zoonotic condition, such as orf or ringworm, From what has been discussed earlier and in
or where brucellosis or TB reactor cattle are Chapter 9, the benefits which can be
being slaughtered, so that appropriate forthcoming from extending the ante-mortem
protective measures can be taken. In the UK the procedure back to the farm are obvious.
 From Farm to Slaughter 191
The integrated approach to meat hygiene has aggressive animals and horned stock should be
gained support worldwide, but there are many isolated. If unacceptably dirty animals, i.e. ones
practical problems to be solved before it can be which, in the opinion of the veterinarian cannot
successfully implemented on a large scale. The be dressed at normal line speed without an
most important of these problems, the fast and unacceptable risk of carcase contamination,
efficient collection and transfer of accurate have been allowed by factory management to
information between all stages in the enter the lairage, they must be segregated and
production chain, will be solved by the rapid detained until their condition becomes more
developments in information technology which acceptable, or they can be dressed at a line speed
will soon allow information to be passed which decreases the risk of contamination.
automaticallv between farm and meat factorv Animals showing evidence of localised
by computer and/or fax machine. A dire~t conditions such as injuries, fractures, abscesses,
consequence of this is the requirement for a benign tumours (e.g. papillomata) or
tamper-proof and easily-read animal conditions which will show up lesions on post-
identification system. European Directive 92/102 mortem inspection need to be segregated and
requires that all animals, or group of animals, given a detailed examination. Such animals
be identified. Although this requirement has may pass forward with the normal kill if the
more to do with subsidy payments and the condition proves to be a minor one, slaughtered
avoidance of fraud, it may assist in the at the end of the day's kill, or slaughtered
development of an improvement on the present separately and given a thorough post-mortem
metal or plastic tag system for cattle, and ad hoc examination.
systems for other farm species. The In the case of sick animals the temperature
International Organisation for Standardisation should be taken; a rise in temperature may be
(ISO) has agreed a standard for the electronic the first indication of a communicable disease,
identification of animals (January 1996; although in moribund animals the temperature
IS011784 and IS011785). This opens the way to may frequently be subnormal. In sheep, body
a worldwide usage of electronic transponders temperature may be a somewhat misleading
to record identity and production data about guide as, of all the food animals, its
individual animals from birth through to the temperature is subject to the greatest daily
abattoir. fluctuation: variations between 39°C and 40°C
The most common method of identifying are common and in heavily woolled sheep in
pigs for slaughter in the UK is the slapmark summer the temperature can vary between
which, if properly applied, is the most 38.2°C and 40.1°C in healthy animals. Pigs that
satisfactory. show a temperature of 41°C or over, and cattle
and sheep that show a temperature of 40.5°C or
higher should be isolated until the temperature
In the meat plant falls for, if they are slaughtered while suffering
Livestock in the lairage should be inspected at from this degree of fever, the carcase will be
rest and while in motion. Both sides of the congested and will invariably require
animal should be observed. In practice this is condemnation.
simple to carry out while the animals are being Animals showing signs of systemic disturbance
unloaded, but their excited state during this and an elevated temperature should not be
procedure may mask some conditions such as slaughtered but retained for treatment, preferably
mild lamenesses, making a second check outside the meat plant.
necessary. In the case of sick or suspect diseased In the USA, 'suspect' animals are those
animals, and those in poor condition, the suspected of being diseased or affected with
species, class, age, condition, colour or certain conditions that might result in
markings, and identification number are condemnation of the carcase on post-mortem
recorded. The general behaviour of the animals, inspection. These animals are tagged as 'US
whether fatigued or excited, their level of Suspect', as are the carcases from such animals,
nutrition, cleanliness, obvious signs of disease until a final post-mortem inspection is carried
and any abnormalities should be observed and out. They include, under USDA regulations,
recorded. In addition to the segregation of 'downers', cases of leptospirosis, anaplasmosis
diseased and suspect stock, females in oestrus, and tuberculosis reactors, brucella-reactor
192 Meat Hygiene
goats, epithelioma of the eye, anasarca, swine veterinary profession, the word is ill-defined.
erysipelas, vesicular exanthema, vesicular Legislation within the UK refers to animals as
stomatitis, immature animals, and livestock being 'unfit'.
previously condemned for listeriosis and The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
released for slaughter. A 'suspect' animal must Food, and the Department of Agriculture for
be segregated from other stock, its number Northern Ireland, have both produced notes
recorded and a description made of the animal for 'Guidance on the transport of casualty
and the disease affecting it, along with its animals' based upon the Welfare of Animals
temperature when this might have a bearing on during Transport Order 1994 and other
the ultimate disposition of the carcase. relevant welfare legislation. This defines
Animals that may be condemned under USDA casualty animals as 'animals which are
regulations include dead, recumbent and disabled suffering from disease or injury where the
livestock; those affected with any condition that decision has been made to slaughter them'. The
would entail condemnation of the carcase at post- advice given on transporting casualty animals
mortem inspection; any swine having a to slaughter is also appropriate for animals
temperature of 106°F or higher and any cattle, which are infirm, fatigued or heavily pregnant,
sheep, goats, horses, mules or other equines or which have given birth within the preceding
having a temperature of 105°F or higher (in cases 48 hours.
of doubt, such animals may be held for further The reasons for casualty slaughter of cattle were
inspection on the same day); livestock in a determined in a comprehensive survey in
comatose or semicomatose condition; livestock Switzerland (Wyss et at., 1984). This covered
showing signs of certain metabolic, toxic or 44 704 cattle, the-losses representing 1.83% of all
circulatory disturbances; those showing evidence cattle insured. Major reasons, in order of
of nutritional imbalances or infectious or parasitic importance, were dystocia (8.84%), tympany
diseases - anaplasmososis, ketosis, leptospirosis, (8.44%), respiratory disease (6.49%), joint
listeriosis, parturient paralysis, pseudorabies, disease (5.78%), reticular foreign bodies (5.16%),
rabies, BSE, scrapie, tetanus, grass tetany, circulatorv disease (5.14%), enteritis (4.65%),
transport tetany, strangles, purpura fractures - unrelated to parturition (4.43%),
haemorrhagica, azoturia, infectious equine recumbency (4.10%), claw disease (3.46%),
encephalomyelitis, toxic encephalitis (forage abortion (3:39%). Also included were cases of
poisoning), dourine, acute influenza, generalised poisoning and spastic paresis. At Belfast Meat
osteoporosis, glanders (farcy), acute inflammatory Plant the main reasons for casualty or
lameness or extensive fistula, swine fever, anthrax emergency slaughter (1990) were fractures
and animals which have been injected with (24%), non-specific injuries (9%),
anthrax vaccine within the previous 6 weeks. prolapse/ruptured vagina (6.5%), arthritis (6%),
In all cases it is absolutely essential that good eNS lesions (5%), downer cow /
records are kept of the ante-mortem findings. hypomagnesaemia (4.6%), digestive disorders
These records must be available to the (4.6%), spinal injuries (4%). Others were dog
inspectors at the time of post-mortem worrying, haemorrhages, dislocations, septic
inspection so that the findings can be acted injuries, heart abnormalities, cystitis, congenital
upon at that stage. A system which correlates abnormalities, tendonitis, blindness, radial
the ante-mortem and post-mortem findings paralysis, tumours, lameness, laminitis, ovarian
should be kept as simple and transparent as cyst, dystocia, respiratory disorders and
possible. In addition, there must be a simple amputations.
method, usually pen cards, which allows the The conditions governing the admission of
lairage staff to easily identify which animals diseased or injured animals into an abattoir in
have received ante-mortem inspection and Great Britain, are laid down in the Fresh Meat
what the outcome has been. (Hygiene and Inspection) Regulations 1995,
Regulation 17. These conditions are:
1 No person shall send an animal which he
THE CASUALTY ANIMAL knows or suspects to be diseased or injured to
a slaughterhouse unless he has given the
Although the term' casualtyanimal' is in general occupier of the slaughterhouse reasonable
use by the farming community and the notice of his intention to send it.
 From Farm to Slaughter 193
the added advantage of helping to reduce
2 No person shall bring into, or permit to be conflict of opinion between professional
brought into, a slaughterhouse any animal
which he knows or suspects to be diseased or colleagues.
injured unless In any case, the welfare of the casualty
animal must always be considered as the most
(a) he has already ensured that it is
accompanied by a toriiien declaration signed by important issue when deciding whether a
the owner or person in charge of it; particular animal can be transported live to a
slaughter plant. However, the suitability of the
(b) that declaration is handed to an
inspector or the Official Veterinary Surgeon animal for food must also be considered. This
(OVS) as soon as is practical after the animal's decision may be based on information such as
arrival at the slaughterhouse: the species of animal involved, the nature of the
3 The occupier of the slaughterhouse shall animal's affliction, the drugs it has received and
ensure that, on arrival at the slaughterhouse, when, if recumbent, how long has it been
the animal dorsally or laterally recumbent.
(a) is slaughtered without delay following When the decision has been made that the
ante-mortem inspection; or animal is a suitable candidate for transport to
the abattoir as a casualty, arrangements must be
(b) is taken without delay under the
direction of an inspector or the OVS to that made with the management of the nearest meat
part of the lairage provided for the isolation plant to ensure that they will accept it, and to
of diseased or injured animals. ascertain whether the official veterinarian will
be present to inspect it on arrival.
The requirement in 2(a) is considered by
many veterinarians to be inadequate, especially
in the case of diseased animals. Casualties at the meat plant
As the legislation states, the casualty animal
must receive ante-mortem inspection and be
The on-farm decision slaughtered immediately on arrival at the
The decision on the farm as to whether or not it slaughterhouse or be taken without delay
is possible to transport an animal to be under the direction of an inspector or the OVS
slaughtered without it suffering unnecessary to that part of the lairage provided for the
distress is an important and sometimes difficult isolation of diseased or injured animals. It is a
one. The legislation puts the responsibility to ensure requirement of the Fresh Meat (Hygiene and
that only animalssuitablefor loading, travellingand Inspection) Regulations 1995, Schedule 2, para.
subsequent unloading are actually transported for 2(d), that the suspected diseased or injured
slaughter firmly on the shoulders of the fanner, animal be slaughtered, dressed and held in a
haulierand veterinary practitioner. separate facility from normal stock.
The animal may not be dragged or pushed Alternatively, it may be slaughtered at the end
by any means, or lifted by a mechanical device, of the day's kill, or before a break when the
unless this is done in the presence of and under slaughterhall and equipment are cleaned and
the supervision of a veterinary surgeon who is disinfected. This latter option may, however,
arranging for it to be transported with all lead to an unacceptable delay before the animal
practicable speed to a place for veterinary is dealt with. The small number of UK abattoirs
treatment. This means in practice that in the which operate separate casualty slaughter
case of adult bovines, only animals which can facilities has led to animals having to travel
walk on to and off the transport, and bear much greater distances to the nearest slaughter-
weight on all four legs during the journey, point which will accept them. The provision of
should be transported to an abattoir for a mobile slaughter facility as pioneered in
slaughter. If the farmer is in any doubt he or she Sweden, which can fit on to a lorry and provide
must always take professional advice from a hygienic slaughter and dressing conditions on
veterinarian. If in turn the veterinary the farm, would be an ideal answer to this
practitioner has any doubts, he or she may problem.
consult with the official veterinarian in the meat Both casualties and emergency on-farm
plant to which the animal is being consigned to slaughtered animals must receive special
seek an opinion or guidance. This approach has attention from the meat hygiene team. This
194 Meat Hygiene
point was emphasised as long ago as 1876 when (d) the body of the animal has not been
Bollinger pointed out that 80% of the cases of dressed;
food poisoning in Germany were associated (e) the body of the animal is accompanied to
with the consumption of the flesh of animals the slaughterhouse by a veterinary certificate;
that had undergone emergency slaughter. (f) the body of the animal is transported to
Striking confirmation of this was supplied by the slaughterhouse in a container or vehicle
statistics which showed that the danger from under hygienic conditions and, if it cannot be
meat of emergency-slaughtered animals, when delivered to the slaughterhouse within one
compared with the meat of those slaughtered hour of slaughter, it is transported there in a
commercially, was 80 times greater in cattle, 12 container or vehicle under hygienic
conditions in which the ambient temperature
times greater in calves, 100 times greater in is between ODe and 4°C.
sheep, 211 times greater in pigs and 3 times
greater in horses. It is essential that the meat The veterinary practitioner on the farm
hygiene team are alert to the possibility of therefore plays a pivotal role in the carrying out
attempts to market, through the casualty of the ante-mortem inspection, recording the
system, animals which may be febrile, findings accurately, ensuring that arrangements
bacteraemic or septicaemic or which may for the humane slaughter of the animal are
contain the residues of drugs which may have made, ensuring its efficient and hygienic
been used to treat or mask clinical signs which bleeding, and hygienic and immediate transfer
have now passed. Most carcases from casualty to the abattoir. As with casualty slaughter, good
animals must therefore receive bacteriological communications between veterinary colleagues
and residue monitoring. on the farm and in the abattoir are essential.
In a study of 30 cattle in recumbency which
had passed a routine ante-mortem inspection
under USDA rules, 11 showed histo-
On-farm emergency-slaughtered animals at
pathological evidence of bacteraemia (Edwards
the abattoir
et al. 1995), indicating the importance of
extreme caution. Salmonella dublin was isolated On arrival at the abattoir, the certificate
from one of the 30 animals. completed on the farm by the veterinary
practitioner must be given to an inspector or the
OVS. Having checked that the identity of the
carcase matches that on the certificate, that the
ON-FARM EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER
animal has been properly stunned or killed,
bled and transported, and that transport has
Where an animal is otherwise healthy but
been completed within the hour allowed,
requires on-farm emergency slaughter, owing
skinning and dressing should be carried out
perhaps to a limb fracture, an uncontrollable
immediately.
haemorrhage, an injury causing severe pain or
Post-mortem inspection should seek to
distress, or a functional or physiological
confirm the diagnosis suggested by the
disorder, the animal may be humanely
veterinary practitioner on the certificate which
slaughtered on the farm and the carcase
accompanied the animal. The subcutaneous
transferred to the abattoir. Regulation 18 of the
blood vessels, kidney, liver and lungs should be
UK Fresh Meat (Hygiene and Inspection)
checked for satisfactory bleeding, and the
Regulations 1995 states that:
kidney fat, along with the soft tissue organs for
2 No person shall bring into, or permit to be greening and autolytic changes.
brought into, a slaughterhouse the In most cases, it is often wise to delay the
slaughtered body of an animal, unless final decision on these carcases for 24-48 hours,
(a) it has been bled; to allow rigor mortis to develop, to allow any
(b) the animal has undergone an ante- oedema present to resolve, and to await the
mortem inspection by a veterinary surgeon; results of any bacteriological or residue samples
(c) the animal has been slaughtered as a taken. The number of casualty cattle and sheep
result of an accident or because it was received at Belfast Meat Plant during 1989-90
suffering from a serious physiological or whose carcases were ultimately condemned is
functional disorder; given in Table 7.4.
 From Farm to Slaughter 195
Table 7.4 Casualty animal slaughter, Belfast Meat those animals used in pharmaceutical and
Plant, 1989-90. toxicological research.
As far as genetic modification research is
Class Number Condemned % concerned, the UK Advisory Committee on
Novel Foods and Processes has recommended
Cows 1156 348 30.1
Heifers 264 29 11.0 (June 1991) that, where human genetic material
Steers 372 42 11.3 has been used, e.g. in the production of Factor
Bulls 113 9 8.0 VIII (antihaemophilic factor), the meat from
Calves 16 2 12.5 such animals should not be sold for human
Total cattle 1921 430 22.4 consumption.
Where there is any doubt as to meat's
Sheep 354 74 20.9 suitability, the consumer must always be given
Lambs 112 26 23.2 the benefit of the doubt.
Total sheep 466 100 21.5

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Conference Hamilton, NeU' Zeakind. Meat Indust ry 194-196.
Research Institu te, NZ. wyss. v., Hartig, ]. and Gerber, H. (1984) Sctnceuer
Ra nkin , ]. D. and Taylo r, R. J. (1969) Vet. Rec. 85, Arclliv fllr Tiertvittunae 126, 339.
575-5 81
Rid ell, J. and Korkeala, H. (1993) Meat Sci. 35,
223-228. FURTHER READING
Scyle, H. (1974) The implications of the stress
conc ept. Biocnem. Exp, Bioi. 11, 190. TheCaslIalty SI/eep (199-1,): Sheep Veterinary Society.
Smith, L P. an d Allcn, W. M. (1976) Agricuttnml Tile Casllalty Pig (1996): Pig Veterinary Society.
Meteorology 16, 115. Salmonella, Tile Food Poisoner: A renew. A report by a
Stosic P. J. (1996) Hide lmprooentent Project. DUllg Study Group of the British Association for the
Contamination of Cattle Hides. The Leather Advancement of Science 1975-1977.
Technology Centre. MAF F Env ironm ent. Co des of Goo d Agricultu ra l
Thornpson, J. M., Halloran, wj., McN eill, D. M.]., Practice for the Protection of Air and Water,
[ackson-Hcpe. N. J. and May, T. J. (1987) Meat Sci. 1991/92.
20, 293-309.
 Chapter 8
Humane Slaughter
'A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast.' Proverbs 12:10.

The moral and ethical answers to the questions all too often in both areas owing to lack of
raised when humans kill animals for food can training and/ or care and supervision and, not
only be answered for each individual according least, to the usual high speed of operations in
to their own religious, political or economic the modern meat plant.
circumstances. All can agree, however, that if it The discovery that satisfactory bleeding can
is to be done, the act of killing must be carried occur where cardiac arrest has been induced
out in such a way as to cause the minimum of introduces the possibility of stunning to kill
stress, or distress, to the animal. There are no rather than merely rendering the animal
'nice' ways of killing animals. There are only insensible. This obviates all risk of cruelty and
the acceptable and the unacceptable. It is the should be the ideal for the future for all the food
duty of the veterinarian in the meat plant to animals.
have the knowledge and authority to ensure No legislation is of any value unless it clearly
that only acceptable methods are applied. incorporates the ethic that the questfor production
Thorpe (1965) states that 'there are two must never take precedence over the far more
opposite pitfalls which beset those who, like important issues of hygiene, meat safety and the
ourselves, attempt to decide on the limits of welfare of the animal.
physical injury and restraint which it is not
permissible for a civilised people to exceed in
their treatment of domestic animals. The first is
PRE-SLAUGHTER
the error of supposing that domestic animals in
HANDLING/RESTRAINT
their feelings and anxieties are essentially like
human beings; the second is the equally serious It is generally regarded as undesirable that an
error of assuming that they are mere insentient animal awaiting slaughter should view the
automata. To avoid these two pitfalls is slaughtering process. Whilst the higher animals
relatively easy. To know what path to choose undoubtedly share some sensations with
between them is extremely difficult.' human beings, it is questionable whether any
In conventional slaughtering methods in trepidation is felt specifically by an animal at
most developed countries, it is normal practice the sight and smell of blood. Nevertheless, fear
to render the animal insensible by stunning, is undoubtedly engendered by strange noises,
except in the Jewish and Muslim methods, and movements, surroundings and smells, and this
then to kill it by bleeding. Stunning has two fear is accentuated by the separation of the
purposes: to induce an immediate state of animal from its fellows and the consequent
insensibility, and to produce sufficient disappearance of the feeling of protection that a
immobility to facilitate the sticking process to gregarious animal enjoys in the presence of its
initiate bleeding. In this two-stage system of comrades.
slaughter it is vital that insensibility lasts until The design of the handling facility in the lairage
anoxia resulting from exsanguination makes which delivers the animals to the point of
the loss in consciousness irreversible. This slaughter should utilise a knowledge of animal
depends on the length of the interval between behaviour to reduce to a minimum the fear or
stunning and sticking, which must be as short as apprehension felt by the animal. The tendency
possible, and the efficiency of the sticking itself. for one sheep to follow its comrade up a single
It is a matter for great concern that faults occur file race, the preference most animals have to

197
198 Meat Hygiene
walk up rather than down a slope, and the in the stunning box and without causing the
movement of pigs in optimum-sized groups of animal increased stress.
about 15 individuals are all examples of good One of the greatest problems in delivering
practices. The theory of moving animals within animals to the point of slaughter is presented by
the lairage is dealt with in detail in Chapter 7. the necessity for pigs to be stunned by high-
Cattle are usually moved from the pens in voltage electric current, or in a single-carriage
the lairage to the stunning box via a solid-walled 'Ferris wheel' compact gas stunner, to arrive at
race. Cattle have been shown to move more the point of stunning continuously at a rate of
readily along a race with curved walls. A raised several hundred/hour, in single file, and to
walkway along one side assists the handlers in become confined in a 'V'-shaped restrainer. Pigs
their effort to keep the animals moving. The prefer to move as a group, with their comrades
animal should spend the minimum possible on either side. They resent being forced into
time in the actual stunning box where they are single file. The answer, to some extent, has been
finally isolated from their cohorts. They should to utilise a curved double race where the pig can
not be moved into the box until the operative see his comrades moving along beside him, but
responsible for the stunning procedure is there still comes a point in most cases where the
prepared. double race must feed into one single restrainer.
Annex B of Council Directive 93/119/EC on The single-file chute should be at least 6.1 m
the Protection of Animals at the Time of long to achieve continuous flow, but no more
Slaughter and Killing requires that for than 10.7 m long, to keep the pigs moving
mechanical or electrical stunning the animal's head without excessive goading.
is presented in such a position that the equipment An alternative for high line speeds is to use a
can be applied and operated easily. There have gas stunning system which allows several pigs to
been a number of types of head-restraint for be stunned simultaneously. The pigs may be
cattle used, but a simple shelf which extends to allowed to move along a passageway with the
the floor of the stunning box, preventing the group size gradually decreasing as pigs
animal dropping its head, seems to be the most progress at different speeds, until the required
successful. However, with all head restraints, number is attained. This group, usually of
smaller animals present problems by having about five or six pigs, is moved into a small pen
sufficient space within the stunning box to which descends into the gaseous environment
position themselves in such a way as to avoid where stunning occurs. Line speeds of 800
the restraint system. This can be overcome by pigs/hour can be accommodated by this
the provision of a hydraulically-operated tail system.
pusher in the back of the box. Personal A relatively recent advance in restrainer
observations of these mechanisms have shown systems is a double or single moving rail which
that, if incorrectly used to force cattle into the lifts the animal under its belly and carries it
head restraint, the animal's spine can be along. The system, which can be used for sheep,
fractured by the pressures applied. The pigs or calves, is said to result in reduced
positioning of lights above the animal's head to struggling.
attract its attention is reported as being a The effect on pigs of immediate pre-
useful addition in maintaining the head in a slaughter stress as measured by post-mortem
raised position. blood biochemistry and meat quality has been
Ewbank. Parker and Mason (1992) studied by Warriss et al. (1994). They concluded
reported on the use of head-restraints at that these subjective assessments of the stress
slaughter and concluded that 'while the suffered by pigs correlated well with objective
introduction of head restraint devices into measures, specifically the sound level
cattle stunning pens had a positive effect in immediately before stunning, and that as
terms of improving the stunning accuracy, expected higher stress levels were associated
behaviour and cortisol results suggest that with poorer meat quality. They confirmed that
enforced usage of this type of head restrainer the confinement and restraint associated with
could be a cause of distress to the cattle race-restrainers were stressful to the animals,
involved.' The fixed shelf-restraint was found and that the use of electric goads to coerce pigs to
to improve the accuracy of stunning without move along these systems, particularly at high
increasing the length of time the animal spent line speeds, increased the levels of stress.
 Humane Slaughter 199
THE SLAUGHTERING PROCESS 3 Electronarcosis
4 Exposure to carbon dioxide.
The European Council Directive 93/119/EEC
on the Protection of Animals at the Time of The permitted methods for killing are:
Slaughter or Killing, applies to the movement, 1 Free bullet pistol or rifle
lairaging, restraint, stunning, slaughter and
2 Electrocution
killing of animals bred and kept for the
production of meat, skin, fur or other products 3 Exposure to carbon dioxide.
and to Methods of Killing Animals for the
Article 2 of the Directive provides an
Purposes of Disease Control. This Directive has
exemption from the need for prior stunning in
been implemented in Great Britain as The
the case of slaughter required by certain
Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing)
religious rites.
Regulations 1995.
In the past, all too often, the task of stunning
was given to untrained individuals. It cannot be
emphasised too strongly that, in addition to the ASSESSMENT OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS
important matter of animal welfare, proper AT SLAUGHTER
stunning/killing plays a significant part in
preventing injuries to staff engaged in the The nervous system, composed of a central
subsequent shackling and bleeding processes. part, the brain and spinal cord (central nervous
Article 7 of the Directive states that 'no person system, CNS), and the peripheral nerves, is the
shall engage in the movement, lairaging important control and communication system
restraint, stunning, slaughter or killing of of the body. The brain, consisting of two
animals unless he has the knowledge and skill cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum and medulla
necessary to perform the tasks humanely and oblongata, is responsible for coordinating all
efficiently, in accordance with the requirements the activities necessary for the maintenance of
of the Directive'. For those operatives life. Situated in the bony cranial cavity, to which
employed in the actual slaughtering process, it closely conforms, it contains all the vital
the competent authority must ensure that they centres controlling the body's many activities.
possess the necessary skill, ability and The waking state, or state of consciousness, has
professional knowledge. The Official been described as 'a dynamic equilibrium
Veterinarian must ensure that this is the case between the activation of cerebral neuronal
and continuously assess and review the skills networks maintained by the incessant impact of
and abilities of personnel licensed under the innumerable ascendant and associative
1995 Regulations. impulses and the cumulative functional
A licence to slaughter animals is granted to depression resulting from the very continuity of
an operative who is over 18 years of age, who is this state of excitation' (Bremner, 1954).
a 'fit and proper' individual for this responsible Consciousness involves an awareness of the
duty, who has a good general attitude to animal environment and the ability to appreciate pain.
welfare and a good theoretical knowledge of Consciousness may disappear as a
slaughtering procedure, and who can consequence of sleep, concussion, the
demonstrate competent practical technique. A administration of an anaesthetic, lack of blood
person may be licensed to slaughter one or supply to the brain and thereby oxygen
more named species of animal using one or (anoxia) and an electroconvulsive shock or
more particular methods or techniques. death.
Slaughter of farm animals is normally a two- In the act of slaughter it is essential that a
stage process of stunning and bleeding, but direct state of unconsciousness or insensibility be
killing can be followed by satisfactory bleeding instantaneously produced to ensure total
provided this is effected within 3 minutes. freedom from suffering, this being further
The permitted methods for stunning farm ensured by immediate exsanguination. Where
animals, listed in Annex C of the Directive are: cardiac arrest has been created there is an almost
immediate insensibility which is permanent. The
1 Captive bolt pistol discovery that adequate bleeding ensues
2 Concussion despite cardiac dysfunction in this method
200 Meat Hygiene
makes this a most important development in outwards with a fixed gaze and not be rotated
the slaughter of animals. It had been always inwards.
thought that a beating heart was necessary for In carbon dioxide anaesthesia in pigs the effects
proper bleeding, but this has been discounted are those of a chemical anaesthetic, with the
provided sticking is performed soon eventual onset of insensibility. A period of
afterwards. increased respiratory rate is followed by slow
The time taken to reach insensibility due to respiratory movements and final dyspnoea
exsanguination depends upon the technique (difficult breathing). Corneal and palpebral
utilised in sticking, the species, the age of the reflexes are absent and extreme muscle
animal, whether the carcase is suspended or flaccidity supervenes. The limbs and jaw are
prone and the method of pre-stunning used. consequently relaxed.
Based on electrocephalographic data, sheep The use of palpebral, corneal or pupillary
have been shown to become insensible in 2-7 reflexes to ascertain the effectiveness of
seconds, pigs in 12-30s (average 18s) and cattle stunning is inappropriate for most methods of
in 20-102 s (average 55 s). The species stunning. Palpebral and corneal reflexes are not
differences are due to differences in the arteries under cortical control and may therefore be
which supply the blood to the brain via the present in an animal or bird which has been
Circle of Willis. In all cases, in the interests of rendered insensible. Conversely, the palpebral
the animal, it should be assumed that the upper reflex may be absent in an animal which has
limit applies. been ineffectively electrically stunned.
While much of the excellent work on the Although complete pupillary dilatation is a
assessment of the effectiveness of stunning reliable sign of total insensibility of an animal
carried out in New Zealand by Blackmore and nearing the point of death, it is of little practical
Newhook, in England by Gregory, Wooton and use since, for example, it has been
others and in Denmark and Holland has been demonstrated that while sensibility as
based on electroencephalograms (EEG) and measured by electrical activity occurs 8 s after
electrocorticograms (ECoG), reliance in actual the decapitation of a sheep's head, complete
meat plant operations assessment is based on pupillary dilatation does not occur until 87 s.
visual observation of behaviour. The animal The most reliable objective sign of loss of
cannot communicate the degree and type of a sensibility is the absence of respiratory activity.
painful stimulus in the same way as man. Only The return of regular respiratory movement
by behavioural and biochemical responses can after stunning, but not irregular respiratory
this be done by the animal and reliance has of gasps, should always be a cause of concern.
necessity to be placed on the former. 'Gagging' respiratory movements are generally
The typical signs of effective stunning by a sign of imminent brain death.
electricity are immediate collapse of the animal
with flexion, followed by rigid extension of the
limbs, opisthotonus (extreme arching back of
the neck and spine), downward rolling of the
METHODS OF STUNNING
eyeballs with tonic (continuous) muscular The choice of a particular method of stunning
spasm changing into clonic (repeated violent) depends on many different factors - class of
spasms and eventual muscle flaccidity. The animal, intended line speed, humane aspects,
term electroplectic fit has been used to describe capital and maintenance costs, efficiency of
these signs of an effective stun. The tonic spasms equipment, ease of operation, safety of
last for some 10-25 s, and the clonic phase personnel, effects on carcase and brain, along
15-45 s, in both pigs and sheep. with religious and legal requirements.
The typical signs of an effective stun using
percussive methods in cattle are immediate
collapse of the animal followed by tonic spasm Percussive stunning (Fig. 8.1)
lasting about 10-15 s, then slow clonic Many different types of percussive stunning
movements of the hindlegs and eventually pistol are in use throughout the world, having
vigorous hindleg movements. In pigs the tonic been introduced at the end of the nineteenth
phase lasts 3-5 s. Normal rhythmic breathing century. They are generally operated by means
must cease, and the eyeball should face of a blank cartridge, although some are
 Hum ane Slaugh ter 201

o
c

E F

Fig.8.1 Various types of mechanical stunners. A, Penetrative percussion stunner; incorporates special 'no
fire' system with low noise level. B, Contact firing penetrative percussive stunner available for large and
small animals. C, Air-powered penetrative stunner for sheep and goats; contact and 'no-fire' systems
incorporated. 0, Penetrative percussive stunner .22 calibre; palm - or finger-activated trigge r; firing pin pull
to cock instrument. E, Contact and failsafe non-penetrative percussive stunner for use in deep stunning pens;
suitable for ritual slaughter. F, Non-penetrative percussive stunner incorporating 'no- fire' sys tem; suitable for
ritual slaughter. (By kind permission of Messrs Accles and Shelvoke, Witton, Birmingham, UK)
202 Meat Hygiene
pneumatic in design. With the most common Non-penetrative percussion stunners using a
pistol, the captive bolt pistol, a bolt is propelled mushroom head are sometimes used in calves
forward on discharge of the blank cartridge and when brains are collected for edible use and
automatically recoils into the barrel. Ideally, the these are in regular use in the USA. Properly
bolt should be recessed into the body of the used, this method is capable of producing
pistol so that when the muzzle is held firmly immediate insensibility. Much depends on the
against the animal's head, the bolt can gain operative as to whether or not blood splashing
velocity before penetration of the skull occurs. results, especially in the case of lambs. If the
It is important when using the captive bolt animals are handled properly and the interval
pistol to ensure that the correct strength of between stunning and bleeding is short, blood
cartridge is used for the different species. With splashing in muscle will be minimal. In any
the Cash instruments these range in strength case, the period between stunning and sticking
from 1 grain for small animals such as milk should not exceed 30 s with non-penetrative
lambs, up to 3 and 4 grains for large cattle and percussive stunning of cattle. This compares
mature bulls (1 grain = 0.065 grams). In most with a recommended stun-to-sticking interval
cases a 0.22 or 0.25 cartridge is used while in of less than 60 s with penetrative percussive
horses a 0.64 blank cartridge may be required stunners in cattle, < 15 s for sheep and goats and
for certain guns. < 10 s for calves.
Properly used, the captive bolt pistol is very
effective in cattle, sheep and calves but less so
Head sites for percussive stunning (Fig.
in bulls and pigs, especially sows and boars, in
8.2)
which the frontal bone structure is very thick.
This penetrative type of percussive stunner With both types of percussive stunners, care
produces immediate and permanent must be taken to hold the instrument
insensibility by destruction of the cortex and reasonably firmly against the animal's head at
deeper parts of the brain, a rapid rise and then the proper point and direction (Fig. 8.2). In adult
fall in intracranial pressure and the sudden jerk cattle the correct point is in the middle of the
due to the energy the bolt imparts to the head, forehead where two lines taken from the medial
producing what is known as acceleration canthus of each eye to the base of the opposite
concussion. These effects result in depolarisation horn or horn prominence cross. The gun is
of neurons in the brain, including those of the placed at right angles to the forehead and after
cerebral cortex. firing is lifted away from the falling animal. In
The important force in producing calves the pistol should be placed slightly lower
unconsciousness with the captive bolt pistol is on the head than for adult cattle, while for bulls
the actual velocity of the bolt and the speed at and old cows the muzzle is placed 1.5 cm to the
which it strikes the brain, rather than the side of the ridge running down the centre of the
penetration of the brain per se. A velocity of forehead. Cattle should never be shot in the poll
about 55 m/s is recommended for steers, heifers position.
and cows, and between 65 and 70 m/ s for In hornless sheep and goats the pistol is placed
young bulls. The strength of the cartridge must on the top of the head and aimed towards the
be matched with the robustness of the gun to gullet, while for horned sheep and goats the
prevent metal fatigue and breaks in washers, muzzle is placed behind the ridge which runs
buffers, etc. between the horns, the direction of aim being
The captive bolt pistol is a very useful the same.
instrument but it cannot be used for slaughter For bacon weight pigs the pistol is placed
at rates of over 240-250/h owing to difficulties about 2.5 cm above the level of the eyes and
in reloading. In this case an automatically fired upwards into the cranial cavity. In older
resetting gun can be used. animals captive bolt stunning is less reliable
Pneumatic stunners, where the bolt is owing to the massive nature of the skulls and
activated under a pressure of 80-120 p.s.i., the large frontal sinuses of older pigs. The
require somewhat complicated actions to fire muzzle should be placed about 5 cm above the
them, and there may be occasions when air level of the eyes to the side of the ridge which is
pressure is inadequate. With proper pressure, in the mid-line of the skull, and at right angles
however, a high bolt velocity can be achieved. to the frontal surface.
 Humane Slaughter 203

Fig. 8.2 Points of application for percussive stunning: A, adult cattle; B, calves: C, horned sheep; 0, pigs; E,
homed goats. (By courtesy of the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare)

In horses a special type of cap tive bolt pisto l they are dropped on the floor or struck agains t
with a longer and heavier bolt is employed . Th e the stunning box wall, the whole gun can
muzzle of the p istol is placed at right ang les to beco me a dangerous missile.
the frontal surface - 1 cm above the point where A defect of percussive stunning and the use
imaginary lines from eye to ear cross as the of the free bullet is nois e.
br ain is in the upper part of the head . Most of the reall y serious defects, however,
The contact-firing types of captive bolt pistol are arise from mis use or from ins truments in poor
m uch more satisfactory than the t rigger- state of repa ir, as is the case with all forms of
opera ted ones, only a light tap on the animal's s tunni ng. The European Directiv e on the
head bein g necessary to fire them. They are Protection of Animals at th e Tim e of
qu icker and easier to operate and can be loaded Slaughtering and Killin g, makes it a
an d fired 10-1 2 times a minute. However, if responsibility of the Official Veterinarian to
204 Meat Hygiene
en sure that the instrumen ts used for stunning, Free bullet pistol (Fig. 8.3)
and for rest raint, are in a good state of repair. The free bu llet pistol is frequen tly used to
The importance of regular maintenance if the d es troy horses, an d so me times cattle,
pistols are to function correctly cannot be over- humanely. Bullets may be of the ho llow pointed.
emphasised . The velocity of the bolt may be ty pe, frang ible iron plastic missiles o r
significantly reduced by a bui ld-up of carbon or powdered iron bu llets fired. from a small-bore
corrosion on the pis ton, w hich drives the bolt rifle (.22 calibre) or a small instrumen t held
forward , or by excessive wear in any of the against the forehead. The benefit o f hollow
moving parts. Whi le some manufacturers point projectiles is a greater enh ancemen t of the
recom men d cleaning every 70 shots, daily mushrooming effect or expansion on impact;
dismantling and thorough cleaning ml/st be carried more energy is imparted. to the tissues wi th
out. A common ind ication th at a pistol requires increased. tissue destruction and there is less
cleaning is the tip o f the bo il p rotruding from likelihood of the missile exiting the head .
the mu zzle more th an the usual d istance The poi nts of application are in general the
bet ween sho ts. The im portance of this is sa me as those for th e cap tive bolt pistol, in the
em ph asised by the follow ing state ment in the case of horses th is being high u p in the forehead
European legislation: ' When using a captiv e immediately below the root s of the forelock
bolt instrument, the operator mu st chec k to where 1\\'0 lines from the med ial can thus of
en sure that the bol t retra cts to its full extent each eye to the base of the op posite ear cross.
a fter each shot. If it does not so retract, the The d irection of aim in horses is sligh tly be low
instrument must not be used u ntil it is the righ t-ang le plan e to the forehead .
rep aired .' All forms of mechanical stunning Grea t care mu st be taken to avoid accidents
devices should be fitted with safe ty levers to w hen using free p rojectiles and each instrumen t
minimise the chances of accidents. should be fitted with a safety device. In fu ture
A back-up pistol should always be on hand the use of the free b ullet is likely to be
in cases of em ergency. increasingly discouraged for reasons of sa fety.
Because of the destruction of brain tissue by
the penetrating bolt or free bullet, the brain
Bolt velocity check cann ot be u tilised for edible purposes. The
A device is now available for checking the bolt commercial d rive to recover all edible parts of
velocity of all Cash penetrative stunners. The an animal may well lead to the development of
stunner is placed upright in the device and more efficient no n-penetrative percussive type
fired , stunning pe rformance of the various stunning instruments. This would also decrease
ca rtridges be ing record ed as FAST, OK or the possibility of aerosol contamination of the
SLOW b y means of indicator lights on a slaughterhalI env ironment with brai n material,
sepa rate reco rder. Accurate monitoring of wi th the po tential this ma y have for the spread
stun ner performance mean s more effect ive of BSE orga nisms aroun d the slaug hter area.
stunning. fewer second shots, greate r operator
efficiency and safety, and a high standard of
animal welfare .

Neural tissue embolism ill cattle

Embolism w ith bra in tissue in the branches of
the p ulmona ry artery following penetra tive
stunning may occu r bu t is compa rat ively rare.
Garland et al. (1996) in the USA repo rted the
cond ition in 2.5-5% of cattle stunned by a
pn eu matic-actu ated. penetrative cap tive bolt
pistol, the dia phragmatic lobe of the lung being Fig.8.3 Humane slaughterin g pistol; single-
the area most com monly effected . A few cases shot /free bullet, .32 calibre. This instrument is not a
have occurred in human beings following fatal stunner. (By kind permissionof MessrsAedes and
head injuri es (McMillan, 1956). Shelvoke , Wilton, Birmingham, UK)
 Humane Slaughter 205
In the case of captive bolt pistols and firearms equivalent to the induction stages of
discharging free bullets, the provisions of the anaesthesia and that the pig is in fact
Firearms Act 1968 apply in the United Kingdom, unconscious during this period. Raj and
though cartridges for the former are exempt. This Gregory (1995) demonstrated that pigs showed
requires that all those who possess, carry or no aversion to 30% CO 2 in air but a marked
discharge a captive bolt pistol (with the exception of aversion to 90% CO 2 in air.
slaughterhouse employees working within a licensed Council Directive 93 I 119 IEC on the
slaughterhouse), must have a current firearms Protection of Animals at the Time of Slaughter
certificate. This is not the same as a shotgun or Killing requires that the concentration of CO 2
certificate, and requires a separate application to a be at least 70%. It also recommended that the
local police station. When the certificate is received, use of other gases, or combinations of gases, for
it must be sent to the supplier of the pistol for stunning or killing should be investigated. Raj
ratification of sale. and Gregory (1995) reported that no aversion
was shown by pigs to an environment of 90%
argon, and in 1996 suggested that their
Water jet stunning
ascending order of preference for gaseous
A novel form of percussive stunning, described environments for stunning pigs would be:
by Lambooij (1996), utilises a fine jet of water to 1 2% oxygen in argon (anoxia) in which the
penetrate the skull and mechanically destroy respiratory distress shown by the pigs was
the brain by the induction of laceration, minimum but the induction of anaesthesia
crushing andlor shockwaves to such an extent probably too slow for commercial use;
that immediate unconsciousness is induced. 2 30% CO 2 in argon with 2% residual oxygen,
The 0.5 mm jet, applied at pressures of which was intermediate with regard to
3500-4000 bar at a similar site as for the captive respiratory distress and rate of induction of
bolt, drills through the skin and skull in anaesthesia;
0.2-0.4s. 3 90% COo in air, in which the induction of
Destruction of the brain results in anaesthesia was rapid and the respiratory
convulsions, which can be controlled using an distress was severe but short lasting (about
immobilising current of 400 milliamps applied 15s).
using 40 volts. Initial work has indicated that it
may be possible to produce meat of superior Experiments have shown that nitrous oxide
quality, compared to either electrical or CO 2 (N 20 ) may be an alternative anaesthetic gas for
stunning, using this method. stunning pigs (Monin, 1996). Its density is close
to that of CO 2 and so it can be used in similar
equipment. The indications are that although
Carbon dioxide and other gas mixtures meat quality may be improved the induction
Carbon dioxide was first used to induce pre- time is unacceptably long.
slaughter anaesthesia in animals in 1904, but Currently, however, carbon dioxide is the
not successfully on a commercial scale until only gas widely used for stunning animals
1950. Since then the method has been modified commercially. It is usually stored in cylinders or
in several different ways and is now used fairly bulk tanks as a liquid under pressure. It is also
widely throughout the world although not as available in solid form for which a converter is
extensively as it could be, probably because of necessary. (Solid CO 2 is occasionally used for
the high cost of installation and operation. The refrigeration purposes.) The gas is non-
technique was banned for a period during the inflammable and has a higher specific gravity
1980s in the Netherlands because it was than air, sinking to the bottom of any container,
thought to lead to unconsciousness under very a fact which has to be borne in mind when it is
stressful conditions for the animal. being used for anaesthesia or euthanasia
While some authorities suggest that the purposes. Properly used it presents no hazard
struggling witnessed in pigs for a period of to the operator.
some 15-20 s when they first come into contact A concentration of 80-95% CO 2 in air is the
with high concentrations of gas is due to the most suitable for pre-slaughter anaesthesia. If
very irritant properties of carbon dioxide, the concentration is too low the pigs will not be
others are of the opinion that the struggling is properly stunned and if it is too high there is a
206 Meat Hygiene
tendency for the pigs to become stiff, show shackled, hoisted to an overhead rail a nd
reflex muscul ar activity and bleed poo rly. If the bled . The actual conveyor in the tunnel is
expo sure pe riod is too long, su perficial d ivided into ten compa rtments. one pig being
conges tion of the skin occu rs and when pigs are accommodated in each com pa rtment. Pigs up
scalded the skin is bluish in colou r. to 113 kg can be ha ndled in this equipment,
which is not sui table for othe r species (Fig.
Pigs sub jected to carbon dioxide anaes thesia 8.!).
will reg ain conscio us ness if they a re not
subseq ue ntly bled , the rt'CO,'ery time varying 2 The dip lift is suitable for any size of pig as
w ith the concentration of the gas, but averaging well as calves a nd sheep. It consists of a cage
about 90 s. It is important, therefore, tha t in 213 cm long. 68 cm high and 53 cm wide
which, when the anim al en ters it, descend s
ad di tion to th e correct concentration of gas, the vertically to the CO, pi t where it remains for
period of exposure should be ..l5 s and bleeding the pre-*t time and then au tomatically
shoul d take place as soon as possible and re tu rn s to ground level , ejec ting the
certainl y w ithin 30 seconds of the p igs leaving unconscious an imal for shack ling a nd
the gas cha mbe r. It is possible that some bleeding. The grea tes t advantage of the
adverse effec ts observed on occas ions are d ue system is that it allows seve ral pigs to be
to incorrect concentrations of gas and a ir stunned simultaneously, assisting immediate
and /or inadequate or too long exposure times. pre-slaughtcr handling. This is suitable for
These untoward effects include con vul sive small meat plants (Fig. 8.5).
struggling and varying degrees o f excitement. 3 The Compact CO, Im mobilise r is a
Th e type of apparatus employed to hortzontally-revolvtng appa ra tus divided
ad m iniste r the gas depends mainly upon the in to four to eight compartments operating in
required rat e o f slaugh ter. The re are three main su ch a wav that , when one section is
forms: uppermost for load ing. the others are rotating
to subme rge in the gas cha mber. The unit
1 The mxl tunnel ('co mbi') is used for killing usually has a capacity of up to 300 pigs per
ra tes of up tu 600 pigs per hour. As the name hour. fn a commonly used design the pigs a n.'
sugges ts the gas tunnel is in the form of an exposed to 10% CO, a t the first position, 30%
ova l through which a slot convevor ca rries for lOs at the second, 600/0 for 10s at the third
the p igs, the actual tunnel s loping and over mo for 20 s a t the fourth and fifth,
downwa rd s at an an gle of 30'" to the after w hich the pigs are disc harged from the
anaes thetising chamber. On exit the pigs are uni t (Figs 8.6, 8.7) .

Fig. 8.4 CO, anaesthesia. Oval

iunnel/ Combi system showing
conven ient shackling position
after stunning. (By courtesy of
Mes srs SFK Meat Processing A/S,
Albuen 37, DK 6000, Koldmg,
Denmark)
Humane Slaughter 207

Fig. 8.5 CO, anaesthesia . Dip lift system

showing di scharge of pigs on to receiving
stand. (8 \' courtesv of Mcssrs SFI< Meat
Processtng A/S, Albul'll 37, OK 6000, Kolding.
Denmark)

Fig. 8.6 CO, anaesthes ia. Co mpac t system

showing reception of pigs at left and emergence
from chamber at right. (By cou rtesy of Mess rs
SFK Meat Processing A /S, Albucn 37, OK 6000,
Kolding, Denmar k)

Fig. 8.7 CO , anaesthesia. Compact system

showing ejection of pigs from chamber and
barred pig crad les. (By cou rtesy of Messrs.5FK
Meat Processing A/S, Album 37, DK 6000,
Kold tng, Denmark)
208 Meat Hyg iene
With all sys tems, the chamber must be fitted 8.8). Th e current causes massive depolarisation
wi th devices for measuring thegas concentration at o f neurons in the brain, resulting in a n
the point of maximum exposure and for giving eplle ptiform seizure. Since electrical s tunnin g
a clearly visible and audible warning if the w as first introd uced in the 1930s, it has received
concen tration of the CO, falls belo w the considerable attention from research workers
required level. but there is still a lack of know led ge on its
Similar concentrations of carbon dioxide and efficiency in producing insensibility. It must be
exposure times are used for sheep, but because agreed that if certain requirements are no t
of the heavy fleece more gas is required and the com plied with, the method, lik e all others, may
ope ration is, therefore, more expensive. be inhumane. If the electrodes a re poorly
Sufficient information is not yet available to positioned, the electrical current ma y p rod uce a
assess the value of the method in calves. condition known as 'missed SllOCk' in which the
Th e advtJntages claimed for carbon dioxide animal, although paralysed, is fully consciou s.
anaesthesia include relaxed carcases, allowing Provided it is carried out correctly, however, the
easier dehairing and d ressing, less noise and electrical method of stunning may be regarded
reduced labour requirements. It has also been as efficacious and humane s ince it causes
contended that the yield of blood from pigs incoordination of the cerebral nerve cells and
stunned by this method is 0.75% better because wha t may be aptly defined as a confusional
carbon dioxide stimu lates resp ira tion and thus state of the brain.
favours blood circulation and conseq uently The desiderata necessary for the p rod uction
bleed ing. Muscular haemorrhages ar e said to be of genuine anaesthesia are as follows:
av oi ded , th e n u m be r of bone fractures is 1The strength of the electric shock should be
reduced to zero, and the amount of PSE may be sufficient to ensure that the animal is killed
reduced. outright by cardiac arrest or remains
insensible until death occurs by
exsanguination.
2 Pro vided sufficient current is applied, a
Elect ric al s t u n nin g genuine eiectroplectic shock will be induced.
Th ere are many different types of electrical The mains voltage may fluctuate cons ide rably
stunning systems in use, most being manually- and at times fall to a dangerously low level in
operated (Fig. 8.8) while a few are au toma tic in the stunning apparatus and it is the refore
operation, especially for pigs and poultry. required that eyery electrical st unning
apparatus is fitted wi th indicators visible to
Th is method consists of passing an the operator that provide a warning if the
altern a ting cu rrent through the brain and, with current or voltage drops, or the time of
some techniques, also the hear t of the animal, application falls short of 7 s for low-voltage
the in s tru me n t most commonly employed systems and below 3 s for high-voltage
bein g one which resembles a pair of tongs (Fig . equipment.

Fig. 8.8 Electrical stunning tongs.

 Humane Slaughter 209
In order to ensure that the minimum period Electrical stunning is most widely used for
of application is achieved in every case, the pigs, but it is also satisfactory for sheep and
European Council Directive 93/119/EC calves. Electrical stunning has not proved
requires that the stunning apparatus 'must entirely satisfactory for the anaesthesia of cattle,
incorporate an audible or visible device possibly because of the insulating effect of the
indicating the length of time of its application to fine hairs on the animal's head, although
an animal'. The Directive also requires that
the tongs should be designed to incorporate a certain continental authorities have found it
sensor or similar fail-safe device which would sa tisfactory.
ensure that the equipment did not function if A high-voltage head-to-brisket system
the correct current was not flowing. The fail- operates in New Zealand for religious
safe device operates by setting the maximum slaughter. Electrodes are applied to the animal
impedance that can be sensed by the tongs, in a purpose-built stunning pen following
given a constant voltage, for a particular capture in a neck yoke. On capture, a chin lift
species and result in an effective stun. No operates from which a nose contact plate is
current will pass through the tongs if the applied. A current of 2.5 A (at 550 V) is applied
impedance measured across the animal's
head is in excess of that set as the maximum. between the nose and neck yoke for 3 s to stun
the animal, with an additional current applied
3 The electrodes should be correctly positioned between the neck and a brisket electrode to
so that the current will pass through the produce cardiac arrest.
thalamus and cortex, the chief sensory centres The efficacy of electrical anaesthesia is not
in the forebrain. The electrical resistance of dependent on the individual factors of voltage,
contact with the hair and skin may be lowered
by ensuring that the electrodes are kept moist amperage or time, but on the total quantity of
by immersion in brine and the skin of the electrical energy supplied, expressed in watt-
head is kept clean but dry. The practice of seconds (watt-seconds = voltage x amperage x
wetting the pig's head should be discouraged time).
since it may result in current tracking over the It is necessary for an adequate amount of
surface of the pig's skin rather than through electricity to pass through the brain in a
the brain. Passage of electrical current is sufficiently short period of time. This depends
facilitated if the calorific intake of the animal on the voltage applied and the resistance, or
is reduced and its state of hydration more correctly impedance, present. If too high a
increased. current is employed, carcase quality may be
compromised by the production of muscle
The animal should be bled immediately after haemorrhages and broken bones; if too low a
unconsciousness has been produced, otherwise it voltage is used, the animal may be paralysed
may regain consciousness though still remain but still conscious of pain. Operator safety also
paralysed. This requirement may be plays a part in determining voltage levels;
compromised by legislation which delays levels under 150 V are not generally effective,
sticking by making it a necessity for pigs to be especially allowing for fluctuations in mains
bled out of sight of their comrades. voltage.
There is little doubt that the failure of Since the brains of animals are relatively
operators to observe these criteria has been the small, it is important that the electrodes are
cause of much of the criticism of electrical accurately and firmly placed high up on the
stunning methods, firstly, on the grounds that sides of the head. The irregular anatomy of the
the method was not always humane and, head makes this difficult, especially if the
secondly, because haemorrhages were often animal is moving. The electrodes are easier to
observed in the muscular tissue of animals position if the tongs are relatively heavy and if
stunned by electrical means. Muscular the operator is able to apply them to the animal
haemorrhages can be obviated or reduced downwards rather than upwards or
considerably by prior resting, correct stunning horizontally. Placement of tongs is also
and immediate bleeding. In Denmark, great achieved with less effort in efficient restrainer-
importance is attached to the latter factor, and in conveyor systems. Head-to-body equipment
pigs the electrical apparatus is kept in position should be correctly counterbalanced. The
on the head and vasoconstriction is maintained electrodes must be in good repair and not
until the moment the throat cut is made. corroded or coated with carbon. It is essential
210 Meat Hygiene
that the equipment be earthed properly for suspended on hinged metal plates wh ich hang
operator safety. down ins ide the second conveyer and contact
The passa ge of electric curren t through the th e animal's head as it passes through. The
brain results in a rapid rise of blood pressure stunning voltage is of the order 600-1000 V.
d ue to vasoconstriction and increased heart Ninety per cent of the pigs are killed, the
rate, hence the need for immediate bleeding in remaining 10% are only stunned. Difficul ties
order to avoid muscle splashing. may be encountered with th is system in
For hend-ollly electrical stunning sys tems, a maintaining a consistently correct positioning
minimum electric cu rrent of 400 mA for pigs, and of the elec trodes across the brain of the p ig. It is
250 mA for sheep and lambs, has been recom- particularly important that a back-up stunner is
mended to produce an effective shin when the always present to deal with any animal which
tongs arc placed in the ideal position. However, suffers poor positioning of t he electrodes,
most experts set their recommendations consid- resulting in only par tial stunning.
erably higher at 1.31\ for sheep, O.6A for Jambs,
lA for pigs and [Link] for cattle, having made the
assumption that tong placement on the head Head to back/leg stunning (Fig. 8.9)
would frequently be far from ideal. High-voltage electrical stunning in addition to
being used for head-only application, m ay
incorporate special tongs through which
Low-voltage electrical stlllllling current is applied simultaneously to the hea d
Low-voltage electrical stunning, i.e. using less and back/leg. In this system the brain is
than 150 V, is the most common type in anaesthetised and the heart put into arrest, th us
operation in Britain and consists of a control cutting off the blood supply to the brain, which
panel, on which voltage can be adjusted, meters suffers death before the anaesthesia ends.
capable of measuring the current and voltage as Research work carried out at the Meat Resea rch
it is applied, and a pair of tongs with terminal Institute in Bristol, UK has shown that brain
electrodes for application to the sides of the function ceased 23 s after this system of
animal's head. In order to create a better stunning, whereas this time was extended to
contact, the electrodes are immersed in a saline some 50s with head-only stunning. The animal
solution before use or possess in-built water
jets ,
Since some doubt exists about the overall
effecti veness of low-voltage stunning and the
length of time for which it should be applied,
more use is currently being made of high-
vo ltage systems.

High-voltage electrical stunning

Invest igations into electrical s tunning have
shown that high-voltage systems using 300V or
ab ove arc mo re effective than low-voltage
systems provided they are used with automatic
restrainers and with due rega rd to operator
safety. The application time must be at least 3s.
Fractures (vertebrae and scapula) may occ ur in
pigs st unned on the floor. '
I ligh-vol tage electrical systems are available
in a fully automatic for m which incorporates
two V-sha pe d restrainer-conveyors (Fig. 8.6).
Th ese are placed in seri es and move at different
speeds so that the pigs arc separa ted Fig. 8.9 Automatic head /leg stunning in
sufficiently to p resen t their heads for stunning restrainer/com'cyor. (By courtesy of Messrs
to a set of specially shaped electrodes Nijhuis, Lichtenvoorde, The Netherlands)
 Humane Slaughter 211

is, in fact, killed, thus improving animal welfare head-only stunning in pigs sometimes results in
and making the stunning-to-sticking interval petechial haemorrhages throughout the loin.
less important. Provided sticking is performed High-voltage electrical stunning may also
intrathoracically within 3 minutes, bleeding is result in the fracture of bones with associated
satisfactory. A minimum current of 1.3 A haemorrhage into surrounding tissue. The
applied ~ith a minimum of 250 V is fracture is thought to be due to the force of the
recommended for pigs and 1.0 A at 375 V for tonic convulsion induced during and
lambs. immediately after stunning. Fractures occur in
In order to be fully effective, head-to- the scapula, pelvis, the neck of the femur and
back/leg stunning must be combined with around the fifth or sixth thoracic vertebrae and
automatic restraining systems which prevent are much more common in pigs, which have
adverse reflex muscular movements and the greater muscle mass than sheep.
possibility of fractures besides making the task It has also been demonstrated that the use of
of shackling and bleeding easier for operatives. tongs with 300 V in a restrainer-conveyor
'Pelt-burn' in sheep occasionally occurs on the resulted in superior pig meat quality compared
back with this method. with automatic stunning with 680 V, the
Whatever type of electrical stunning is used, incidence of PSE being much less in the former
a back-up stunner, in the form of a portable method which also showed superior values in
captive bolt pistol should be available for use, relation to pH, temperature, rigor mortis,
not only on incorrectly-stunned animals, but bacteriological status, etc. It is likely that these
also for casualty animals in their transport differences were due to variations in the
vehicle or in the lairage. It may be advisable to amperage and in the number of interruptions in
have an additional set of stunning tongs for use the flow of the current during stunning (Van
in several electrical sockets positioned der Wal, 1983).
throughout the lairage and casualty Since carbon dioxide-anaesthetised pigs do
accommodation. This is particularly useful if not exhibit clonic convulsions post-stunning,
sows and boars, which are difficult to stun they are safer to handle for the operators even
effectively with a captive bolt, are to be when blood is being collected for human use. It
sla ughtered. is generally accepted that carbon dioxide
produces the lowest incidence of PSE and blood
splash, and that overall the quality of meat
EFFECT OF STUNNING ON MEAT produced is superior.
QUALITY

Most of the problems associated with SLAUGHTER OF POULTRY (see also Ch. 11)
penetrative percussive stunning (captive bolt)
appear to result from an unduly long interval With poultry the speed of operations, which
between stunning and sticking and/or may be typically 6000 birds per hour,
inadequate penetration of the bolt, resulting in complicates the stunning procedure, as it does
blood splashing in muscles, particularly of the all other procedures. Indeed the requirement for
diaphragm, the abdominal wall, the intercostal speed is a major factor in reducing thestandard ofall
muscles and the heart. The all-too-frequent operations in modern slaughter and processing
habit of group stunning especially in sheep, is a plantsfor all species of animals.
practice that leads to this result, the animals Several types of electrical stunning device
first 'stunned' being the ones affected. This are utilised for poultry depending on the
lesion tends to occur where there is a marked processing speed. In all cases bleeding is
rise in arterial blood pressure, the highest rates carried out immediately after stunning.
taking place in head-only electrical stunning, In hand-stunning devices one manually
where the incidence can be markedly reduced operated instrument is fitted with a step-down
by the adoption of a short stun-to-stick interval. double-wound transformer to give 50, 70 and
Head-to-back/leg electrical stunning 90 V and respective currents of 100, 200 and
produces a very low incidence of blood 250 mA when connected to AC mains of
splashing but petechiae may on occasions occur 200-240 V. This device appears to be satisfactory
in connective tissues and fat. High-voltage and humane when used on domestic fowls of
212 Meat Hygiene
an average weight of 2 kg with a voltage of 70V not properly stunned before venesection. In
and a shock duration of 1-3 s. For turkeys of 1980 the Farm Animal Welfare Coordinating
6.8-9.0 kg, 90V are applied for 10s. Manually- Executive in England reported that one-third of
operated stunning devices are only suitable for birds emerged dead from the water bath and
low rates of kill up to 1000 birds per hour. another third were unstunned. Schutt-Abraham
Assessment of the effectiveness of stunning et al. (1983) in Switzerland considered that only
with hand-held electrodes can be difficult. This about one-third of the chickens passing through
is particularly the case with ducks and geese the stunner can be looked upon as properly
where the birds may be confined in cones. It is stunned. In addition, automatic neck cutting
important to emphasise that correctly stunned frequently fails to sever both carotid arteries as
birds can maintain a nictitating membrane and is recommended within 15 s of birds emerging
other eye reflexes. from the water bath. It is essential that an
Automatic stunning devices may be of a high- operator is always present to check that the
or low-voltage type, and are used on high- birds have been properly stunned and to sever
speed poultry lines. In the high-voltage types, the carotid arteries manually if necessary.
400-1000 V is carried in a grid over which the Turkeys must not be immersed in a scalding
shackled birds are conveyed. The current tank or be plucked for 2min after neck cutting;
passes through the body to the earthed shackle 90 s for other birds.
and needs to be high to overcome the resistance In view of these serious findings and because
of the scaly comb and legs. Usually only the bleeding can be as satisfactory in killed as in
comb touches the grid but other parts of the stunned birds, it is recommended by Heath
body may be involved. Disadvantages of these (1984) that 'an actual voltage of 200 V can
devices include severe muscle contractions, generally be depended on to be accompanied
fractures, imperfect bleeding in killed birds and by at least the required mA passing through
a possible risk to employees. each broiler'. The recommended current using
Low-voltage electric stunners (50-60 V: AC a water-bath stunner is not less than 120 mA for
current, 50-60 Hz) markedly reduce the above chickens, 130 mA for ducks and 150 mA for
disadvantages and there is generally turkeys (Gregory, 1993). This will induce a
satisfactory narcosis with no pain or stress, cardiac arrest in about 99% of the birds. It is
though much depends on the design and further recommended that the birds be
operation of the equipment. As with other immersed in the water bath at least up to the
forms of electrical stunning, missed shock or base of their wings.
electrical paralysis can result. The use of gaseous mixtures for the stunning
One form of low-voltage stunning apparatus of poultry in their transport crates prior to
utilises a cabinet on the conveyor line through shackling has obvious benefits for welfare.
which the birds pass while suspended on Various concentrations of CO 2 and argon in air
shackles, electrical contact being made for a have been trialled experimentally and it has
period of 5 s. Birds removed from the line and been concluded that stunning with
not bled recover in 2-3 min. The stunner uses concentrations of CO 2 over 30% has no welfare
50 V and 200 mA for broilers and 70 V for advantages over stunning in argon with 2%
chickens, the birds' heads being drawn through residual oxygen, or a mixture of 30% CO 2 and
a saline water bath. 60% argon in air. Birds stunned with argon
The signs of an electroplectic fit in poultry are alone take twice as long to lose sensibility as
usually taken to be head with raised hackles those stunned using other mixtures, but the
arched towards back; eyes wide open; legs birds show none of the behavioural signs, such
rigidly extended; body showing constant, as gasping and head shaking, associated with
repeated muscle tremors; wings, with flight the irritant properties of CO 2 (Raj and Gregory,
feathers slightly spread, applied close to the 1993, 1994). It is recommended that hanging
body and displaying rapid, short bursts of and neck cutting in broilers should be carried
flapping and tail feathers turned up over the out within 3 min of gas stunning if carcase
back. Little reliance should be placed on the defects such as red wing tips, wing vein
absent corneal reflex. engorgement, wing vein engorgement/
Investigations into the stunning of poultry haemorrhage, shoulder haemorrhage and red
have shown that in many instances birds are feather tract are to be minimised. However, gas
 Humane Slaughter 213
stunning does result in fewer broken bones be evidence of poor bleeding, as is hyperaemia of
than electrical stunning, especially the broken the carcase.
wing bones which can enter the breast muscle, Research work has shown that the highest
the so-called chokers; and breast muscle blood loss occurs in broilers stunned at voltages
haemorrhages are eliminated. between 50V and 80 V. Voltages higher than this
It has been discovered that stunning with generally result in lower blood loss but when
argon-induced anoxia accelerates the fall in cardiac arrest takes place the total loss of blood is
muscle pH during the early post-mortem stage much the same compared with non-cardiac arrest,
without inducing a PSE-like condition. Used in although a longer time is required for bleeding.
conjunction with air chilling at 1DC, filleting can However, Heath (1984) has declared that 'the
be performed at 2 hours post-mortem. The poultry industry's obsession with the need to
eating quality of this meat was rated in tests as withdraw the last drop of blood is unlikely to
superior to that of control fillets. be founded on scientific, religious, economic or
humanitarian grounds'. In view of the fact that
many birds are improperly stunned during
On-farm poultry slaughter normal plant operations and because
A recent survey carried out by the UK Humane satisfactory bleeding can be achieved in the
Slaughter Association (HSA) revealed that a killed bird, the creation of cardiac arrest would
significant 25% of poultry producers are not appear to be the method of choice for all
satisfied with the effectiveness of the present purposes and for all animals.
method of culling birds on-farm. The majority Fractures of limbs and muscular haemorrhages
of producers are killing sick or injured birds on- may occur, as may ill-defined variations in
farm by neck dislocation as this is the only colour. The exact nature and origin of some of
method currently available. It is, however, these lesions has not yet been determined.
physically difficult especially when performed
on large, heavy birds with strong development
of neck vertebrae and muscles. OTHER METHODS OF SLAUGHTER
The survey disclosed that 91% of owners
supported the need for a new device to Legislation in the major developed countries of
slaughter birds. As a result, the HSA along with the world requires that all animals slaughtered
the UK Ministry of Agriculture and the British in an abattoir, except those slaughtered by the
Turkey Federation (BTF) will be funding Jewish and Islamic ritual, shall first be rendered
research work at Bristol University to solve this unconscious. In Spain, parts of Italy, Mexico
problem. The apparatus will be a portable, and some South American countries, however,
practical and cost-effective item which will cattle were traditionally slaughtered by the neck-
humanely dispatch birds on the farm and thus stab or evernazione method, in which a short
considerably improve welfare. double-edged knife (puntilla) is plunged into
the occipito-atlantal space at the nape of the
neck, severing the medulla oblongata. This
Effects of stunning on poultry meat quality effectively immobilises the animal without
As with the larger farm animals, deleterious inducing insensibility. The technique is banned,
changes sometimes occur in poultry carcases and rightly so, by the Council of Europe, since
after slaughter which are attributed to defects animals slaughtered in this way show a
in the slaughter methods. These frequently photomotor reflex considered by some experts
result in downgrading and even condemnation. to be indicative of a state of sensibility (Lumb
But conclusions about the effects of stunning and [ones, 1973).
are often contradictory and at least some of the In the Arctic, reindeer are killed by a curved
changes encountered may in part, if not in single-edged knife which after being inserted
whole, be occasioned by the stress of handling into the occipito-atlantal space, is directed
and transport. forwards to destroy the brain.
A broiler is said to be properly bled if it does In India and in the Far East, practically all
not show redness on the surface of the skin or animals are slaughtered while conscious. In
engorgement of the visceral blood vessels. India the majority of sheep and goats are killed
Redness of the wing tips and tail is believed to by the Halal or Muslim method in which the
214 Meat Hygiene
throat is cut transversely as in the Jewish contraindicated in those countries where BSE is
method of slaughter. The Sikh or [akta method known to exist because of the risk of
is also practised, the sheep or goat being contamination of meat and the infection of
decapitated by one stroke of a special sword. operatives. In addition, the complete removal
The Mohammedan ritual does not forbid of a damaged spinal cord is rendered
stunning of the animal prior to bleeding impossible. There is some evidence that
provided the stunning instrument has never bacteria can be introduced into the carcase on
been used on pigs. the pithing cane and subsequently dispersed
There is little doubt that these methods are throughout the carcase before the heart stops
aesthetically repugnant to some people and, in beating. It is therefore imperative that if pithing
some instances, are not efficient methods of is carried out the cane is sterilised between use
slaughter. A review of pre-slaughter stunning in on each animal. Again, the consequences of use
the EEC (Von Mickwitz and Leach, 1977) placed on potential subclinical cases of BSE should be
enervation (neck-stab, evernazione) among the considered.
least effective of the six methods of stunning
investigated.
The European Directive 93/119/EEC only BLEEDING
allows non-mechanical percussive stunning for
small batches of rabbits. If this is to be done, it Cattle
must be carried out in such a way that the There are two main methods of bleeding cattle:
animal is immediately rendered unconscious
and remains so until its death. As with all (1) bilateral severance of the carotid arteries and
methods of humane slaughter, the animals jugular veins by an incision across the throat
must be spared any avoidable excitement, pain region caudal to the larynx as in ritual
or suffering. slaughter; and
(2) incision in the jugular furrow at the base of
the neck, the knife being directed towards the
entrance of the chest to sever the
PITHING brachiocephulic trunk and anterior vena cava.
After cattle are stunned they are sometimes Care must be taken not to pass the knife too far
pithed before bleeding by the insertion of a long towards the chest for, if the pleura is punctured,
thin rod or closely coiled wire into the hole blood may be aspirated into the thoracic cavity
made by the penetrating bolt of the pistol. The and adhere to the parietal pleura, particularly
insertion of this rod destroys the motor centres along the posterior edges of the ribs. This
of the brain so that reflex muscular action does contamination is known as back bleeding or
not occur at sticking, thus avoiding injury to oversticking and, if not washed off immediately,
operatives and speeding carcase dressing. may necessitate stripping of the pleura. In cattle
There is little evidence that this operation the blood cannot infiltrate between the pleura
interferes to any appreciable degree with the and contiguous chest wall; this may
bleeding of the carcase, but the pithing rod or occasionally occur in pigs but over a small area
cane should not be any longer than 0.6m; if it is immediately posterior to the first rib.
too long, the spinal cord roots of the greater Current abattoir practice is to stun cattle and
splanchnic nerve, which is the main then hoist them, by the shackling of a hind leg,
vasoconstrictor of the abdominal cavitv, are over a bleeding gully. The advantage of a
destroyed. The resultant dilatation of the bleeding rail is that it permits centralised
splanchnic blood vessels causes congestion of collection of blood and also accelerates the
the liver, kidneys and intestines and, in throughput of animals, allowing them to be
addition, congestion and enlargement of the stunned and removed in quick succession
spleen, producing the 'slaughter spleen'. through the same stunning pen. Observations
Pithing was used with the bed system of in Germany have shown that bleeding was 40%
carcase dressing. Under modern conditions, it is more effective in cattle bled on the rail than in
completely 11l1neCessary provided efficient stunning those bled in a horizontal position.
and shackling are carried out, besides being very If unilateral sticking at the base of the neck is
unhygienic and time-consuming. Pithing is also performed, it is of value to make other small
 Humane Slaughter 215
bilateral incisions at the angle of the jaw, point on the cutting edge of about 8 cm. The
severing the jugulars at their division into knife is fitted with a circular safety guard
internal and external maxillaru veins; this permits between blade and handle. The unsharpened
easier skinning of heads and also reduces the edge is placed in contact with the oesophagus,
quantity of blood in the lingual artery. The but it may puncture this organ if the knife is
vertical head-down position of the suspended withdrawn at the wrong angle. Even when
carcase otherwise causes blood to be retained in great care is taken with this technique, both
the head. carotid arteries may not be severed.
The ordinary bleeding knife severs blood Approximately 75% of the available blood is
vessels more rapidly if the blade is held at right lost from ewes within 60 s and in lambs within
angles to the direction of the vessels and 50 s. Electrically stunned lambs bleed more
longitudinal axis of the body. rapidly than those stunned with the captive
Whichever method is employed, bleeding bolt. There was no significant difference in the
should continue for 6 min. The average yield of rates of bleeding between sheep that are not
blood obtained in cattle slaughter is 13.6kg. Cows stunned and those stunned with the captive
yield more blood than bulls or bullocks of the bolt pistol.
same weight, in some cases up to 22.6 kg in old Bilateral severance is the easiest technique to
cows. About 58.3% of the blood is yielded in the perform and produces satisfactory bleeding.
first 30 s after sticking, 76.6% after 60 sand 90% This is the best method for bleeding sheep in
after 120 s. lateral recumbency. When both carotid arteries
In calves the incision was at one time at the are severed, the sheep loses consciousness in
side of the neck with the severing of the jugular less than 10 s; if only one carotid artery is
vein. The purpose of this was to produce slow severed, insensibility can take more than nine
bleeding after the carcase was hung up prior to times as long to occur.
dressing, for slow bleeding ensures the In contrast with cattle, which bleed more
desirable white colour of veal. Calves are now fully in the head-down position, trials with
bled rapidly at the level of the first rib, and sheep at the UK Meat Research Institute have
yield 2.7kg of blood. shown that sheep bled in the horizontal
position lose approximately 10% more blood
than those suspended vertically.
Sheep Bleeding of the sheep carcase should last for
In the slaughter of sheep, bleeding is usually 5 min, the amount of blood obtained from a
carried out by an incision in the jugular furrows slaughtered sheep being 1-2.5 kg, lambs having
close to the head, severing both carotid arteries the lower weights.
and jugular veins and in some cases the trachea,
oesophagus and spinal cord at the occipito-
Pigs
atlantal junction. However, thoracic inlet bleeding
is superior. In pigs the knife is inserted in the midline of the
Accidental cutting of the oesophagus often neck at the depression in front of the sternum,
results in contamination of the neck, head and and is then pushed forward to sever the anterior
blood with ruminal contents. At one time, when vena cava brachiocephalic trunk at the entrance
cradle dressing was carried out, it was of the chest; sometimes the carotid artery is also
customary to jerk the head back sharply in pierced. Care should be taken not to insert the
order to rupture the spinal cord where it enters knife too far as it may penetrate into the
the skull, the purpose being, as in the pithing of shoulder, allowing blood and water from the
cattle, to obviate reflex muscular action before scalding tank to run back into the shoulder
dressing of the carcase. Like pithing, it is an 'pocket' beneath the scapula giving its wall a
unnecessary procedure. cooked appearance. Where pigs are bled
The most satisfactory type of knife for the without being previously stunned, the heart
lateral stab method, where the bleeding knife is continues for 2-9 min. The carcase should not,
inserted posterior to the trachea and therefore, be placed immediately in the
oesophagus, is one with a blade about 23 cm scalding tank; too large a sticking wound and
long and 4 cm wide with a straight back contaminated scalding water facilitate the entry
unsharpened except at the tip, and a tapered of microorganisms into the carcase tissues by
21 6 Meat Hygiene
way of the jug ular vein and may lead to p igs b led while suspended and arc the cause of
spoilage . In some aba ttoirs pigs art? stunned, the so-called internalham bruising. In add ition, a
then hoisted and bled while suspended. study in Austria found that the incidence of PSE
Urination occurring while the p ig is bleeding meai was reduced from 62~3% in vertically-
ren ders the blood unma rketable, bu t this may bled pigs, to 22-27% in those bled in the
be overcome by us ing the ho llow knife. Pigs horizontal position.
should be allowed to bleed for 6min, as during For sterile collection of quantities of blood, the
this period the musc les relax and the hair is necessary equ ipment (s tainless s teel hollow
more readily removed during scalding. knifes, vacuum pump, sterilisation facilities,
Pork pigs yield 2.2 kg of blood, bacon pigs anticoagulant injection, containers, erc.) must
3 kg, while boars and sows yield 3.6kg. be available. The incision at the base of the neck
In many abattoirs pront' sticki ng of pigs has provides a larger flow of blood evenly and
been adopted . After being rendered more hygienically than procedures not so
unconscious, the animal is discharged on to a geared. Sterile blood collection must be efficient
conveyor belt and is stuck while lying prone in and rapid, otherwise the rate of kill will be
the tonic phase. the blood draining into a considerably reduced (Fig. 8.10).
trough running parallel to the conveyor.
Immed iately after sticking the animals may
come under a holding-down belt which
continues the full length of the conveyor and EFFICIENCY OF BLEEDING
restrains the involuntary struggling that occurs
during the clonic phase. The advantages of It was once thought that the efficiency of
prone sticking of electrically stunned pigs are bleeding had a most important bearing on the
the mort' efficient recoverv of blood and the subsequent keeping quality of the carcase.
elimination of ruptured' joints and joint Although the validity of this viewpoint is
capsules, which are a troublesome condition in widely questioned, most slaughterplant

Fig. 8.10 Hygienic blood collection

from pigs showing hollow knives in
positi on and central vacuum system
and conta iners. (By courtesv of Scan
Farmok 5-532 87. Skara , 5w€den)
 Humane Slaughter 217
managers are still convinced of the necessity to should be labelled as such. Although this is
extract the last drop of blood from the carcase. accepted and carried out widely for carcases,
Studies have been unable to demonstrate anv there are practical and enforcement problems
correlation between the amount of blood lost at carrying the label through to the retail pack or
the time of slaughter and subsequent pH butcher's shop.
values, water content, bacterial counts, flavour
and tenderness of beef or lamb. The extra blood
retained by the poorly-bled animal is retained Jewish slaughter
mainly in the viscera and skin. The Jewish method of slaughter is controlled in
Experiments in pigs have shown that if the Britain by the Jewish Board of Shechita and
amount of blood remaining in the carcase after Jewish slaughtermen have to undergo several
stunning and delayed bleeding is 100 parts, years of training before being licensed by the
then the amount remaining after stunning and Rabbinical Commission. They are also subject
immediate bleeding is 86 parts, that after direct to annual examination of skills by the
bleeding without previous stunning 70 parts, Commission.
while after stunning by the electrical method In order for meat to be kosher, i.e. right,
and subsequent bleeding, only 60 parts of blood fulfilling the requirements of Jewish law,
remain. animals must be slaughtered and dressed
The stunning of an animal by any means according to ritual methods specified in the
produces a rise in the blood pressure of the Talmud, the body of Jewish law and legend
arterial, capillary and venous systems, and in based on the Torah which is the substance of
sheep the normal arterial blood pressure of God's revelation to man in the Old Testament
120-145mmHg may rise to 260mmHg or over (Pentateuch, first five books). The reference to
when the animal is stunned prior to bleeding. Shechita is said to be found in Deuteronomy
This is accompanied by a transitory increase in 12:21 - 'thou shalt kill of thy herd and of thy
the heart rate. Both of these factors will flock, which the Lord hath given thee, as I have
facilitate immediate bleeding. The importance commanded thee'.
of immediate bleeding is obvious when it is At slaughter the animal must be alive and
realised that the rate of flow of blood from a cut healthy and have suffered no injury. Prior
vessel is five to ten times more rapid than in the stunning of the animal is therefore forbidden.
intact vessel, and not until 20% of the blood has Animals that do not conform to these ideals and
been lost does the pressure begin to fall. If an any defects at slaughter in the form of faults in
undue interval is allowed to elapse between shechiia (act of killing for food) or disease
stunning and bleeding, the carcase may be lesions discovered in the carcase render the
imperfectly bled and may bear blood splashes. meat terefa, i.e. unfit for consumption by Jews.
Likewise, animals that lie quietly and cannot be
made to rise must not be slaughtered according
RELIGIOUS SLAUGHTER to Jewish ritual. This early recognition of the
inadmissibility of ill or moribund animals for
In the United States some 120 million food human food is worthy of note.
animals are slaughtered annually, of which 8-10 Shechita is performed by a shochei, or cutter,
million are kosher-killed. In Great Britain 1.5 who slaughters the fully conscious animal with
million sheep and 90000 cattle are slaughtered a single, deliberate, swift action of a razor-sharp
by religious methods annually. knife, chale], roughly twice the width of the
The Farm Animal Welfare Council (1985) animal's neck and which is devoid of any notch
concluded that, even under ideal conditions, a or flaw, and has been examined before the
degree of stress, suffering and pain occurred in slaughter of each animal. All the soft structures
ritual slaughter. However, it remains a fact that anterior to the cervical spine are severed,
this same accusation could be laid at the door of including the carotid arteries and jugular veins.
many of the other accepted slaughter It is essential that the neck be fully extended in
techniques previously described in this chapter. order to keep the edges of the wound open and
There have been calls, particularly from the thereby prevent any pain.
animal welfare lobby, that meat produced from The five rules of Jewish ritual slaughter, in their
animals slaughtered by religious methods traditional order, are that the neck incision shall
218 Meat Hygiene
be completed without pause, pressure, hoisted and moved, dangling and jerking,
stabbing, slanting or tearing. If the knife along an overhead rail until its life is taken.
receives any nick, however small, during the Occasionally the thrashing animal breaks a leg
act of shechita, the slaughter is not correctly or its back or suffers internal injuries. More
performed and the use of the meat is not often only indications of pain or fright are
permitted for Jewish food. observed, but bruises may be detected later at
The shochet ('cutter') is normally assisted by meat inspection. Equally, the Weinberg and
a sealer (shomer) who is responsible for putting similar types of pen, into which it is difficult to
the kosher mark on the brisket and on edible persuade animals to enter and which are
offal. In some instances, e.g. large kosher rotated through 180°, while causing less
slaughter plants, several shochets may work physical injury than shackling and hoisting, are
together in the task of slaughter and tagging none the less creators of much discomfort for
meat. the animal and have consequently been banned
Besides performing the act of slaughter, the in the European Union.
shochet offers prayers and carries out a 'post- The ASPCA restrainer pen, first invented by
mortem examination' by making an incision Peter Hoad of Canada Packers, Toronto,
posterior to the xiphoid process and inserting Canada, who developed the first 'on-the-line'
the arm to detect any adhesions in the thoracic slaughtering system, has been fully modified
cavity ('searching'). Full meat inspection may by the Cincinnati Butchers' Supply Company
be performed by a shochet or by the and by Temple Grandin (1980). It now takes the
government inspector. Should the carcase be form of a metal pen fitted with a belly plate, a
held in the chill room for more than 24h, it must rear pusher on a guillotine door and a front
be washed in order to remove blood, further neck yoke and chin lift. Hydraulic controls are
washing and curing, mehila, or broiling being used to operate the equipment and position the
carried out in the home. animal for kosher and halal slaughter. The rear
Carcases found fit for consumption must pusher and chin lift should be equipped with
have the meat porged by removing the large pressure-limiting devices. While the cut is
blood vessels in the forequarter prior to retail being made, the hind leg is shackled to
sale. Only forequarters are normally used, since withdraw the animal from the pen. There is no
the hindquarters, which are said to contain over doubt that the Cincinnati-Boss (CB) pen is
50 blood vessels, can only be porged by highly much less stressful on the animal than the
skilled kosher butchers and are therefore rarely Weinberg pen, but it is by no means perfect.
eaten. 'Only be sure that thou eat not the blood; One defect is the manner of withdrawal of the
for the blood is the life; and thou mayest not eat animal from the pen, which in some types of
the life with the flesh' (Deuteronomy 12:23). CB pen pulls the hind leg in an unnatural
Kosher slaughter restraining systems (Fig. 8.11) manner which must result in hip joint damage.
(also used for Halal slaughter) were developed Some stress inevitably occurs due to fixation to
to overcome the cruelty associated with the the head and raising of the head (see Head
practice of 'shackling and hoisting'. The restraint). Some means must be found to
shackling and hoisting of conscious live counter the stress occasioned by the isolation of
animals in the United States has been forbidden the animal from its fellows. It has been
since 1958, but kosher slaughter is exempt from reported that the presence of blood on the
this requirement. In acquiring four patents on equipment does not appear to upset the cattle
devices for restraining animals the ASPCA and that in fact some animals have been
(American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty observed to lick the blood.
to Animals) believes it has solved a problem While most of the normal pens in use can
which has plagued humanitarians, religious only deal with low slaughter rates, a conveyor-
elements and the slaughter industry for restrainer system has been developed in the
generations. The holding pens meet all Jewish USA which can handle rates for kosher
ritualistic requirements and are available to the slaughter up to 214 cattle per hour. An
whole slaughtering industry without royalties overhead hold-down rack is placed along the
or profit to the ASPCA. In 'shackling and length of a conveyor above the animals until
hoisting' a chain is slung around one or both they reach the head holder at the discharge end;
hind legs of a conscious animal which then is the head holder is powered so that it can be

l
 Humane Slaughter 219

Fig. 8.11 Cincinnati-Boss restraint pen. A, Interior of pen with elevating belly plate on floor and rear pu sher
on rear guillotine. B, View from fron t showing chin lift and neck yoke in ra ised position. C, Op erator's
p latform and control s for hyd raulic cylind ers.

raised to position the head and then release it equipment, which is use d for both conventional
after the cut is made. and religious slaughter, the animal is conveyed
Restrainer sy stems have also been straddlewise along a double rail above which is
manufactured to dea l w ith SIlW !! animals - a head cage wh ich positions the hea d upwards
calves and sheep. In one of these US items of for the neck cu t.
220 Meat Hygiene
It is claimed that the Jewish method of vertebral artery may likewise be maintained at
slaughter does not involve any act of cruelty a substantial level and unconsciousness may
because the knife is particularly sharp, the cut is therefore be delayed. Such sealing can and
made dextrously by a trained person! and the does occur! in some cases very rapidly! and
severance of the carotid vessels is followed by a provides an explanation why some cattle! the
very rapid fall in blood pressure within the throats of which have been cut by the Jewish
cephalic arteries. It is therefore suggested that method, have been known to regain their feet
the anoxia from the diminished blood supply to and walk a considerable distance before they
the brain tissues brings about almost have eventually succumbed some minutes
immediate unconsciousness. Others contend later. In the past when such occurrences have
that it is not anoxia which results in the collapse been witnessed they have been attributed!
of the animal but rather cerebral shock due to perhaps for want of a better explanation! to the
the sudden fall in pressure of the cerebro-spinal fact that all the neck muscles may not have
fluid. The persistence of corneal and palpebral been severed completely! but observations on
reflexes and also the convulsions which occur the Jewish method of slaughter lead one to the
some time after the neck cut has been made are conclusion that the cut is invariably made
not associated with consciousness and their dextrously and the efficiency of the technique
significance may therefore be discounted. is rarely in question. There is! therefore!
Opponents of the Jewish method of considerable doubt as to whether
slaughter have also contended that additional unconsciousness always follows rapidly in
blood, via the vertebral artery, and therefore cattle after the severance of the neck vessels!
independent of the carotid supply, may still for by the very nature of the neck cut in Jewish
reach the brain of cattle and prolong the period slaughter it i~ impossible to ensure that self-
of consciousness. (The vertebral artery, being sealing of the cut ends of the carotid arteries
enclosed in the spinal canal, is not severed in will not occur! although proper neck extension
the Jewish or Muslim method of slaughter.) may reduce this likelihood.
Anatomical differences in the blood supply to The important issue is whether or not the
the brain occur in the various species of animal is suffering pain during the period of
animals. In the sheep and goat the complete consciousness following cutting of the carotids
brain is supplied with blood from the common and jugulars! a matter not readily determined.
carotid arteries; the vertebral arteries supply It is vital that the animal be handled carefully
only the anterior spinal cord and the posterior and quietly at this stage. The assertion by
medulla oblongata. However, it has been supporters of Jewish slaughter that bleeding of
shown experimentally in calves that the the animal is more complete than in other
vertebral arteries can carry enough blood to methods of slaughter has been challenged by
maintain consciousness when both common some authorities who contend that the paler
carotid arteries are occluded. Very little blood is colour of the flesh of Jewish slaughtered
required to maintain consciousness! especially animals is due to the violent respiratory efforts
in the head-down position and in young which accompany ritual slaughter! these having
animals which have a greater resistance to the effect of increasing the proportion of
anoxia. It has been estimated that with religious oxyhaemoglobin in the blood! thus rendering
slaughter sheep may take 14 seconds to lose the residual blood in the carcase paler than
consciousness and some estimates have normal and giving the flesh a well-bled
suggested that calves can take up to 5 minutes. appearance.
A factor of considerable importance! and to Stress created by the CB pen and its chin lift
which not enough attention has been paid in and neck yoke may be more important than the
considering the problem of Jewish slaughter! is system of bleeding.
that after the carotid arteries of cattle are
severed transversely they tend! by virtue of
their elasticity! to retract rapidly within their Muslim methods of slaughter
own external connective tissue coat! thus Many of the practices relating to the slaughter
sealing off the cut ends. As the blood pressure of animals and the consumption of meat by
in the anterior aorta will then be maintained by members of the Jewish faith also apply to
the heart action! the blood pressure in the Muslims. The welfare of the animal is a major
 Humane Slaughter 221
consideration in both cases and the eating of many of the methods of restraint currently in
dead animals, blood and swine is forbidden. use, which would appear to be in conflict not
The actual method of slaughter is virtually only with modern slaughtering technology but
the same for both religions. The Quran also with the ideals of the Torah and the Quran
describes the procedure of carotid and jugular and, more importantly, with the stricture of the
section as the 'cutting and draining of blood'. Almighty in Deuteronomy 12:10.
The act of slaughter (AI-Dhabh) is allowed in the
name of God; therefore pronouncing the name
of Allah is the usual practice. This is to remind REFERENCES
the slaughterer that he is taking the life of a
living creature. Bremner, F. (1954) Brain Mechanisms and
Animals must not be slaughtered in the sight Consciousness. ed. J. F. Delafresnaye. London:
of other beasts and those to be killed are to be Oxford University Press.
fed and watered beforehand. The act of cutting Ewbank, R., Parker M. J. and Mason C. (1992)
the skin with a sharp knife is regarded as Reactions of cattle to head 'restraint at stunning'. A
painless, or almost so, and the rapid loss of practical dilemma. Humane Slaughter Association.
blood is said to produce instantaneous Farm Animal Welfare Council (1985) Report on the
insensibility. The opinion is held that the brain welfare of livestock when slaughtered by religious
methods. London: HMSO.
and the skin of an animal are less sensitive than Garland, T. D., Bauer, N. and Bailey, M. (1996) The
those of man. Just as defective methods may be Lancet 348, 610.
used in stunning by mechanical means so also Gregory N. G. (1993) Outlook on Agriculture 20(2)
can throat cutting be imperfectly performed 95-101.
with the result that not all four blood vessels are Grandin, T. (1980) Problems with kosher slaughter.
severed. Islamic law demands that the animal is Ini. J. Stud. Anim. Prob. 1(6),375.
alive at the time of slaughter and that it is Heath, G. B. S. (1984) Slaughter of broilers. Vet. Rec.
slaughtered in a humane manner. The Prophet 115,98.
Mohammed is reported as saying that 'God Lambooij, D. L. O. (1996) Meat Focus Ini. April,
who is blessed and exalted has declared that 124-125
Lumb, W. V. and [ones, E. W. (1973) Veterinary
everything should be done in a good way; so Anaesthesia. Lea & Febiger, pp. 338-340.
when you kilt use a good method, and when McMillan, J. B (1956) Am. J. Pathol. 32, 405.
you cut an animal's throat, you should use a Monin, G. (1996) Meat Focus lni. April, 123-124.
good method; for each of you should sharpen Munro, R. (1997) Vet. Rec. 140,536.
his knife and give the animal as little pain as Raj, A. B. M. and Gregory, N. G. (1995) Anim. Welfare
possible'. 4,273-280.
Unlike Shechita. the Muslim method of Raj, A. B. M. and Gregory, N. G. (1996) Anim. Welfare
slaughter is not controlled by a central Board 5,71-78.
but is overseen by the local Islamic authority Raj, A. B. M. and Gregory, N. G. (1993) Vet. Rec. 133,
(Muftis) who decide whether or not particular 318.
Raj, A. B. M. and Gregory, N. G. (1994) Vet. Rec. 135,
acts and thoughts conform to the tenets of 222-223.
Islamic Law (Shariah). So in some instances Schutt-Abraham et al. (1983) In Proc. Seminar in the
prior stunning with electricity or captive-bolt CEC Programme of Research on Animal Welfare, ed.
pistol is allowed. (In New Zealand a head-only G. Eikelenboom. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
stun of 0.5-0.9 A for 3 s is performed for sheep, Shewring, J. (1990) Safeguards at slaughter. The new
2.5 A for cattle, the major blood vessels being welfare regulations. The Meat Hygienist,
severed within 10 s of the stun.) It is also September.
understood that non-penetrative percussive Thorpe, W. H. (1965) The assessment of pain and
stunning has been permitted in some quarters. stress in animals. Appendix Ill. Report of
Provided it can be shown that the heart is still Technical Committee to enquire into the welfare
of animals kept under intensive livestock
beating after stunning, prior anaesthesia is husbandry systems. Cmnd 2836. London: HMSO.
approved, at least in some instances. Van der Wal, P. G. (1983) In Stunning Animals for
While the actual act of slaughter in Jewish Slaughter, ed. G. Eikelenboom. The Hague:
and Halal slaughter can be regarded as painless Martinus Nijhof.
and humane if performed efficiently with the Von Mickwitz, G. and Leach, T. (1977) Review of Pre-
wound kept open, the same cannot be said for slaughter Stunning in the EEC. Information on
222 Meat Hygiene
Agriculture Report No. 30. Commission of the Humane Slaughter Association (1994) Guidance
European Communities. notes 1; Electrical stunning of sneep, goats and pigs,
Warriss, P. D., Brown, S. N . and Adams, S. J. M. (1994) 2nd edn.
Meat Sci. 38, 329-340. Blackmorc, DX and Delaney, M. W. (1988) Slaugh/a
of Stock. Foundation for Continuing Ed ucation of
the New Zea land Veterinarv Association,
FURTHER READI NG Pub lication number 118. Palmersion North, New
Humane Slaughter Association (1993) Guidance Zealand: Masscy University.
notes 2; Captive bolt stunning of livestock.
 Chapter 9
Meat Hygiene Practice

One of the most important roles of the meat particularly in winter months when the animals
hygiene team within the modern abattoir is to are housed. A survey of 600 cattle hides in
ensure that the meat remains free from contam- Northern Ireland during February 1965 showed
ination of all types during the production that the average weight of manure, soil and
processes. This involves the inspectors cooper- other dirt adhering to them was 4 kg, with a
ating with factory management, operatives, range of 0.9-15.8 kg; weights of 36 kg have been
engineers and quality control staff to ensure recorded in England (Gracey, unpublished data).
that 'Good Manufacturing Practice' is followed Current observations would suggest thats
at all times, that hygienic techniques are although husbandry practices have changed
utilised and that effective monitoring of since the 1960s, the filthy state of many cattle
processes and product is carried out. entering the abattoir as a raw material for food
has not. It is essential, as discussed in previous
chapters, that livestock be presented for
SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION (See slaughter in as clean and dry a condition as
also Chapter 7) possible, this being achieved by hygienic
practices on the farm, in transport lorries and in
The classic work of Empey and Scott (1939) in market plant lairage pens.
Australia dealt with the sources of contamina- In Finland, the problem of excessively dirty
tion of meat. They showed that the main cattle being presented for slaughter has been
sources of contamination were hides and hair, greatly reduced by the application of a series
soil, contents of the stomach and gut, water, air- of rules agreed by meat inspection veterinari-
borne pollution, utensils and equipment. ans, farmers, the meat industry, the leather
The chief source of bacteriological industry and the state veterinary department.
contamination was found to be the hide and Under this agreement, excessively dirty ani-
hair of the slaughtered animals, deriving mals are detained to be slaughtered separately
mainly from the microflora of the pasture soil, after the clean animals, the extra cost incurred
but with a higher incidence of yeasts. Then, as being billed to the owners involved. This has
today, the transfer of microorganisms from the resulted in a decrease in the numbers of exces-
hide to the underlying tissues was found to sively dirty cattle by 85% (Ridell and Korkeala,
begin during the first stage of removal of the 1993).
pelt by means of knives used for skinning. In the UK, a clean livestock policy was
Further transfer occurs via the hands, arms, introduced during 1997. It has been very
legs and clothing of operatives. successful in ensuring that only clean cattle
A similar study carried out in 1996 by Bell and sheep are slaughtered for human
and Hathaway in New Zealand demonstrated consumption. Those considered by the official
that there has been little improvement in the veterinarian to be in an unacceptable state are
general hygienic status of dressed carcases over sent home.
the intervening years.

Outer integument - hide, hair, fleece or skin Gastrointestinal tract

One of the main sources of carcase contamina- Accidental puncture of the stomach and
tion in the meat plant is the live animal itself, intestines is a source of contamination on

223
224 Meat Hygiene
occasions, as is spillage from the rectum and practical experience has shown that
oesophagus. It has been estimated that the management, quality assurance staff, but most
mixed bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract of all engineers and fitters, can be the greatest
may reach 10' 0 colony-forming units (cfu) per problem in this respect.
gram of contents. The commonly held misconception among
operatives that protective clothing is to protect
them from getting dirty, rather than to protect
Sticking point the product from them, underlines the basic
During the act of sticking, bacteria can enter the Widespread lack of basic knowledge of hygiene
jugular vein or anterior vena cava and travel in matters among workers in the food industry.
the bloodstream to the muscles, lungs and bone The EC Hygiene of Foodstuffs Directive 93/43,
marrow. Many have questioned, however, transposed into law in Great Britain as the
whether bacterial contamination by this route is General Food Hygiene Regulations, requires
of great importance (Troeger, 1994). that all personnel involved in food manufacture
receive an appropriate level of training. This
requirement is superseded if a specific training
Physical contact with structures requirement is laid down in a specific food
The design of the line must allow for a full directive, e.g. the Fresh Meat Directive 64/433,
range of sizes of stock so that legs do not touch Article 10, para. 3 and the Policy Directive
stands or supports and necks or heads do not 92/116, Article 6, para. 3 both of which state:
drag along the floor, walkways or tables. A The operator of the establishment, the owner
common weak point occurs at the point on the or his agent must establish a staff training
line where the bovine gastrointestinal tract is programme enabling workers to comply with
dropped on to the gut table, chute or conveyor. conditions of hygienic production adapted to
Gross cleaning, with squeegee and shovel, etc., the production structure. The official
must be ongoing throughout the working day veterinarian responsible for the establishment
to prevent the build-up of blood and debris. must be involved in the planning and
Every opportunity must be taken during breaks implementation of that programme.
in production when the slaughterfloor is free of
This duty of the official veterinarian must be
carcases and offal to rinse down the line.
taken seriously if satisfactory hygiene
Care must also be taken to ensure that the
standards are to be maintained. It is also an
position and height of offal rails is such as to
opportunity for the meat hygiene/inspection
prevent contact with the floor or structures.
team to demonstrate their knowledge and
Swinging viscera, particularly at corners, may
come into contact with supporting structures, training and by doing so improve their status
and effectiveness around the factory.
while poor positioning of the line frequently
leads to operatives dragging viscera across the
floor or the line structure for hanging. Equipment and utensils
The equipment used within the slaughterfloor
is a potential source of contamination. This
Operatives
includes knives, saws and hockcutters which
All persons working in the slaughterhall are an come into direct contact with the meat and so
important, and extremely mobile, source of must be regularly cleaned and sterilised.
contamination for the meat. Movement of all However, it also involves indirect sources of
personnel about the plant must be strictly dirt and debris such as the moving overhead
controlled, and in the ideal situation movement line itself, from which oil or grease may drop on
would occur only from clean to dirtier parts of to the meat, the hide-puller from which faeces
the plant. In practice this is impossible. To may flick on to the exposed carcase, and many
minimise the risk of contamination, upgrade others.
stations must be provided where washing,
disinfection and, if necessary, a change of outer
clothes can take place. Although the movement The slaughterhall environment
about the plant of general operatives making Ventilation in the work-room must be sufficient
social visits can generally be controlled, to prevent the build-up of steam and to prevent
 Meat Hygiene Practice 225
condensation forming on the ceiling and the insectocutor is working, but more
overhead structures. A common source of importantly, that the exclusion practices are not.
steam emanates from sterilisers which are Plant surrounds must be kept clean and tidy
allowed to operate in excess of 82°C and in so that vermin such as rodents, cats and dogs
which no system is incorporated to discharge are not attracted to the site. All external waste
the steam. Steam may act as a vector for bins must be covered, otherwise gulls, starlings
bacteria and can in addition condense on the and other scavenging birds will be attracted.
carcases, adding to surface moisture and
assisting bacterial growth. Condensation
dripping on to the carcase from above brings Chemical contamination
with it dirt, bacteria and moulds. Cleaning chemicals may contaminate the meat
Water is also a problem if allowed to pool on if they have not been rinsed off the structures
the floor owing to blocked drains and uneven correctly. It is not uncommon to find a residue
surfaces. Gullies around the splitting saw of chemical on sanitised stands and equipment
frequently become blocked with debris and, if after they have dried. All chemicals used in a
water accumulates, the carcase may be meat plant must be stored in a specifically
splashed with water from the floor. designated store.
Another source of water splash can be poorly The hazard of intrinsic chemical residues in
positioned apron washes. This problem is the meat is dealt with in Chapter 13.
exaggerated if the water supply does not cut off
immediately the operative steps out of the
cabinet.
Pressure differences between the workroom
METHODS OF REDUCING
CONTAMINATION
and the outside frequently result in draughts
which enter if doors are left open. The
Dealing with the dirty animal
temptation to leave exterior doors open in
temperate climates during the summer is It is almost inevitable that, despite all efforts to
understandable but must be resisted since flies, prevent it, dirty animals will be presented for
dust and dirt gain easy access. This is frequently slaughter, especially in the winter months in the
the case when the doors are adjacent to the British Isles. The first option to be considered
waste skips, hide stores and green offal rooms. should always be to reject without slaughtering,
Poorly maintained structure may result in but disease restrictions or animal welfare
contamination of the meat from, for example, considerations may make this impossible. It is
rust or paint flakes dropping on to the meat or widely agreed that in most cases it is easier to
into trays intended for meat. Excessive hygienically-dress dirty, dry cattle and sheep
lubrication of overhead moving chains or cogs than dirty, wet ones. Slaughter should then be
is another potential contamination hazard. delayed until the animals are dry by resting
them in strawed yards or, in the case of sheep or
lambs, on expanded-metal floors. A technique
Vermin (see also p. 82) recommended by one experienced veterinarian
All measures necessary to exclude vermin from is that lambs should be detained until their
the food-producing factory must be taken. underside can be rubbed without dirtying the
Physical exclusion begins with a fence around hand. It should be recognised, however, that in
the entire premises to keep out cats and dogs, warm climates, and where lambs have been
and also includes self-closing external doors fattened on root crops, drying the animals may
and fly-screening on windows. Vermin which result in release of dust which adheres to the hot
manage to gain entrance must be systematically carcase while the fleece is being removed. In all
destroyed. The official veterinarian must be cases the welfare aspects of the husbandry practices
aware of the procedures in place to carry out which have resulted in the dirty animals should be
this task, including the nature of any poison borne in mind, and farm inspections by the
bait, the bait points and the frequency of the appropriate agency instituted where necessary.
inspections. A regular check should be made of In New Zealand, it has been common
all insectocutor trays and a record kept of the practice for many years to wash lambs prior to
dead fly count. A large fly count indicates that slaughter through plunge dips. A study of this
226 Meat Hygiene
practice by Biss and Hathaway (1996) indicated
that, although the carcases of washed lambs Staff handling exposed or wrapped fresh meat
or working in rooms and areas in which such
showed evidence of less visible contamination meat is handled, packaged or transported must
than those of unwashed lambs, washing had a in particular wear clean and easily cleanable
detrimental effect on the microbiological load headgear, footwear and light-coloured
as measured by E. coli and aerobic plate counts. working clothes and, where necessary, clean
Washing heavily cladded cattle is futile from a neck shields or other protective clothing. Staff
hygiene perspective, and may be highly engaged in slaughtering animals or working
detrimental to animal welfare. It is impossible on or handling meat must wear clean working
to wash the legs, hooves and ventral aspect of clothes at the commencement of each working
cattle effectively. day and must renew such clothing during the
A process for chemically dehairing cattle day as necessary.
between stunning and sticking has been Laundry facilities should be provided
patented in the United States. It involves centrally and the standards monitored by the
repeated applications of sodium sulphide and inspection team. The outdated practice of
rinses within a closed cabinet and results in the operatives laundering their own protective
complete removal of dirt, faeces and hair. clothing at home should be resisted, as the
However, a study of the process by Schnell et al. monitoring and enforcement of standards is
(1995) demonstrated that, although there was made impossible.
less visible contamination on the treated Headgear must be easily cleanable, and must
carcases than on conventionally slaughtered cover the crown of the head, with the hair
controls, total bacterial counts, measured as restrained within a hairnet and beards within a
aerobic plate counts and total coliform counts, net or snood. For both hygiene and health and
showed no decrease in the overall bacterial load. safety reasons, white bump caps are to be
When the animals are judged ready for recommended for all staff. Easily cleaned
slaughter, the inspection team must monitor the footwear means, in effect, that it must be
operation closely and control the speed of the line waterproof so that boot washers can be used to
accordingly. As important as line speed, which remove adherent fat and soils.
gives the operatives sufficient time to carry out the
extra washing of hands, arms, aprons and
sterilising equipment which will be necessary, is Hands
the spacing of the animals. On a moving line, the
placing of carcases on every other overhead hanger All operatives on the slaughterfloor must have
decreases the possibility of carcases touching each facilities readily available to wash their hands
other and also gives the slaughtermen more room during the working day. The water supply must
to work hygienically. The inspection team must be be premixed to a suitable temperature - too cold
in a position to control the line, and stop operations and it will not remove the dirt and the operative
if contamination occurs until it can be removed by will not use it; too hot and it will produce steam
trimming and the specific problem which caused it and the operative will not use it - and must be
is solved. supplied through a non-hand-operated outlet.
It goes without saying, however, that the real This may be controlled by foot, knee or 'magic
answer to dirty animals lies primarily with eye'. Bactericidal soap must be available, with
livestock producers on the farm, with hauliers disposable paper towels provided.
and with meat plant operators. It may well be Bell and Hathaway (1996), reported that a
necessary to provide a bonus payment for 44°C water hand rinse removed 90% of the
suppliers of clean animals or a penalty for the microbial contamination from workers' hands,
others. but rinsed hands, particularly those contacting
the fleece, still carried a microbial population
exceeding 10"dui cm.
Protecting the meat from the worker
Clothing Gloves
The EC Fresh Meat Directive states in Annex I, The wearing of rubber and chain-mail gloves
Chapter V, para. 18 that: presents a dichotomy between hygiene and
 Meat Hygiene Practice 227
health and safety. In the slaughterhall it is likely Food-Handling Personnel Technical Report
that with many of the tasks gloves will become Series 785, 1989) concluded that 'the pre-
grossly contaminated from the hide with faeces employment and subsequent routine medical
and other soils. With rubber gloves of the examination of food handlers are ineffective
'washing-up' type in common usage it is almost and thus unnecessary. Examination may,
impossible to wash the entire length of the however, be appropriate in the case of food
glove. There is frequently, therefore, a rim of handlers reporting sick or in the investigation
gross contamination around the top of the glove of outbreaks of food-borne disease'. Reference
which is readily transferred to the meat. was also made to the policy in the state of
Attempts to seal the glove to the arm with tape Florida in the USA where similar conclusions
are rarely successful. Chain-mail gloves also were reached.
become contaminated and can only be These conclusions were based on a study of
effectively cleaned after removal. Although this the following: physical examination, medical
allows the chain to be cleaned, the fastening history, throat swabs, blood tests, X-rays and
tapes frequently remain in a filthy state. The best skin tests for TB and other lung infections, and
compromise is probably to cover the chain-mail the examination of faeces for pathogens and
glove, which is usually worn only on the free parasites.
hand, with a skin-tight rubber latex type glove. A study of countries where pre-employment
Cut-resistant polyester yarn gloves are and routine periodic medical examinations are
manufactured by several companies for use mandatory disclosed high costs of medical and
instead of chain-mail. Some claim that an laboratory examinations aggravated by the
antibacterial agent has been built into the yarn high labour turnover, seasonal employment
from which the glove is made which has an and the use of part-time staff in the food
activity against Gram-positive and Gram- industry. Many of these countries no longer
negative bacteria, including salmonellae. The adopt routine medical examinations.
gloves can be laundered through a washing The most cost-effective measures were considered
machine and reused many times. to be education and training involving both
managers andfood handlers.
It is, however, important that workers who
Medical certification are suffering or who have recently suffered
The EC Fresh Meat Directive states in Annex I, from bouts of gastroenteritis are excluded from
Chapter V, para. 24 that: duties where they are handling exposed fresh
meat. Workers with septic lesions must cover
Persons likely to contaminate meat are
prohibited from working on it and handling such sores with appropriate waterproof
it. When recruited, any person working on or dressings.
handling fresh meat shall be required to
prove, by a medical certificate that there is no
impediment to such employment. The Basic hygienic techniques
medical supervision of such a person shall be
governed by national legislation in force in Hygienic use of knives
the Member State concerned.
Directive 64/433, Chapter V para. 18(c) states
An example of a staff self-declaration form that:
which may be used to assist a general medical
practitioner in the preparation of a Medical Equipment and instruments used for working
Certificate in the United Kingdom is illustrated on meat shall be kept clean and in a good state
of repair. They shall be carefully cleaned and
in Fig. 9.1. The effectiveness of this one-off disinfected several times during the working
certificate in preventing persons carrying day at the end of the day's work and before
readily transferable infections is dubious. Some re-using when they have become soiled.
companies require regular faecal samples to
attempt to identify salmonella carriers, but The most common method of sterilising
since excretion of pathogens is frequently implements is in a cabinet containing water at
intermittent this is unlikely to be very effective. 82°C, the knife, saw or whatever piece of
The World Health Organisation (Health equipment is to be sterilised being left in situ for
Surveillance and Management Procedures for at least 2 minutes. It is essential that the level of
228 Meat Hygiene
STAFF IN CONFIDENCE
HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE

Name ..
Address ..

Job title ..

1. Have you or your family during the past year had contact with:

Self Relative Date i Place

Typhoid Fever I
,
Paratyphoid Fever
Yellow Jaundice !
,

Any severe illness with i

diarrhoea

2. Have you a history of:

Yes II No Comments, e.g. date,

I treatment, etc.
Septic skin condition e.g. boils, dermatitis, or
eczema
I
Discharge from eyes, ears, or nose
Bronchitis or a productive cough
Poor dental hygiene

3. Have you been abroad within the last 12 months? YES I NO

If YES: Place .. Country .. Date ..

Did you have any illness while abroad? YESINO

If YES, please give details

I declare that all the information given above is true and complete, to the best of my
knowledge and belief.

Signature: .. Date: ..

Fig. 9.1 An example of a staff self-declaration form.

the water covers the handle/blade junction and not to be recommended as it can quickly
that the knife or implement is visibly clean become filthy. This is particularly the case for
before being placed in the steriliser. If it is not splitting saws where, if a plunge bath is used,
washed first, the blood and debris will merely the water rapidly takes on the colour and
harden on to the blade, which should not be consistency" of a thick soup. For this type of
considered sanitised. A 44QC rinse followed by a equipment a cabinet into which the blade of the
dip into a steriliser at 82QC will reduce the implement is placed and sprayed with a foot-
contamination on a knife to less than 103efu/ cm operated stream of water is preferred. The
(Bell and Hathaway, 1996). Sterilising water from the cabinet can be positively ducted,
equipment without a flow-through of water is reducing steam and splash.
 Meat Hygiene Practice 229
In order that knives in particular spend be removed from the belt or scabbard and
sufficient time in the water at 82°C it is sterilised. It is unreasonable to expect the steel
necessary for each operative to have several to be stored throughout the day in the steriliser,
knives. This modus operandi is known rather since most operatives believe that this practice
grandly as the multipleknife technique. When the destroys the effectiveness of the steel. It should
operative arrives at the work-station to therefore be stored hanging freely from a hook
commence work, he or she places a number of at the work-station where it will remain
clean knives in the steriliser. Each time a knife effectively sterile providing only sterilised
becomes contaminated it is washed and placed knives are used on it. The steel should not be
in the steriliser and another knife is selected. stored in a wash-hand basin, which may
The knives are used serially so that each has contain stagnant water, on ledges, behind pipe-
spent the maximum possible period in the work or in most of the other ingenious places in
steriliser. which it is often found in the workplace.
This technique is suitable for knives and for
larger equipment like hock cutters where,
however, it may be necessary on some lines for Layout and flowlines
equipment to be doubled up so that each item The layout of the slaughterfloor and the
can spend sufficient time being flowlines for the entry and exit of carcases,
decontaminated. operatives, bins and other equipment is
particularly important and must be properly
designed at the planning stage. There should be
Hygienic use of the scabbard a clear demarcation and, if at all possible,
Scabbards of the closed type are in the main physical separation between clean and dirty
unhygienic and a source of contamination to a parts of the abattoir. Operatives must be able to
sterilised knife. The newer open stainless steel reach their work-station without risking
scabbard is a considerable improvement. contamination of themselves or the meat by
A scabbard is necessary, for health and safety walking through or under carcases on the lines
reasons, for the transportation of knives to the or passing through 'less fit' parts of the abattoir
work-station. Once at the work-station, all such as green offal rooms, rendering plants or
knives should be unloaded into the steriliser waste storage areas. During breaks, procedures
from which they are used for the rest of the must be in place to ensure that work clothes
working day. The only major exception to this and equipment remain clean. Insufficient
rule on the slaughterline is the operative who thought in this area frequently leads to workers
removes the head from the bovine. On most from different parts of the abattoir using the
slaughter lines he must carry the head from the same facilities during breaks, with the potential
point of removal to the washing cabinet, where for cross-contamination. It is not unknown for
the head is hung, trimmed and washed inside food factory operatives to be seen playing
and out with a high pressure spray. It would be football in protective clothing and footwear
unsafe for him or her to do so with the head in during their breaks from the line.
one hand and the knife in the other. It is obvious that waste bins and the hide
conveyor should never cross the slaughterline
because of the risk of contamination, but poor
Hygienic use of the steel design, especially in the older factories with
The steel, which is used to keep the knife sharp, twisted lines, sometimes makes this impossible
is a source of contamination frequently to avoid. It is not only the bin of, for example,
overlooked in daily operations. A steel which is bovine feet which is a risk, but also the
hanging from the user's belt, dangling either operative who propels it. He or she will by
inside or against the outside of a wellington necessity be passing back and forth from clean
boot, cannot be considered as a suitably work room to the waste skip area. The official
hygienic surface against which to rub a knife veterinarian should be continuously asking the
which has just been removed from a steriliser. questions of every operative and practice: How
The cleanliness of the steel, and its storage did that get there? Where is it going? What is
when not in use, are therefore very important. the risk to meat hygiene? Another question, and
On arrival at the work-station, the steel should one frequently omitted, is Where will the tray
230 Meat Hygiene
or buggy be washed before it returns to the towards and into the clean interior, is always
work place? The use of chutes removing waste fraught with the hygienic risk of pushing dirt or
without the need for personnel movements is hair on to the carcase. These initial cuts must,
clearly advantageous. therefore, be carried out with great care and
Another important consideration is the kept as short as possible. Once through the
layout of the individual work-station. It is skint the knife must be washed and sterilised,
important that the washing and sanitising and/ or exchanged for a clean knife. All
equipment is sited so that it is simple and incisions from this initial one should then be
convenient to use. To put it bluntly, if the made using a spear cut technique, where the
equipment is not positioned so that it is easier blade of the knife is reversed so that its back is
for the operative to use it than not, it is against the carcase and the cut is made from the
inevitable that in the hurly-burly of the inside of the skin towards the outside, or to put
workplace and the repetitive nature of the it another way, from clean towards dirty. This
tasks, shortcuts will be taken. Good design is results in reduced contamination (Fig. 9.2).
also important. To illustrate the point/ consider a common
An apron wash with the steriliser positioned procedure for freeing the hide from the rear
on its outer wall is one such example, where the quarters during on-line dressing of cattle. An
operative steps into the apron wash, washes the initial short incision is made along the ventral
knife as he enters and places it in the steriliser, midline between the hindlegs of the suspended
washes his apron, hands and arms in the apron animal. The knife used is washed and placed in
wash, and collects a clean knife on his way out. the steriliser, hands, arms and apron washed,
and a clean sterilised knife is collected from the
steriliser. The initial incision is extended
DRESSING TECHNIQUES - REMOVAL downwards towards the umbilicus, and
OF HIDE/FLEECE/HAIR upwards along the free hind limb towards the
hock, using the spear technique. Skinning then
The contamination of the carcase by dirt, debris proceeds from these incisions.
and hair from the outer integument of the During skinning the carcase frequently
animal must be prevented as far as possible by becomes contaminated from inrolling at the
good dressing technique. In many cases edges of the hide. Small alterations to the
complete prevention is almost impossible, e.g. positioning of the skinning incisions is often
with deer which have been allowed to wallow, sufficient to alter the way in which the hide
are caked with mud and in addition shed their hangs and so eradicate the problem. The use of
hair profusely. Details of some recommended pairs of crocodile clips joined by a plastic cord
techniques are outlined below. These are, has been found to be a useful tool in the
however, only suggestions and not all will be prevention of inrolling, especially when used at
appropriate under every circumstance. The the hide-puller.
skill of the professionally-trained veterinarian A particular problem with hide-pullers,
is to understand the general principles so that especially those which pull upwards, is dirt
they may be adapted to a particular practical flicking from the hide on to the exposed carcase
situation or problem encountered. as the hide finally detaches from the carcase
and head. These flecks must be removed
immediately by trimming (Fig. 9.3).
Cattle
A particularly important initial cut through
Dry, clean cattle having been stunned, are the skin is the one which exposes the major
allowed to slide or tumble from the stunning vessels in the neck for sticking. As previously
box. The use of raised slats or metal grid in this described, the knife contaminated while incising
area - the dry landing area - is essential in order the skin must be washed and sterilised, and a
to keep the animals as clean and dry as clean knife used to sever the blood vessels.
possible. The cattle are then hoisted by the
leading hindleg on to the line and bled before
the removal of the hide commences. Sheep
An incision through the skint the knife Most of the techniques described for cattle are
moving as it must through the dirty exterior also applicable to sheep. Many of the problems
 Meat Hygiene Practice 231

Fig.9.2 The initial incision, which will be extended using the spear cu t technique. Effective outrolling of
hide is shown at left in (8). (By courtesy of R. H. S. Moore BA, MVE, MRCVS)

Hg. 9.3 Downward. hide puller; more hygienic than upward. pull er and can also skin head, previousl y
prepared . (By courtesy of Messrs Nijhuis Stachtt echn iek, Lichtenvocrde, The Ne therlands)
232 Meat Hygiene
occur with the ventral incision and with in- In Italy, mechanical subcutaneous inflation
rolling of the fleece. Again the elasticised has been used to assist in skinning lightweight
crocodile clips are useful. Judicious use of lambs. Producers claim that the resultant
glossy paper sheets placed on the sternum and carcase has a better appearance and that there
inguinal regions can be very successful. It is are fewer cuts in the subcutaneous fat and
imperative that the right sort of paper, which muscle. The technique has been shown to
will remain in place but not adhere produce carcases of comparable
permanently to the carcase, is used. microbiological standard to those produced by
A particular problem may be encountered conventional dressing. It is now allowed within
where dry dirty sheep release dust while the the ED under Directive 95/23/EC for lambs
fleece is being mechanically removed. This dust with a liveweight of <15 kg.
can be virtually impossible to remove from the
carcase surface. Pelting machines which allow
the pelt to flap about and recoil excessively
Pigs
when it is released from the carcase are most Most pigs in the British Isles are scalded,
likely to result in the exposed meat surface dehaired, singed and scraped as a preparation
being showered with loose hairs and other for bacon production rather than being
debris from the fleece. skinned. The scalding water may contain many
In the traditional sheep dressing system, the lamb different types of bacteria originating from the
was suspended initially by the hindlegs. The pelt pigs' skin and gastrointestinal tract, including
was freed manually from the hind-quarters and Salmonella spp. The temperature of the water in
removed to the level of the shoulders by a the drag-through scalding tank, at 60°C, is
combination of 'punching out' and pulling generally sufficient to reduce vegetative
downwards from tail to head. The forelegs were growth. The skins of scalded pigs have low
then lifted and hung on a rail running parallel to numbers of both enteric pathogens and
that suspending the hind-feet, and the spoilage bacteria (Sorquist and Danielsson-
forequarter was skinned using knife work and a Tham, 1986; Troeger, 1994), but the subsequent
horizontal pull. This technique has been dehairing process recontaminates the skin. The
replaced in many sheep slaughterlines by a more bacterial content of the muscle and viscera
hygienic system, known as inverteddressing. The does, however, appear to be affected by the type
lamb is suspended initially by the forelegs, and of scalding equipment.
the pelt is loosened from around the shoulders. Vertical scalding of pigs on the line with
Some knife work is utilised to partially free the humidified air reduces the opportunity for
pelt from the hindquarters, before it is removed contamination of the carcase via the stick wound
by a mechanical pelter pulling from head to tail. (Fig. 9.4). Humidified air is blown under pressure
It is common practice, particularly in New through nozzles to reach all parts of the carcases.
Zealand, to wash the carcases after pelting and Scalding at a temperature of 61°C continues for
before evisceration to remove visible about 7 minutes. Water consumption is about
contamination such as wool, blood and faeces. 15% of the normal method. There is no cross-
It is likely that, although this practice improves contamination, no water in lungs, no infection of
the appearance of the carcase, it actually assists thorax through the stick wound and no
in spreading contamination to otherwise clean recirculation of dirty water.
parts of the carcase and adds water to the warm Following singeing, the bacterial load on the
exposed meat surface to assist bacterial carcase surface is of the order of tens of
metabolism. bacterialcm', but the scraping and polishing
Bell and Hathaway (1996) found that the procedures which follow recontaminate the
areas of highest contamination were the surface to the order of 103 bacterialcm-. The
forequarter region with inverted dressing and majority of these are spoilage bacteria,
the hindquarter with conventional dressing. In predominantly acinetobacteria, moraxellae and
both cases these regions are the sites where cuts pseudomonads, with enteric organism such as
are made through the skin. With both systems E. coli and Campylobacter at single figures per
contamination around these cuts was entirely cm-.
consistent with direct fleece contact resulting An apparatus, described by Gill (1996), has
from'rollback'. been developed and trialled commercially on a
 Meat Hygiene Practice 233

•
• _ _01
A 8

Fig. 9.4 Vertical scalding of pigs with humidified air. A, Overall view of chamber with exit at right.
B, Section of chamber.

pig line operating at 800 pigs/hour, and is involves the operative placing a plas tic bag
capable of reducing the contamination on the over his left hand with a strong elastic band
surface of uneviscerated pigs by a factor of 10'. around his wrist. The exposed end of the
The machine washes the pigs with sheets of rectum is grasped with this hand and a circular
water heated to 85QC for a treatment time of 15 incision made around the rectum, freeing it
seconds. Water is recircu lated from a tank from adherent tissues within the pelvis. The
beneath the line through screens to header plastic bag is then unfurled over the rectu m
tanks which feed the nozzles. from the hand grasping it and secured in place
One common problem, or perceived with the clastic band. The protected rectu m can
problem, is the failure of the automatic not v be allowed to pass or be pushed down into
equipmen t to remove all of the pig's toe nails all the abdominal cavity. If a downward hid e-
of the time. Although they look dirty, personal puller is utilised, the rectu m must be freed prior
investigation would suggest that toe nails carry to removal of the hide. This is a more d ifficult
no greater a bacterial load than the rest of the task to complete hygienically since the circular
carcase. cut around the rectu m to free it has to be made
through the contaminat ed hide.
Recen tly de sign ed equipment has
Preventing con tam in atio n fr om th e transformed the task of bun g removal, reducing
gas tro in testinal tract faecal con tami nation sig nificantly, improving
After the outer integument, the gas troin testi na l carcase dressing technique and m ini mising
tract is the next most impor tant potentia l source operati ve fati gu e an d risk of knife damage (to
of contamination. How ever, if the rectu m and operative and carcase meat).
oesophagus can be sea led, and the tract A mac hine d evelop ed in Australia known as
removed intact, the contamina tio n can be the Beef Bu ng Bagging Machine (Fig. 9.5)
effectively controlled. automatically grasps the rectum, leav ing the
ope ra tive to clear the rectum fro m its
attachments with a circular incision. A plastic
Cattle bag and rubber ring are applied to make a
The technique used for sealing the rectum is secure seal on the rectum and all operations are
known as bunging. The system depends to some carried out without hand contact with the
extent on flaying technique and on the type of carcase.
htdcpuller being utilised . If an upwards A less sophisticated hydraulically operated
hid epuller is in use, the skin is pulled away elastrator can also be used for scaling a plastic
from the perineal reg ion with the rest of the bag with a rubber ring (Fig. 9.6).
hide leaving the perineal region hyg ienically The oesophagus (weasand) in cattle is
exposed. The technique which is recommended usually sealed by an elastrator ring applied at
234 M eat Hygiene

A B

Fig.9.5 Bed bung bagging machine. A plastic bag

w ith ring underneath is inserted into the rectum
MId the machine is retrac ted as rectal attachments
arc cleared. The plastic bag is automatically
inverted over the rectu m and scaled with a rubber
ring . The rectum is then released into the pe lvic
ca vity. A, Plastic bag and ring in po sition pri or to
inserti on into rectum. B, Mach ine retra cted.
drawing out rectum after hand-severing of
attachment s. C. Rectum enclosed and scaled in
pla stic ba g read y for release int o pelvic cavi ty. (By
courtesy of SFK Meal Processing Systems)

c
 Meat Hygiene Practice 235

Fig. 9.7 Stainless steel redder.

rectum, cut off the pos terior few cent ime tres
and allow the cut end to drop into the
abdominal cavitv
The oesophagus in sheep may be sealed
using a smaller version of the bovi ne rodd ing
equipment, but more frequently clips are used .

Pigs
In pigs, the abdominal cavity is opened and the
pubic synthesis of the pelvis is split prior to the
freeing of the rectum. The anal sphincter is
removed intact and, since the pelvis is split, the
rectum can be de tached and removed fro m the
abdominal cavity w it h the en tir e
gastrointestinal tract in one m ovement.
Commonly, the only attempt made to seal the
rectum to prevent faecal spillage is a simple
Fig. 9.6 Elastrarors with expanded rubber ring knot tied in the posterior rectu m . 111e most
ready for placing over plastic bag or rectum. (By common reason for con taminatio n of the
courtesy of R. H. S. Moore MRCVS) carcase is acciden tal incis ion of the wall of the
rectum wh ile the operative is cutting round to
free it . The procedure leaves little margin for
the oesop hageal-ru minal ju nc tion in a error since the operati ve does not want to cut
procedure kn ow n as rodding . The p rocedure into the hams, one of the most expe nsive cuts.
involves the separation out of th e oesophagu s In Denma rk this p roblem has been allevi ated
and, using a stai nless steel instrumen t, forcing a by the introduction of au tomatic bunging. A
rubber ring up the len gth of the oesophagus, d evice with a tubular blad e is pos itioned by a
through the thoracic cavi ty, to d eposi t it us ing a cen tra l p in which is pla ced u p the rect um . The
trigger d evice at the oesophageal-rumi na I b lade cu ts down around the rectum, loosening
junction (Fig. 9.7). Rodding is best carried out it.
im med iately bleeding is completed to prevent No attempt is u su ally made to sea l th e
the escape of ru minal fluid, which would porcine oesophagus.
contaminate the tissues of the head and neck.

POST-SLAUGHTER
Slleep DECO NTAMINATION
In sheep, after the pelt is removed, the rectum is
freed from the attachments within the pelvis The emergence of E. coli 0 157: H7, especia lly in
and a length of 30 cm, or more, is exteriorised. Canada, USA and Scotland, as a significant
Although several altern ative practices exist, it is food poisoning pathogen of animal origin has
acceptable to 'mil k' the solid faeces back up the initiated a search for methods by which the
236 Meat Hygiene
consu mer can be given even greater assurances sheep carcases, Le. a portion of the carcase most
as to the safety of the meat to be consumed . The likely to be contaminated by slaugh ter
deaths of children and the elderly who had personnel, but led to bacterial contamination of
consumed beef-burgers contaminated with low the clean dorsal surface of the carcase. The
numbers of the organisms has caused conclusion was th erefore drawn that spray
un derstandable hysteria, especially as it washing with water at 12<lC, 6 bar pressure for
followed upon increased public concern about 20 s did not im prove the microbial status of
other food poisoning organisms such as sheep carcases and tha t the additional water
Salmonella and List eria. To answer these remaining on the carcase enhanced t he
concern s and in an attempt to improve meat multiplication of bacteria in the long run. Many
safety, the USDA Food Safet y Inspection Ser vice investiga tors have demonstrated that an
(FSIS), suggest that all carcases must receive at im pro vemen t in bacteriological results occurs if
least one antimicrobial treatment before water at a temperature over 6O"C is utilised
chilling. These treatments may include hot with washes of >85<lC frequentl y being
water; organic acid sp rays; antim icrob ials; recommended . The USDA have recommended
hydrogen peroxide; tnsodium phosphate (TSP) that the water should have a temperature of
and chlorinated water. > 74~ for at least 10 s. Hot water also gives
carcases a better bloom tha n cold water sprays.
One regime for washing carcases
Wate r recommends water containing 15ppm chlorine
In the recent past it was common practice to at a temperature of 85-90QC applied through a
wash the carcases of both cattle and sheep with fanshaped nozzle at a pressure of 100 psi , at a
large volumes of hot or cold water to remove rate of 18litrcs /min for cattle and 9litres/min
any visible con tam ination which had found its for sheep .
way on to the carcase during processing. The Gill (1996) conclu ded that washing,
general movement has been away from this unaccompanied by he ating of the carcase
practice towards the use of the minimal amount su rface to temperatures which will kill bacteria,
of water necessary to remove bone dust from should be considered as an ineffective means of
the spinal col u mn, with faec al and o the r decontaminating carcases.
contamination being removed by trimming.
This approach was su pported by a great deal of
Ste am p as te urisa ti on/ste rilisati on (Fig. 9.8)
scienti fic research and com ment, such as that of
Ellerbroek et al. (1993), who demonstrated that The Food Safety and Inspection Service of the
spray washing did not reduce or increase USDA has approved two novel methods of
bacterial contamination of the ve ntral area of cleansing beef carcases. The first is a steam

Air blowe rs Steam tank

Steam line Chilled water line

o
o
\. 0 i
o
o
L,,-J1~_ _ ~_~JLI_ _~ _
Water Chill ing section
removal section

Fig.9.8 Steam pasteurisation chamber - water remo val, pasteurisation and chill sections.
 Meat Hygiene Practice 237
vacuum sterilisation process which uses water at elapsed between contamination and treatment,
88°C, vacuum and steam at 45 psi to remove the organism, the temperature of the solution,
contamination and sterilise the meat surface and the method of delivery.
through means of a nozzle similar to a vacuum A study utilising chlorine at 20 ppm in a beef
carpet cleaner (Dorsa, 1996). The second is a carcase wash at 16°C for 10 and 60 s
system of steam sterilisation in which, after demonstrated that treatments with chlorine at
removal 'of surface water, the split carcases are this concentration and temperature were no
passed through a sealed chamber where they more effective than water alone for reducing
are exposed to low-pressure steam at over 85°C faecal contamination on meat (Cutter and
for 8 s and then cooled with a chilled water Dorsa, 1995). However, higher concentrations
spray (Phebus, 1996). of chlorine up to and above 350 ppm have been
A study by Gill et al. (1995) considered that utilised and reported to be effective, although
treatment of pig carcases prior to evisceration such high concentrations of chlorine are neither
with water at 85°C for 20 s gave maximum advisable or acceptable. Chlorine is readily
destruction of the surface bacteria present. inactivated by organic matter and combines
with amino nitrogen to form the less active
chloroamines.
Trimming Investigations indicate that acid treatments
are more effective on adipose tissue than lean
Prasai et al. (1995) demonstrated that removing meat, and that while spray treatments with
visible contamination by trimming and then organic acids do reduce populations of E. coli
washing was the most practical and effective 0157:H7 on red meat, neither lactic, citric or
method for reducing microbial contamination acetic acid at concentrations up to 5% reduced
of the beef carcase. They emphasised that the pathogen levels to zero (Cutter and
frequent sterilisation of knives and other tools Siragusa, 1994). Brackett et al. (1994) confirmed
used in the trimming process was essential to that these acids at concentrations up to 1.5%
reduce or minimise bacterial contamination, applied at 20°C and 55°C did not appreciably
and that individual operative technique was reduce numbers of E. coli 0157:H7 on beef. In
the most important factor in the efficiency of general it would appear that although organic
trimming. acids are successful in reducing the numbers of
spoilage bacteria present on the meat surface,
they are of much less use when required to
Chemical treatments render meat safer by removing pathogenic
The following chemicals have been used to bacteria.
reduce the bacterial load on meat after Trisodium phosphate has been used to reduce
slaughter: the total viable counts on poultry carcases by
50% and the incidence of salmonella-contami-
1 Chlorine nated carcases from 9.5% to 0%. Phosphates are,
2 Organic acids: e.g. acetic acid however, potential environmental pollutants.
lactic acid The abuse of post-processing treatment to
citric acid mask sloppy work and inspection processes
must be rigorously opposed. The FSIS in the
fumaric acid
United States recognises this and states
3 Hydrogen peroxide categorically that 'antimicrobial treatments will
4 Antimicrobials: e.g. nisin not be permitted to substitute for strict
bactericin compliance with sanitary slaughter and carcase
5 Phosphates: trisodium phosphate dressing procedures, e.g. no visible faecal
contamination will be permitted on the carcase
The effectiveness of chemical treatments in before the treatment is applied", Suitably
reducing the numbers of pathogenic organisms controlled, and as part of an integrated
is far from being definitely established. Efficacy approach to the reduction in the total numbers
may vary with the particular chemical used, the of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria present on
concentration of the chemical, the contact time, the carcase before it enters the chillers, these
the tissue type, the length of time which has treatments may have an important role to play.
238 Meat Hygiene
Public demand for meat which is naturally Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
produced and residue-free, however, may make (HACCP)
the concept of treating meat with
To deliver the customer this quality assurance,
antimicrobials, acids or high levels of chlorine, a more proactive method was sought by which
difficult to establish. the source of microbiological hazards could be
identified and eliminated. What was required
The washing of edible offals was a systematic and targeted approach to
food hygiene where the potential. problems
The washing of edible offals such as liver, were identified and the efforts of the Inspectors
kidneys, hearts, thin skirt and tails is another were directed to those areas which could
important facet of satisfactory abattoir hygiene eliminate the deficiency in the process. This
and it is essential that a continuous flow of approach has become k~own as Hazard
clean water be used for this purpose. An Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP). ~ll
excellent device for the washing of tongues is federally-inspected meat slaughter plants In
an inclined rotating metal drum with a the USA must have a plant-specific HACCP
through-flow of water working on the same
plan, and in the EU the principles ha:e f~und
principle as a cement mixer though without the their way into the more recent meat directives,
central agitating arms. International acceptance of the approach was
underlined during the Uruguay Round of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT), when the inclusion of the Codex
ASSESSING OPERATIONAL HYGIENE Alimentarius Commission's recommendations
on the application of HACCP were specifically
Traditionally the meat hygiene inspection team identified as the baseline for consumer
assessed the standard of operational hygiene by
protection under the Agreement on. the
utilising a programme of regular checks Application of Sanitary and Phytosamtary
combined with a random visual and
Measures.
microbiological examination of the end- All HACCP systems comprise the following
product. In most meat factories this consisted of
sequential steps:
regular inspections of the hygiene of structures
and equipment, usually utilising check lists.
The checks carried out, and the standards of 1. Hazard analysis
hygiene structure and procedures required The first step in applying the HACCP system to
were laid down in codes of practice, such as a food manufacturing operation is to identify
those developed to encourage Good and quantify the microbiological hazards and
Manufacturing Practices (GMP), directives, risks within the operation. The following
decisions, regulations and by-laws enforced by definitions (ICMSF, 1988) are important:
local, national and international bodies.
These quality control programmes, however, • Hazard means the unacceptable
could at best only identify problems after they contamination, unacceptable growth and I or
unacceptable survival by microorganisms of
had occurred, and put them right. Unless 100% concern to safety or spoilage andlor the
checking took place, which is almost always unacceptable production or persistence in
impossible, quality control systems can only foods of products of microbiological
identify problems after they have occurred and, metabolism (e.g. toxins, enzymes, biogenic
hopefully, before too much substandard amines).
product has passed out of the system. All too • Severity is the seriousness (magnitude) of
frequently, a manufacturer only became aware the hazard.
of a problem with the manufacturing process as • Risk is an estimate of the likely occurrence of
a result of a complaint of premature spoilage in a hazard.
the marketplace or from reports of illness. Food
retailers and their customers increasingly The analysis requires the specialist
demand a system where there are no errors, knowledge of a multidisciplinary team and
and will not accept any risk that food poisoning should include food microbiologists, engineers,
may occur. veterinarians, cleaning experts and so on. A
 Meat Hygiene Practice 239
step-by-step investigation of the process is has subsequently been revised and subdivided
carried out, from the specification required for so that we may now describe:
the raw material through the manufacturing
• CCP1 where the hazard can be prevented or
process to the distribution chain. eliminated;
Epidemiological investigation of historical
episodes of premature spoilage or food • CCP2 where the hazard can be minimised,
reduced or delayed;
poisoning in which the product was implicated
can provide valuable information about
potential hazards. All of the data emerging or under a different system:
from this analysis should be collated into a flow • CCPe where the hazards are eliminated and
chart (Fig. 9.9) and all of the hazards identified no further problem exists;
and evaluated with regard to their severity and • CCPp where the hazards are prevented but
likely frequency of occurrence. not necessarily eliminated;
• CCPr where the hazard is significantly
2. Determination of the Critical Control Points reduced, minimised or delayed.
(CCPs)
The proper identification of CCPs can make
The classical definition of a critical control point the difference between an effective HACCP
(Codex Alimentarius Commission, Codex 1991) programme and one that, by the identification
is a location, practice, procedure or process at of too many points in the system which must be
which control can be exercised over one or considered as critical, becomes ineffective. The
more factors which, if controlled, could definition of CCPs should, therefore, be
minimise or prevent a hazard. This definition amended to mean a point in the process where

(Cattle, sheep, goats, horses) (Pigs)

Skinning
• CCP2 Scalding CCP2

Eviscerating

Washing
• CCP 2

CCP 2

Chilling CCP1

Transporting 0 CCP2 CCP2

Cutting/boning 0 CCP1

Packaging CCP 2

Cutting/boning

Fig. 9.9 Flow diagram for fresh meat production and processing. 0 indicates a site of minor contamination;
• indicates a site of major contamination; CCPI effective CCP; CCP 2 not absolute. (International
Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) of the International Union of
240 Meat Hygiene
loss of control has a reasonable probability of these techniques are suitable for determining
creating an unacceptable health risk. total counts of bacteria, while others determine
the presence of specific pathogens. Techniques
utilising monoclonal antibodies and DNA
3. Specification of the criteria probes in combination with automatic
Criteria are specific limits of characteristics of a instruments are being developed which can
physical (e.g. time or temperature), chemical give results in hours.
(e.g. salt or acetic acid) or biological (e.g. A microbial ATP bioluminescence assay has
sensorial or microbiological) nature. Increasing been shown to be an accurate and rapid method
emphasis has been placed on quantitative, for determining the levels of generic bacterial
rather than qualitative, criteria which indicate contamination on beef and pork carcases
whether or not an operation is under control. (Siragusa et al., 1995). The technique can
Quantitative criteria, such as time, temperature, distinguish between microbial and non-
pH and the concentration of various chemicals, microbial ATP, but sensitivity is variable at
can be measured and indicate definitively that a microbial levels below 10" (Siragusa and Cutter
system is or is not controlled. Qualitative 1995). The entire test, including sampling, takes
criteria such as colour or smell are more only 5 minutes to complete (see p. 376).
difficult to determine objectively and
consequently it is much more difficult to judge
divergence from the accepted normal. 5. Corrective action
Microbiological criteria are particularly difficult Procedures must be established so that
to quantify in absolute terms under practical immediate action can be taken for detection of
conditions. A great deal of standardisation of deviation from the established criteria. This
sampling and laboratory techniques is required may involve rectifying an out-of-control
before values can be compared. Attempts to situation before an operation is allowed to
quantify in numerical terms the infective dose commence, or halting the manufacturing
of a particular pathogen are fraught with process.
difficulties owing to differences in
pathogenicity of different strains and varying
susceptibility between different groups of 6. Verification
consumers.
Verification checks are carried out systematically
by the quality assurance staff and the
4. Implementation of the monitoring system veterinary inspection team. It is important that
Monitoring is the systematic checking of the duplication of effort by the in-house and
process or procedure, at a particular CCP, in regulatory inspectors is avoided and that all
order to detect any deviations from the criteria checks are complementary. Verification may
which have been set. This is best carried out by involve some microbiological checks of end-
the operatives themselves or by their product, structures and equipment. All checks
supervisors rather than by a special team of should be carried out at a statistically-
quality assurance staff. The integration of the significant frequency and in a systematic,
checks into the routine of the manufacturing targeted manner.
process and the ownership of the quality
assurance by the workers is an important aspect
of a successful system. The methods selected
7. Documentation
for monitoring must give immediate results so Many HACCP systems in meat plants have
that any problems detected can be corrected died under the weight of paper they generate.
immediately. Traditional microbiological If, after implementation has occurred, it is
checks, where the results may not be available discovered that too many CCPs were identified
for 36 hours or more, are therefore of little and that the monitoring process is
value. unnecessarily complicated or cumbersome,
A number of new approaches to there must be sufficient flexibility in the system
microbiological monitoring are, however, to allow adjustments to be made. Another risk
becoming commercially available. Some of with cumbersome documentation is that the
 Meat Hygiene Practice 241
completion of the form can rapidly become the REFERENCES
monitoring personnel's primary objective
rather than merely a tool to meet the overall Bell, R. G. and Hathaway, S. C (1996) J. Appl.
objective of safe food. Bacterial. 81, 225-234.
A HACCP system is not something which Biss, M. E. and Hathaway, S. C (1996) Vet. Rec. 138,
should, or can, be imposed by either the in- 82-86.
house quality assurance staff or the regulatory Brackett, R. E., Hao, Y. Y. and Doyle, M. P (1994) J.
Food Protection 57(3), 198-203.
authority, though both bodies must be
Cutter, C. N. and Dorsa, W. J (1995) J. Food Protection
intimately involved. For the system to work 58(12), 1294-1296.
properly, the entire workforce within the food Cutter, C. N. and Siragusa, G. R (1994) J. Food
factory, including all managers, supervisors, Protection 57(2),97-103.
operatives, fitters and cleaning staff, must be Dorsa, W. (1996) Proceedings of the 49th Reciprocal Meat
dedicated to the success of the system and Conference, Prouo, Utah, June 1996, pp. 114-120.
involved in its operation. This requires a Ellerbroek, L. 1., Wegener, J. F. and Arndt, G. (1993) J.
considerable investment of time in training for Food Protection 56(5),432-436.
all staff. Empey, W. A and Scott, W. J (1939) Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, Bulletin No. 126.
Gill, C. O. (1996) Meat Focus Int. April, 121-122.
Gill, C. 0., McGinnis, D. S., Bryant, J. and Chabot, B.
HYGIENE ASSESSMENT SYSTEMS (1995) Food Microbiol. 12,143-149.
(HAS) Hudson, W. R., Mead, G. C. and Hinton, M. H. (1996)
Vet. Rec. 139,587-589.
Risk assessment principles are also used as a tool Phebus, R. (1996) Proceedings of the 49th Reciprocal
for assessing and monitoring hygienic Meat Conference, Provo, Utah, June 1996, pp.
standards. Most of the systems developed 121-124.
depend upon observations being made at each Prasai, R. K., Phebus, R. K., Garcia Zepeda, C. A,
step in a process, with points being awarded Kastner, C. L., Boyle, A E. and Fung, D. Y. C.
according to the degree of compliance with the (1995) J. Food Protection 58(10), 1114-1117.
Ridell, J. and Korkeala, H. (1993) Meat Sci. 35,
required standard. Scores are weighted with 223-228.
regard to the risk that partial compliance Schnell, T. D., Sofas, J. N., Littlefiel, V. G., Morgan, J.
accords the safety of the final product. A total B., Gorman, B. M., Clayton, R. P. and Smith, G. C.
score at the end of the inspection gives a (1995) J. Food Protection 58(12), 1297-1302.
measure of the hygienic compliance. Siragusa, G. R. and Cutter, C. N. (1995) J. Food
In an assessment of the HAS system Protection 58(7),764-769.
operated in abattoirs in Great Britain by the Siragusa, G. R., Cutter, CN., Dorsa, W. J. and
State Veterinary Service, a significant Koohmaraie, M. (1995) J. Food Protection 58(7),
correlation was reported between the mean 770-775.
Sorquist, S. and Danielsson-Tham, M. L. (1986)
total viable bacterial count for each abattoir and
Fleischioirtschuft 66, 1745-1748.
the mean HAS scores. It was concluded that Troeger, K. (1994) Fleischwirtschaft 74(6), 624-626.
HAS scores were useful in predicting the ability
of an abattoir to produce carcases of sound
microbiological status, especially the categories
concerned with slaughter and dressing, FURTHER READING
personnel and practices (Hudson et al., 1996).
The score achieved gives a snapshot of the (HACCP) principles in food control. Food and
Nutrition Paper, 58.
hygienic standard of the process and does
ICMSF (The International Commission on
provide a useful tool, assisting management in Microbiological Specification Foods) (1988).
their efforts to improve Good Manufacturing Microorganisms in Food, 4. Application of the hazard
Practice. The assessment has the advantage in analysis critical control point (HACCP) system to
that it can be carried out by relatively ensure microbiological safety and quality. London:
inexperienced staff. Blackwell.
 COhapter 10
Red Meat Inspection

It is beyond dispute that the inspection from the fully integrated production systems
procedures which have served the meat operated in Scandinavian countries to small local
industry since they were first introduced by 'Quality Assured Meat' schemes. The Danish pig
von Ostertag at the turn of the century are in system is the pinnacle to which all others should
need of a radical overhaul. The necessity for aspire, providing the official veterinarian in the
change has been championed by recognised abattoir with detailed information about every
authorities in meat hygiene worldwide over the production unit, with data on husbandry
last 10 years: Blackmore (1983), Hathaway et al. matters, disease status and drug use. However, it
(1987), Berends et al. (1993), [ohnston (1994) and is difficult to see how this system could ever be
many others. However, it is essential that any applied uniformly across all food animal species
alterations to the existing systems are based on throughout the European Union or the United
sound scientific principles of food hygiene, and States without the introduction of a cumbersome
not unduly influenced by political pressures bureaucratic exercise which would be costly and
from interested parties either from within the impossible to police, and would result in
meat industry seeking short-term financial distortions to trade.
savings, or from the 'inspection industry' On-farm certification, similar to that
seeking to defend their positions and the status introduced by the Poultry Directive 92/116,
quo. Food safety is of paramount importance. may be of some finite value. Most of the cattle
and sheep production in Europe is still
relatively small-scale, and many of the animals
ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION slaughtered come to the abattoir via dealers or
short-term finishers who can provide only a
As already discussed in Chapter 7, ante- very limited history. The best hope of progress
mortem inspection, as presently carried out in would seem to lie with 'Producer Groups' or
the lairage in many countries, is limited in its 'Quality Assurance Schemes' where a group of
effectiveness owing to the often excited nature farmers undertake to conform to a set of
of the animals, the constraint of the premises, production standards, but development has
and the fact that there is no requirement for the been slow owing to the lack of any substantial
UK producer, except for casualty slaughter premium which these animals can attract. This
animals, to declare any information with regard form of producer assurance combined with
to the health status of the animal or group of periodic veterinary inspections to verify the
animals he is presenting for slaughter. The fact information provided may be the most practical
is that, as the present system stands, it is in the approach.
producer's interest to attempt to conceal all Without an accurate pre-slaughter history,
such information in case the inspector should the preselection of animals for slaughter into
take a particular interest in the animals. This disease-risk groups is problematic and at best
situation means that the Official Veterinarian subjective. Consequently, any suggestion of the
attempts to make a clinical diagnosis without a introduction of less rigorous on-line post-
history, a situation that could not be tolerated in mortem inspection regimes is difficult to justify.
day-to-day veterinary medical practice. Preselection should, however, remain a long-
Many different methods have been tried in an term aim, and may begin with differentiation
attempt to fill this information vacuum, ranging by age, young animals in general presenting a

243
244 Meat Hygiene
lower risk. The requirement of Directive working conditions and enable carcases and
92/102/EEC for all cattle, sheep and pigs across their parts to be delivered for inspection in a
the European Union to be identified could be satisfactory manner, each inspection point
coupled with computerisation to form the basis should have well-distributed lighting of at least
of an animal health system capable of 540 lux in intensity which does not distort
delivering effective pre-slaughter history, for colours. There must also be sufficient sanitising
example, concerning the origins of the animals, units for equipment, hands and aprons, with
herd/flock previous post-mortem findings, disinfectant soap and disposable paper towels
previous results of residue sampling, health available. Sterilisers which operate at 82°C and
status within government health schemes, allow for immersion of knives, cleavers and
membership of 'Quality Assurance Schemes', saws to above the blade-handle junction are
etc. Such systems already exist in some regions essential.
in Europe, one example being the Department These requirements extend to the routine
of Agriculture for Northern Ireland's 'Animal inspection points on the slaughter line and to
Health Computer' which holds data relating to the 'detained' area where further detailed
all bovine animals within Northern Ireland. examination is performed. It is essential that
This has allowed various assurances to be given there should be coordination and
to accompany beef exports, e.g. regarding the communication between inspection points and
herd of origin's freedom from bovine that the inspectors on the inspection line can
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). confidently identify correlated carcases and
The role of the auxiliary, as defined in Article 9 of viscera. For most domestic farm animals, there
the Directive 91/497/EEC, in assisting the Official are normally three main inspection points:
Veterinarian in 'making an initial check on the head, viscera and carcase. Ideally, the
animals and helping with purely practical tasks' inspection station for the viscera should be
should only go as far as the detention of suspect slightly before the carcase inspection point so
animals for the veterinarian's attention, and only that significant findings can be communicated
after the auxiliary has received considerable to the carcase inspector. Synchronisation of
training in animal production and disease. conveyorised lines carrying carcases and offal is
Effective ante-mortem examination of livestock absolutely fundamental for accurate
must be seen as an essential and fundamental identification of carcases and their related
monitoring of a Critical Control Point in any organs. A fail-safe method must be put in place
HACCP system, ensuring that the meat processor to ensure that, when a carcase is condemned,
is provided with a healthy, clean, stress-free and, as the head, viscera and blood can also be
far as can be determined, residue-free raw material. retrieved for condemnation. There must also be
It must, therefore, remain a basic responsibility of a mechanism by which, when a carcase is
the Official Veterinarian and his appropriately detained, the viscera and other body parts are
trained team of auxiliaries. also sent to the detained room. In many cases, it
Routine ante-mortem inspection calls for an is almost impossible for the veterinarian to
entirely different procedure in countries such as make a proper informed judgement on a
North and South America, Canada or Australia, carcase without the evidence which the viscera
where the animals may be range cattle, can provide.
compared with the United Kingdom and Europe A method of communicating the information
where the animals can usually be approached gained at ante-mortem must be in place and
and handled. In every case an inspection should should alert the inspectors at each point of
be carried out daily and the final examination inspection.
should take place within 24 hours of slaughter. Systems of recording disease data vary
Close AM and PM liaison is essential. according to the particular operation and the
type and rate of slaughter. For low slaughter
rates a manual system of recording findings on
POST-MORTEM INSPECTION a washable 'Nobo' board may be satisfactory,
but for fast lines computerised systems with
Facilities for post-mortem inspection automatic recording of the 'kill number' from a
In addition to the usual structural and transponder on the hook or gambrel, with a
mechanical facilities which provide for good touch- or voice-operated information recorder,
 Red Meat Inspection 245
must be considered. If a universal microchip for hygiene concerns, it is important to have a
the identification of cattle were to be accepted, reliable system of substituting'dead' for 'live'
this 'number' could be read automatically identifications so that accurate details of
throughout the animal's life and through to the producer (or wholesaler, retailer), ownership,
end of the slaughterline (see Chapter 21). carcase weight, grade, classification and disease
Every inspection station should have a line information are maintained.
stop-button within easy reach. The inspectors Practically all the current forms of meat
must be invested with the authority to stop identification have drawbacks, from the
production immediately in the event of a standpoint of hygiene, legibility or practicality.
contamination incident, or if correlation For example, the commonly used labels with
between the inspection points is lost. copper-plated clips can cause discoloration of
the surrounding meat due to corrosion,
necessitating trimming. They may also
inadvertently get into packaged meat and for
Health and safety
this reason should not be allowed into the
The greatest care must be taken in the handling, cutting rooms, and have been banned by many
slaughter and carcase dressing of animals meat processing companies. Leaving the bovine
which may represent a source of zoonotic ear complete with its ear tag on the animal as it
infection to plant staff. In particular, such travels up the slaughterline has obvious
animals should be handled separately from advantages, and equally obvious disadvantages
normal stock; staff should wash hands and from a hygiene perspective. The use of
arms frequently; avoid cuts, and contamination transponders implanted in the ear which can be
of the eyes with body fluids; avoid handling read at the inspection and grading/weighing
udders and urogenital tracts (hooks to be used points as long as the ear remains with the
instead); avoid incision into these organs and carcase adds added benefit to this practice. A
the associated lymph nodes; adopt a high compromise is to remove the ear during
standard of personal cleanliness at all times and skinning and place it hygienically in a plastic
seek medical advice if exposure to brucella bag which is clipped to the first side of the
infection or any other zoonosis has occurred. carcase with a reusable stainless steel hook.
Under the UK Control of Substances Metal and polypropylene stamps with marking
Hazardous to Health Regulations 1991 dyes, which must be approved as being of food
(COSHH), the employer is responsible for grade, e.g. chocolate brown, are in common use
ensuring that a written assessment of the for carcase identification, and roller strips for
hazards to the potential health and safety of the indicating grades especially on pigs. Pigs are
employee is carried out, that the employee is generally identified by a tattoo, or slap mark,
informed of the risks and given whatever applied ante-mortem but legible only after
training is necessary, and that suitable scalding and scraping. Grades on pigs are
protective clothing and equipment are made frequently identified by writing on the exposed
available and used. dermis with a special pencil.
Probably the most common method of
identification in use for cattle is gummed
numbered paper labels, which are stuck on to
Carcase identification each of the four quarters as the hide and live
It is essential that live animal identification be animal identification are removed. These labels
retained on the carcase until it passes over the have not always been stored hygienically,
weighbridge. For the day's kill, or batches cannot be applied to cold carcases satisfactorily
within this, a slaughter programme will have and have to be cut off before the carcase enters
been compiled giving details of stock, their the cut-up. Another alternative is a plastic tag or
class, identification, name and address of fastener, applied with instrument which can
owner, lot, pen and slaughter sequence attach the label to the meat. These tags are not
numbers, etc., copies of which are made detected by metal detectors, and care must be
available to appropriate persons including the taken to ensure that they are completely
meat inspection staff. If live animal tags are not removed so that they do not adulterate the
actually retained on the carcase because of meat.
246 Meat Hygiene
The search for a tag material which can be Current EC post-mortem procedure
left in the meat and made harmless by cooking The present on-line inspection procedures as
is now centred on blood and collagen. Nothing laid down in Directive 91/497IEEe, Annex 1,
satisfactory has been developed to replace Chapter VII, and enacted in Great Britain
metal or plastic clips which complies with the through The Fresh Meat (Hygiene and
EC Directive on Materials in Contact with Inspection) Regulations 1995, Schedule 10
Foodstuffs. A system has been developed in detail the methodology of post-mortem
Australia which consists of gelatin strips pre- inspection.
printed with appropriate details and stuck on This involves the macroscopic visual
the carcase fat. This form of identification is examination of the slaughtered animal and its
said to be edible, waterproof, non-smearing, organs, the palpation of organs, the incision of
non-dissolving and abrasion-resistant. If details certain organs and lymph nodes, the
can be added after the strips are applied, this investigation of anomalies in consistency,
could be a useful system of carcase colour, smell and, where appropriate, taste,
identification. and, where necessary, laboratory examination,
Any good system of carcase meat particularly for residues. The inspection is
identification must be clearly legible, easily performed throughout the European Union,
applied, cheap, non-toxic, non-corrosive and without regard for the age of the animal, the
suitable for use with modern data retrieval regional incidence of the conditions being
systems. The UK Meat and Livestock sought or their importance with respect to their
Commission issued a guide on the labelling of public health significance. It should be possible
carcase meat and prime cuts. It concludes: for the inspection procedure to be altered if a
1 Do not label, write or stamp unless essential. region can prove a regional freedom from a
disease or condition. This already occurs to a
2 Fix labels in a consistent position to aid limited degree in that the requirement of
checking and removal.
Directive 91/497 para. 42 to examine the meat
3 Do not apply labels to parts of the carcase of swine or horses for trichinosis does not apply
likely to be used for manufacturing, such as
to all regions.
flank or brisket.
It is widely agreed that, even when carried
4 Remove all labels and clips as soon as they are out conscientiously, the currently used
no longer needed. inspection techniques are ineffective even in
5 On bone-in cuts apply the label close to the detecting the macroscopic lesions they are
bone and to only one cut in each customer's designed to identify. McCool (1979) reported
batch. that <20% of Cysticercus boots, and Heath et al.
6 Label pork carcases high on the front of the (1985) that only 41% of Cysticercus oois, were
hock, away from the ham. detected by on-line inspection. The Dutch
7 Label lamb carcases on the front of the shank. research project 'Integrated quality control
S Label beef carcases on the rib cage or chine approach' showed that only 50% of the
bone or vertebral column, and veal carcases abnormalities present were detected either by
on the leg. 'regular EEC post-mortem meat inspection or
by inspection and palpation only' (Berends et al.
Meat detained for re-inspection must also be 1993). Hathaway et al. (1987) and Blackmore
identified in a place and by a means acceptable (1993) suggested that incision of the lymph nodes,
to both the abattoir operator and the Official especially the mesenteries, may result in the
Veterinarian. The entire process of BSE cross-contamination of other carcases and
certification requires that the inspection team organs with Salmonella or Campylobacter via the
be aware of the exact identity and category of inspector's knife. This proposition has been
every carcase and offal passing through the quoted as a reason why incision of lymph nodes
abattoir. This must involve a system which can as an inspection tool should be abandoned.
ensure that correlation is maintained in order However, if the inspection points are sufficiently
that specified bovine offal is properly removed manned, and the inspectors control the speed of
and that meat and offal from officially BSE-free the line, there should be no excuse for poor
holdings are separated from those of 'lower' operational hygiene leading to cross-
status. contamination. Lymph node incision should,
 Red Meat Inspection 247
therefore, remain as a tool in meat inspection causative organism may not be pathogenic to
where the risk-based assessment mentioned the consumer, the contamination cannot
above indicates that it is a worthwhile improve the shelf-life or the aesthetic
procedure. Such an assessment carried out on acceptability of the end-product.
the routine examination of some of the regional The presence of inspectors who are
lymph nodes of the viscera in lambs in New independent from plant management is also
Zealand (Hathaway and Pullen, 1990) indicated important in the maintenance of high standards
that examination of these nodes added nothing of dressing and operational hygiene. The wide
to inspection of the primary organs. range of food poisoning organisms which are
All inspections must be carried out with due found in the faeces of apparently healthy
regard for hygiene. It is essential that the animals makes it imperative that, at the very
inspectors set and achieve the highest least, visible faecal contamination is eliminated
standards of hygienic dress, appearance and during the dressing process. In practice, high
operations if they are to have any hope of standards are generally maintained by the
enforcing high standards within the plant. independent inspectors, who are prepared to
Operational hygiene is dealt with separately in slow or stop production during periods when
Chapter 9. there is increased risk of contamination, for
Before the day's slaughter commences, the example, when slaughtering dirty cattle or
inspector must ensure that the premises, sheep. Inspection staff employed directly by the
equipment and facilities are hygienic and in commercial company may have greater
good working order and that meat operatives difficulty enforcing such preventive measures
are properly clothed and adequate in number. in the face of commercial production targets.
Slaughter should not be allowed to commence Since the carcases should be checked
until a satisfactory situation obtains. This pre- individually for contamination, the commercial
slaughter check may take the form of a visual and pressure for less than 100% inspection by the
microbiological verification of the meat plant's independent inspectors must be resisted.
own monitoring system. The preferred system The prevention of contamination must
is one where the operatives themselves are remain the aim, rather than post-production
responsible for ensuring that the premises are contamination reduction by means of water,
hygienic, the meat inspection team merely organic acids, other bactericides or irradiation.
verifying their checks. Washing has been demonstrated (Ellerbroek,
It is the duty of the inspection staff to arrange 1993), to have no effect in reducing pathogen
for the stamping of the carcases when passed, or levels on the surface of the carcase and can, in
condemned, and to ensure the proper disposal fact, have a detrimental outcome by spreading
of the latter. It is particularly important in the the contamination over the surface of the
United Kingdom that checks to ensure the carcase to less contaminated areas and
efficient and hygienic removal of the Specified increasing the available water remaining on the
Risk Material associated with bovine carcase. Suitably controlled, organic acids,
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) from the irradiation, etc., may be useful tools in helping
carcase and viscera, their marking and disposal. to ensure a safe product, they must not be
Many authorities have questioned the use of allowed to mask poor manufacturing practice.
inspection staff on the line to remove conditions The requirement in the Directive for
of cosmetic, but no public health, significance. 'laboratory examination' where appropriate
In the case of conditions such as cirrhotic livers introduces the necessity for bacteriological
due to damage by fluke or ascarid worms, this examination. There would be no improvement to
point of view is generally accepted. However, it the quality or safety of the meat produced by
has also been suggested that since some of the adopting rigid microbiological criteria, owing
bacteria involved commonly in abscesses may to variations which would occur in sampling
not be pathogenic to man, identification and and laboratory techniques, the variation in
trimming of these lesions could be left to plant pathogenicity of different bacteriological
staff. It is difficult to agree that this would give strains, the retrospective nature of the results,
the consumer the assurance that meat the effect of storage conditions on the final
contaminated by purulent material did not end bacterial count, and the difficulty in
up in the food chain, and, although the interpreting the results. This view was
248 Meat Hygiene
endorsed by Engel et al. (1989), who carried out and tongue for foot-and-mouth disease,
a scrutiny of the effectiveness of the necrotic and other forms of stomatitis,
microbiological criteria imposed by the Dutch actinomycosis and actinobacillosis, the tongue
meat inspection regulations. This bacteriological being palpated from dorsum to tip for the latter
examination, described by Hobbs (1967), was disease. Incisions of the internal and external
designed to exclude septicaemic carcases from masseters for C. bonis should be made parallel
human consumption, and interprets a positive with the lower jaw. After the tongue is dropped,
result as one where there is bacterial growth on routine incisions of the retropharyngeal,
media inoculated with muscle tissue or spleen, submaxillary and parotid lymph nodes should
or where salrnonellae are detected in the kidney be made for tuberculous lesions, abscesses and
specimen. They concluded that the strict actinobacillosis. The tonsils of cattle and pigs
application of purely bacteriological findings frequently harbour tubercule bacilli and
resulted in the condemnation of carcases regulations that apply in the United States to
harbouring a small number of bacteria which federally-inspected establishments and also to
have a minimal significance for the health of abattoirs in the European Community prescribe
consumers, whereas animals harbouring that the tonsils shall be removed and shall not
organisms potentially pathogenic for man are be used as ingredients of meat products. As
overlooked. Despite this, the use of part of the BSE controls, tonsils in the UK are
microbiological monitoring of carcases to classified as Specified Risk Material (SRM), and
establish trends, especially of potential must be removed and disposed of as such.
pathogens, is to be encouraged as a means by
which the Official Veterinarian can verify the
effectiveness of the dressing techniques and Lymph nodes
operational hygiene within his abattoir. The The detailed examination of lymph nodes, often
limitations listed above, however, must be borne recommended in different meat inspection
in mind. codes, is mainly for the detection of
The Official Veterinarian must always bear in tuberculosis and is fully justified where this
mind that he or shealone is responsible ultimately to disease is a problem. But in countries that have
the consumer for the certification as to the safety of had successful eradication campaigns, routine
the meat leaving the meat plant. The authority incision of the following lymph nodes can be
which lies with the Official Veterinarian to stop largely dispensed with:
slaughter and dressing operations on grounds of lack • Pigs: bronchial, mediastinal, gastric, hepatics
of hygiene, defective dressing techniques or and mesenteries.
inadequate inspection must be exercised fearlessly
when required. • Pigs and booines. renals, provided kidneys
are exposed.
The situation with regard to the gastric and
Post-mortem inspection of cattle (See also
Chapters 16-18) mesenteric lymph nodes in cattle is more
problematic, at least in Britain. Examination of
Inspection of a carcase and its organs, in TB reactors in 1978 showed that 1.9% of the
accordance with regulations currently in place cattle had lesions in the mesenteric lymph
in most countries, should proceed in the nodes only, Mycobacterium bonis being
following order, though in countries where recovered from these lesions. In spite of this
bovine tuberculosis has been eradicated finding, however, it is likely that the saving in
suitable modifications in the routine technique time and costs of inspection outweigh any
may justifiably be made. slight animal health benefits accruing
As has been noted under T. saginata in (Goodhand, 1983). Many countries (among
Chapter 18, variations occur in the examination them the USA, New Zealand and Australia)
for Cysticercus bovis in different countries. have, because of their virtual freedom from
tuberculosis, reduced the number of routine
Head incisions into the lymph nodes without any
apparent adverse effect on animal health.
An examination of the outer surfaces and eyes Where an efficient ante-mortem inspection is
is followed by an inspection of the gums, lips performed which ensures that, except for
 Red Meat Inspection 249
casualty stock, all the animals presented for incision at the base of the caudate lobe to
slaughter are apparently normal and where the examine the bile ducts. Where necessary for a
incidence of tuberculosis is low, detailed diagnosis, incise as necessary into the bile ducts
examination of all visceral lymph nodes is not and liver substance.
justified. In countries where the incidence of
fascioliasis is high, e.g. Ireland and the western
parts of Great Britain, arrangements should be
Lungs made for affected livers to be trimmed by
Visual examination, which should be followed factory operatives to avoid the practice of
by palpation, should be carried out for evidence condemning livers only slightly affected with
of pleurisy, pneumonia, tuberculosis, liver fluke.
fascioliasis, hydatid cysts, etc. The bronchial
and mediastinal lymph nodes should be
incised. The lung substance should be exposed Oesophagus, stomach and intestines
by a long, deep incision from the base to the Observe and, if necessary, palpate these organs.
apex of each lung, and the trachea and main The serous surface may show evidence of
branches of the bronchi opened lengthways, tuberculosis or actinobacillosis, while the
only when they are to be used for human anterior aspect of the reticulum may show
consumption. evidence of a foreign body. As a result of the
virtual eradication of bovine tuberculosis from
the United States and much of Europe, it is not
Heart now considered necessary to incise the
The pericardium should be examined for mesenteric lymph nodes in routine
evidence of pericarditis, haemorrhages, etc. The examination. Except in reactors to the
ventricles are then incised and the outer and tuberculin test, the mesentery is now examined
inner surfaces are observed, particular attention by simple palpation.
being paid to the presence of petechial
haemorrhages on the epicardium or
endocardium and to cysticerci, hydatid cysts Kidne1J
and occasionally linguatulae in the Enuculation of the kidney to allow visual
myocardium. Alternatively, the heart may be inspection and, if necessary, the kidney and
everted after cutting through the renal lymph nodes.
interventricular septum with four lengthways
incisions into the septum and the ventricular
wall. This latter procedure lessens the heart's
Spleen
monetary value. A flabby condition of the The surface and substance should be examined
myocardium is often associated with septic for tuberculosis, haematomata and the presence
conditions in the cow, while vegetative of infarcts with observation, palpation and, if
endocarditis occurs in chronic swine erysipelas necessary, incision.
and in sheep due to Streptococcus faecalis and
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the causal
Uterus
organisms of swine erysipelas.
The uterus should be viewed, palpated and, if
necessary, incised, care being taken to prevent
Liver contamination of the carcase. Evidence of
A visual examination with palpation should be pregnancy or of recent parturition in the well-
made for fatty change, actinobacillosis, bled and well-set carcase is not significant. In
abscesses, telangiectasis and parasitic infections brucellosis reactors the uterus must not be
such as hydatid cysts, C. bovis, fascioliasis or incised or handled.
linguatulae. The larval stage of Oesophag-
ostomum radiatum may occasionally be found in
the ox liver. Observe and, if necessary, palpate
Udders
the gall bladder. An incision should be made on The potential for the presence of food poisoning
the gastric surface of the liver, and in bovines an microorganisms in the udder is such, that it is
250 Meat Hygiene
questionable if they should ever be considered Calves
as fit for human consumption. If they are, they The routine post-mortem of calves is virtually
should be palpated, and each half of the udder the same as for adult bovines, with special
opened by a long, deep incision, preferably attention to particular sites. A visual
multiple and about 5 cm apart, and the lymph examination of the mouth and tongue should
nodes incised. Abscesses or septic mastitis may be made for foot-and-mouth disease and calf
be present, and the supramammary lymph diphtheria. Attention should also be paid to the
nodes, even in a dry cow, should be incised for abomasum for evidence of peptic ulcers, the
evidence of abscesses or tuberculosis. In small intestine for white scour or dysentery and
brucellosis reactors the udder is removed intact the liver, portal lymph nodes and posterior
without incision and without handling. mediastinal lymph nodes for congenital
tuberculosis. The lungs, kidneys and spinal
cord should be examined for melanotic
Testis deposits and the umbilicus and joints for septic
omphalophlebitis. The consistency of the
If destined for human consumption, the testes synovial fluid of the hock can be readily
should be viewed and palpated. determined by puncturing the protrusion on
the inner aspect of the joint with the point of a
knife. The appearance and consistency of the
Carcase renal fat should be carefully noted.
The cut surfaces of bone and muscle, carcase
exterior, pleura, peritoneum and diaphragm Sheep and goats
should be observed, attention being given to
condition, efficiency of bleeding, colour, Sheep and goats require a less detailed
cleanliness, odours and evidence of bruising inspection than cattle, calves and pigs, the
and other abnormalities. If necessary, palpation routine inspection requiring no incisions. The

I
and incision of parts may be indicated, e.g. carcase should be visually examined for
triceps brachii muscle for C. bovis. The satisfactory bleeding and setting, the lungs for
superficial inguinal, external and internal iliac, parasitic infections, especially hydatid cysts
prepectoral and renal lymph nodes should be and nematodes, and the liver for fascioliasis. In
observed and if necessary, palpated and Australia and New Zealand it is routine
incised. Where a systemic or generalised procedure to palpate the carcase for evidence of
disease is suspected, in tuberculin reactors and arthritis, caseous lymphadenitis, inoculation
where tuberculous lesions have been detected abscesses and lesions due to grass seed awns. ~
in the viscera, the main carcase lymph nodes
must be examined. The thoracic and abdominal
cavities should be inspected for inflammation, Pigs
abscesses, actinobacillosis, mesothelioma or Post-mortem examination of pigs follows the
tuberculosis; the diaphragm should be lifted, same overall routine as for cattle.
for tuberculous lesions may be hidden between Skin lesions are an important diagnostic
the diaphgram and the thoracic wall. feature of swine erysipelas, swine fever and
If the above routine examination reveals no urticaria. The skin should also be examined for
evidence of abnormality the carcase may be 'shotty eruption', the tail for necrosis, the feet
passed for food. for abscess formation and the udder for
In 1983 in the United States the number of actinomycosis.
bovine carcases condemned as a result of post- The viscera require inspection in the manner
mortem inspection was 0.37% of the total detailed for cattle, with particular attention to
slaughtered; the affections, in order of pneumonia and the secondary complications
frequency, were - apart from 'moribund' and that develop in virus pneumonia, mainly
'dead' - neoplasms (mostly epithelioma of the pleurisy, pericarditis and, to a lesser extent,
eye and malignant lymphoma), pneumonia, peritonitis.
pyaemia, emaciation and septicaemia/ The submaxillary lymph nodes should
toxaemia. always be examined for tuberculosis. Abscesses
 Red Meat Inspection 251
in the submaxillary lymph node may be caused splitting the head in the median plane and
by the passage of sharp foreign bodies through excision of the nasal septum.
the wall of the pharynx or, in some countries, a
beta-haemolytic streptococcus which also often
causes tongue abscesses. Small yellow, necrotic Poultry
foci resembling TB but caused by
Facilities should be available for whole-carcase
Corynebacterium equi are sometimes found in
inspection after defeathering and washing.
these nodes. The presence of metal spicules in
Cases with obvious disease, fractures, injuries,
the dorsum of the tongue has been identified as
blood blisters, etc. can be detected and detained
a problem in the UK by the manufacturers of
at this stage.
pressed tongue. Some of these fragments have
Second-stage inspection takes place on the
been identified as hypodermic needles, but
partially eviscerated carcase where it is possible
others are pieces of wire and would appear to
to relate carcase and viscera. The viscera, hock
have originated from car tyres given to the pigs
joints and tibias are observed and the latter
as 'toys'. The liver need not be incised except
palpated. The body cavity and internal organs
when it appears cirrhotic. The kidney surface
are viewed. In some cases one inspector
should be examined for cysts and systemic
examines the carcase while another examines
changes.
the viscera - of value in turkeys but not in
Where Cysticercus cellulosae is prevalent, the
broilers. In the United States it is recommended
investigation must include examination of the
that the spleen of adult birds be crushed. The
directly-visible muscular surfaces, in particular
trimmer is instructed to trim, remove viscera,
the thigh muscles, the pillars of the diaphgram,
condemn, etc. as necessary.
the intercostal muscles, the heart, the tongue
It is essential that the inspector in charge
and the larynx and, if necessary, the abdominal
arranges for a line speed consistent with the
wall and the psoas muscles freed from fatty
number and competence of his inspectors, type
tissue. Where trichinosis is known or suspected,
of poultry, presentation methods, incidence of
appropriate examination and muscle sampling
disease, efficiency of evisceration procedures,
must be carried out.
etc. Line speeds should be reduced in any
UK post-mortem inspection in the pig
unfavourable situation and brought back to
requires that only the submaxillary lymph
normal only when conditions are satisfactory. If
nodes, and the supramammary lymph nodes in
necessary, operations should cease until the
sows, are routinely incised. Within the EU, the
situation is satisfactory. It is recommended that
mesenteric lymph nodes of pigs are no longer
the line start and stop control be within reach of
incised because of the frequent contamination
the inspector in charge, who must be totally
of knives with Salmonella organisms which may
and transparently independent from the
be present in the nodes.
commercial company.

Equines
Traditional versus entirely visual meat
Post-mortem inspection of equidae follows the
inspection procedures
same general pattern for cattle and all other
livestock. Although equidae generally possess Current meat inspection methods, established
fewer lesions than other animals, particular at the beginning of the century, are no longer
attention should be paid to the lungs and liver considered adequate to protect the consumer
for evidence of echinococcal cysts and to the (Anon, 1987, 1990; Berends et al., 1993;
muscles and lymph nodes for melanosis. The Blackmore, 1983; Gracey and Collins, 1992; and
main carcase lymph nodes should be examined others). Manual handling, palpation and
when systemic or generalised disease is incision (which cannot detect all lesions) too
suspected, when tuberculosis lesions are often result in cross-contamination. In any case
detected and when the live animal has shown a most of the visual lesions encountered, if
reaction to the mallein test. The possibility of subjected to microbiological examination,
glanders requires that the mucous membranes, would not yield food-poisoning organisms.
trachea, larynx, nasal cavities, sinuses and their Nevertheless, they must be removed for
ramifications are carefully examined, after aesthetic reasons.
252 Meat Hygiene
The present threats to the consumer instead These authors concluded that the visual
arise not from typical pathological lesions but system would result in about 4 additional pigs
from microorganisms such as Salmonella, per 1000 carcases being passed which might
Yersinia enierocolitica, Cumpulobacter, Giardia, cross-contaminate other carcases with
Listeria and E. coli, etc., which are usually Salmonella/Y. entercolitica, and that the main
involved with a carrier state in the animal and direct benefit of the visual system (without
with serious faecal contamination. Veterinary manual handling, palpation and incision)
drugs and chemicals also pose a hazard. would probably be a lower level of cross-
Article 17 of the present EEC Fresh Meat contamination with hazardous bacteria,
Directive (91/497 IEEe) envisaged a change in especially from the pharyngeal region and the
procedures by stating that 'the Commission plucks. In addition, the visual system allows for
shall submit a report . . . on methods of less labour, with the release of control resources
inspection which ensure a level of animal for hygienic surveillance programmes and
health equivalent to that guaranteed by the wider risk assessment strategies.
methods of ante-mortem and post-mortem A significant recommendation was the need
inspection described in Chapters VI and VIII of to monitor the level of faecal contamination,
Annex 1'. To this end, an international working irrespective of the type of inspection adopted.
group has proposed a revision of the inspection Such a recommendation is made more vital
procedures for pigs and recommended that when the verotoxigenic E. coli 0157 H7 is
producers should take greater responsibility for included.
livestock quality, that a mandatory feedback
system should be instituted, and that meat
inspection procedures should be simplified and
made purely visuaL DECISIONS AT POST-MORTEM
Using a quantitative risk assessment EXAMINATION (see also Chs 16-20)
approach, Mousing et al. (1997) determined the
consequences of a change from traditional meat The final judgement as to the action to be taken
inspection procedures (which included manual with a carcase or parts of a carcase is based on the
handling, palpation and incision) to an entirely total evidence produced by observation, palpation,
visual form of inspection in 183000 Danish incision,smell, ante-mortemsigns and the results of
slaughter pigs. Out of 58 lesion codes, 26 (45%) any laboratory test. Rarely, but where
were assessed as merely aesthetic or as the appropriate, taste may be employed. It is
healed stage of an earlier lesion; 9 (15%) were essential, therefore, that the results of ante-
active but local lesions, occurring only in non- mortem and supporting laboratory tests are
edible tissue; 5 lesion codes (9%) were assessed available to the veterinarian when he is making
as active, non-septic lesions occurring in edible the final decision.
tissue caused by swine-specific pathogens; 10 For some conditions, legislation, such as that
(17%) were abscessal or pyaemic lesions based on EC Directive 64/433, Article 5,
occurring in edible tissue. Seven lesion codes declares unfit all meat, offal or blood which has
(12%) may be associated with consumer health originated from animals found on inspection to
hazards (two frequently and five rarely). One exhibit signs of the disease. This includes
lesion code was associated with an generalised actinobacillosis or actinomycosis,
occupational health hazard. blackleg, generalised tuberculosis, generalised
It was estimated that per 1000 pig carcases an lymphadenitis, glanders, rabies, tetanus, acute
additional 2.5 with abscessal or pyaemic lesions salmonellosis, acute brucellosis, swine erysipelas,
in edible tissue containing Staphylococcus botulism, septicaemia, pyaemia, toxaemia or
aureus, 4 x 10-4 containing ochratoxin, 0.2 with viraemia, any carcase showing lesions of
arthritis due to Erysipelothrix rhusiopaihiae, 0.2 bronchopneumonia, pleurisy, peritonitis,
with caseous lymphadenitis (M. avium- metritis, mastitis, arthritis, pericarditis, enteritis,
intercellulare), 0.7 faecally contaminated with or meningo-encephalomyelitis, generalised
Salmonella species and 3.4 faecally contamin- sarcocystosis, cysticercosis and trichinosis;
ated with Yersinia enterocolitica would remain animals which have been stillborn or unborn;
undetected as a result from changing from the carcases which show advanced anaemia or
traditional to the visual inspection procedure. emaciation; carcases showing multiple tumours,
 Red Meat Inspection 253
multiple abscesses or serious multiple injuries; 3 0.26% of pigs slaughtered possessed abscesses
fevered carcases; and any carcase which shows at more than one site.
serious anomalies of colour, smell, consistency 4 Of these, 80% had the tail as one of the sites,
or taste. indicating the importance of tail-biting in the
Controversy can, however, surround the aetiology.
specific interpretation of some of these 5 There was a strong statistical interrelationship
instructions, and decisions require the detailed between abscesses found in combination at
examination of suspect animals including all tail/lungs, tail/vertebrae, tail/legs, tail/ribs,
parts of the carcase and viscera, even organs tail/peritoneum.
and parts whose position is remote from what
is considered to be the primary lesion. This will As stated above, the following are the two
determine whether the lesions are localised or most important questions to be answered.
generalised, and consequently the extent of
condemnation necessarv. Is the lesion localised or generalised?
Similarly, the natur~ of the specific lesion,
along with the entire carcase and viscera, must A study of the literature indicates that it is most
be considered to decide whether the condition likely that infection spreads from the tail of a
is acute or chronic. pig to the pelvis via the local lymphatic system,
As a general rule the acute and generalised from the tail to the lungs, ribs and legs via the
condition will require the total condemnation of bloodstream, and from the tail to the spinal
the carcase and the viscera, while the chronic vertebrae via the cerebrospinal fluid. This
and localised may require only local would indicate the following in terms of
condemnation, or in some cases no condemnation condemnation:
at all. This emphasises the importance of • Abscesses at a singlesite: condemnation of the
correlation of inspection procedures, and the part is usually sufficient, after careful
importance of ensuring that viscera follow the examination of the rest of the carcase and
carcase on to the detained rail since there may the viscera.
be significant lesions in both. If we consider • Abscess in the tail and one or more in the spinal
some specific lesions, some general guidance vertebrae; remove the tail and the spinal
can be suggested. column only.
• Abscess in the tail, and one or more in the lungs,
ribs, peritoneum, orforelegs: condemnation of
the carcase is justified.
Abscesses • Abscess in the tail and hindleg: local
Abscesses are one of the most common lesions condemnation may be sufficient.
routinely encountered in pigs. A study carried • There is no apparent interrelationship
out to map the position of abscesses in 75 130 between abscesses in the head or neck and
pigs produced the following findings (Huey, those elsewhere, e.g. the tailor lungs, so
1996): only local condemnation is indicated.
• A statistically significant interrelationship
1 2.87% of pigs examined had an abscess at one was demonstrated between abscesses in
site. fore- and hindlegs. In each case the
2 The dominant bacterium isolated from all aetiology must be considered before a
abscesses was Actinomyces pyagenes. It has judgement can be made. If, for example, the
been argued (Berends et al., 1993) that since cause is thought to be rough floors, and
this bacterium poses little threat to the there is no evidence of haematogenous
consumer's physical health, only local spread, local condemnation may suffice.
condemnation is ever justified. However, any
indication of a bacteraemia or pyaemia can do Is the lesion acute or chronic?
little for the quality of the meat and nothing to
re-assure the public as to the safety of their If an abscess is in the acute stage of develop-
food. As Norval stated in 1966, 'there can be ment, in that there is poor or no capsule
nothing more disgusting to the butcher or formation, accompanied by systemic changer it
housewife than to slice through an abscess will usually be necessary to totally condemn
when preparing meat'. the carcase and viscera.
254 Meat Hygiene
Omphalophlebitis necessary to strip the pleura, the diaphragm
should be removed.
Omphalophlebitis or navel ill is a relatively The possibility of antibiotic residues being
common post-mortem finding in countries
present must be considered.
where very young calves, 4-8 days old, are
slaughtered. A study in New Zealand (Biss et al.
1994) suggested that there was
histopathological evidence that a low-grade Endocarditis (Plate I, Fig. 5)
bacteraemia was present in approximately 25% An extensive analysis of the results of
of these calves, and that routine condemnation bacteriological investigations and judgements
of the carcase was justified in extended or of samples obtained from 117 pigs and cattle
systemic, but not in localised cases. Localised was diagnosed at post-mortem with endocarditis,
defined where lesions were restricted to the between 1977 and 1989 in Hungary, was carried
umbilicus, extended where lesions were also out by Szazados (1991). In pigs Erysipelothrix
evident in the umbilical vessels, and systemic rhusiopathiae, beta-haemolytic streptococci,
navel ill where lesions were present in the liver streptococci belonging to the viridans group,
and/ or other viscera and the carcase as well as Actinomyces pyogenes and Staphylococcus
the umbilical tissues. Localised navel ill aureus were isolated in decreasing order of
constituted about 75% of all navel ill cases. frequency. In cattle, Actinomyces pyogenes was
isolated most frequently.
Bacteria were present in the spleen, liver and
Arthritis kidney of over 60% of the samples examined,
A small quantity of blood-tinged fluid in a joint muscle and lymph nodes were positive in over
is neither unusual nor significant. In all but the 30% of samples.
most acute cases, the causative agent cannot be Of the 117 cases, 79 cases (67.5%) were
cultured from the fluid found in the joint; it can condemned for septicaemia. Without this type
only be isolated from the synovial membrane. of detailed bacteriological examination,
As a basis for judgement: however, given these statistics, condemnation
of the carcase is justified in all cases of
• If there is purulent material present, the endocarditis.
limb should be condemned to the joint
above the one affected.
• The limb should be condemned if there is Bruising
iliac, prescapular or prepectorallymph node
involvement. It is now broadly accepted that:
• If three or more limbs show lymphatic • Muscle tissue is generally sterile until it is
involvement, the carcase warrants rejection. exposed to extraneous contamination.
• If the popliteal lymph node is enlarged but • Extraneous contaminants grow no faster on
the iliacs are normal, it may be sufficient to bruised than unbruised tissue.
reject only the lower limb. • There is no difference in the microbiological
• If there are systemic changes in the viscera condition of meat from bled and unbled
indicating that the arthritis is generalised or lamb carcases.
acute, the carcase and viscera should be
condemned. The trimming of bruised tissue is therefore
purely aesthetic.

Pneumonia and pleurisy

Carcases must be condemned if there are any Contamination
signs of systemic change in the viscera, Contamination with faeces is one of the greatest
especially the liver, kidney and carcase lymph hazards to public health encountered in meat
nodes. If there is no such evidence, inspection. This is most commonly due to
condemnation of the carcase cannot be justified, hurried or poor 'bunging' technique and full
and stripping of the pleura or removal of the rib stomachs and intestines rupturing on removal.
cage may suffice. In almost all cases where it is Plant management could greatly reduce this
 Red Meat Inspection 255
risk by the introduction of mechanical bungers areas. This category also occurs in those
such as the [arvis or Jupiter systems for cattle countries where meat is at a premium and
and pigs, by tying or bagging the 'bung' in includes meat from animals in an area under
cattle and sheep, or by applying ligatures, clips quarantine because of an outbreak of
or elastrator rings, or 'rodding' the oesophagus. contagious animal disease. In this case there
Contamination of the carcase with purulent must be no risk to public health and the meat
material, bile or faeces should always be must be restricted in sale to the affected area to
removed by trimming. avoid the possible spread of disease. The
Many of the lesions encountered at post- category would also include meat from animals
mortem are ill-defined and minute in size, a vaccinated in a restricted area.
situation requiring good eyesight and colour It has to be said, however, that while every
differentiation. No one with defective vision effort must be made to conserve a valuable
which cannot be corrected by means of product such as meat, the provision of several
spectacles or contact lenses should be categories of meat for human consumption
employed on meat inspection, and those makes the task of supervision a difficult one
persons requiring these particular aids should and may lead to a situation where malpractice,
receive regular eye examination. Equally e.g. in the form of adulteration and
important is the inspector's sense of smell, substitution, and trade in unfit meat may take
which, if defective, seriously limits his place.
judgement in many instances.
The decisions made at post-mortem inspection
vary in different parts of the world depending
mainly on local disease incidence, local PROPOSALS TO IMPROVE THE
economy and the presence or absence of CURRENT POST-MORTEM
facilities for the heat treatment of meat PROCEDURES
conditionally approved for human
consumption. The main decisions in most As discussed in the introductory paragraphs to
countries, however, are as follows: this chapter, the current system which operates
in most countries, while to a greater or lesser
1 approved for human consumption;
extent protecting animal welfare, and public
2 totally condemned; and animal health, is urgently in need of
3 partially condemned. revision.
The current post-mortem regime is generally
The category of conditionally approved for considered to be too inflexible in prescribing
human consumption is utilised in some countries: exactly what procedures must be carried out
carcase meat which is hygienically irrespective of the disease status or production
unsatisfactory or which in some way may be standards under which the animals have been
hazardous for human and animal food is produced. The response to this lack of
treated, e.g. by heating or freezing under inspection sensitivity should be two-fold: a
official supervision, in such a manner that risk-based assessment to establish whether
makes it safe for human consumption. each inspection procedure needs to be done at
In certain regions meat classed as inferior all, and, if it does, a targeting of the detailed
meat, viz. safe hygienically but of a lower inspection to the animals assessed through
standard, may be sold as raw meat without ante-mortem and production records to be at
undergoing any treatment. Such meat must be risk. This should improve the detection rate of
labelled so as to indicate that it is of inferior the lesions and also decrease the number of
quality and sold under close supervision by the pointless incisions made, e.g. incision of
controlling authority. It includes meat of submaxillary lymph nodes in pigs where there
abnormal colour, odour or taste, with slight is a negligible regional incidence of
oedema or poorly bled and, like the following tuberculosis. The inspections carried out, and
category, is found in those countries where the resulting judgements, must be based on
there is a scarcity of protein. sound scientific research rather than the current
Lastly, meat may be approved for human system, which is largely rooted in established
consumption, with distribution restricted to limited practice (johnston, 1994).
256 Meat Hygiene
Hathaway and McKenzie (1989) in New allow him/her to assist the Official
Zealand concluded that: Veterinarian in the pre-selection of clinically
healthy stock at ante-mortem.
Some countries importing meat and meat
products demand absolute replication of their 5 Flexibility must be introduced into the
directives to allow risk-based post-mortem
meat inspection law, without recognising the
inspection. In regions where it has been
spectrum and prevalence of diseases and
demonstrated over a reasonable period of
defects in the slaughter population in the
time that the incidence of a particular lesion is
country of origin or the performance of its
very low, inspection procedures should be
meat inspection service. The application of a
altered to take the risk into consideration.
rigorous risk assessment model for the
evaluation of traditional organoleptic 6 Research must be initiated to confirm the
inspection procedures for the viscera of incidence and public health significance of lesions
lambs described in this report should begin detected at post-mortem examination.
to redress this imbalance. Notwithstanding Judgements made on lesions at post-mortem
the international inconsistency in ovine need to be scientifically assessed so that
meat inspection codes, a number of current decisions are based on sound principles,
procedures have no scientific basis when rather than established practice.
routinely applied to the viscera of lambs in
7 There must always be an auxiliary, as defined
New Zealand. Thus their continued
by Directive 91/497, on the line to carry out a
application is technically unjustified and
final hygiene inspection of the carcase before it is
wasteful. It must be noted that the
stamped. The presence of the auxiliary is also
recommended New Zealand code of
essential to supervise the speed of the line,
organoleptic inspection does not represent
and to ensure that trimming is carried out
any lessening of the guarantees of safety and
hygienically. Commercial pressure to inspect
wholesomeness that accompany lamb meat
less than 100% of carcases must be resisted.
and offals produced in this country; the risk
assessment model ensures that equivalent or 8 Post-production decontamination procedures
better standards to those delivered by must not be allowed to replace
traditional programmes are achieved. hygienic/good manufacturing practice.
9 The present state of knowledge suggests that
It can be suggested that the current the introduction of strict bacteriological
criteria for carcases would be of no benefit to
inspection system as described could be
hygienic meat production. However, the use
improved by initiating the following of bacteriological monitoring of carcases is to be
improvements: encouraged as a means by which the Official
1 An integrated meat hygiene system: the so-called Veterinarian can verify the effectiveness of the
'byre to buyer', 'gate to plate', 'stable to table' dressing techniques and operational hygiene
approach is essential with a two-way flow of standards as well as the presence/ absence of
information between producer and processor, with potential food-poisoning pathogens.
the involvement of the meat hygiene inspection 10 The Official Veterinarian, and the team of
service and the producer's veterinarian. meat inspectors, should be involved in the
2 Preselection of stock into risk groups should be identification and evaluation of hazards and
the aim. Use should be made of a computer critical control points within the meat plant.
database carrying details of producer They should verify the monitoring of the
condemnation statistics, residue sampling production process carried out by the abattoir
results, and herd/flock health status within operatives.
government or local health or quality
assurance schemes. Verification of the
information should be carried out by periodic The United States, the European Union and
veterinary inspections of the producer's other competent authorities worldwide, are
premises and records. considering how best to proceed with the
3 Ante-mortem inspection must remain a basic updating of their current inspection protocols.
responsibility of the Official Veterinarian, The USA prefaced its proposal by emphasising
who may be assisted in making the initial the importance of the task, stating that there are
check by suitably trained meat inspectors. 5 million cases of food-borne illness, leading to
4 The veterinary auxiliary inspector and/ or 4000 deaths per year within the United States,
stockman must receive appropriate training to attributable to meat and poultry products.
 Red Meat Inspection 257
In Europe an alternative system for the visit, paid for by a slaughter levy, the
inspection of pigs, proposed mainly by Denmark, veterinarian estimates the number of healthy
has received much support, and contains the pigs that will be ready for slaughter over the
following elements: next month.
1 Only pigs that ongmate on farms 3 The farmer then selects the pigs which are fit
participating in a 'Herd Health Surveillance for the alternative system on a day-to-day
Programme' may be considered for the basis. On arrival at the abattoir, the pigs
alternative inspection regime. receive traditional ante-mortem inspection,
which includes an inspection of animal
2 The 'Herd Health Surveillance Programme' welfare and transportation conditions.
involves a monthly inspection of all the pigs on
the production unit by a veterinarian who 4 If a farm fails to meet the specified minimum
gives advice on herd health, drug use, animal requirements for on-farm selection, the pigs
welfare, nutrition, etc. On the basis of this undergo traditional meat inspection.

PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS RESIDUES

ZOONOSES

CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS ON THE SLAUGHTERLlNE

Slaughterhouse Dressed
RESIDUES: FARM meat inspection carcass
+++ 0 +
ZOONOSES: +++ (+) ++

ZOONOSES viz: BRUCELLOSIS, TUBERCULOSIS, ECHINOCOCCOSIS, SALMONELLOSIS,

CAMPYLOBACTERIOSiS, YERSINIOSIS
COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
REDUCED MEAT iNSPECTION
INCREASED MICROBIOLOGiCAL CONTROL, e.g. TOTAL COUNTS, COLlFORMS

Central or
regional lab.

Healthy animals
Less stringent I------- 1. Special
control trading
Slaughter house I--'---- ---.J
Farm
Ante-mortem inspection Meat
Ante-mortem farm
Laboratory screening inspection
inspection ,------ 2. Normal
for, e.g., antibiotics '----_-,-_----ll------- Diseased
animals trading
Normal or or
intensified control ~ 3. Special
use
Central animal
health service
Data collection
and retrievai

Fig.10.1 Integrated meat inspection/hygiene. (After Skovgaard, 1990)

258 Meat Hygiene
5 Post-mortem of selected pigs, by officially there can be no improvement in many of today's
trained auxiliaries under veterinary meat hygiene systems.
supervision, will require no incisions, being Skovgaard (1990) has provided an outline for
carried out by visual inspection and an integrated meat inspection system (Fig.
palpation. 10.1).
6 Information gained at ante-mortem and post- Throughout the twentieth century, meat
mortem will be passed to the producer and inspection procedures have developed as
the veterinarian carrying out the 'Herd knowledge of disease has increased, and
Health Surveillance Programme'.
technologies have emerged, which can assist in
7 The veterinarian in the abattoir will verify the its detection and control. As we move into the
HACCP control programme set up by the next millennium, this evolution in food
abattoir management to control and monitor
contamination of the carcases and offal. inspection must continue to take account of the
new risks presented by emerging food-
8 Inspection staff, freed from on-line duties, transmitted pathogens and the increased
will assist in hygiene control and
microbiological verification. opportunity given for these pathogens to cause
illness in consumers by current packaging,
The foundation on which this proposal is storage and eating practices during retailing,
built is the regular Herd Health Surveillance by and in the home.
a veterinarian, coupled with a preselection of
stock for slaughter by the producer. The
participation of a veterinarian on the farm, who
is in a position to communicate directly with REFERENCES
colleagues within the meat plant, is to be
applauded as a suitable extension of the ante- Anon (1987) National Research Council. Poultry
mortem procedure. The availability of Inspection. The Basis of Risk Assessment Approach.
information on the disease status of the pigs at Washington DC: US National Academy Press.
all stages of their production, together with Anon (1990) Commission of the European
Community. Directorate General for Agriculture.
advice on animal welfare, husbandry, nutrition, Draft Report to Scientific Veterinary Committee on
and drug use, must be of benefit to both animal Ante-mortem Inspection of Red Meat. Working
and public health. Document VI/6346/90 (Dvet/EN/103-0).
Berends, B. R, Snijders, J. M. A. and van Logtestijn, J.
Food safety is related to all steps in the food G. (1993) Vet. Rec. 133,411-415.
chain - from livestock producer (whose Biss, M. E., Hathaway, S. C. and [ohnstone. A. C.
responsibility is to provide animals which are (1994). Br. Vet.]. 150, 377.
healthy, free from undesirable residues and Blackmore, D. K. (1983) Nord. Vet. Med. 35, 184-189.
clean), through manufacturing processes, to Ellerbroek, L. 1., Wegener,J. F. and Arndt, G. (1993)].
retail outlets, hotels and restaurants and the of Food Protection 56(5), 432-436.
consumer's kitchen. Food-poisoning organisms Engel, H. W. B., Berg, J. van den and Fenigsen-
narucka, U. (1997) Tijdschrift voor de
can be introduced into the food chain at any
Diergeneeskunde 112,536.
stage, but the most important is judged to be at Goodhand, R H. (1983) The Meat Hygienist
primary production where intensive systems of May/June 1983, No. 38,4-
husbandry and with the breeding of stock Hathaway, S. C. & McKenzie A. 1. (1989). Vet. Rec.
solely for productivity purposes without regard 124,189-193.
for disease resistance constitute the main Hathaway, S. C. and Pullen, M. M. (1990) ]. Am. Vet.
offenders. Med. Assoc. 196, 860-864.
Integrated systems of meat inspection Hathaway, S. C; McKenzie, A. 1. and Royal, W. A.
(Longitudinal Integrated Safety Assurance - (1987) Vet. Rec. 120, 78.
LISA) offer the only means whereby full safety Heath D. D., Lawrence, S. B. and Twaalfhoven, H.
(1985) New Zealand Vet. ]. 33, 152.
can be guaranteed. At present they appear to be
Hobbs, B. (1967) ]. S. Afr Vet. Med. Assoc. 38(3), 253.
in vogue only in New Zealand and Scandinavian Huey, R J. (1996) Vet. Rec. 138,511-514.
countries (where cooperatives in livestock ICMSF (1988) HACCP in Microbiological Safety and
production/meat inspection/meat processing Quality. Oxford: Blackwell ScientificPublications.
exist). Without close cooperation between [ohnston, A. M. (1994) Br. Vet. ]. 150,315.
livestock production and slaughter/inspection McCool, C. J. (1979) Aust. Vet. ]. 55,214-216.
 Red Meat Inspect ion 259
Mousing, T. et al. (1997) Vel. RIT. 140, 472-477. meat inspection. Need for imp rovement. WAVFH,
Skovgeard, N. (1990) Proceed ings of Round Table Dublin.
Conference. Th e Scientific basis for harm onising Szazados, I. (1991) Magyar AlIalorvosok IApja 46(1),
tra de in red mea t. Ante -mortem and post-mortem 27-43.
 Chapter 11
Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection

Poultry meat production throughout the world following factors: the weight of the bird at
continues to expand both in amount and in killing age, type of housing, climatic region and
sophistication. The annual improvements over time of the year. In the UK the Animal Welfare
the last 20 years have seen eggs produced by Code of Practice recommended by the Farm
broiler breeders increase between one and one Animal Welfare Council stipulates that at no
and a half, increased number of chicks between time should liveweight exceed 34kg/m2 in the
0-8 and 1.2, and percentage breast meat by interests of welfare and good management. For
0.25-0.3%. example, for birds weighing 2 kg there should
In addition the eviscerated yield has gone up be no more than 17 per square metre. The
by 0.2-0.25% annually, the feed conversion ratio stocking density may need to be reduced in
to 2 kg has improved by between 0.04-0.05% summer, especially on units where there are
and the weight, at 42 days, has increased on known to have been problems.
average 55-60 g per year. Those trends are Chicks should be placed in a house with a
expected to continue and broiler selection now temperature of 29-31°C at one day old,
involves the criteria of liveweight, liveability, reducing by 2°C a week to a final temperature
skeletal strength, conformation and feed of 18-21°C at 35 days.
conversion. A continuous adequate supply of clean water
is essential as dehydration must be avoided at
all times. Water and feed intake are directly
PRODUCTION OF POULTRY related. There is a trend towards using nipple
drinkers, to replace the conventional hanging
The broiler industry in the UK is concentrated in bell drinkers.
the hands of fewer than 20 large organisations, Commercial chicks are generally given a
most of which have their own parent stock starter ration between 0 and 2 weeks of age
farms and hatcheries. In these companies, containing 23% protein, grower ration between
broilers may be grown on company farms or on 2 and 4 weeks of 21% protein, and finisher from
specialist contract units. Other companies do 4 weeks onwards of 20% protein or less.
not have breeding farms or hatcheries but As well as the commercial broiler produced
purchase day-old broilers, usually on long-term intensively in standard poultry sheds, there is a
contract, from specialist suppliers. Chickens, limited demand for speciality products such as
turkeys, geese, ducks and end-of-lay hens are 'extensive indoor-barn reared'. This term may
processed as well as pheasant, quail, partridge only be used where the stocking rate per
and guinea fowl. square metre floor space does not exceed, for
Broiler chickens should be placed in houses chickens 12 birds but not more than 25 kg
which have been thoroughly cleaned and liveweight; for ducks, guinea fowl and turkeys
disinfected. The surrounding area and the 25 kg live-weight; for geese 15 kg liveweight.
equipment in the house must be clean and Chickens must not be killed until they are at
disinfected. least 56 days of age, turkeys 70 days and geese
Adequate floor space for each bird is 112 days.
essential for its growth, health, quality and The birds are reared in the conventional
general well-being. The amount of space to manner for the first two days, but the
allow is determined by a combination of the temperature of the house is decreased more

261
262 Meat Hygiene
Table 11.1 Slaughterings of poultrymeat.

Year Northern Ireland UK EU12 World

Broilers Number slaughtered (million)

1991 43.9 522 N/A N/A
1992 49.6 523 3826 28773
1993 54.1 519 3803 29688
1994 57.7 553 3874 31247
1995 58.1 584 N/A N/A

Spent hens Number slaughtered (million)

1991 0.9 24 N/A N/A
1992 1.4 21 N/A N/A
1993 0.7 20 N/A N/A
1994 0.5 25 N/A N/A
1995 0.9 29 N/A N/A

Turkeys Number slaughtered Dead weight

(million) (1000 tonnes)
1991 0.8 33 1278 N/A
1992 0.9 33 1355 N/A
1993 1.0 35 1341 N/A
1994 1.0 35 1362 N/A
1995 1.1 38 1371 N/A

N / A = Not available.
Courtesy of Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Economics & Statistics Division.

quickly so that the environmental temperature to 17%. The feed in the fattening stage must
is around 21°C at between 14 and 21 days. contain at least 70% cereals. For chickens the
The birds are fed a vegetarian diet which is house must be provided with popholes of a
of a lower density than that which is fed to combined length equal to or greater than that of
conventional broilers. Some birds are housed in the longer side of the house.
the one building from day-old to processing, Traditional free-range birds must have access
while others are reared in conventional sheds to a larger area than free-range and there are
and then moved. They have to live in the extra requirements as detailed in Commission
secondary accommodation for at least 28 days. Regulation (EEC) No 1538/91.
The lower temperatures promote good feather The production of these types of poultry
growth. obviously adds greatly to the cost and for free-
Free-range birds have the same stocking rate range birds this would be approximately twice
in the house and the age of slaughter is the that for conventional broilers.
same as for barn-reared birds except that for Poussin or Cornish game are normal
chickens the stocking rate may be increased to conventional broilers which are killed between
13, but not more than 27.5 kg liveweight per m". 21 and 33 days of age.
The birds, for at least half of their lifetime, must There are, worldwide, around seven main
have continuous daytime access to open-air breeding companies producing different strains
runs comprising an area mainly covered by of broiler. The companies which produce
vegetation of not less than 1 m" per chicken or broiler meat are vertically-integrated. That
guinea fowl, 2 m" per duck, and 4 m" per turkey means they control the production of the eggs
or goose. which produce the chick, the growing of the
Birds are fed a ration of about 24% protein birds and the slaughter and further processing
for the first few days but this is soon decreased of the meat.
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 263
Poultry feeding-stuffs those complying with the relevant Codes of
The raw materials present in the bird's food are Practice in the case of other raw materials.
carefully sourced and are examined for quality The raw materials should be stored in
and chemical and microbiological purity. suitable buildings which prevent pests gaining
Animal feed is an important source for the access. On-farm storage bins and silos should
transmission of infection to poultry flocks. be similarly treated. Transport of raw materials
The animal feed industry is multifaceted, and finished feeds should be in dedicated
comprising importers and processors of raw vehicles which are thoroughly inspected before
materials, merchants, suppliers of by-products use to ensure they are clean and dry. Feed mills
from agricultural operations and food must be constructed of appropriate, food-
manufacturers, and others such as feed additive grade, materials and must be regularly
and supplement manufacturers, commercial cleansed, disinfected and sampled for evidence
compounders, integrated producers and on- of contamination. There must be segregation of
farm mixers. raw materials from finished feeds to minimise
The feed industry uses numerous products the risk of cross-contamination.
and by-products from other industries. Some, Staff need to know the importance of good
such as cereals, are untreated, whilst others like hygiene practice and should receive
oil seeds are available as cakes or meals appropriate training.
following processing to extract oil. Raw Pelleting of feed improves the overall feed
materials may be sourced from all over the intake and pellets are easier to handle in
world. GATT obligations are serving to further automated feed delivery system. The process
open up the market to Third World country creates temperatures high enough to reduce the
imports. Poultry feed production (some 4 numbers of pathogenic bacteria which may be
million tonnes per annum in the UK in 1995) present, although it does not provide a total kill.
accounts for around one-third of the annual To achieve this, a separate heat treatment
production of all compound feeds. process (i.e. pasteurisation) is required. This is an
Legislative controls imposed under Part IV effective way of tackling the problem of
of the UK Agriculture Act 1970 require that Salmonella contamination of poultry feed.
feeding-stuffs, including raw materials, when
sold should be fit for their intended purpose
and free from harmful ingredients. Detailed
Poultry flock health
requirements are imposed by the Feeding- All poultry farms should have a veterinarian,
Stuffs Regulations 1995 and the Feedings-Stuffs specialising in poultry, who will advise on the
(Sampling and Analysis) Regulations 1982 (as health and management of the flock. Visits should
amended). be made, at least annually, to ensure a
The Processed Animal Protein Order 1989 knowledge of practices and facilities on the
requires all processors of animal protein to farm. All events which are outside the normal,
register with Agriculture Departments and to for example, increased mortality, poor weights
take samples from their product and have it or poor feed conversion, should be thoroughly
tested for Salmonella in an approved laboratory investigated. The chances of eliminating
on each day that material is dispatched from microbial contamination from poultry meat will
their premises. In the event that Salmonella is be improved if steps are taken to ensure that
isolated in the course of testing, movement of birds entering the slaughter and processing
contaminated material is prohibited until chain are either free from infection or are
corrective action has been taken. identified as contaminated and treated
Codes of Practice for the control of Salmonella accordingly.
in animal feed and feed ingredients have also The situation in Sweden where there has
been set up by the UK Government in been considerable success in tackling the
consultation with industry bodies. The code Salmonella problem, involves testing all flocks of
encourages the application of HACCP broilers and turkeys for Salmonella one or two
principles. In order to ensure that animal feed is weeks prior to slaughter. If Salmonella of any
of an acceptable quality it is necessary to source stereotype is detected, the flock is not sent for
the raw materials from registered producers, in processing but is destroyed and hygienically
the case of processed animal protein, and from disposed of. Enlightened processors in the UK
264 Meat Hygiene
are testing broilers before slaughter and this One of the most difficult, labour-intensive
enables positive flocks to be handled with and unpleasant tasks as far as working
special care and attention during processing. conditions and unsociable hours are concerned
This will entail slaughter at the end of the day is that of collecting, crating and loading birds at
or week, increased chlorine levels in the water the point of production. Depending on the
and perhaps lower line speed and/ or attention quality and commitment of the staff employed,
to prevent rupture of the intestines. this area can be one where bird welfare is of a
Healthier birds are produced on a single-age high or a low order, the latter often resulting in
site (,all-in, all-out' system). The unit is high levels of downgrading of carcases because
periodically depopulated and thoroughly of the injuries inflicted.
cleaned and disinfected. Tests are carried out to The majority of bruises resulting in
ensure freedom from, for example Salmonella, downgrading occur during catching and
prior to restocking. Should Salmonella be transportation. The incidence of bruising is also
isolated, cleaning and disinfection are repeated directly related to the length of the journey.
until a negative result is obtained. In recent years systems have been developed
The need for close liaison with the farm is to improve catching (or harvesting) and
even more important in the case of poultry than transportation. For the time being, however,
with other species because of their size, large broilers are still caught by hand and carried by
numbers involved in slaughter and dressing, one leg. This has to be done with great care to
high rates of slaughter and the use of avoid injury. Turkeys must always be carried by
antibiotics, anticoccidial drugs, etc. in their two legs.
rearing. Adequate withdrawal periods are essential Poultry harvesting procedures can be divided
for all drugs. This period of time should be into four basic systems. ~
adhered to when 'thinning' occurs, i.e. when a Loose crates Empty plastic crates are taken •
number of birds are removed from the house in from the lorry into the shed, where a team of
order to give extra room to allow the remaining catchers fill the individual crates. As with all
birds grow larger. systems, fewer birds are placed in each crate in
The withdrawal of feed prior to loading for summer to reduce the risk of heat stress. The
transport to slaughter, in order to reduce crop birds are passed into the crate through a
and intestinal tract contents, can also help to flapped-opening at the top. For unloading there
reduce the level of contamination. Published is a larger aperture in the side or top of the crate
FAO literature recommends a minimum period through which the birds may be removed. Once
of 4 hours prior to birds arriving at the poultry a crate has been filled, it is taken to the lorry.
plant, but extending the period to 10 hours may Self-stacking crates can be placed on pallets in
result in faeces becoming more fluid, thus the shed for handling by a fork-lift vehicle.
increasing the chances of cross-contamination Loose crates provide a flexible system at low
between birds in transit. The UK Advisory capital cost but a high labour input.
Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Fixed crates The crates are fixed on to the
Food recommends that a period between 6 and lorrv. The birds are carried out of the shed to the
10 hours should be allowed between feeding lorry and are placed by the handful into one of
and kill. the lower crates. Numbers in each crate depend
on size and weather conditions. When the
correct number have been placed in the crate
Catching and crating
the hinged flap is fastened. For loading the
This operation should be carried out with care upper crates, a loading platform is attached to
in order to avoid injuries and unnecessary the side of the lorry. from which two men can
suffering to the birds. Crates must be in good operate. The remainder of the catching team
repair and of good design and must not be pass the birds to these men. Once again, great
over- or under-filled, since both situations can care has to be taken to prevent injuries to the
lead to injury. The catchers must be well-trained birds. The system has the advantage of better
and supervised to avoid injury and protection from inclement weather than
downgrading of the birds. Only healthy birds provided by loose crates while in transit, but
should be crated; diseased or otherwise the capital cost is greater although the labour
abnormal birds should be killed on the farm. requirements are marginally lower.
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 265

Fig. 11.1 Modular crates for

holding birds.

Modules The modular syste m has been of Novel mechanical methods includ e herdi ng
great benefit in lowering the amount of bruising systems where the birds are herded on to a
and other injuries to birds and has obvious conveyor, and a fu lly automatic harvesting system
improved welfare considerations. Basically, Cl which consists of a catching unit, a truck unit
module is a metal frame containing 4-16 crates and a crate -loading unit. The birds are di rected
or compartments. The empty mod ules are taken by long rubber fingers, on vertica l rotating
into the house by a fork-lift truck. The birds arc reels, on to a belt conveyor up to a crat ing area.
caught by hand and p u t directly into the The crating system consists of a tra iler wit h a
com partments, thus avoiding the need for special rotating platform and a loa d ing
multiple handling or carrying the birds for long conveyor which has a hyd raulic lifting device
di stances before crating (Fig. 11.1). so that all d raw ers of the module can be filled
Modules tend to be bul ky and heavy, au tomatically.
weighing abou t 1 tonne w hen fully loaded. The
floor of the pou ltry house needs to be firm and
Reception an d unlo ading
15 m of concrete is needed at the front of the
shed for the lor ry. The reception area or latrage is the area w here
Mod ule s all ow for rap id catching and bird s are held before un load ing. lt should be
loading an d a th ree-man team can load 6000 un der cover and of sufficient size to hold all the
birds pe r ho ur. The y can be loaded from either transport veh icles awa iting un load ing. In warm
side an d the large open top of each d rawer weather, ad d ition al ventilation p rovide d by
ensures that minima l da ma ge is inflicted on fan s is necessary and evapora nve cooling
the birds. The modu les are stacked two hi gh d evices are sometimes used to regulate the
on the lorry and the outside can have a cu rtain, environment. In ad d ition to good ventilation,
wh ich makes them su itable for all clima tic con trol of relative humidity is also essential and
conditions. th is should not be allowed to rise above 70%.
Dum p modules have been used with limited The method of lIIJlonding w ill obviously
success. In these the birds are off-loaded at the depend upon the type of crate used . Loose
poultry plant by tilting the module and crates are unloaded from the vehicle and placed
'dumping' the birds on to a conveyor belt. on a conv eyor system which carries them to the
These were developed with the int ention of hanging station . It is important that the crates
imp roving welfare, with expected lesseni ng of are not thrown around roughly and th at the
fractures and bruising, but present-day birds are gen tly but firmly hung on the rail. The
th ink ing is to try to develop methods of crates continue around on the conveyor, are
stunning the birds in their crates p rior to was hed and brought back to the vehi cle, which
shackling. should have been cleaned.
266 Meat Hygiene
For unloading the birds from fixed crates, the identify problems but not so bright as to disturb
vehicle is driven between two vertically the birds. On removal from the crate or module/
moving platforms. The hangers standing on the birds should be checked to see whether they are
platforms open the crates at the side, take out suffering from a condition which may cause
the birds and hang them on the killing line them pain or distress. These birds should be
which is behind them. No crate-conveyor killed immediately either by dislocation of the
system is required but the crates are extremely neck (small birds) or by stunning knife (small
difficult to clean. In addition, the hangers have and large birds). This must be done by a
0
to turn through 180 every time a bird is licensed slaughterman. Runts and diseased
removed and hung on the line. birds, which may have been inadvertently
Some of the modular systems effect unloading crated should also be killed and not shackled.
through hinged doors in the side in a manner
similar to that for fixed crates. Another svstem
Shackling
raises the modules hydraulically to a high-level
unloading platform/ so that the drawers are at the When correctly handled, most birds remain still
required level. The birds are taken from the open after a short period of wing flapping when first
drawers and hung on the shackles by a 90°rotation placed in the shackles. Broilers will generally
of the unloading operative. The 'Easyload' have settled within 12 seconds and turkeys 20
module is removed from the transport vehicle by seconds. A method of reducing wing flapping is
a fork-lift truck and fed into an automated system for the shackler to run his hands down the
which presents it to a drawer push-out unit. This birds body or to briefly hold on to its legs. A
transfers the plastic drawers to a covered conveyor strip of smooth plastic sheeting installed
leading to the hanging station. The open drawer parallel to the conveyor line, along which the
allows unrestricted access for the hanging breasts of the suspended birds rub also has a
operatives, greatly reducing bird damage and quietening effect.
manpower requirements. The birds are hung Turkeys must not be suspended for more
directly on the killing line. than 6 minutes and other birds for 3 minutes
Each operator can hang 1500 birds per hour. before being stunned or killed.
The hanging area can be enclosed to incorporate
dust extraction and light density control, thus
aiding health and safety for the operators and Stunning and slaughter
welfare of the birds, which allows them to be
quiet and lessens stress during transfer on to the
Electrical stunning
killing line. Stunning is usually carried out in an
The empty 'Easyload' drawers are electrically-charged water-bath by dragging the
automaticallv inverted to remove all loose heads of the birds through water in which an
debris and are then immersed in a pre-soak tank electrode is submerged. The shackles of the
before being thoroughly washed and sanitised. killing line simultaneously touch an earth
The empty drawers continue through the electrode, causing an electric current to run
drawer re-inverter to be automatically reloaded through the body of the bird. Effective stunning
into the returning empty module frame. The requires careful observation of the birds and
module frames are also automatically washed. adjustment of the equipment.
The layout of this system lends itself to sepa- The water level is critical and it is essential to
rate clean and dirty areas within the arrival bay. avoid water flowing down the inlet chute and
causing a pre-stun shock, which may make the
birds raise their heads, thus avoiding contact
Pre-slaughter inspection
with the water of the actual stunner. Salt may be
On arrival at the plant/ every consignment added to the water to improve the efficiency of
should be checked to determine the condition stunning.
of the birds and to ensure/ for example, that It is suggested by the UK Humane Slaughter
during transit they have not become trapped by Association that there should be a minimum
the heads/ legs or wings. current of 120 rnA to induce cardiac arrest in
The lighting in the hanging-on area should 90% of birds. However, 105 mA per bird would
be sufficient to enable staff to see the birds and be acceptable provided both carotid arteries are
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 267
severed within 15 seconds to ensure death slaughter under commercial conditions, novel
before birds can begin to recover. methods of stunning/killing poultry using
Problems with conventional water-bath gases, while the birds are still in their transport
stunners have been identified through containers, have been approved under the new
observation in commercial processing plants and EC Directive. Gas stunning/killing will enable
experiments in the laboratory. Owing to shackling to be performed on the freshly killed
differences in the electrical resistance of the birds and this would eliminate the live bird
individual birds, there is little control over the handling at the processing plants. The two gas
stunning current and hence the effectiveness of stunning/killing methods that are being
stunning. A prototype poultry stunner has been approved in the UK are anoxia induced with
developed which controls the current delivered 90% argon or other inert gases, and a mixture of
to individual birds. The machine is capable of 25-30% carbon dioxide and 60% argon or other
operating at typical commercial speeds of 6000 inert gases in air.
birds per hour. It can provide a constant current The birds would be stunned/killed while
to each individual bird provided there is no they are in their transport containers. This
significant current pathway between adjacent would result in the birds leaving a stunning unit
birds. A constant-current stunning system will in large numbers, and all the carcases would
control the current flow through individual birds have to be uncrated and shackled rapidly to
at an optimal level which will ensure an effective allow prompt neck cutting. It is inevitable that
stun and at the same time minimise the carcase the time between the end of gas stunning and
quality problems produced by high currents. neck cutting would be longer than that
Less commonly used stunning instruments practised under the conventional electrical
are the dry stunner, usually incorporating an stunning system. Although research has shown
electrically-charged metal grid or plate and that the efficiency of bleeding in broiler chickens
hand-operated stunner. was not impaired when their necks were cut
The most reliable indicator that a bird is immediately after gas stunning/killing, delayed
properly stunned by the low voltage method is neck cutting after gas stunning of broilers could
the electroplectic fit. The characteristics of this increase the prevalence of carcase downgrading
condition are: neck arched with the head conditions associated with a poor bleed out.
directly vertically, open eyes, absence of corneal This does not happen with turkeys, the
reflex, wings flexed, rigidly extended legs and difference being attributable to a difference in
constant rapid body tremors. carcase cooling rate or other factors.
When cardiac arrest is induced, these signs Gas stunning/killing methods accelerate the
are shorter-lasting and less pronounced and are rate of post-mortem pH fall in poultry and this
followed by a completely limp carcase, no would allow early filleting in broilers (within
breathing (absence of abdominal movements in one hour after slaughter). Generally with anoxia
the vent area), loss of nictitating membrane there are fewer carcase and meat quality defects.
reflex and dilated pupil. The comb reflex can Many fewer defects are found in the breast
also determine whether sensibility has resumed region, including haemorrhages, but there is an
after stunning or neck cutting. increase in defects involving the wings.
Although cardiac arrest is preferable from a
welfare standpoint, the use of high stunning
currents on the quality of the carcase is said by
some to be associated with wing haemorrhages,
Neck-cutting
red skin condition, including red wing-tips and This should be carried out within 15 seconds of
pygostyles, poor plucking, broken bones (in the bird emerging from the stunner. Mechanical
particular furculum) and ruptured blood neck-cutting is the norm for broilers when the
vessels causing blood splashing in the breast bird's head is guided across a single revolving
muscle. circular blade or between a pair of revolving
blades. Accurate positioning of the head is
essential. When cardiac arrest is not produced
Gas stunning at stunning, the most humane method of
Although electrical stunning is the most producing rapid brain death is to sever both
common method of stunning poultry prior to carotid arteries. In practice this is difficult, but
268 Meat Hygiene
not impossible, to achieve without having an thereby maintaining scald tank pH at around 6,
effect on the further processing of the carcase. the point at which salmonellas are most heat-
Where a mechanical killer is used in the UK resistant. The overall effect is that Salmonellas,
it is mandatory to have an operative present to campylobacters and other organisms, including
manually kill any bird which has missed the spores, can survive. Research has shown that
automatic system. Operatives who kill the birds the addition of quaternary ammonium, acetic
have to be licensed by the local authority. acid, etc. to the scald tank would adjust the pH,
Birds are killed manually by passing a knife the principal controlling factor in the survival
across the side of the neck at the base of the of salmonellas and campulobacters, and therefore
bird's head, which should sever a jugular vein improve the hygiene. At present this cannot be
and carotid artery. Again it is better to sever used because of the requirements to
both carotids, but care has to be taken to avoid demonstrate no carcase residues and to use
damage to the carcase. only potable water.
Whichever method is used, a sharp There is no doubt the operation of scalding
instrument is essential. Automatic killing of from a hygiene standpoint is fraught with
turkeys has not been introduced because of the hazards; the temperature of the scald water,
problem of major variation in bird size within type (immersion, spray with hot water or
the flock. steam), duration of scalding, static, agitated or
countercurrent bath water, type of tankts), etc.
all affect the degree of water-bath
contamination. Recent work (Slavik et al., 1995)
Scalding and defeathering on the numbers of Campylobacter and Salmonella
The minimum time for bleeding between neck- on chicken carcases scalded at three different
cutting and entering the scald tank in the UK is temperatures would appear to confirm that the
I'l, minutes for chickens and 2 minutes for higher the temperature the greater the
turkeys. The birds, on the conveyor, pass contamination (Table 11.2).
through a bleeding tunnel, the blood being Alternative methods of scalding are being
collected and pumped into a holding tank. devised to improve the situation. Lower
The birds are scalded either by immersion in bacterial contamination has been achieved with
hot water or by spray-scalding. Spray-scalding spray scalding and plucking in a single
is more hygienic but also more expensive and operation (Veerkamp and Hofrnans, 1973).
therefore scald tanks are more commonly Clouser et al. (1995) found that a spray scalding
installed. The temperature of the water is system for turkey carcases was superior to
dependent on the type of final product. For the traditional scalding.
fresh, chilled market a soft scald of 50-51°C is Improvements in immersion scalding have
used as this does not damage the skin, thereby been made by stirring the water in order to
preventing discoloration and drying (barking) achieve an ideal mixing; division of the scald
on air chilling. tank into several smaller ones; and high-
For the frozen market a hard scald at a
higher temperature, 56-58°C is used as this
Table 11.2 Numbers of Campylobacter and
facilitates feather removal and the birds need Salmonella (log mpn/carcase) on chicken carcases
only remain in the tank for 2-2 '!, minutes scalded at three different temperatures.
instead of 3'1, minutes for the soft scald. In the
USA there is a statutory requirement for an Bacterium Scald Trial
overflow from the scald tank of about 1 temperature
litre/bird for hygiene reasons. Various (O°e) 1 2 3
chemicals can be added to assist feather
removal and to try to prevent cross- Salmonella 52 3.00 3.17 3.09
contamination (but see below). 56 3.16 3.17 3.34
The scald tank immersion results in large 60 3.50 3.48 3.36
Campylobacter 52 3.64 3.30 4.18
numbers of organisms being released into the 56 3.39 2.94 3.39
water; in addition, faecal material in the tank 60 4.08 3.59 3.98
dissociates to form ammonium urate and uric
acid, which form a natural buffer system, From Slavik et al. (1995).
 Poultry Production! Slaughter and Inspection 269
pressure (800 bar) treatment of scald water. All aerosols which can spread contamination.
these have shown improvements in scald water Moreover! since the atmosphere inside the
quality. Lowering the pH with organic acids machinery is both warm and moist, microbial
may affect product quality and the addition of growth is encouraged.
trisodium phosphate may cause corrosion of Following feather removal, the birds are
equipment. The ideal solution has not yet been spray-washed and at this point the whole bird
found. post-mortem examination takes place. It is here
that obviously diseased birds! badly-bled and
badly-bruised carcases are removed. The heads
of the birds are removed by an automatic head
Defeathering and windpipe puller. By pulling the heads off
Feathers are removed mechanically! rather than cutting them off, the oesophagus
immediately after scalding! by a series of on- and trachea are removed with the heads. This
line plucking machines. These consist of banks loosens the crop and lungs, which assists in
of counter-rotating! stainless steel domes or their removal by the automatic evisceration
discs! with attached rubber 'fingers'. Rubber machines.
flails mounted on inclined shafts are sometimes The birds then pass through an automatic
used for finishing. foot-cutter. The severed feet remain on the
The machines should be close to the scald shackles and are removed mechanically on the
tank and to each other to lessen the effect of return line. In the case of large turkeys!
cooling. Generally, birds which have been retention of the sinews is considered
scalded at higher temperatures require 50% less unacceptable. Instead of cutting off the shanks,
defeathering capacity. The machines are an automatic sinew-puller is used, and this
adjustable to allow for differing bird sizes and draws up to nine of the main sinews.
this must be carried out to prevent mechanical The carcases are re-hung on the evisceration
damage to the carcase. line after removal of the feet. This can now be
Continuous water-sprays are usually done automatically, using a transfer system
incorporated within the machines for flushing available from several equipment manu-
out feathers. Feathers are commonly taken to a facturers. In this case the foot-cutter and
centralised collection point via a fast-flowing transfer device are combined in one unit. This
water-channel located below the machine. Dry lessens the risk of cross-contamination. The
feather systems using a conveyor belt in empty! returning, killing-line shackles pass
conjunction with a vacuum or compressed-air through a shackle washer on their way back to
arrangement are sometimes used. Any feathers the bird arrival area.
remaining on the bird after plucking! including
pin feathers, are removed by hand.
For ducks! wax stripping is used. The ducks
Evisceration (Figs 11.2 and 11.3)
are dipped in a bath of hot wax and then passed
through cool water-sprays so that the wax In the EC the evisceration area must be
hardens. The hardened wax! with the feathers physically separated from the defeathering
attached, is hand-stripped. The plucked area.
carcases are then spray-washed. There is Chickens are usually suspended from the
evidence to suggest that the combination of shackles of the evisceration-line conveyor by
scalding at 60°C followed by immersion in engaging the hock joints two-point suspension.
molten wax at 87°C to aid final removal of the Turkeys are commonly hung by a 'three-point'
feathers has a beneficial effect on the suspension which includes the head as well as
microbiological status of the finished product. the legs. This presents the bird horizontally,
Defeathering machines are major sites of making cutting around the vent and
potential cross-contamination in primary evisceration easier.
processing. Rubber fingers can score the carcase Evisceration is mainly carried out
and can also harbour contamination in the mechanically, but manual evisceration is still
'cobweb' of tiny cracks which form when the practised. On automatic lines, a cut is made
rubber becomes brittle. In addition! the around the vent, a spoon-shaped device is
spinning action of the plucker heads form inserted into the opening and the viscera are
270 Meat Hygielle
withdrawn . The viscera may remain atta ched
for inspection. hanging over the 141Ck of the
carcase connected bv their natural tissues or
hung sepa rately. .
Con tamina tion of the carcase surface ,...-ith
Enterobacteriaceae speci es may e ns ue if
intestines, etc. are d amaged. This is not an
un comm on occu rre nce because the machinery
u sed is not able to adjust fOT th e na tura l
vari ation in the size of birds being processed . A
, ... new type of eq uip men t, however, holds the
birds horizont ally by the head and hocks so
that , wh en the viscera are rem oved from the
bod y cav ity, they emerge sideways. They are

., placed on a tray beside the bird rath er than

hun g with it and hence do not come int o
con tact with the carcase.
It is at th is stage that a further il1 ~l'ec fio ll takes
place which will observ e cha nges in the in ternal
or gan s. After inspecti on , the viscera a re
sepa rat ed into ed ible and inedible offal. The
edible fraction (sometimes being was hed in
chlorinated water) is sort ed , chilled an d
pa cked .
The eviscerated carase is spray·wlIsJled,
Fig. 11.2 Sepa ration of carcase meat from offaL
(Cou rtesy of Stork r VM B.v., Bcxmeer. Holland)
in tern ally and externa lly. This gin's a visually-

Fig. 11.3 Evisceration. (Courtesy of Stork PMV B.V., Boxmeer, Holland )

 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 271

clean bird and also decreases carcase are frequently above 30°C. Prompt and efficient
contamination. The carcase should be washed chilling of the bird is essential to delay the
not only after final inspection but between the growth of psychotrophic spoilage bacteria and
different stages involved in evisceration, as it prevent any increase in microorganisms of
has been shown that by doing so the numbers public health significance.
of coliforms and salmonellas on carcases are The type of chilling used can have an effect
reduced because there is insufficient time for on the type and quantity of microbial
attachment to occur. A suitable carcase-washer contamination of the end-product. Continuous,
comprises a small cabinet containing an in-line, immersion chilling is still the most widely
appropriate arrangement of spray nozzles. The used method in many countries. Carcases move
water should contain 40 mg/litre of free through a counterflow current of water in a state
chlorine. of constant agitation so that they are constantly
The heart, liver and gizzard (the giblets) are moving into cleaner water. This washing effect
often pooled and inserted into the body of the also removes numerous organisms from both
chicken. Giblets are more frequently the inner and outer surfaces of the carcases.
contaminated with salmonella than other sample There may be deleterious effects if there is a
sites and chickens which contain them are more significant build-up of blood and carcase
often contaminated than those without giblets. material or a rise in water temperature. The
The carcase and skin of these chickens are more addition of hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide to
frequently contaminated with Salmonella the water might serve to reduce the levels of
enteritidis PT4 than these sites in chickens not contamination in the chiller but, because these
containing giblets, irrespective of whether the compounds would quickly be deactivated on
giblets themselves were contaminated. contact with skin, there would be little direct
The same study also found that frozen effect on carcase bacterial burdens. The main
chickens were significantly more regularly value of chlorinating chiller water is to minimise
contaminated than chilled chickens. cross-contamination.
Partial evisceration (or effile) is carried out in EC regulations state that the carcases must
Great Britain. In this process, the intestines are pass through one or more tanks of water or of
removed but the remaining viscera are left ice and water, the contents of which are
inside the carcase. Delayed evisceration is also continuously renewed. Only a system whereby
permissible, where uneviscerated birds are held the carcases are constantly propelled by
for up to 15 days under refrigeration at no more mechanical means through a counterflow of
than 4°C before evisceration and post-mortem water is acceptable.
inspection are carried out. The temperature of the water in the tank
New York-Dressed (NYD) birds are sold measured at the points of entry and exit of the
uneviscerated and with the head and feet left carcases must not be more than +16°C and
attached. The EEC marketing of NYD birds +4°C, respectively.
from licensed premises is banned from 1 May Chilling must be carried out so that the
1997. However NYD birds may still be required temperatures of fresh chilled poultry
produced and marketed by exempt meat of not more than 4°C and for frozen
slaughterhouses (i.e. those producing fewer poultry meat of not more than -12°C are
than 10000 birds per year). NYD birds present a reached in the shortest possible time.
particular hazard owing to the risk of leakage of The minimum flow of water throughout the
faeces from the vent and, if evisceration is whole chilling process must be:
carried out in a kitchen, the risk of faeces or
intestinal contents from ruptured intestines 2.5 litres per carcase weighing 2.5 kg or less;
cross-contaminating other foods. 4 litres per carcase weighing between 2.5-5 kg;
6 litres per carcase weighing 5 kg or more.
Chilling Other requirements are the length of time the
In many plants the high rate of processing (e.g. carcases spend in the tanks (first tank not more
7000 birds per hour) is such that there is little than half an hour; others, not longer than
loss of heat from the carcase before it reaches the necessary); equipment to be thoroughly cleaned
chilling stage, and average carcase temperatures and disinfected when necessary and at the end
272 Meat Hygiene
of the day; calibrated control equipment; and (a) Checking the producer'S records, which
the need for microbiological monitoring. depending on the type of bird include:
In addition, when chlorine is used it should (1) date of arrival;
be monitored to ensure correct levels. (2) number;
Static water-chillers involve the use of static (3) mortality;
slush ice tanks after immersion chilling and are (4) suppliers of feedingstuffs;
required for larger birds, especially for turkeys (5) type, period of use and withdrawal
which must also be 'aged' to ensure a tender periods of feed additives;
product prior to freezing. The larger carcases
(6) type of any medicinal product, with dates
need to be chilled for longer periods. The of administration and withdrawal (this
disadvantages of this equipment are greater than includes vaccines);
those arising from the use of immersion chillers.
(7) results of any previous official pre-
Spray-chillers avoid the problems associated slaughter health inspections of birds from
with the build-up of contamination in the chill the same specified group;
tanks but can give rise to the spread of bacteria (8) number sent for slaughter;
through aerosols. They are not suitable for large
(9) expected date of slaughter.
carcases, e.g. turkeys, and are costly to operate
as they use high volumes of water. (b) Any additional examinations needed to
Air-chillers are generally used where carcases establish:
are for sale fresh. Chilling is effected either by (1) whether birds are suffering from a
batch in a chill room or by continuous air blast. disease which can be transmitted to
It requires the use of low-scald temperatures to humans or animals;
ensure a high-quality appearance. The (2) whether the birds show disturbance of
differences in microbial counts between air and general behaviour or signs of sickness
water-cooled carcases are not constant. which may make the meat unfit for
Chemical rinsing of carcases with trisodium human consumption.
phosphate is used in the USA
(c) Regular sampling of water and feed with a
view to checking compliance with
withdrawal periods.
ANTE-MORTEM HEALTH INSPECTION (d) The results of tests for zoonotic agents
carried out in accordance with Directive
In the EU the traditional ante-mortem 92/117 IEEe.
inspection, with its obvious deficiencies of not
being able to inspect birds in crates or on the Alternatively, the veterinarian signs an initial
line adequately, has been superseded by on- declaration, given to the central competent
farm producer declaration or a health authority, confirming that the producer's
attestation signed by a private veterinarian. holding is under his supervision. The producer
Producers with an annual production of up then submits a production report to the
to 20000 domestic fowl or 15000 duck or 10000 manager of the plant at least 72 hours before the
turkeys or 10000 geese complete a declaration birds are due to arrive. The information is then
which states they do not exceed the above passed on to the Official Veterinary Surgeon
numbers. Birds from their farm receive a pre- (OVS).
slaughter health inspection by the official If the OVS is not satisfied with the
veterinarian at the plant. information, he may ask for further information
Birds from producers with an annual such as details of the hatchery, feedstuffs,
production in excess of the above can either growth rates, etc., and if the Production Report
have a Health Attestation signed by a private is not complete or does not provide the
veterinarian which states that he has examined required information or the OVS is not
the poultry before slaughter, and that in his satisfied, he may order an inspection at the
opinion there are no reasons why they should farm of origin to enable completion of the
not be slaughtered for human consumption. report. The inspection is carried out at the
The veterinary pre-slaughter health inspection owner's expense. The Production Report
consists of the following: consists of the following details:
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 273
• Holding of origin The OVS must give a detailed inspection of a
• Intended date of arrival at slaughterhouse random sample of the birds rejected in the post-
• Expected number of birds in consignment mortem health inspection and examine a
random sample of 300 birds, taken from the
• Mortality data (daily % in final week before
slaughter, and weekly mortality before that) entire consignment, by inspecting the viscera
and body cavities.
• Results of any on-farm veterinary inspection He must carry out a special post-mortem if
of flock
there are other indications that the meat from the
• Results of any laboratory tests/ diagnosis poultry could be unfit for human consumption.
carried out on birds, litter etc.
In the case of partly eviscerated poultry ('effile')
• Dates of administration/withdrawal of all whose intestines were removed immediately, the
medicinal products viscera and the body cavities of at least 5% of the
• Any other relevant information. poultry from each consignment will be inspected
after evisceration. If anomalies are discovered in
The Production Report should be copied to a number of birds, then all of the consignment
the veterinary surgeon supervising the holding. must be examined as above.
The plant OVS (or a delegated poultry meat In the case of New York Dressed poultry, the
inspector (PMI)) is responsible for relaying birds will be examined as above, no longer than
adverse results of post-mortem inspections and 15 days after slaughter, and kept at 4°C or
dead-on-arrivals (DO AS) of consignments back below.
to the holding, slaughterhouse management, Taking of samples for residues must be
and veterinarian responsible for the holding as carried out by spot checks, and in any event of
he or she feels necessary. justified suspicion. The OVS also has the
authority to ask for laboratory tests to be
carried out to aid diagnosis or to detect
POST-MORTEM INSPECTION IN THE pharmacological substances. Should the OVS
PLANT consider that hygienic processing or health
inspection is not being adequately carried out,
Plant inspection assistants (PIAs) in the UK are he can lower the line speed or stop production.
plant employees who have been trained to The results of the inspections should be
undertake post-mortem inspection on the recorded and where necessary communicated
whole bird and evisceration inspection points. to the competent veterinary authority (of the
They can therefore replace PMIs, who now holding from which the birds originated), and
carry out more of a supervisory role, but only the owner of the flock of origin who will pass
with the agreement of the competent authority this information to the official veterinarian
and after discussion with the OVS. Some carrying out the ante-mortem inspection during
purchasers of poultry products insist on the the subsequent production period.
independence of PMIs for inspection. Many of the diseases listed below will rarely
Poultry inspection assistants are taught the be encountered in the poultry plant.
theory and practice of anatomy and physiology,
pathology and meat inspection and also
poultry welfare and legislation.
DECISION OF THE OFFICIAL
Poultry must be inspected immediately after
VETERINARIAN AT THE POST-
slaughter under suitable lighting (540 lux). The
MORTEM INSPECTION
surface of the bird's body, excluding head and
feet, except where they are intended for human
Poultry meat is declared totally unfit for human
consumption, the viscera and the body cavities
consumption where the post-mortem inspection
must be subjected to visual inspection and
reveals any of the following conditions:
where necessary, palpation and incision.
Attention must also be paid to anomalies of • Generalised infectious diseases and chronic
consistency, colour and smell in the carcases, localisations in organs of pathogenic
major anomalies resulting from the microorganisms transmissible to humans
slaughtering operations and proper functioning • Systemic mycosis and local lesions in organs
of the slaughter equipment. suspected of having been caused by
274 Meat Hygiene
pathogenic agents transmissible to humans, Table 11.3 Percentages of broiler carcases rejected
or their toxins because they were either dead on arrival or
diseased from farms with normal or high rates of
• Extensive subcutaneous or muscular rejection of carcases.
parasitism and systemic parasitism
• Poisoning Farm Percentage of carcases
• Cachexia rejection
rate Dead on arrival Disease conditions
• Abnormal smell, colour or taste
• Malignant or multiple tumours Normal 0.22 1.09
• General soiling or contamination High 0.42 5.12
• Major lesions and ecchymoses
• Extensive mechanical lesions, including
those due to extensive scalding 48% of the growing units. The higher rates of
• Insufficient bleeding carcase rejection were found on the units with
• Residues of substances exceeding the an average flock size of over 100000 birds and
authorised standards or residues of from rearing houses with a population of more
prohibited substances than 30 000 birds. The main cause of rejection
were birds dead on arrival (0.24%), disease
• Ascites
(1.57%) and miscellaneous conditions (0.28%).
The commonest cause of carcase rejection due
Parts of the carcase which show localised
to disease was colisepticaemia (42.8%).
lesions or contaminations not affecting the
Septicaemia/toxaemia/ fevered accounted for
health of the rest of meat are unfit for human
29.63%, emaciation for 19.45% and ascites for
consumption. It is essential that condemned and
5.91%. Hydropericardium/pericarditis (1.01%),
suspect meat is kept separated from meat for
skin lesions (0.62%), joint lesions (0.31%),
human consumption.
jaundice (0.16%) and tumours (0.01%) were also
Poultry carcases, in licensed premises, are
seen. The birds from units with high rejection
only allowed to be cut into parts and boned in
rates had lower average slaughter weights than
approved cutting rooms. They must be chilled to
birds from units with normal rejection rates.
not more than +4°C before cutting proceeds
The productivity of intensively-reared
unless the slaughter room and the cutting room
poultry falls as a result of disease problems as
are near each other and located in the same
the size of the flock increases and as the number
group of buildings and the meat is transferred
of rearing houses on one site increases.
in one operation by an extension of the
mechanical handling system.
Cutting must be carried out immediately
and once cutting and packaging are complete
VIRAL POULTRY DISEASES
the meat is placed in the chilling room.
Packaged fresh poultry meat must not be kept
in the same room as unpacked poultry meat.
!BD
Poultry disease is often multifactorial with, Infectious bursal disease (lED, Cumboro disease)
for example, poor ventilation along with a viral affects young chickens usually up to 6 weeks of
disease acting together with bacteria, for age. It is one of the most important diseases
example E. coli, to produce generalised because the virus affects lymphoid tissue and
septicaemia resulting in pericarditis, air acts as an irnmunosuppressor. Virulent IBD has
sacculitis/perihepatitis and a congested been responsible for increased mortality and
carcase. condemnation in recent years. Carcases of birds
Yogaratnam (1995) analysed results of dying from this infection are dehydrated; there
examinations at a poultry processing plant are petechial haemorrhages in the leg and thigh
which received 33.65 million birds from 87 muscles and occasionally on the mucosa of the
commercial broiler growing units in 1992 proventiculus with increased mucus in the
(Table 11.3). High carcase rejection rates of 3% intestines.
or more were recorded in birds received from Colisepticaemia frequently follows immuno-
13.2% of the rearing houses, distributed among suppression.
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 275

Inclusion body hepatitis Swollen head syndrome (SHS)

Usually seen in meat-producing chickens aged SHS affects mainly broilers and broiler breeders
4-9 weeks, this is characterised by a sudden and is caused by a number of factors. Turkey
increase in mortality (2-4%) which'can last for rhinotracheitis, other virus infections such as
3-4 days. Other birds in the flock often appear infectious bronchitis in conjunction with E. coli
bright or they may be depressed for a few days. and other bacteria and poor management have
Overall food conversion and weight gain are all been incriminated. In broilers the clinical
usually depressed. The livers are swollen and signs consist of severe head swelling giving the
frequently have haemorrhages. face a puffy appearance caused by subcutaneous
oedema around the eyes which extends over the
head and down into the intermandibular tissues
Reoviruses and wattles. Respiratory signs include coughing
Reooiruses have been associated with and sneezing and many affected birds have a
tenosynovitis or viral arthritis in meat- severe tracheitis and often die from secondary
producing birds over 5 weeks of age. There is septicaemia caused by E. coli.
bilateral swelling of the digital flexor and the Although morbidity is often low, the
tarsometatarsal extensor tendons. This condition is exacerbated by poor ventilation
produces lameness and the birds are reluctant and high levels of ammonia and dust.
to move. Chronic tenosynovitis may result and Lesions consist of fine petechiation of the
this may lead to rupture of the gastrocnemius turbinate mucosa which progresses to a severe
tendon. Articular lesions may be recognised in generalised red to purple discoloration of the
long-standing cases. While morbidity is up to mucosa. Removal of the skin over the head
100%, mortality is usually under 1%. reveals yellow, oedematous, subcutaneous tissue.
Condemnations due to tenosynovitis are
usually 1-2%, although, exceptionally, much Turkey haemorrhagic enteritis (THE) group
higher figures have been found.
There is a variation in virulence among different
isolates. Outbreaks may be precipitated by
Duck virus enteritis overcrowding, chilling or a low plane of
nutrition. Although mortalities of up to 50%
This is caused by a herpesvirus. The disease have been recorded, they are usually lower.
spreads rapidly and birds affected are Signs vary from sudden death to depression
disinclined to walk. Post-mortem examination with wet faeces or, in more chronic cases, dark
shows the birds to be in good condition. tarry droppings that make white birds dirty. In
Multiple petechiae are seen throughout the these less acute cases there is very little mortality.
body. Diphtheritic cloacitis and oesophagitis On post-mortem examination the intestines
(almost pathognomonic) are seen. There is also are full of blood and mucosal debris, invariably
an enteritis. involving the duodenum but extending as far
as the caeca in severe cases. The intestinal
Turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT) mucosa of the duodenum has a velvety
appearance and may show the occasional
This commonly affects flocks between 3 and 10 necrotic area. Survivors may show a thickening
weeks. It has a rapid flock onset together with a of the duodenal wall and mild catarrhal
high morbidity which frequently approaches enteritis and have enlarged mottled spleens.
100%. Clinical signs may include depression, These are often found in the processing plant.
change of voice, gasping, moist trachael rales,
snicking, coughing, submandibular oedema, Judgement Depends on severity. If localised,
swollen infraorbital sinuses, foamy ocular partial condemnation; if generalised, total
discharge and excess mucus at the external nares. condemnation.
Uncomplicated cases have rapid recovery
but secondary bacterial infection with E. coli can Chicken anaemia agent (CAA)
cause mortality to exceed 50%. It is more
prevalent in areas with a high-density turkey A virus which is vertically transmitted and can
population. cause variable mortality in susceptible young
276 Meat Hygiene
chicks. The anaemia-dermatitis syndrome of with feather follicles (known as 'skin leukosis'
broilers may be due to combined CAA and in the USA) and in skeletal muscles. In younger
reovirus infection and the virus may make birds the liver enlargement is usually moderate
chickens more susceptible to other diseases. in extent but in older birds the greatly enlarged
liver may appear identical to that in lymphoid
leukosis.
Infectious laryngotracheitis
The more severe forms of this viral disease are
Leukosis/sarcoma group of diseases
of considerable economic importance since they
may result in high mortality and greatly This group includes tumours, the main one
reduced production. It is found in domestic being lymphoid leukosis. The clinical signs of
fowl and occasionally in the pheasant and leukosis are non-specific. The bird may be
partridge. inappetant, weak and emaciated, diarrhoea
Signs vary from birds found dead or sudden may occur, and the wattles may be pale. In
acute dyspnoea with severe coughing and lymphoid leukosis, the enlarged liver and bursa
expectoration of mucus and blood-stained may be palpable and occasionally a leukaemia
exudate and blood clots, followed by death in is demonstrable.
1-3 days. In the acute form, dyspnoea is a On post-mortem examination the most
feature, but not as severe as in the peracute common finding is a grossly enlarged liver -
form. Increasing obstruction of the trachea with this condition is sometimes called 'big liver
exudate causes the bird to breathe with long disease'. Differentiation from Marek's disease
drawn-out gasps, with a wide-open beak and can be achieved by histological examination;
often a high-pitched squawk and moist rales. In several birds should be examined.
some birds there may be a nasal discharge and Osteopetrosis occurs as thickening of the
conjunctivitis. Cyanosis of the face and wattles long bones, especially of the legs and wings
can also be seen. Gross lesions vary with the while myeloid leukosis affects flat bones (ribs,
severity but in most cases are restricted to the skull, sternum, etc.). Also included in this
upper respiratory tract. group are erythroid and leukosis, haeman-
giomas, fibro-sarcomas and nephroblastomas,
all caused by related retroviruses.
Marek's disease
This is a virus disease of domestic chickens in
which lymphoproliferative infiltration and
Lymphoproliferative disease of turkeys
demyelination of peripheral nerves is a This is a rare disease in the UK. It is mainly seen
common feature. Marek's disease affects in growing of turkeys between 7 and 18 weeks
chickens from about 6 weeks of age, most of age and occasionally in adults. Affected birds
frequently between 12 and 24 weeks, but older die suddenly. Up to 20% of the flock may be
chickens may also be affected. There are two affected.
main forms of clinical disease. In classical On post-mortem examination there is
Marek's disease there is involvement of the marked enlargement of the spleen, which is
peripheral nerves, mainly bronchial and sciatic, usually pale pink in colour with a marbled
leading to progressive spastic paralysis of the appearance. The liver may be moderately
wings and legs. Mortality is variable but rarely enlarged, with miliary greyish-white foci.
exceeds 10-15%. These birds should be seen on Miliary or diffuse tumour infiltration may also
the farm and should be culled. occur in the kidney, gonads, intestinal wall,
Mortality from acute Marek's disease is pancreas, lungs, myocardium and thymus.
usually much higher than from the classical
form and incidences of 10-30% are not
uncommon. Outbreaks involving up to 80% of Reticuloendotheliosis
the flock can be encountered. There is diffuse Reticuloendotheliosis comprises diseases
lymphomatous involvement with enlargement caused by retroviruses that are distinct from the
of the liver, gonads, spleen, kidneys, lungs, leukosis/sarcoma group. Neoplastic lesions are
proventriculus and heart. Sometimes seen sporadically in turkeys and more rarely in
lymphomas also arise in the skin in association chickens, ducks, geese, pheasants and quail.
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 277
The infection can cause immunosuppression. Avian influenza
Post-mortem findings include an enlarged liver
Outbreaks of this highly virulent disease
and spleen caused by focal or diffuse
(previously known as fowl plague) have
infiltration by proliferating reticulum cells and
occurred sporadically. The pathogenicity of the
sometimes lymphocytes. Similar changes occur
various types varies dramatically and mutation
in the gonads, heart, kidney and pancreas.
can produce extreme virulence from viruses of
Thejudgementof all systemic tumour conditions
is total rejection. low pathogenicity. Ducks and waterfowl tend
to be refractory, even to the viruses that are
highly pathogenic for chickens, although they
may be carriers.
Newcastle disease
Control measures by countries seeking to
The casual organism of Newcastle disease is a prevent the introduction of disease include the
paramyxovirus containing RNA. banning of poultry from affected areas.
Newcastle disease may effect domestic
fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, pheasants and
guinea fowl, the period of incubation varying
from 2 to 7 days. Birds affected with the peracute BACTERIAL POULTRY DISEASES
form are frequently found dead without
showing previous symptoms. Occasionally Necrotic enteritis
humans may be infected by handling diseased
birds, symptoms of malaise and conjunctivitis Necrotic enteritis is usually a sporadic disease
being evident with fairly rapid recovery. in chickens and turkeys over approximately 4
In less severe outbreaks, affected birds refuse weeks of age but can also occur in adults.
food, are dejected and listless and in some cases The small intestine is markedly thickened,
show a discharge from the eyes and nostrils. owing to extensive velvet-like necrosis of the
The wings and legs often become paralysed and mucosa, and is deeply fissured and often
a characteristic sign is a long, gasping congested. The condition may follow or be
inhalation through the half-open mouth, associated with coccidiosis.
accompanied by gurgling and a frothy exudate Judgement Condemnation.
from the beak. Green diarrhoea may be evident,
with loss of appetite. In some instances there
are nervous signs. Ulcerative enteritis or quail disease
Sometimes the only sign exhibited by adult This occurs as sporadic outbreaks in intensive
birds is a fall in egg production and the laying systems of management of chickens, bob-white
of eggs with abnormal shells, these being either and other quails, pheasants and partridges.
misshapen, soft-shelled, imperfectly shelled or There are small, round superficial ulcers with
devoid of colour. In the past, mortality was as haemorrhagic borders in the mucosa of the
high as 100%, but vaccination has lowered this small intestine, caeca and upper large intestine
considerably. Newcastle disease is no longer which later coalesce and penetrate deeper into
subject to compulsory slaughter in the UK, the serosa, which may become perforated and
vaccination being widely practised. However, it cause peritonitis. The liver may have yellowish
is a notifiable disease and all suspect poultry or to grey necrotic lesions and the spleen is usually
carcases must be reported to the regulatory enlarged and haemorrhagic.
authority.
Judgement Condemnation.
Lesions These vary depending on the
virulence of the organism and the organs
Gangrenous dermatitis
affected. Respiratory infection may cause
tracheitis, often accompanied with Clostridium septicum and Cl. perfringens type A
haemorrhages, and air sacculitis. have been implicated in this disease, but in
The virulent viscerotropic viruses cause many outbreaks Staphylococcus aureus is also
haemorrhagic lesions in the intestinal tract, involved. Immunosuppressive organisms, poor
particularly the proventriculus, at its borders management and high stocking rates are
with the gizzard. predisposing factors. It is primarily a disease of
278 Meat Hygiene
broiler chickens over 4 weeks of age. Affected body, especially the head in turkeys. The snood
birds die within a few hours and carcases of male turkeys may be swollen and purple in
rapidly decompose with a foul odour. Affected colour. Dark, congested areas are sometimes
carcases should not reach the poultry plant. seen in foot webs of ducks. Lesions are of a
generalised bacteraemia and congestion, with
Judgement Condemnation. small haemorrhages frequently in the skin,
muscles, pericardial fat, epicardium, gizzard
Staphylococcal infections serosa, mesentery, abdominal fat, liver and
under the pleura. An enlarged friable, mottled,
Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-positive, congested liver, spleen and kidneys are
organisms are often found on the skin, nares, frequently seen. There is usually a marked
beak and on the feet of apparently normal catarrhal enteritis. In chronic cases there may be
chickens. Injury to the skin may predispose to heart lesions and in lame birds a fibro-purulent
tissue invasion. Environmental stress and exudate in the joints.
concomitant or earlier infections with other
pathogens may result in lowered resistance to Judgement Condemnation.
the organism.
Conditions in which staphylococci are
involved include arthritis and tenosynovitis of Pasteurellosis
the hock joint and bumble foot (subdermal
abscess). The synovial membranes of the joints Pasteurellosis is a highly contagious disease of
and tendon sheaths become thickened and domestic fowl, turkeys, ducks and geese caused
oedematous and exudate with fibrous deposits by organisms of the pasteurella group, mainly
is produced within and around the joints and p. muliocida, the cause of fowl or turkey cholera,
tendon sheaths. There is some necrosis and the Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, the cause of
exudate may later become caseous. Petechial pseudotuberculosis or yersiniosis, and
and larger haemorrhages may be present in the Pasteurella (Moraxella) anatipestifer, the cause of
early stages. If the bird survives, the condition new duck disease, duck septicaemia or
becomes chronic with the formation of fibrous infectious serositis.
tissue. Fowl cholera occurs in several forms: peracute,
Gangrenous dermatitis in broiler chickens, acute, chronic and localised disease. In the
most frequently found at the wing tips and the peracute form there may be no premonitory
dorsal pelvic region, causes dark moist signs and large numbers of birds in a flock are
gangrenous lesions. found dead but in good body condition. In the
Abscesses of the fifth to seventh thoracic acute form, marked depression, anorexia,
vertebrae causing periostitis and osteomyelitis mucous discharges from the orifices, cyanosis
with consequent pressure on the spinal cord and fetid diarrhoea are apparent. The chronic
leading to paresis or paralysis can also be form can be a consequence of the acute form or
caused by S. aureus. infection with an organism of lower virulence.
The clinical signs include depression,
conjunctivitis, dyspnoea and, later in the
Erysipelas infection, lameness, torticollis and swelling of
the wattles (wattle cholera). Turkeys are more
Erysipelas is an acute febrile disease, caused by
susceptible to cholera than chickens.
Erysipelothrix insidiosa. Although turkeys over
13 weeks of age are most susceptible, it can also Lesions In the peracute and acute forms there is
occur in ducks, geese, quail and chickens and marked congestion of the carcase, multiple
has caused high mortality in pheasants. The petechiation throughout the viscera and
organism is of public health significance multiple pinpoint necrotic foci in the liver. Free
because it can cause a skin rash and cellulitis yolk may be present in the body cavity. In the less
(erysipeloid) and, possibly, endocarditis and acute disease, oedema of the lungs (especially in
encephalitis in humans who sustain a cut while turkeys) pneumonia and perihepatitis are seen.
handling diseased carcases. The presence of lung lesions may help to
On post-mortem examination there may be distinguish, grossly, fowl cholera from
dark crusty skin lesions over any part of the erysipelas. Chronic lesions include caseous
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 279
arthritis of the hock and foot joints/ swelling with coli is a normal inhabitant of the digestive tract
induration of one or both wattles (chickens) and of poultry and large numbers are often found in
caseous exudate in the middle ear. the lower part of the small intestine and caeca.
The serotypes most frequently causing
Pseudotuberculosis colisepticaemia (01, 02/ 08 and 078) are also
likely to be found in the throat and upper
Pseudotuberculosis is a highly infectious disease trachea. These pathogenic E. coli probably
of domestic poultry and wild rodents caused by invade the birds body from the respiratory
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. It is widespread tract to produce the characteristic condition.
throughout the world. The disease is especially The best method of controlling
important in turkeys, in which the mortality colisepticaemia is to maintain the highest
rates may be very high. Water fowl are often standards of flock management and obtain
infected. Overcrowding and debilitating factors chicks only from disease-free well-managed
predispose to the disease. Infection is probably breeding flocks and hatcheries. Pathogenic E.
spread via contaminated food, gaining entry coli serotypes can be transmitted via the
through the intestinal mucosa or possibly hatchery following faecal contamination of
through breaks in the skin. hatching eggs. Chicks should be the progeny of
Lesions In acute cases there is enlargement of mycoplasma-free stock which have also been
the liver and spleen, while in the chronic form vaccinated against IBD, infectious bronchitis
there are multiple caseous tubercle-like lesions and any other disease that is a local threat. The
of varying size in the liver, the spleen and production birds need to be vaccinated against
sometimes the lungs. Severe enteritis may be infectious bronchitis and IBD and provided
observed. with a coccidiostat in the feed. The birds should
be fed a well-balanced diet to avoid the
Judgement Condemnation. consequences of mineral/vitamin deficiencies
and malnutrition. Good litter management and
Anatipestifer infection properly ventilated houses are also vital control
measures. The litter should be dry, but not
Signs are seen in duckling between 2 and 6 dusty, and the air flow should be such that there
(rarely 8) weeks of age. These appear three days are no pockets of stagnant air or build-up of
after some stressful circumstance, such as ammonia fumes.
husbandry malpractice or environmental stress,
such as a move. The causal organism is Lesions The main lesions found in colisepti-
Pasteurella (Moraxella) anaiipestijer, which is caemia of broilers, turkeys and ducks are con-
probably transmitted via the egg. gested muscles, enlarged liver and spleen with
pericarditis, perihepatitis and air sacculitis.
Lesions Typical lesions of the acute disease are
congested lungs, an enlarged pinkish liver and
an enlarged spleen which is purple in colour. Salmonellosis
Externally the vent is stained pale green, the
beak is often congested but the bird is usually in There are two specific salmonella organisms
good bodily condition. In the less acute form, which affect only poultry. Salmonella pullorum
pericarditis and perihepatitis occur with an causes bacillary white diarrhoea, BWD or
inspissated caseous deposit in the posterior pullorum disease, in chicks under 3 weeks of
aspects of the abdominal air sacs. The walls of age. The disease is now eradicated from
other air sacs may be thickened. Later the air sacs developed countries and because of the age of
are more extensively affected and there may be the bird affected would not be seen in a poultry
caseous salpingitis. Sinusitis is commonly seen. meat plant.
P. anatipestifer may also cause a thickening of the Salmonella gallinarum causes fowl typhoid, an
skin, especially around the ventral abdomen. acute, subacute or chronic infectious disease of
poultry, ducks, turkeys (notably in the USA),
pheasants, guinea fowl, pea fowl, grouse and
Coliform infections
quail. The disease differs from other avian
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the most commonly salmonella infections in that clinical disease is
isolated organism from condemned carcases. E. usually seen in growers or adult birds, although
280 Meat Hygiene
chicks can be affected. In acute outbreaks the through contaminated stock, wild and feral
first sign will be an increase in mortality, animals, and personnel. There may also be a
accompanied by a drop in food consumption. carry-over of infection from previous stock.
Depression, with affected birds standing still Good biosecurity is essential including an all-
with ruffled feathers and their eyes closed, is in-all-out policy on farms, where all birds are
seen clinically. As with most poultry diseases, of the same age and are all brought in at the
the signs of ill health are mainly non-specific. In same time and disposed of to allow for proper
the chronic phase there is progressive loss of cleaning and disinfection between crops.
condition and an intense anaemia develops Visitors should be discouraged and only
which produces shrunken, pale combs and essential staff should be allowed access. The
wattles. perimeter of the farm should be identified,
preferably fenced and gated securely! with
Lesions Carcases of birds dying in the acute
parking facilities away from the buildings.
phase have a septicaemic, jaundiced
Good management is dependent on a clean
appearance, with the subcutaneous blood
and tidy site. Rodent control is enhanced by
vessels injected and prominent and the skeletal
the control of vegetation, including in and
muscles congested and dark in colour. A
around ditches, with effective general
consistent finding is a swollen friable liver that
management. Feed spillages should be
is dark red or almost black and the surface has
avoided and any spills should be cleared up
a distinctive copper bronze sheen. The spleen
immediatel y.
may be enlarged and there is a catarrhal
Monitoring for salmonella should be carried
enteritis.
out to help reduce dissemination and ensure
In chronic cases (those most likely to be seen
decontamination. Environmental samples are
on inspection), greyish areas of necrosis may be
better than faecal and the best sites are nest
seen in the myocardium, pancreas and
boxes, slave feed hoppers and fan outlet ducts.
intestine.
Other good sites on breeder farms are egg
Judgement Condemnation. collection trays, walkways, egg sorting tables
and mice. Spillage from egg trays is best in
layer houses. Input sampling should include
Incidence and control feed, residue from lorry and feed mill audit and
In the USA over 150 different salmonellas have chicks; the chick box liners should be put into
been isolated from poultry. Evidence of disease an autoclave bag with peptone for transport to
in birds is most common in chicks, poultry or the laboratory. In the hatchery, trolleys and
ducklings under 2 weeks of age. The main trays should be sampled as well as fluff
significance of salmonella infection is as a samples.
zoonosis. The Zoonoses Directive (921 117/EEC) Sampling of cleaned and disinfected houses
contains provisions for Community-wide is essential prior to restocking. Peptone water
controls for salmonella in domestic fowl and should be put in cracks on the wall half an hour
the Poultry Breeding Flocks and Hatcheries before swabbing and large fist-sized swabs
Order 1993 reflects monitoring requirements of should be used rather than rectal swabs. The
the Directive. MAFF have a Code of Practice for best sites for sampling are floor sweepings! nest
the Prevention and Control of Salmonella in box floors, slave hoppers, hydrated walls and
Breeding Flocks and Hatcheries, supported by fan duct outlets.
Processed Animal Protein Orders.
There was an increased incidence of
Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 around 1990 Culture for salmonella organisms
but this has now decreased, probably owing to Samples should be put into buffered peptone
increased surveillance, and subsequent control water for 18 hours or overnight for pre-
measures. enrichment and then into an enrichment broth
Salmonella virchow and S. thompson can be such as Rappaport-Vassiliadis (RV)! incubated
invasive in humans and therefore may be as at 42°C and subcultured at 24 and 48 hours on
important as S. enteriditis and S. typhimurium. to a selective solid medium such as
Salmonellas gain access to a flock mainly deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA), brilliant green
through feed! but infection may also arrive agar or rambach.
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 281
The Poultry Breeding Flocks and Hatchery sometimes vomiting and fever. Although
Scheme Order 1994 requires pooled meconium unpleasant, the illness is rarely fatal and
samples to be taken, 60 samples divided into patients usually recover within a few days. The
either 5 groups of 12 samples or 2 groups of 30 definitive diagnosis is made by growing and
samples and taken every 2 weeks for parent identifying the bacteria in the laboratory.
stock, a formal sample being taken every 2 The main sources for Campylobacter are raw
months, and every week for grandparent stock, meat, especially offal, and poultry, where the
a formal sample being taken every month. bacteria may be found in a large proportion of
In the hatcheries, surface contamination is raw broiler chickens sold in shops and
the main source of infection. Control can supermarkets. Although present in food, they
include egg washing, which if carried out must do not usually multiply; therefore, it is rarely
be done meticulously or else it worsens the the cause of an explosive outbreak of infection.
situation, and fogging of eggs at arrival and in However, the number of bacteria required to
setters. All-in-all-out setters are best. There cause illness is very small - fewer than 500 can
should be regular fogging and cleaning of cause infection. About 3000 people are
floors. At egg transfer from setter to hatcher, admitted to hospital annually in Britain owing
manual exchange is better than suction head, to the disease. Other cases are treated by
although more time-consuming. When using medical practitioners but the actual figure for
suction head, disinfect the equipment between those affected in Britain each year may exceed
trays and soak overnight in a disinfectant 500000.
solution. Continuous formaldehyde The prevention of infection in humans
evaporation, ensuring correct dilution, during involves inhibiting transmission through water,
hatching is also helpful. milk and food. All animals shed campylobacters
Vaccination against Salmonella enteriditis has into lakes, rivers, streams and reservoirs;
been used with varying results. Other methods therefore, all water destined for human
of control have included competitive exclusion consumption needs to be properly treated. In
(the Nurmi effect), where beneficial bacteria are Britain, defective storage tanks have caused
given to young chicks at day-old to prevent outbreaks affecting up to 250 people.
colonisation of the gut with harmful bacteria, Milk that is not pasteurised or heat-treated
and the use of acids in the feed to kill the may contain the bacteria.
salmonella organisms. Good kitchen hygiene with the correct
handling of raw meat and animal products is
essential to prevent infection. Raw poultry and
Arizonosis other types of meat should be kept separate
Arizonosis is a disease of turkeys, caused by from other food and should be properly
Salmonella var. arizona. Clinical signs are cooked.
virtually confined to poults under 5 weeks of
age. Affected birds are listless, tend to huddle,
Incidence of campylobacteriosis
look dejected and have pasty faeces which stick
to the vent feathers. There may also be various In the USA poultry is associated with 50-70% of
nervous signs. It is an important disease in human cases of campylobacter infection.
North America, but is absent from the British Campylobacter jejuni is the most common isolate
Isles. found in chickens. Broiler flocks are frequently
campylobacter-positive and 100% of birds
tested can be positive. Chicken carcases are also
Campylobacteriosis often heavily contaminated and numbers of
Campylobacter is the most common cause of campylobacters per carcase can exceed 106 •
diarrhoea in humans in the United Kingdom In addition, independent investigations have
although not as serious as salmonella food isolated Campulobacier jejuni from aseptically-
poisoning. taken muscle samples. In epidemiological
The bacteria (c. coli, C. jejuni), once studies there has been no effect noticed on the
swallowed, multiply in the gut and after 3-5 rate of infection in poultry units with concrete
days (usually; range 1-10 days) the patient floors and surrounds as against those with
develops abdominal pains, diarrhoea and earthen floors.
282 Meat Hygiene
Farm studies carried out in Sweden showed Chickens appear to become infected at
that 16% of flocks were colonised with around 3 weeks of age when the number of
Campylobacter. There was a seasonal variation salmonella in a flock peak. However, the
with more positive flocks in late summer and number of campylobacters continues to
autumn. There were differences in occurrence increase. When a flock becomes positive, the
between farms delivering chickens to different organism transmits to 90% of the birds in less
processing companies. This might indicate than one week. After thinning of the flock, more
different levels of farm hygiene and Campylobacter are found in the older birds.
management. Generally only one serotype was There can also be a significant increase in the
found in each flock, which would indicate only numbers after transport to the plant. The
one source at a time, instead of infections from numbers of organisms found in the inside of the
several different reservoirs. The most common bird is relevant to that found on the outside.
serotypes in chickens were also the most In the poultry plant, raising the pH of the
common serotypes isolated from the scald tank with caustic soda or reducing it with
surroundings, e.g. ditch water and faeces of acetic acid has no significant effect. Carcase
wild birds. In general no campylobacters, or washes and irradiation have yet to prove
new serotypes, were isolated in the following successful.
flocks, indicating that the infection was not
permanent in the buildings, and that the
washing and disinfection of houses between
Tuberculosis
flocks was sufficient to eliminate
campylobacters. A chronic infectious disease of poultry,
Chickens were not colonised with pheasants, pea fowl, guinea fowl, ducks and
Campylobacter before 2 weeks of age. No geese, but relatively uncommon in turkeys.
connection was found between serotypes in Tuberculosis is caused by the acid-fast bacillus
broiler flocks and in broiler parents from which Mlfcobacterium tuberculosis var. avium.
the eggs were taken. Broiler parents carried .At one time a common disease of poultry in
several serotypes in each flock. These Britain, tuberculosis is now rare in well-
epidemiological studies excluded buildings, managed modern, poultry units with /all-in-all-
feed, straw and day-old chicks as the source of out/ stock and disposal of laying stock at the
Campylobacter infection to the broiler flock. It end of the first or second laying year.
was thought unlikely that water would be a The condition is usually chronic and signs
source for the Swedish chicken flocks. may be prolonged over a period of weeks or
months before death.
Post-mortem examination shows characteristic
Control of campylobacteriosis
lesions in the liver, spleen, intestines and at
A strict and well-applied hygiene barrier seems times bone marrow, muscles, ovaries and lungs.
to be the most important factor for preventing The lesions are typically tubercular
chicken flocks from Camplylobacter colonisation, granulomata. They are irregular, grey-white
under the assumption that the chicken house is nodules varying in size from pinpoint to large
a closed unit. It was considered that the masses of coalescing tubercular material. When
elimination of disinfectant footbaths and the cut through, the nodules are firm and caseous
introduction of changing footwear at a well- and the centres may be a pale yellow colour,
defined hygiene barrier, 40 cm high, is essential particularly in the bone marrow.
for keeping Campylobacter out of the broiler
farms. As Camplylobacter may enter from
multiple sources outside the rearing units, it is Chlamydiosis (psittacosis/ornithosis)
important to prevent all possible ways of Chlamydiosis is sometimes referred to as
transmission into the house. In the UK, the psittacosis when it affects humans, mammals
main sources are the environment outside the and birds of the parrot (psittacine) family and
houses, drinking water, rodents and wild birds. as ornithosis for birds other than psittacine. The
The organism has been found in flies, which cause is the intracellular parasite Chlamydia
could carry it from house to house, and people. psitiaci, which belongs to the Group B
Biosecurity of the premises is essential. chlamydias - organisms of uncertain status
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 283
occupying a position between bacteria and been reported in chickens, turkeys, pigeons, fowl
viruses, but probably more related to the and gamebirds. Long-term antibiotic therapy can
former. lead to the disease, as can unclean environments,
The disease is worldwide in distribution, nutritional deficiencies and environmental
affecting all types of poultry and wild birds. It stressors. It appears grossly as multifocal to
has a serious public health significance in that confluent mats of white cheesy material, which
man may become affected, usually from close often adhere to the epithelial lining.
contact with birds of the parrot family. Infection
occurs by inhalation of particles of infected
dust. PARASITIC DISEASES
Lesions The disease may be either acute or Coccidiosis
chronic, which tends to complicate the non-
This is an important disease of poultry affecting
specific post-mortem findings. The lesions range
domestic fowl, turkeys, game birds and geese
from air sacculitis with thickened inflamed air
caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the
sacs containing yellowish-white exudate to
genus Eimeria. Coccidia are host-specific, e.g.
pneumonia, pericarditis, perihepatitis and
those of the turkey not affecting those of the
enlargement of the liver and spleen.
domestic fowl or other birds. There are seven
Judgement Affected carcases should be species in domestic fowl. E. tenella (the cause of
totally condemned. Diagnosis can be caecal coccidiosis), E. necatrix and E. bruneiii
established only by laboratory examination, cause high mortality. Of the others, E. aceroulina
and cases should be reported to the regulatory and E. maxima have medium pathogenicity and
authorities. Birds suspected at ante-mortem E. mitis and E. praecox have low pathogenicity,
inspection of being affected with ornithosis although they may cause unthriftiness.
must not be slaughtered because of the disease Broiler chickens and turkeys, up to 8 weeks
risk to operatives. of age, when the turkeys assume an age
immunity, are treated with a coccidiostat in the
ration. In most cases there is a withdrawal
period for these drugs which must be kept,
FUNGAL DISEASES
even for birds which are thinned.
E. tenella affects birds around 4 weeks of age.
Aspergillosis
There is sudden death and blood-filled caeca
Aspergillosis is a fungal disease of the are found on post-mortem examination. E.
respiratory tract of most species of birds necairix causes both white and red focal lesions
caused, in the main, by Aspergillus [umigatus. with ballooning of the mid-intestinal walls, and
The disease can be egg-transmitted and mouldy dysentery. E. bruneiii causes haemorrhagic
litter, grain and feed, dust and unclean and lesions in the lower intestine. Ecchymotic
improperly sanitised hatchery equipment have haemorrhages which are seen routinely in the
been associated with outbreaks of aspergillosis. serosal surface of the intestines of broilers are
Young chicks are most susceptible in the first due almost entirely to coccidioses. Examination
1-2 days of life, but turkey poults can remain and scoring of these lesions can be carried out
susceptible for several weeks. In chronic to help assess the effectiveness of the
aspergillosis, which may be found on post- coccidiostat.
mortem examination of slaughter birds, there
may be a large yellowish necrotic area in the
Histomoniasis (blackhead)
lungs, air sacs and any other affected organ.
Emaciation and widespread lesions justify total Caused by the protozoan Histomonas
condemnation. meleagridis, histomoniasis primarily affects
turkeys but may affect chickens and gamebirds.
The most important natural route of trans-
Candidiasis (moniliasis, thrush)
mission is within the egg of the caecal worm
The main cause is Candida albicans. The lesions are Heterakis gallinae. Parasites are ingested by
usually confined to the upper alimentary tract, worms in the caecal lumen. The earthworm
especially the crop and mouth. Outbreaks have may also act as a transport host for Heterakis.
284 Meat Hygiene
The lesions of blackhead are chiefly confined nematodes, are the most important. Ascaridia
to the liver and caeca. The liver is enlarged and galli, the largest, will only occasionally be path-
shows numerous yellowish, circular, necrotic ogenic in birds on poorly managed litter.
areas up to 2 cm in diameter with greyish lines The most important nematode in geese is
radiating from the centres. These lesions are Amidostomum anseris, the gizzard worm, where
pathognomonic. Both caeca (the primary site of it causes erosion. Severe disease may occur in
invasion) may be involved, though more goslings, with anorexia, emaciation, anaemia
usually only one. The wall is thickened and and death.
may show ulcerated areas and the exudate, at Syngamus trachea causes gapes in
first serous or haemorrhagic, becomes caseated gallinaceous birds and the related Cyathostoma
and may form a core. bronchialis causes a similar condition in geese.
The life cycle may be direct or more commonly
indirect, involving the earthworm. As a result,
Hexamitiasis soil can remain infected for years and the
The flagellated protozcon, Hexamita meteagridis, disease is most commonly seen in birds reared
is responsible for this disease, a catarrhal outdoors, such as geese.
enteritis, an important cause of mortality in
turkeys, particularly in some parts of the Ectoparasites
United States.
In addition to the catarrhal inflammation of External parasites, such as lice, mites and fleas
the intestine, its wall is thickened, especially in may cause irritation to handlers' hands and
the small intestine. There is marked arms. Heavy infestations may cause loss of con-
dehydration of the carcase with dark coloration dition, but this reflects poor husbandry. In trop-
of the musculature and loss of condition. ical and subtropical countries, ticks can cause
Hexamitiasis is unlikely to be encountered loss of weight due to anaemia and irritation.
on poultry inspection but requires total
condemnation.
MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS

Leucocytozoonosis Dead on arrival

Some seven species of the protozoon parasite These birds must be condemned and not
Leucocuiozoon have been recorded in domestic processed. It is important that the catching team
fowl, turkeys, ducks, geese and guinea fowl. recognise birds which are unfit for slaughter
The disease is rare in the British Isles but and euthanise them on the farm.
serious outbreaks occur in countries where
biting fleas of the genus Simulium (black flies) Bruising and fractures
and biting midges (Culicoides) are found.
The disease may be acute, subacute or Causes include improper handling by the
chronic in nature. Post-mortem changes vary catching team, and at the poultry plant careless
from severe anaemia and enlargement of the shackling and defective stunning techniques
liver to mild enteritis with greenish faeces. and wing flapping. Any parts of a carcase with
localised bruising are rejected. Severe
Judgement Severely affected carcases generalised bruising indicates total
warrant total condemnation, but mild cases in condemnation.
good condition may be passed. Carcase appearance defects include red wing
tips, red pygostyles, red feather tracts,
engorged wing veins, haemorrhagic wing veins
Helminth parasites and haemorrhage in shoulders. Haemorrhages
Internal parasites, if present in sufficient num- may occur in the muscles of the leg and breast
bers, may cause emaciation. Tapeworms have lit- and broken bones include the furculum.
tle significance in today's intensive industry as coracoid and scapula. Unless severe, only local
they require intermediate hosts, such as the condemnation is required.
earthworm, which are normally not present in Fractures, without bruising, have been
indoor systems. Capillaria, the smallest of the caused in the processing after bleeding and are
 Poultry Production/ Slaughter and Inspection 285
due to defects in processing. It may require mortem examination the carcases should be
resetting of the machinery. condemned as the cause, other than
pathophysiological, might be mycotoxins or
polychlorinated biphenyl compounds
Breast blisters and hock burn
containing dioxin. Liver damage may be the
These are caused when a part of the bird comes result of congestion of aflatoxin, coal tar
into contact with damp litter, which causes a products or plant toxins such as cortilaria or
lesion. The breast blister, which occurs more rape seed.
often in birds with leg weakness, may become In broiler chickens in the USA and the UK,
infected and this will require more extensive cholangiohepatitis (possibly caused by
trimming. The hock burns are unsightly and in Clostridium perfringens or secondary to viral
some processing plants are mechanically infection in the biliary system) is the most
removed. The presence of hock burns, in some common cause of the liver damage which
companies, affects the quality assessment of the results in ascites. In both meat-type ducks and
bird and therefore the price. Attention to litter breeders, amyloidosis of the liver frequently
management, ensuring adequate ventilation, causes ascites. Feed regimes which restrict the
the avoidance of water spilling from the early growth of broilers have had a significant
drinkers and good healthy birds will prevent effect in decreasing the incidence of ascites.
these conditions.
Rupture of the gastrocnemius tendon This Slaughter liver or cholangiohepatitis
occurs when the tendon is unable to support
the bird's weight and may be followed by a This is a condition of enlarged livers.
greening around the area above the hock. Birds Histologically there is a severe, chronic
being grown to heavier than normal weights, hepatitis in which bile duct proliferation is a
for example, for the Christmas or Easter striking feature. It affects all of the liver. This
market, are particularly susceptible. Decreasing may be accompanied by other changes.
energy and protein levels in the earlier stages of Judgement Depends on other lesions and
growth help prevent this condition. At times condition of carcase.
infective organisms such as staphylococci and/ or
viruses may be responsible.
Fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome (FLRS)
Judgement Condemnation of the affected
part; should the bird be emaciated, whole The liver is very enlarged, pale and friable
carcases condemnation. owing to the large amount of fat. There is also
increased abdominal fat deposition. It may be
due to nutritional imbalances, high
Ascites temperatures, reduced exercise and strain of
Ascites caused by right ventricular failure bird. It is a disease, predominantly, of older
(RVF) has for many years resulted in laying birds.
significant mortality in broiler chicks raised at
high altitude. There has been a dramatic
Vices
increase in other areas which coincides with a
continuing genetic and nutritional Vices in poultry may be considered to be
improvement in feed efficiency and rate of undesirable behaviour, usually precipitated by
growth. This rapid growth requires high levels some aspects of management or environment.
of oxygen which are not available, and Once started by individuals, a vice tends to be
combined with restricted space for blood flow copied by other birds and the resulting injuries
through the capillaries of the lungs leads to can often lead to death or downgrading of
ascites and death. Right ventricular carcases.
hypertrophy is a response to the increased
workload and this eventually leads to RVF if
the volume or pressure load persists. Cannibalism
Most cases of ascites occur as sudden death Outbreaks sometimes occur without any
on the farm, but should any be found on post- obvious cause. Predisposing environmental
286 Meat Hygiene
conditions include excessive light in pens and Judgement Condemnation.
cages, boredom and vent pecking, insufficient
feeding and drinking space, high-density
stocking, and too much heat during brooding.
Neoplasms
Blood is found around the vent, through which Tumours other than those mentioned
much of the intestine has been removed by the previously may be encountered in all parts of
cannibalising birds. all species of poultry and represent an
abnormal and uncontrolled growth of new
tissue.
Feather pecking or pulling The neoplastic cells are derived from pre-
This is sometimes precipitated by nutritional existing body cells and may sometimes closely
deficiencies, but may also be started by the resemble normal cells, e.g. benign tumours; in
bullying of a weak or sick bird. Overcrowding other cases they differ greatly in shape, size or
as broilers and turkeys reach slaughter age may morphology, e.g. malignant tumours with the
be followed by an outbreak of feather and tail ability to invade tissues aggressively and to
pecking, often leading to serious downgrading form metastases, secondary growths. Benign
of the carcases of affected individuals. tumours are slow-growing, generally
encapsulated by fibrous tissue and do not form
metastases, although they can damage by
Contamination pressure on surrounding structures, and may
Poultry carcases may be contaminated in on occasions become malignant.
various ways, e.g. faecal matter, paints, oils, Haemangioma is a form of blood tumour
poisons, biological re sidues, dirty scalding tank occurring as round red-black lesions on the skin
water. All such carcases must be condemned. of poultry or internally, especially in the
muscles, liver and kidneys. The lesions vary
from pinhead to a hazelnut in size and large
Decomposition cysts on the skin or in the liver may rupture,
Carcases of poultry that have died from causes causing severe haemorrhage.
other than slaughter must be condemned, as If haemangiomas are few and small, a
must carcases affected with general spoilage. carcase in good condition may be passed:
severe haemorrhage and/ or emaciation require
condemnation.
Barking Many tumours are not evident until post-
This occurs when the cuticle (the outer layer of mortem examination, but conditions such as
the epidermis) is damaged by too high a scald ascites, often associated with tumour forma-
temperature and subsequent plucking. During tion, may be seen ante-mortem, e.g. adenocarci-
air chilling there is unequal drying owing to the noma appears as a firm, whitish or pink cauli-
damage, and brown discoloration of the surface. flower-like growth. In other cases neoplasia
This is only seen in fresh, non-frozen carcases. may appear as multiple small nodules on the
Dampening areas which are only slightly mesentery, intestines and kidneys.
affected will remove the abnormal colour. The liver is frequently affected with single or
multiple carcinomata present in the
parenchyma or bile duct. The ovary sometimes
Diseases of the female reproductive system
contains a fibroma which appears as firm,
These are relatively common non-infectious whitish or pink nodules, usually small in size.
disorders in end-of-lay domestic fowl but less Malignant carcinomas are fairly common in
so in turkeys, ducks and geese. old birds and appear as white nodules
Egg peritonitis is caused when the ova (yolk) frequently in the liver, kidney, intestine or
are present in the peritoneum rather than in the mesentery. Squamous cell carcinoma may occur
oviduct. The yolk is usually viscous and gives on the skin. Other tumours which may be
the appearance of an 'oily peritonitis'. Impaction encountered on poultry inspection include
of the oviduct occurs when a normal egg, or more sarcoma, fibroma and lymphoblastoma.
commonly a mass of inspissated yolk material, In cases of benign neoplasms, judgement
obstructs the oviduct to varying degrees. depends on the type and extent of the tumour
 Poultry Production, Slaughter and Inspection 287
and the condition of the carcase. Cases with bacteriological examination, E. coli is found
malignant tumours must be condemned. most often but Salmonella enteriditis is
sometimes isolated. The organisms present
tend to be common to the whole flock.
Oregon disease
A deep pectoral myopathy of turkeys and
Insufficient bleeding
chickens, also called green muscle disease, this
myopathy is an ischaemic necrosis which In cases where no bleeding has taken place the
develops in the deep pectoral muscle (the fillet). carcase is very red in colour. There are obvious
The condition is only seen at necropsy or at welfare implications in this condition and it is
processing, when as many as 40% but usually essential that there is a well-trained, dedicated
less, of the spent breeding hens may be affected. plant operative as a manual back-up to bleed
It occurs less frequently in males. any bird which may have missed the automatic
The lesion may be unilateral or bilateral and neck-cutter.
in advanced cases may show a flattening of the
normally convex breast muscle ('slab-sided').
Emaciation
The actual lesions are of variable size and are
clearly demarcated from the surrounding As in red meat inspection, emaciation is due to
healthy tissue. Initially there is a swollen, some pathological condition. It is important to
reddish-brown area, often associated with an distinguish emaciation from the poor condition
excess of gelatinous fluid which later becomes of end-of-lay commercial egg layers, the meat of
green in colour, crumbly and dry. When cooked, which is suitable for incorporation into soups,
the green colour, due to breakdown products of pies, etc., provided it passes meat inspection.
haemoglobin and myglobin, is accentuated.
Advanced lesions can be seen or detected by
Viscera absent
palpation. More recent ones can be detected by
cutting into the muscle or inserting a light into Carcases presented for examination with no
the thoracic cavity after evisceration. viscera present should be condemned.
The lesion, although unsightly, is not Relevant EU Legislation Directives 71/118,
harmful to the consumer and merits local 91/495,92/65,92/116
condemnation only.
UK Legislation The Poultry Meat, Farmed
Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene &
Overscald Inspection) Regulations 1995.
Carcases which present a cooked appearance of
the flesh owing to an excessively high
temperature or being held too long in the REFERENCES
scalding tank must be condemned.
Clouser, C. S. et al. (1995) Poultry Sci. 74,723-731.
Slavik, M. F. et al. (1995) J. Food Protection 58, 689-691.
Fevered carcases Veerkamp, C. H. and Hofmans, G. J. P. (1973) Poultry
Int. 12, 16-18.
Fevered carcases are generally considered to be Yogaratnam, V. (1995) Vet. Rec. 137,215-217.
carcases which have congested musculature but
no other signs of septicaemia/toxaemia such as
pericarditis, perihepatitis or air sacculitis.
FURTHER READING
Judgement Condemnation.
Bremner, A. and Johnston, M. (eds) (1996) Poultry
Meat Hygiene andInspection. London: WB Saunders.
Septicaemia Farm Animal Welfare Council (1996) Report on the
welfare of boiler chickens.
Septicaemic carcases are those which have Farm Animal Welfare Council (1995) Report on the
congested, darkened muscles with some or all welfare of turkeys.
of the following: air sacculitis, perihepatitis, Jordan, F. T. W. and Pattison, M. (1996) Poultry
pericarditis and enlarged spleen. On Diseases 4th edn. London: WB Saunders.
 Chapter 12
Exotic Meat Production

Over recent years there has always been a products. Supplementing the diet with hay and
limited demand for more exotic type meats. straw aids digestion but may slow growth.
Previously these would have included wild- A coccidiostat is added to the diet to prevent
caught rabbits and hares and wild deer. More coccidiosis. The most commonly used one,
recently, rabbits, deer and now ostriches are robenidine, is not effective against Eimeria
being farmed with the intention of producing steidae, the cause of hepatic coccidiosis. For
consistent hygienic meat and meat products. treatment of this condition the sulphonamides
This demand is sometimes more perceived than are effective. Ionophores which are used as
actual and the inability to produce a consistent coccidiostats for poultry are toxic to rabbits. It is
product and constant market has been essential that there is not a build-up of faeces in
dominated by supply problems, lack of cages or beneath them which will allow
marketing coordination, cost and unfair ingestion of oocysts. Withdrawal periods for
competition with other, subsidised, meats. coccidiostats as with other medicines must be
Cooperatives are being formed which should observed.
help to overcome these deficiencies. Rabbits are more easily housed in poultry-
type intensive houses as these give better
control over environmental conditions than the
RABBITS natural environment house, in which ventilation
and temperature has to be controlled manually,
Rabbits are usually reared in small units with a and with the use of micro environments.
ratio of 1 buck to 10-20 does. The gestation Battery cages with wire mesh flooring
period is 31 days. Stock used are New Zealand suitable for rabbits can be used, but it is
White, Californian, 'hybrids' or commercial essential that only those rabbits which do not
white. The choice is based on market succumb to traumatic skin diseases such as sore
requirement, performance and personal hocks are kept for meat production. Plastic
preference. The does are mated at 16-20 weeks grilles are sometimes used for adult bucks and
old. The bucks are used when 20-24 weeks old. does. These are less traumatic for the paws and
The rabbits are weaned at 28-42 days old or by acceptable from a hygiene point of view. Broiler
weight at 700 g. The average litter size is 8.68 rabbits are housed separately from the does in
born alive and 6.9 reared to market weight. Re- small groups (4-8 per cage).
mating takes place, usually between 10 and 14
days after kindling. It is possible to obtain 6-8
Slaughter
litters per doe per year, giving over 50 rabbits
reared per doe per year. Meat rabbits are It is estimated that around 500000 commercial
marketed at 2-3 kg liveweight, which can be rabbits are slaughtered for meat consumption
reached from 8 weeks onwards. The food at three abattoirs in the UK. Commercial
conversion ratio is approximately 3:1, but this slaughter rabbits are usually transported in
will increase if they are fed ad libitum after 8 poultry-type crates, each holding about 12
weeks of age. They are fed an 18% protein ration rabbits. The rabbits are removed one by one
and 15% fibre. Rabbits cannot digest starch from the crates by a single operative, wearing
easily and the diet contains dried grass, small rubber gloves, and each is placed with its head
amounts of caustic-treated straw and cereal by- between the arms of the stunner and gently

289
290 Meat Hygiene
pushed upwards to make contact with the Judgement Condemn.
current. Stunning is carried out electrically with a
minimum stunning current of 140 mA, which can Injuries including bruising and broken bones
be achieved with an application of 100 V.
Following a successful stun/ epileptifonn activity Injuries are quite common in the form of skin
occurs and the animal will collapse. This is wounds, due to fighting or scratching, and sore
characterised by cessation of breathing, salivation hocks. Infection with staphylococci can follow
and increased motor activity, tonic (rigid) and with abscess formation. Bruising and fractures,
clonic (kicking) phase. It is also permissible to especially of limbs and thoracic spine, may be
sustained ante-mortem, when they are
stun rabbits by a blow to the head. Following
stunning, commercial rabbits are shackled normally associated with haemorrhage.
immediately and exsanguination is carried out Judgement This should be based on the
very quickly, within 10 seconds during the tonic extent and nature of the lesion and the
phase, thereby preventing any risk of recovery. practicability of carrying out trimming:
The feet are removed and the carcase passes (a) Extensive injury or bruising, excessive blood
into the evisceration room where further or serum in the body tissues or multiple
dressing takes 5-6 minutes. abscesses render the whole carcase unfit.
The main cause ofdeath in commercial rabbits is (b) When the bruising is localised, the carcase
mucoid enteropathy, a non-specific digestive may be passed following removal by
upset. There is impaction of the colon and this trimming of all affected parts. When
condition is precipitated by stress, high-energy trimming, the extension of blood between
feeds and high population densities. Escherichia muscles, bones, etc. should be considered and
coli is the most common enteric pathogen. It care must be taken to ensure that all affected
causes diarrhoea in neonatal and weaned rabbits. tissues are removed.
(c) Provided that the carcase is otherwise fit,
superficial, discrete, uncomplicated bruises
Inspection not exceeding 2 cm may be left untrimrned.
In the UK, rabbit plants slaughtering in excess (d) In the case of fractures, the affected tissues
should be trimmed from the carcase. The cut
of 10000 rabbits a year have to be licensed.
should normally be made at a joint which
Inspection is similar to that used in poultry, ensures that all the affected tissue is removed.
with ante-mortem and post-mortem being
carried out.
Enteritis
Post-mortem judgements in rabbit meat Enteritis has many causes including Bacillus
inspection piliformis. The lesions vary greatly from a mild
enteritis involving the whole gut to haemorrhagic
Death before slaughter enteritis with blood-stained contents. The gut
Rabbits which have died before slaughter should contents may be either abundant and watery or
not be presented for processing but detained at sparse and mucoid, especially in the caecum.
ante-mortem inspection. If, inadvertently, they are Judgement Condemn.
not detained at the ante-mortem point they may
be identified by the muscle, which is darker red Mastitis/metritis
than normal along with engorged vessels
Mastitis is usually associated with staphylo-cocci
supplying the viscera, a more pronounced picture
or streptococci and metritis with staphylococci,
than with badly-bled carcases (see below).
Pasteurella or Listeria monocytogenes.
Judgement Condemn.
Judgement Judgement depends on the degree
and extent of the lesions and condition of the
Badly-bled carcases carcase, but usually the carcase is unfit.
In carcases which are insufficiently bled the
Tumours
blood vessels appear injected, the flesh is dark
and the organs including lymph nodes are It is difficult to distinguish between benign and
congested. malignant tumours in the meat plant.
 Exotic Meat Production 291
Jud gement Multiple or malignant tumours- Coccidiosis
reject the carcase and offal. Single benign Coccidi osis is one of the most common di seases
tu mour - reject the tumour an d the
of rabbits.
surrounding tissue.
Hepa tic coccid iosis is recognised at post-
mortem by the pfl'scnce of numerous small
Paeteureikxis greyish-white nodules o r cys ts in the liver
substance which in older les ions may coalesce
Pasteurellosis is a highJy contagious disease of to form large cheesy masses. The nodules
rabbits caused. by Pasteurella multocida. Rhinitis, consist of hypertrophied bile ducts.
bronchopneumonia, middle-car disease, genital Intes tinal coccidiosis may show few, if any,
infection and abscesses can occur and may lesions at slaughter, especially in early cases.
result in septi caemia. . More advanced cases have a thickened and pale
Judgem ent This depends on the degree and intestinal wall.
extent of the lesions as well as on the condition Ju dgement If condition is good, carcases may
of the carcase. Animals with mild forms of be passed for food , but emaciated. carcases
rhinitis, in good bodily condition may be merit total cond emnation.
passed. for food , while those with severe forms
of pneumonia with fevered carcases and
multiple abscesses must be condemned. Taenia taeniaeformis
The intermediate larva form of this cat
tapeworm occurs as a whitish cyst in the rabbit
Spirochaetosis
liver.
This is caused by the sp irochaete Treponema
cuniculi. It is a local infection of vesicles, which Judgem en t Local trimming or condemnat ion
become moist, scaly crusts on the genitalia. of the affected organ is all that is normally
required
Jud gement In the well-nourished rabbit
removal of the affected portions is all that is
necessary before releasing the carcase for food. Multiceps serietls
The cystic stage of Taenia serialis of the d og is
commonly encountered in the rabbit. Cysts are
Tyzzer's disease
found in the connec tive tissue of the lumbar
Tyzzcrs d isease is an acute contagious d isease m uscles, m uscles of the hind legs, and
associated with a haemorrhagic enteritis and occasio na lly at the angle of the jaw.
necrosis of the termina l ileum, large intestine
and caec u m (typhlitis) ca use d by Bacillus Jud gem en t If only one or tw o cys ts are
piliformis. Focal necrotic areas may also be presen t in the musc ula ture and the rabbit is
fou nd in the liver an d heart. well nourishe d, the affected po rtions may be
removed and the carcase passed for food .
Judgement Animals wh ich survive infection
arc usuall y in poo r conditi on and normally
mer it total seizure. Cysticercus pisiformis
The cystic stage o f Taenia pisiformis of the d og is
encountered in the peritoneal cavity of the
Myxomatosis rabbit, especially on the mesen tery, the cysts
Cha racteristic signs arc conjunctivitis with a being up to the size of a pea and filled wit h a
clea r d ischa rge which becomes p urulent, clear fluid.
swelling of the eyelids, base of cars, an us and
Ju dg emen t Thei r presence rarely has any
nose, giving the head a ve ry en larged
deleterious effect on the ca rcase . Straw-
appearance. The oedema tous ears often droop
colo ured fluid is p resent in the above cysts in
and condi tion is rapid ly lost. The spleen is
the early stages , but this usually progresses to
enlarged and blackish.
p us forma tion and ch eesy inspissa ted material
Jud gem ent Condemn. in older lesions, warranting total seizure.
292 Meat Hygiene
Zoonoses contamination of the carcase is localised,
Salmonellosis affected parts should be trimmed.

Salmonellosis occurs occasionally usually due

to Salmonella typhimurium. There may be
Missing viscera
virtually no changes to some enlargement of Carcases presented with no viscera should not
the liver and spleen with general carcase be passed as fit for human consumption.
congestion. There is usually no diarrhoea.
Judgement Condemn. Trimming
Trimming must be carried out under the
Tuberculosis supervision of the inspectorate. The selection of
lesions or parts which require trimming must
Tuberculosis may affect rabbits due to mainly not be delegated to the management of the
the avian and bovine types. slaughterhouse.
Judgement Condemn. Minor blemishes or bruising may be
trimmed at the inspection point.
Trimming of more serious conditions
Pseudotuberculosis involving infection, for example, septic wounds
Pseudotuberculosis is characterised by nodules or moderate contamination by intestinal
resembling those of tuberculosis in the liver, contents, is usually impractical with high line
lungs, spleen and intestines caused by speeds, and in these cases an adjacent trimming
Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis. area should be provided.
Trimming of carcases may be delayed until
Judgement Condemn. after chilling, provided that:
(a) the carcases are segregated and remain
Listeriosis identifiable;
Infection with Listeria monocytogenes may cause (b) there is no risk of contamination of other
serious loss of condition. Some rabbits show carcases;
torticollis. In addition to the emaciation, there is (c) trimming is done under the constant
usually a hepatitis with the presence of supervision of an inspector.
numerous fine necrotic foci in the parenchyma.
Most trimming should be carried out by staff
Judgement Condemn. supplied by management. The mode of
trimming may be adapted to suit the
Ringworm requirements of management, providing that
all affected parts are removed. Care should be
The most common form of ringworm is taken to ensure there is no unnecessary
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. granulare, which wastage.
can also affect man. Typical lesions appear on the
head and may spread to other parts of the body.
Judgement Provided condition is satisfactory, FARMED DEER
carcases may be passed for human
consumption. In New Zealand where one in eight farms now
produce deer (there are more farmed deer than
cattle), velvet antler is harvested and is worth
Guidelines on contamination, missing more than the carcase. This is illegal in the UK.
viscera, trimming Deer are suited to a variety of management
Contamination systems, and stratification of the industry is
becoming apparent. Many hill farmers sell, in
Rabbit meat, carcases and/ or offal affected with October and November, calves weaned in
general contamination by faecal material, bile, September, to be finished in lowland units.
grease, disinfectants, etc. should be considered There is much interest in vertical integration,
unfit for human consumption. Where with many farmers rearing deer, slaughtering
 Exotic Meat Production 293
them and selling venison on the same premises. During shedding-out deer must be subjected
Some 60% of farmed venison is sold through to minimum stress to ensure no bruising or other
farm shops after killing in the field with a rifle. injury occurs. They should be kept in familiar
Value-added products such as roasts with a groups and should not be in close confinement
fat covering, cubed venison for stews, venison overnight since fighting can occur when they are
burgers, mince, haggis and sausages are being left undisturbed, resulting possibly in death.
produced. Suitable facilities are essential for loading
when deer are to be transported. Transport
trailers should have side-hinged solid gates to
Handling and slaughter
prevent the deer from jumping out. Internal
Deer can be shot with a large rifle at very close partitions should be as high as possible. Some
range as they stand, unsuspecting, in a field; transporters cover eye-level air vents to avoid
this has a strong welfare appeal. This should the deer being frightened by seeing vehicle lights
be undertaken, preferably by the regular flashing by. Deer should not be left in vehicles
stockmen, when deer are quiet, as will occur at overnight. Hinds in late pregnancy, calves under
a selected regular feeding site when they are 6 months and stags in rut should not be sent for
being hand-fed. Under such circumstances it slaughter. Bedding should be provided.
may be possible to shoot 10 or more deer from Deer are unsettled by translocation into an
a large group before the remainder become alien environment. On arrival at the
unduly disturbed. Alternatively, they can be slaughterhouse they should not be driven off
killed in an ordinary abattoir after transport the vehicle, but allowed to come out quietly by
and this appears to work well with red deer. A themselves. As they move readily from dark to
third slaughter option is on-farm abattoir. light, the lairage should be lit, but not to such
Successful handling of deer depends upon an extent that the deer are faced with a direct
understanding their behaviour. The dominance light source. There should be separate facilities
hierarchy is very important to deer and for bullied, ill or injured animals which allows
handlers must maintain their respect in order to them to still see other deer. Those that are in
avoid being the object of aggressive behaviour. pain or distress must immediately be humanely
It is important to be calm, confident and slaughtered. Sticks and goads should not be
competent. Aggression can take the form of used. Partitions in the lairage should be solid
foreleg and hindleg kicks, and male handlers are and at least 2.5 metres high; long dark
advised to wear a cricket box or similar passageways should be avoided.
protection. Shields may be helpful. Stags in rut Strange noises, shapes and lights can push
should be treated with extreme caution. Regular deer over the fear threshold. Yorkshire boarding,
contact with handlers raises the fear threshold which throws a broken pattern of light, should be
of deer and shortens their flight distance. avoided. Deer should be kept in familiar groups
Red deer should be deantlered (not while in in the lairage and allowed time to settle in
velvet) about 5 weeks prior to slaughter. subdued light. Animals should be brought out
Deer in velvet should not be subjected to individually into the stunning crate for
abattoir slaughter. Dis-budding of calves immediate stunning. They should be slaughtered
destined for slaughter rather than breeding can within 3 hours of arriving at the plant. Recent
be carried out. experimental work suggests that where it is
Deer must be presented for slaughter in a advantageous for constant plant throughput, this
clean condition and therefore access to wallows period may be extended without adversely
should be stopped, to reduce mud effecting animal welfare or meat quality.
contamination of the ventral abdomen. By The stunning crate should admit single
minimising stress, the keeping quality of the animals and have solid sides, with a string
carcase is further safeguarded. As in other mesh cover to prevent them jumping out. The
animals, stress causes glycogen depletion in the top may be draped, but the front shoulder
muscles. On death, glycogen is converted into should be left uncovered with a diffused light
lactic acid, creating an acidic environment. Low source to attract the deer forward. A drop-floor
pH does not favour bacterial growth. An restrainer is an alternative to the stunning crate.
average pH of 5.6, at 24 hours post-mortem, has Prior to stunning, deer should not be held in
been recorded for red deer calves and yearlings. the approach passages. One deer at a time must
294 Meat Hygiene
be placed in the stunning crate, and only when dressed within 1 hour of slaughter, or if the
the way is clear for it to be stunned, and then bled transporter can be refrigerated to between O°C
immediately. Stunning equipment must be and 4°C dressing can take place up to 3 hours
properly maintained and reserve equipment after slaughter. In both situations the carcases
readily available. Deer are stunned by frontal must be inspected by a meat inspector within
head shot with a captive bolt pistol. Pithing is not 24 hours after slaughter.
necessary. The slaughter of a batch must be
arranged such that the slaughter of the last deer PARK DEER
is not delayed. After hoisting by a hind leg, deer
are bled in the same way as cattle. Both forelegs Wild mammals living within an enclosed
are held to minimise the risk to the slaughterman. territory under conditions of freedom similar to
Carcases are usually skinned on a modified static those enjoyed by wild game (i.e. deer parks) are
sheep crutch. Hide-pullers have been tried and a not considered to be farmed game.
down-puller for deer is commercially available. Most deer park owners operate a culling
As with game venison production, because of system in which the deer are shot as they graze.
their propensity for shedding hair, contamination After shooting, the carcase is immediately bled
with hair is a problem. Flood-washing is used to and eviscerated and transported to the deer
remove hair debris. larder for completion of dressing. Small
Meat inspection has followed existing numbers of deer handled in this way can be
protocols. The possible presence of tuberculosis sold direct to the consumer but are subject to
has to be kept in mind. Blood splashing on the public health checks provided in national rules.
diaphragm and abdominal wall is sometimes Where a deer park culls large numbers of
seen, but the aetiology is obscure. Bruising deer or where the carcases are sold to wholesale
provides a good indicator of the adequacy of establishments, the construction and hygiene
the handling of the deer and a study of the age requirements and the timing of the operation
and site of lesions can result in the detection of are detailed in the Wild Game Directive
the cause. Focal bruising can be caused by deer 92/45 IEEe. In general, after shooting and
placing the forelegs on the backs of other deer bleeding the carcase is eviscerated, and the
or by butting with an antler stump. viscera identified with the carcase. It has to be
Health monitoring can be carried out at the despatched within 12 hours to a processing
abattoir by the recording and feedback of house. Alternatively, the carcase and viscera can
pathological findings and the taking of liver be despatched within 12 hours to a collecting
samples for deficiency estimations. centre where they will be chilled and
There is considerable variability in the size of maintained at a temperature not exceeding 7°C
young red deer stags, which mayrange from 46 until dispatched to a processing house within a
kg to 146 kg liveweight and typically kill out at further 12 hours, with certain exemptions for
55%. The carcases must be hung in a chill room remote areas. All parts must be inspected
so that air can circulate freely between them, within 18 hours of entering the processing
drying the surface and cooling the carcase. If house. Wild game meat declared fit for human
chilling is too rapid, cold-shortening of the comsumption must bear a health mark.
muscles will occur and produce tough meat.
Electrical stimulation of carcases immediately
after slaughter hastens rigor mortis and assists WILD DEER
in the production of tender meat.
The field slaughter of farmed deer is usually Game venison is seasonal, 50% of the red deer
practised on farms which operate a farm shop output occurring over a 4-week period.
retail outlet. Ante-mortem inspection by a Venison is low in cholesterol; the fat is not
veterinarian must be carried out within a 72- marbled through the muscle fibres although it
hour period prior to slaughter. After shooting, still has a distinctive flavour.
the deer are bled and transported to an
approved dressing facility on the farm.
Alternatively, the bled whole carcase can be Killing
transported to a licensed abattoir or a farmed In England and Wales the legal firearm for
game processing facility to arrive and be culling deer is a rifle with a calibre of at least
 Exotic Meat Production 295
0.240 inches and a muzzle energy of at least key person in the production of clean game
1700 foot-pounds, firing a soft-nosed or hollow- venison.
nosed bullet. Deer are shot either in the neck or The heart, liver and mediastinal lymph
chest. A chest shot should ensure rapid nodes are incised and kidneys and lungs are
unconsciousness due to blood loss. When palpated. Any abscesses are treated as suspect
aiming at the neck, novice stalkers are often tuberculosis, although only 0.1% of carcases
advised to err on the high side in order to have been found to be affected, predominately
ensure that the shot does not strike the foreleg. with the avian strain. Typically lesions range
If the vertebral column is hit the animal will from small, chalky, white foci in the liver or
immediately collapse. lungs to miliary abscesses, throughout the
Sticking should take place as soon as carcase. TB in deer was made a notifiable
possible. disease in Great Britain in May 1989.
Deer may be shot two or three miles from Occasionally tumours, milk spots and flukes
the larder and carcases routinely 'gralloched', are seen in the liver. Fluke infection is rarely
i.e. have the green offal removed, on the hill. serious, not normally producing the same
Professional stalkers, as game processors, are degree of pathology as in cattle and sheep. In
aware of public health aspects and grade the rut, stag livers are often very pale. Cardiac
carcases according to presentation. After lesions are rare. Pneumonia is also rare,
gralloching, carcases are dragged to the nearest although roe deer are very susceptible to the
track and loaded on to transport. Nowadays lungworm Protostrongylus rufescens. Cysticercus
the Argocat has replaced the traditional deer ienuicollis is another common parasite and
pony. Taenia hydatigena is occasionally seen.
On arrival at the larder, the pelvis and sternum A major cause of death in wild deer,
are split, the pluck is removed, including the particularly in February, is the warble fly,
kidneys, and the body cavities are rinsed with Hypoderma diana. Young animals may have very
clean water and dried with disposable paper heavy warble fly burdens, resulting in
towels. The pluck is bagged and tagged and extensive meat losses.
hung with the carcase, which is also tagged for Keds, lice and ticks are common. Ticks may
identification. The skin is left on. Red deer like to transmit the spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi,
wallow and so splitting the pelvis, which is done which could pose a zoonotic hazard to stalkers
to aid cooling of the haunches, is now and slaughtermen from Lyme disease.
discouraged as this can often lead to Streptothrix infections from bone cuts are
unacceptable contamination with mud and hair. another hazard, causing 'slaughter finger'.
The temperature of the venison should be In a survey carried out by Arun District
7°C. Portable air conditioners are now used in Council/Forest Commission in 1986/88, 2.13%
many larders. of 1967 culled deer were totally condemned, in
The carcase should be delivered with its deer larders and 1.77% partially condemned.
pluck to the game plant within 24 hours of The main causes were emaciation (10) and
shooting. tumours (7).
After skinning, which is normally performed
on a cradle, the carcase is examined by a
veterinarian. OSTRICHES
Disease is frequently less of a problem than
contamination. Contamination with gut The domestication of ostriches for the purpose
contents results from poor shooting and poor of farming for the production of feathers began
gralloching, particularly if the rectum has been near Grahamstown, South Africa in 1867. Since
imperfectly removed. In the case of poorly-shot that time a greater value has been placed on
animals, large quantities of rumenal contents ostrich skin, which produces a top-quality
may be carried in the wake of the bullet under leather, and a market has been developed,
the scapula, leading to forequarter particularly within Europe, for ostrich meat.
condemnation. Deer shed hair very easily and Although classified as 'Poultry', the ostrich
contamination with hair is another serious produces a red meat, beef-like in texture,
problem. Hair debris is best removed with use containing lower levels of fat, calories and
of copious water. The professional stalker is the cholesterol than other red or white meat-
296 Meat Hygiene
producing species, which is particularly results in downgrading by the tannery and
attractive to the 'health-conscious consumer'. therefore the welfare of the ostrich is of prime
Ostrich production throughout the world is importance to the abattoir staff. Birds arriving
expanding rapidly. The ostrich (Struthio at the abattoir with fresh wounds are generally
camelus) is the world's largest living bird, returned to the farm to heal. Ostriches should
belonging to the order Ratitae or running birds. always be moved in a calm and unhurried
Emus, from Australia and rhea (from S. manner. They should not be separated from
America) are also ratites. The ostrich is the only each other, as this is known to be stressful. Birds
living bird with two toes. may be led by an operative moving ahead of
The mature ostrich averages 2-3 m in height the birds, calling encouragement, occasionally
(to the top of its head). It can weigh up to 150 reinforced by the use of the arm and hand to
kg. The ostrich can kick forwards, but not mimic an ostrich. A further operative follows
backwards or sideways. The large extended toe behind the grcup being moved.
has a long nail and can quite easily split a In the UK it is likely that, in the immediate
person open from head to foot. No one should future, slaughter will take place mainly on the
underestimate the danger of the captive ostrich, farm of origin.
particularly in the breeding season. Ostriches, If ostriches are transported to a meat plant,
particularly males, will attack with the unloading facilities must be suitable for their
minimum of provocation, in fact with no purpose and have non-slip flooring and the
encouragement at all. Placing a hood over the minimum possible incline. Horizontal surfaces
bird's eyes helps to calm it. The ostrich has should be provided with solid sides or barriers
exceptionally good eyesight and when alarmed to a height of 2.0 m for unloading ostriches.
stands upright with its long neck extended. Lairages or holding pens should be provided
Ostriches have a life span of 30 to 70 years. without right-angled corners (e.g. octagonal
There are different production systems. pens constructed of metal tubes which are
Ostriches may be left in colonies, with 8 males round in cross-section), be constructed so as to
and 12 females in 10 acres, or in trios of two prevent birds slipping or falling, and without
females and one male, or in pairs. In Great gaps in which birds might trap their legs, toes,
Britain ostrich farming has to be licensed under head or wings and without steps or other
the Dangerous Wild Animals Act, implemented obstructions which may cause them to jump
by the local authority. and fall or cause other injury.
The production of eggs by the female is very If larger numbers of birds are handled, they
variable. They seasonally produce from 0-160 should be moved in small groups (up to 6
eggs, with an average of around 40 per laying birds) through a pre-stun race. The race should
hen. The first 3 months is the most critical be wide enough for one bird and have solid
period in the ostrich's life. sides up to a height of 2.0 m and be designed so
The mortality up to 6 months is around 25% that head, neck or wings cannot become
and between 6 and 14 months around 5%. trapped.
Chicks may be fed rations containing 12.5
MJ/kg and 23% protein, although many are fed
an 18% protein ration. They must be allowed Restraint (Fig. 12.1)
plenty of exercise and not allowed to grow too Before stunning, animals must be restrained in
quickly in the early stages, in order to prevent an appropriate manner in order to ensure
leg problems. Older birds are fed a 14.0% avoidable pain, suffering, agitation or injury.
protein ration with 9.2 MJ/kg. Different age Restraint is required to ensure that stunning is
groups are fed different rations. The feed carried out accurately and effectively, it does
conversion rate will vary according to the not mean that the bird must be immobilised
source of the dietary supply, and varies from 2:1 before stunning. To assist in hoisting and
from hatchery to 4 months to 10:1 from 10 to 14 shackling after stunning, birds may be loosely
months, when African Black Ostriches will hobbled at this point, although their legs must
weigh approximately 95 kg liveweight. not be tied in any way that may cause them to
In South Africa a high proportion (70%) of fall.
the value of the bird is in the skin. Any damage, The birds should be brought up the raceway
e.g. kick mark scars, bruising or fresh wounds, one at a time. When the bird goes through the
 Exotic Meat Production 297

door, one operative, wearing rubber gloves, not occur and stunning produces an extended
holds the beak, or uses a crook to bring the head period of up to 4 minutes of severe convulsions.
down into a position easily accessible to the Mechanical stunning should only be used for
stunning equipment. emergency slaughter when electrical stunning
is not available.
At Grahamstown RSA, four operatives carry
Stunning out the stunning procedure: one guides the bird
The electrodes should be designed and applied into the stunning area, one holds the beak, one
to ensure maximum contact area with the head applies the electric current, and the fourth rocks
and must be cleaned regularly to maintain the bird backwards with legs flexed into the
optimum current flow. The use of saline body during the tonic phase, assisted by the first
sponges in the stunning tongs may increase operative from behind. This enables the
contact area and current flow. The stunning application of a leg clamp at the tarso-
tongs must span the brain, either laterally (on metatarsal bone, thus restraining the bird
either side of the head and around the eyes) or sufficiently to permit shackling. At this point the
vertically (to the top and bottom of the head). If stunning tongs are removed and the fourth
the birds are hooded during stunning, operative ring/ chain shackles the bird via the
allowance must be made for the possible effect big toes and attaches the shackle to a chain hoist.
of the hood directing current away from the Extended application of the stunning
brain, especially if the hood is wet. An current, for up to 10 seconds, has been shown to
application of 400 mA or greater, with 11 V for delay the onset of kicking (clonic phase),
2-6 seconds causes insensibility for 60 seconds. facilitate restraint of legs and reduce the risk of
There will be a short phase of initial kicking injury during shackling and hoisting.
after which the bird will fall; it will be rigid Bleeding must be carried out without delay after
with its legs flexed beneath it and the neck may stunning and the cut must sever at least one of
arch over the back before falling forward (the the carotid arteries or the vessels from which
tonic phase). This is followed by kicking of they arise. The ostrich, like other birds, has an
varied intensity (the clonic phase). An asymmetric arrangement of blood vessels in the
effectively-stunned bird will not show any neck and bleeding should be achieved by a
signs of rhythmic breathing. A return to complete ventral cut of the neck immediately
rhythmic breathing in a stunned bird indicates below the head to sever both carotid arteries
that it may be recovering from the stun. and the jugular veins, or by thoracic sticking to
Existing knowledge of mechanical stunning sever the major blood vessels from which the
of ostriches suggests that the tonic phase does carotid arteries arise. Although bleeding from a
high neck cut is initially profuse, the total
bleed-out time is prolonged and birds should
be allowed to bleed for approximately 14
Approach race minutes in a bleeding area before manual
plucking takes place.
Operative 1
Dressing
Bird in optimum
Leg clamp stunning position The birds are then skinned, which should be
done carefully to prevent dander contamina-

o~
tion.

o A longitudinal incision is made in the neck,

the skin is reflected and the oesophagus is

O~'~2
Operative 3
exposed and tied. The neck is kept for edible
purposes and placed at the inspection point.
Electronic identification devices must be
Operative 4 Steel barrier
900 mm high
removed from the carcase at the time of
slaughter to prevent entry into the food chain.
Fig. 12.1 Stunning area and approach race. (By The vent is freed from its attachments, tied
kind permission of Dr Steve Wotton) and placed in a plastic bag. Evisceration is
298 Meat Hygiene
performed by a mid-abdominal incision above Since the subcutaneous fat layer is either absent
the breast plate. Ribs are cut on both sides of or very thin when present, and is concentrated in
the breast plate. Thoracic viscera are exposed specific areas only (mainly abdominal), cold
by pressing the breast plate down. The bagged shortening of muscles may be anticipated if
vent is pulled into the abdominal cavity and carcases are chilled below 10°C while the muscles
the intestinal tract is removed, together with are still physiologically reactive. Electrical
the liver and spleen. Intestines are placed in a stimulation of the carcase normally provides a
separate tray for inspection and the liver and solution for this problem, allowing even hot
spleen are placed in the viscera inspection deboning without inducing shortening.
tray adjacent to the head and neck. The lungs
may stay on the carcase or they may be
eviscerated with the heart. They are then COMMERCIAL SQUAB PRODUCTION
placed in the viscera inspection tray. Kidneys
are visually inspected in the carcase and after Squab, a young pigeon just before it starts flying,
removal. Different evisceration procedures is a speciality poultry product which can be raised
may be carried out provided they are carried on either large or small commercial scale. Squabs
out hygienically and allow for proper are very tasty because the meat is very tender, and
inspection. lend themselves very well to barbecuing and
Ratites are susceptible to similar diseases as other methods of cooking. About 2 million squabs
other poultry. The digestive tract is the most are marketed each year in the USA.
common site of infection by pathogenic Almost all squabbing pigeons are confined;
bacteria. Necrotic enteritis caused by 15-18 pairs can be kept in a 3 x 3.5 m pen.
Clostridium spp. affects ostriches 2 weeks of age Production is labour intensive as it requires
and over. constant attention over the flock. Squabs can be
Ostriches should be observed at rest and in marketed as early as 25 days after birth. A good
movement. This inspection procedure is similar breeding pair can produce 12 squabs for market
to that for other animal species. A healthy bird each year.
is alert, has an erect neck and at times lowers
and raises its head. It walks with a springy gait,
and appears as if walking with its heels in the FURTHER READING
air. It is inquisitive, and pecks at its
environment. It may be aggressive. The urine is Adams, J. (1986) The Slaughter and Inspection of Wild
thick, white and clear and the faeces are firm. Deer. Arun District Council.
The feathers are clean and well separated, and Adams, J. and Dannatt (1989) The Culling and
the body appears well rounded. The tail is Processing of Wild Deer. Arun District Council.
Alexander, T. 1. (1990) Slaughter of Fanned Deer.
fluffed up and erect.
Veterinary Public Health Association (VPHA)
The main reason for condemnation is air Proceedings November 1990.
sacculiiis. Alexander, T. and Buxton. D. (eds) (1994)
Management and Disease of Deer, 2nd Edn. A
Veterinary Society Publication.
Fletcher, T. J. (1990) Deer Farming in Britain. VPHA
Changes after slaughter November 1990.
The pH decline patterns of ostrich muscles are MAFF (1996) Fanned Deer: Codes of Recommendation
very rapid, with pH 5.85 in some muscles 1.5 for the Welfare of Livestock.
hours after post-mortem. Shortly after this the MAFF (1996) Guidance Notes on the Slaughter of
Ostriches: Welfare.
pH rises so that in general the pH is not much
Rafferty, G. C. (1990) Wild Venison. VPMA November
below 6.0/ which may be considered between 1990.
normal and moderately DFD meat. It is not The Commercial Meat Rabbit Producer's Handbook. The
known whether this is due to pre-slaughter British Commercial Rabbit Association.
stress or an inherent ostrich muscle Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (1988)
characteristic. The effect will be a shortened Management and Welfare of Farm Animals. London:
shelf life. Bailliere Tindall.
 Chapter 13
Chemical Residues in Meat

A large number of drugs used to control or drugs, approved for use in one country but not
prevent infections or to promote growth are in another, to deal with local disease problems.
considered essential by some authorities in Successful responses to these treatments may
modern animal production systems. Additional lead to further use in areas where information
chemicals may be added to food to ensure on withholding times is not readily available.
maximum utilisation and to delay When drugs are used in the prevention or
deterioration. However, there is growing treatment of diseases for which they are not
consumer resistance to the presence of approved, appropriate guidelines may not be
unwanted residues in food. available. To reduce these problems, the USDA
The principal consumer concerns are drug Extension Service has developed a computer
resistance, toxicity and potential allergy. Drug databank, the Food Animal Residue Avoidance
resistance has been postulated as a problem Databank (FARAD), to compile a single source
both from the effect that trace residues may of veterinary pharmaceuticals, pharma-
have in stimulating resistance in, or cokinetics and other properties of drugs or
transferring resistance from non-pathogenic chemicals used in livestock (Sundof et al.,
bacteria in the meat to, pathogenic bacteria 1986).
within the consumers digestive system. Drugs The pharmacokinetics (movement of drugs in
are intended to be toxic to various forms of the body) of specific preparations has a major
parasite and as such may have inherent toxic, effect on persistence in the animal tissue and is
mutagenic, teratogenic or carcinogenic effects. dependent on several factors. Formulations can
Penicillin ranks highly among the known give slow or rapid release. Current trends
allergens and can invoke an allergic reaction in favour the use of slow-release formulations,
consumers eating food containing sufficient both to prolong therapeutically-active
residual drug. concentrations of therapeutic drugs in tissues
Residues can occur for a variety of reasons. and to minimise the stress involved in repeated
Clearance rates for drugs can vary. Conditions handling of animals. The chemical composition
that prolong the process can lead to tissue of some drugs prevents rapid metabolism and,
residues at slaughter. For example, even when in some animals in which the metabolic
drugs are used according to recognised doses processes are reduced as result of disease,
and routes of administration and when pre- persistence can occur. The route of
slaughter withholding times are observed, administration, e.g. by injection, orally or other
other parameters, e.g. disease conditions, age means, also affects the rate of excretion. An
of animal and husbandry practices, can result injection into poorly vascularised tissue can
in violative tissue residues. Drugs are also result in slower absorption than expected from
sometimes administered to food-producing studies on normal tissues. The recommended
animals at a dose rate in excess of the withholding time for the residue to fall into the
recommended level (Hoffsis and Walker, 1984)/ acceptable range should be based on the tissue
by unauthorised routes or at more frequent with the slowest decay rate.
intervals than specified. These therapies can The therapeutic products that cause concern
alter the withholding time required to ensure fall into a number of categories. The major ones
that all tissues are clear of residues (Mercer et are antimicrobials, which are a diffuse group
al., 1977). Veterinary surgeons can administer containing several classes of compounds used

299
300 Meat Hygiene
to treat or prevent bacterial infection. The and of other substances transmitted to animal
pesticides are also a diffuse group including products and which are likely to be harmful to
anthelmintics used for their activities against human health'. Almost all chemicals
roundworms, tapeworms, and fluke, administered knowingly or unknowingly to
ectoparasiticides used to kill external parasites animals result in some trace residue remaining
such as mange, sheep scab mites or lice, and in the carcase. Increasingly, laboratory
antiprotozoals which are most commonly used technology is able to detect these minute traces.
for the control and treatment of coccidiosis and It is therefore important to differentiate
babesiosis. Hormones are used for therapeutic between safe and unsafe residual
purposes in various fertility treatments or for concentrations rather than to insist on zero
growth promotion and are administered as residues.
injection or implant. One general category
includes tranquillisers and f3-agonists.
Animals are exposed to many environmental
Legislative control of residues
contaminants including herbicides, heavy metals
and fungicides. Some of these substances find The Fresh Meat Directive 64/433/EEC on the
their way into animal tissues via the feed. Conditions for the Production and Marketing of
In the preservation and processing of food, Fresh Meat requires that animals containing
additives are employed to prevent the onset of residues of substances with a pharmacological
spoilage, to promote binding properties and to action should be excluded from trade. In the
enhance flavour and nutritive value. These 1970s controls were introduced for animal
additives include antioxidants, emulsifiers, feedingstuffs (79 I 373 IEEC) and additives
humectants, firming agents, sequestrants, (70/524/EEC). Certain substances having a
colouring agents, stabilisers, sweeteners, hormonal action (the stilbene group) and
tenderisers, etc. At both production and substances having a thyrostatic action were
processing stages, residues or contaminants banned in 1981 (81/602/EEC). In the same year
may enter the food chain from intentional or the approximation of laws of Member States
accidental exposure to these chemicals. (81/851/EEC) and the analytical, pharmaco-
For all chemicals which may produce toxicological and clinical standards and
residues it is essential to establish an acceptable protocols required for the testing of veterinary
level in the diet. Calculation of this acceptable medicines were agreed (81/852/EEC). In 1985
daily intake (ADI) depends on the toxicology of the ban on the use of certain substances having a
the compound. These toxicological effects are hormonal action was extended (85/649 IEEC)
determined by acute and chronic studies and in 1996 (96/22/EEC) included the ~­
involving genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, agonists in the prohibition. However, Directive
mutogenicity, teratogenicity, neurotoxicity, and 96/22/EEC allows for the therapeutic treatment
effects on the immune and reproductive of animals using a variety of these drugs
systems. provided that the treatment is administered by a
Detection of these unwanted residues veterinarian or under his direct responsibility.
presents a new challenge to meat hygienists. Treatment of animals with hormones to
Traditional meat inspection examination ante- synchronise oestrus under the responsibility of a
mortem and post-mortem described earlier, veterinarian and the treatment of young fish
cannot guarantee the detection of residues since with androgens during the first 3 months of life
many of the drugs used parenterally are rapidly to cause sex inversion are also permitted.
absorbed from the site and, in common with The examination of animals and fresh meat for
those that are given orally, do not produce the presence of residues was first described in
changes or lesions which can be routinely Directive 86/469/EEC and has been updated
observed. Therefore, to reassure consumers, and extended by Directive 96/23/EC, the
traditional meat inspection procedures need to 'residues directive'. The methods to be used to
be complemented by an increasingly wide detect residues of substances having a
range of sophisticated laboratory analyses. hormonal or thyrostatic action were agreed. As
A residue is defined in EC Directive a result, national plans for the examination of
96/23/EC as 'a residue of substances having a meat for residues have been approved by a
pharmacological action, of their metabolites series of Council decisions. In support of these
 Chemical Residues in Meat 301
sample collection and testing plans, the (c) They prohibit the sale or supply for slaughter
Commission has set up a series of conditions to of animals if the appropriate withdrawal
be observed by national reference laboratories period has not expired and prohibit supply
and lays down reference methods (89/153 /Ee. for slaughter or, subject to exceptions, the sale
89/610/Ee. 90/515/EC). The work of the of animals or the sale of animal products
national reference laboratories will be which contain unauthorised substances or an
excess of authorised substances (regs 9 and
supervised by community reference 10).
laboratories (89/187 /EC). To ensure fair
competition, meat imported into the (cl) They prohibit, subject to an exception, the
disposal for human or animal consumption of
community previously had to come from areas slaughtered animals containing specified
with equivalent testing programmes unauthorised substances (regs 11 and 12).
(90/153/EC). However, international trade
(e) They empower authorised officers to inspect
obligations have made it necessary to consider and examine animals and to take samples and
the importation of meat and meat products provide for the analysis of official samples
from regions and countries such as the United (regs 13-22).
States where the use of growth promoters is (f) They provide for offences and penalties and
part of normal husbandry practice. for enforcement (reg. 23).
These directives have been enacted within
(g) They provide specific defences (regs 24-29).
Great Britain by the The Animals and Animal
Products (Examination for Residues and Maximum (h) They deny to processors a due diligence
Residue Levels) Regulations 1997. These defence in specified circumstances (regs 30
and 31).
Regulations came into force on 11 August 1977
and revoke all previous residue legislation. (i) They specify requirements relating to the
keeping of records and provide for the
They implement Directive 96/22/EC suspension or revocation of manufacturers'
concerning the prohibition on the use in food licences (regs 32 and 33).
animal production of certain substances having
(j) They apply, with some modifications,
a hormonal or thyrostatic action and of ~­
provisions of the Food Safety Act 1990
agonists, repealing Directives 81/ 602/EEC, including the defence of due diligence (reg.
88/146/EEC and 88/299/EEC. The 34).
Regulations also implement Directive (k) They amend and revoke other legislation
96/23/EC on measures to monitor certain (regs 35, 36 and Schedule 2).
substances and residues thereof in live animals
and animal products and repeal Directives
85/358/EEC and 86/469 /EEC and Decisions
89/187/EEC and 91/ 664/EEC and provide for The safe use of veterinary medicines
the enforcement and execution of the The following advice to farmers has been
prohibition in Articles 5 and 14 of Council issued by the Veterinary Medicines Directorate
Regulation No. 2377/90. of the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
The Regulations make the following Food:
stipulations:
(a) They prohibit the sale, possession or Source of medicines
administration to animals of specified
unauthorised substances (stilbenes, • The supply of veterinary medicines is
thyrostatic substances and ~-agonists) except controlled by law.
in the case of a ~_-agonist for a therapeutic • Buy medicines only from your veterinary
purpose under the direct responsibility of a surgeon, a registered distributor or a
veterinary surgeon (regs 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7). pharmacist.
The same provision applies to allyl • Medicines from unauthorised sources may
trenbolone under reg. 25. not be safe or effective.
(b) They prohibit the possession, slaughter or • Only purchase or use licensed products.
processing the meat of, animals intended for Under the new regulations you are
human consumption which contain, or which committing an offence if you use an
have been administered with, specified unlicensed product unless it has been
unauthorised substances (reg. 8). prescribed by your veterinary surgeon.
302 Meat Hygiene
Administration of medicines Calculation of the ADI depends on the
• Certain medicines may only be toxicological effects as determined by acute and
administered under the supervision of a chronic animal studies involving genotoxicity,
veterinary surgeon or according to a carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity
veterinary surgeon's prescription. neurotoxicity and effects on the immune and
• Read instructions for the current use and reproductive systems. These result in a defined
administration of the medicine and ensure maximum quantity which may be consumed
that you understand the directions. daily by even the most sensitive group in the
• If in doubt, ask your veterinary surgeon for population without any untoward effects. For
advice on how to administer medicines. some groups, e.g. hormones, these studies aim to
• Check dosage levels. determine the concentration at which there is no
observable effect (NOEL). When this
• Check route and site for administration. concentration has been determined, it is
• Unless it has been prescribed by your customary to introduce an additional safety factor
veterinary surgeon, use a medicine only in ranging from x10 to x1000 to ensure greater safety.
the species of animal for which it is
Based on this figure a maximumresidue level (MRL,
approved. Check the label or leaflet.
see below) can be calculated so that no consumer,
• Carry out the complete treatment even on an extreme diet, is in danger of exceeding
programme.
the safe daily intake. In residue analyses this is the
standard of quality assurance which is sought.
Withdrawal times Therefore only analytical methods which are
accurate at concentrations lower than the MRL are
• Check and observe the withdrawal period acceptable.
laid down for that particular medicine.
Under the new Regulations you have a legal
obligation to observe the withdrawal
period. Check the label for details. Maximum residue levels (MRLs)
• Do not sell for slaughter, or slaughter, No chemical is safe under all conditions of use.
animals before the end of the withdrawal
It is therefore important that all are fully
period. Under the new Regulations you will
be committing an offence if you do. evaluated for safety as the parent compound
and/ or as its metabolites, and that the results of
these evaluations determine acceptability.
Record keeping Toxicological studies involve both acute toxic
effects of the chemicals and more chronic effects
• Record keeping should help to ensure that
withdrawal periods for animal medicines including carcinogenesis and mutagenicity.
are observed. Increasingly, studies of fertility and fetal
development and the effect on the immune
• You have a legal obligation to keep records
of the administration of medicines, system have been added to these assessments
including in-feed medication. of safety.
As international markets become
REMEMBER increasingly harmonised, standardisation of
Farmers who already follow sound management acceptable residue levels is required. The
practices have nothing tofearfrom the new controls. maximum residue level (MRL) is a concept
developed to estimate the maximum acceptable
human intake over a lifetime. It is adjusted to
Acceptable daily intake (AD!) accept dietary intakes which are at the extremes
The term acceptable daily intake was first used by of expected consumption of tissues containing
the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on the highest residue concentrations. It is
Food Additives (JECFA) in 1958. The most generally accepted that the MRL of an analyte
recent definition is 'an estimate of the amount of any foodstuff is determined by three factors:
of a food additive, expressed on a body weight 1 A minimum dose which produces detectable
basis, that can be ingested daily over a lifetime effects in experimental animals or which, in a
without appreciable health risk' (FAO/WHO, therapeutic preparation used in human
1987). medicine, produces a recognisable effect.
 Chemical Residues in Meat 303
2 A safety factor in the range 10:1000and which analytical system should be defined as the
is lower (1:10) if a preparation is already concentration corresponding to a measurement level
acceptable in human medicine or higher three standard deviations above the mean value
(1:1000) if there is any evidence to indicate a obtained by testing a series of blank samples.
special risk from experience with chemically
similar compounds. Primary tests are supported by confirmatory
tests. These are normally based on mass
3 A series of factors to balance the proportions spectrometry, which provides conclusive
of the particular tissues in the average diet.
evidence of the presence of the drug or a unique
metabolite based on information related to
An MRL can give no more than a structure. Both types of test must be capable of
conservative indication of levels that are detecting residues at concentrations which are
considered unlikely to pose any toxicological not greater than half the maximum residue
hazard to humans. It is a figure set for acceptable limit.
or tolerable intakes believed, on the evidence
available, to be safe for man but which may be
modified upwards or downwards in the light of any Principles of sample collection for analyses
new toxicological findings. Since any acceptable It is both economically and practically
daily intake is set at a conservative figure and impossible to sample all carcases for all
increased by a safety factor, then exceeding the residues. Quality assurance is therefore based
MRL occasionally may not be regarded as on sampling procedures. These are of two
undesirable. Examples of maximum residue levels types: structured surveys initiated to provide
in meat reproduced from EC Commission quantitative information on the quantities of
Regulation 2377/90 (consolidated), are shown any drugs which are in the food chain and
in Table 13.3. targeted testing designed to detect and penalise
In the case of banned substances there is no producers or processors who use drugs
permitted limit. Detection of any residue illegally.
confirms that an abuse has occurred and the
product must be excluded from the food chain.
Structured surveys
Detection limit Samples are normally collected on a national
basis from randomly selected points in the
Residues of drugs can be considered in two distribution chain. There are a number of these
groups: banned substances, e.g. ongoing schemes. The UK National Surveillance
diethylstilboestrol or permitted substances, e.g. Scheme (NSS) fulfils the requirements of EC
sulphonamides. In the case of banned Directive 96/23/EC. Samples are collected at
substances there is no permitted limit. In abattoirs according to throughput and on farms
practical terms the decision criterion becomes in proportion to stock numbers. To avoid
the limit of sensitivity of the analytical subjective selection of animals for sampling, a
procedure. With permitted substances a risk programme that generates a list of random
assessment will be carried out prior to a making numbers is used. The Official Veterinary Officer
authorization being granted and the acceptable in the meat plant is provided with a list of the
daily intake will have been identified. For these samples that are required from his or her plant,
permitted substances the detection limit of an and at a specific time samples are taken from
analytical procedure is regarded as being the the next slaughtered animal of the species and
lowest concentration of the analyte that can be type specified. The number of samples required
distinguished with reasonable confidence from from a species or type is chosen to ensure
a sample blank containing zero concentration of detection of a problem that affects a specific
the analyte. Despite the simplicity of this proportion of the population. The relationship
concept, some confusion arises from different between the sample size, the frequency of
interpretations of the 'reasonable confidence' residue occurrence and the probability of
required to distinguish between response of a detection can be calculated from the binomial
sample containing some analyte and the distribution (Table 13.1).
response from a sample containing none. It has The sample size specified by the EC
been recommended that the detection limit of an Directives is normally 300/ which gives a 95%
304 Meat Hygiene
Table 13.1 Number of samples required to detect Imported Meat Monitoring Programme (IMMP),
at least one violation with predefined probabilities which also began in 1989, provided information
(i.e. 90%, 95% and 99%) in a population having a on imported meat and meat products based on
known violation incidence rate. samples taken at the point of entry into the UK.
The number collected at a specific entry point
Violation Minimum number of samples
incidence in the required to detect a violation was in relation to the annual throughput. The
population (%) with a confidence level of: tests are similar to those carried out under the
NSS. Later, in conformity with EC Legislation,
90% 95% 99% this programme was altered to the Imported
Meats Point of Destination Sampling (IMPoDS)
35 6 7 11
survey. The British Meat Survey (BMS)
30 7 9 13
25 9 11 17 supplemented the NSS by testing meat samples
20 11 14 21 collected in a similar way to the NSS for those
15 15 19 29 drugs which were not included in the NSS.
10 22 29 44 These individual programmes have been
5 45 59 90 subsumed into a general programme of non-
1 230 299 459 statutory surveillance work which is
0.5 460 598 919 commissioned and reported by the Veterinary
0.1 2302 2995 4603 Medicines Directorate in the Medicines Act
Veterinary Information Service (MAVIS).
The NSS includes a requirement for
probability that a 1% violation rate would be identification of all animals, carcases or
detected. More intensive sampling, when a products so that detailed investigations can
problem is suspected, involves sampling 700 take place on the farms of origin. As samples for
animals, giving a 99% probability of detecting a the RAPS, BMS, and IMMP surveys are
1% violation rate. The probability of failing to collected at small retail outlets, the
detect a residue in a large population is related identification attached to each sample may not
to the number of samples taken and can be permit these follow-up investigations. Together
estimated for a range of abuse rates. Under the these surveys provide information on the total
NSS, a positive result requires an increase in quantities of residues that are entering the food
sampling intensity, but negative findings chain. When problems are identified, testing
during a full year may reduce the sample size to can be focused on specific areas and more
300. Details of these samplings are listed in the intensive sampling can be undertaken to obtain
Annex to EC Directive 96j23jEC. evidence of the true level and to suggest
A number of other nationwide surveys were methods of avoiding residues. This information
established in the UK to provide information on is essential if the consumer and retailers are to
residues entering the food chain. These were be assured that meat produced under modern
targeted to detect residues of antimicrobials, systems is free from all contaminants and safe
hormones, heavy metals, pesticides, veterinary to eat.
drugs and environmental contaminants in
samples collected on a national basis and were
reported annually. The Retail Animal Products
Survey (RAPS) was introduced in 1989 to extend Results of statutory surveillance
the range of surveillance and to provide a programmes in Great Britain
statistically valid sampling procedure for retail In 1997 it was shown that more than 99% of
outlets. The scope of this survey was wider samples tested under the Veterinary Medicines
than that of the NSS and included Directorate surveillance programmes were free
manufactured food products which may of residues of veterinary medicines.
incorporate tissues not sampled in other Under the random statutory surveillance
surveys. Samples were purchased from retail programme, some 39.652 samples were tested
outlets in towns throughout the UK stratified in with some 39.454 (99.5%) free of residues. Only
proportion to the population density. These 52 (0.13%) were above the Action Level
purchases were made on a monthly basis and ('positive') and 146 (0.37%) contained residues
the results were assessed annually. The UK below the Action Level. There was no evidence
 Chemical Residues in Meat 305
of the use of the banned synthetic steroids or laboratory analyses in NSS testing, a complete
clenbuterol. set of samples should contain the following: 50
The Veterinary Medicines Directorate ml of whole blood, 250 g of rectal faeces, 50 g of
concluded that 'because of the considerable liver, 50 g of kidney, 50 g of diaphragmatic
margins of safety which are applied when muscle, 50 ml of bile and 50 ml of urine. Where
establishing MRLs for veterinary medicines at the samples are being taken from suspect
both ED and international levels, we are carcases which are detained after slaughter,
confident that the very low incidence of these should, at least, contain a specimen from
residues found do not pose a significant health the suspect lesion, the kidney and the
risk to consumers'. diaphragm. It is important that these three
specimens are packed separately so that
diffusion of the drug cannot occur. After
Meat inspection collection, samples should be cooled rapidly,
In addition to these national schemes, when placed in an insulated container containing a
suspicious ante-mortem signs or post-mortem frozen Freezella pack and despatched to the
lesions are observed during meat inspection, laboratory. When received in the laboratory, the
samples are also taken by meat inspection staff samples are recorded and then placed in a 20°C
for laboratory tests. These signs vary with the freezer for storage prior to sub-sampling or
drug which is suspected and are described later testing.
with each drug group. These procedures reduce deterioration in the
In order that regulatory controls can be samples to a minimum. In other national
effective, it is necessary to have secure control surveys the selection of sample is
and proof of continuity from sample collection to predetermined by the product selected for the
the issue of the test result. This is achieved by survey. In meat inspection it is also necessary to
ensuring that the authorised officers who include a sample of the suspicious lesion(s) for
collect and despatch the samples from the plant testing.
record their activities on a form which will
accompany the sample until the final report is
issued. At all subsequent stages those who
ANTIMICROBIALS
handle the samples must also record their In mammals the most numerous and most
activities on a similar form. This paper chain frequently used drugs in this group are the
must allow trace-back of all individual samples, antibiotics. An antibiotic is a chemical substance,
confirming the link between the animal produced wholly or partly by a microorganism
sampled and the result reported, should (usually a fungus or a bacterium), which has
regulatory action be required. Samples may be the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill
sent through normal transport or mail only if in bacteria. These drugs can be used
a secure container. These are sealed by therapeutically in short courses of treatment to
tamperproof labels or seals which are opened control disease in animals or, at lower
only within the laboratory. concentrations but over a longer time, to
promote growth. The latter use occurs most
frequently in young calves, pigs and poultry. In
Sample handling the adult ruminant, alterations in the ruminal
The pattern of distribution of a residue depends flora may reduce efficiency of digestion, growth
on the drug used, the time since administration and weight gain. When used therapeutically,
and the species of animal. At the time of antibiotics can reduce the symptoms of disease
collection the specific drug involved may not be and may result in unhealthy animals being
readily identified and the time from accepted at ante-mortem inspection.
administration may be unclear. In addition, Antimicrobials are a difficult group to detect
metabolism of a number of commonly used chemically because they are diverse and show
drugs continues in tissues for a period after great variation in their chemical structure and
death. It is, therefore, important to preserve the molecular weights. They are also used in a wide
residue in the samples by carefully managing range of formulations and are administered by
all stages from collection to analysis. For many routes. A common characteristic is their
example, to provide the greatest flexibility in antimicrobial activity and this has been used to
306 Meat Hygiene
develop test systems. However, not all Table 13.2 Antibiotic maximum residue levels for
antibiotic residues retain activity after bovines,
metabolism in animal tissues and in a
significant number of cases the drug continues Compound Target tissue Concentration
to be metabolised by tissue enzymes during (flg/g)
cold storage. Sulphonamides Muscle, liver,
It is essential that the inspection team remain kidney, fat 100
constantly vigilant for the potential abuse of Benzylpenicillin Muscle, liver,
antibiotics throughout the inspection procedure. kidney, fat 50
At ante-mortem and post-mortem the presence Milk 4
of disease conditions such as pleuro- Ampicillin Muscle, liver
pneumonia or arthritis in pigs and sheep or kidney, fat 50
chronic mastitis in cows, may suggest that an Milk 4
antibiotic has been administered recently. Apramycin Muscle, fat 1000
Particular attention must be paid to suspect Liver 10000
casualty animals, which should be sampled as a Kidney 20000
matter of routine. Recent injection sites may Cefquinone Kidney 200
appear as an area of discoloration or bruising, Liver 100
but frequently deep intramuscular injections Muscle 50
can only be detected as a very slight swelling or Fat 50
lack of symmetry in the muscle. If there is any Cloxacillin Muscle, liver,
suspicion, the carcase must be retained until kidney, fat 300
samples prove negative to laboratory Milk 30
investigation. Erythromycin Liver kidney,
Commonly used antimicrobial agents include muscle, fat 400
the penicillins, the aminoglycosides Milk 40
(dihydrostreptomycin, streptomycin and Florenicol Muscle 200
neomycin), tetracyclines (chlorotetracycline, Kidney 300
oxytetracycline, tetracycline), tylosin, Liver 3000
cephalosporins and sulphonamides. The use of Spiramycin Liver, kidney, fat 300
chloramphenicol, furazolidone and Muscle 200
dimetridazole in farm animals is now strictly Milk 200
controlled in some countries. Nystatin and Streptomycin Kidney 1000
griesofulvin are useful [ungicides and a range of Muscle, fat, liver 500
other agents, avoparcin, virginiamycin, Milk 200
polymixin B, bacitracin and some Tetracyclines Kidney 600
sulphonamides have been used as additives in Liver 300
feed. The latter result in growth promotion and Muscle 100
are considered economically worthwhile when Milk 100
incorporated at non-therapeutic concentrations. Tilmicosin Liver, kidney 1000
Public concern about the use of drugs in Muscle, fat 50
intensively reared livestock has led to a re- Trimethoprim Muscle, kidney,
examination of this practice with the result that, liver, fat, milk 50
in Denmark, Danske Slagterier has called for Tylosin Muscle, liver,
pig producers to stop including antibiotic kidney, fat 100
growth promoters in the rations of pigs milk 50
weighing more than 30 kg. Examples of
maximum residue levels for antibiotics are
shown in Table 13.2 administered shortly before slaughter. In many
In addition, antibiotic residues are considered of these cases the antibiotic is still present in an
undesirable for several other reasons. They unmetabolised form. Long-standing injection
produce unsightly lesions when administered by sites, particularly those that incorporate an oily
injection. The site of the injection is discoloured, base, may be hard, fibrous nodules within a
and may be haemorrhagic if treatment was muscle. The tetracyclines, when given as long-
 Chemical Residues in Meat 307
acting preparations, may leave a yellowish antimicrobials are excreted by treated animals
stained area with a distinctive odour. Deep- in an active form and can be recycled by their
seated injections can be particularly difficult to pen mates. Cross-contamination of feedingstuffs
detect and require the experienced eye of the during milling has been recognised as a factor
inspector detecting a slight lack of symmetry in in the frequency with which sulphadimidine
the carcase. Since these lesions must result in isolations occur in pig meat.
trimming by the inspection staff, it is prudent to Incorporation infeed poses particular problems
administer injectable antibiotics always in non- for the meat inspection services for several
edible or low-value parts of the carcase. reasons. First, there are no injection sites to be
During meat inspection all carcases with detected by visual observation. Second, the
injection sites should be retained and residue levels are likely to be low, probably close
judgements made according to case history, the to or below the maximum residue level. The
time of treatment and laboratory results. consumption of the parent compound and of
Frequently there is no history of previous the principal metabolites by ingestion of
therapy, so the best evidence on which to base a contaminated excreta may result in distributions
judgement is the visual appearance of the lesion in tissue which differ from those suggested by
and the laboratory result. studies involving parent compound alone.
Antibiotics may also interfere with further food These factors may require reassessments of
processing if this depends on a fermentation current maximum residue levels with particular
reaction. They may cause allergic reactions in reference to target edible tissues.
highly sensitised consumers. A small number of Bacitracin zinc, Spiramycin, Tylosin and
antimicrobials are suspected of having Virginiamycin were banned in 1998 as feed
carcinogenic properties. There is also considerable additives in Great Britain.
concern regarding the creation of resistant bacteria
in farm animals which may then pass to the
Tests for antimicrobial agents
consumer. Experimental studies have frequently
demonstrated that sub-therapeutic feeding of The most frequently used tests for antimicrobial
antimicrobials to livestock and poultry increases agents are based on the detection of residual
the prevalence of R+ enteric organisms some of antimicrobial activity. The basic microbiological
which may be pathogenic to consumers. An method is the four-plate test (FPT). This test has
additional factor, seldom considered during the advantage of requiring simple apparatus and
these discussions, is the additional cost of limited training for analysts, and of having rapid
production which results from the inclusion of turnaround and broad spectrum detection. It is
unnecessary antibiotics in feed. Sub-therapeutic an agar diffusion test. Meat samples are applied
levels of antimicrobials in feed are most to four plates of agar medium, three of which are
commonly used in poultry, pigs and young inoculated with Bacillus subtilis spores at pH 6,
cattle, but, as early lamb production becomes 7.2, and 8 or with Micrococcus luieus at pH 8
more intensive, the potential for extension to (Bogaerts and Wolf, 1980). Trimethoprim is
sheep systems will also increase. Tissue residues incorporated into the pH 7.2 medium to enhance
that result from sub-therapeutic use can arise the sensitivity of the test for sulphonamide
from a variety of sources including failure to residues. Diffusion of the active antibiotic is
observe withdrawal periods, cross-contamination detected by the formation of clear zones of
between animals on the farm during transport or inhibition on one or more plates after overnight
in the lairage and cross-contamination of incubation. The reliability and sensitivity of the
feedingstuffs during the milling process. tests are monitored by applying 6 mm diameter
Where antibiotics are incorporated in feed to filter-paper discs containing standard quantities
control diseases, producers may be unwilling to of known antibiotics in each run. The system
withhold the drug for a sufficiently long period lacks specificity and its reliability has been
to ensure that all residues have been eliminated questioned. False positive results arise most
before slaughter. They may also be guilty of frequently from the use of deep-frozen tissues,
administering the drug at levels greatly particularly kidneys. To avoid these problems,
exceeding the recommended levels and by each tissue can be tested in duplicate, one piece
routes other than those prescribed, thus altering being placed directly on the agar surface and the
the withdrawal times significantly. Some other being placed on a dialysis membrane
308 Meat Hygiene
placed on the surface. The membrane prevents In surveys designed to identify the frequency
the diffusion of inhibitory cell components into of use of antibiotics in the population, kidney is
the medium. normally chosen as a target tissue. However, if a
Despite the incorporation of trimethoprim carcase is suspected of having antimicrobials
into the pH 7.2 medium to enhance the present at post-mortem, samples are taken from
sensitivity of the test for sulphonamide any detected lesion, the kidney and diaphragm.
residues, it remains relatively insensitive for These are tested by FPT, HVE and, when
these and it is now customary to examine for appropriate, HPLC. If all three samples are
sulphonamides by alternative technologies negative, then the site that has been detected is
such as thin-layer chromatography or trimmed and the carcase may be passed into the
immunoassays. food chain. If only the site is positive, or if the
Since antibiotics such as dihydro- site and kidney only are positive, then the site is
streptomycin, neomycin, kanamycin and trimmed, the offal is discarded and the carcase
gentamicin are excreted from kidneys at a may be passed into the food chain. If the
lower rate than from muscle, correlations in diaphragm is positive, then the carcase is
kidney and meat levels can vary. condemned. By this means, meat from carcases
Other antibiotics, e.g. chloramphenicol and containing antimicrobial residues is prevented
nitrofurans, are metabolised and remain in from entering the food chain.
kidney and liver as inactive metabolites. For The major problem presented to the
these, immunoassays and chemical methods laboratory service by meat inspection sampling
have been developed. is the rapid turnaround time required for
The FPT is simple, inexpensive to perform judgements to be made on carcases. In view of
and well-suited to routine laboratory work. In the urgency with which test results are
general the test is best suited to those antibiotics required, only the FPT and HVE techniques can
that are used for therapeutic purposes. The test provide information within the time-frame
is qualitative and does indicate the quantity of required. Current work on the development of
antibiotic that is present. Regular inter- alternative technologies may result in
laboratory testing is carried out as a quality confirmatory tests, but these will be required to
control and there is acceptable agreement both be equally rapid in performance.
between sensitivity and selectivity of the test.
Further evidence of the identity of the specific
antibiotic can be obtained using high-voltage 1996 GB Statutory Survey results
electrophoresis (HVE) bioautography. Two gels, Out of some 17000 sheep kidney samples tested,
agar and agarose, are prepared, a piece of meat is antimicrobials were detected in six (4 penicillin
placed on each, and the antibiotic is allowed to G, 2 streptomycin), the animals involved
diffuse into the medium. The high voltage is probably being casualties.
passed through the medium for a period of 2.5 One positive sample out of 2300 cattle
hours. The plates are then overlaid with media samples was found, the antimicrobial residues
containing sensitive species of bacteria similar to of oxytetracycline occurring at the completely
those in the FPT and incubation is carried out unacceptable concentration of 7620 llg/kg
overnight. The antibiotics inhibit the growth of above the MRL of 600 llg/kg.
the bacteria over the areas in which they are The situation in pigs was found to be more
concentrated. The distance and direction the serious, 64 samples out of over 12300
antibiotic has travelled from the origin is used to containing antimicrobials (chlortetracycline 44
further identify the growth-inhibitory substance being the most common). Out of 1107 tested, 18
into broad categories. Those antibiotics that are (1.6%) pig kidney samples were found to
suitable for confirmatory testing can then be contain a sulphonamide, the concentrations
chemically identified. This intermediate step ranging from 12011g/kg to 7170 llg/kg. A
before proceeding to chemical analysis can person eating a standard meal of 50 g of kidney
significantly reduce costs of residue testing. at the latter high concentration would be
Further confirmation and identification are exposed to 358 llg of sulphonamides which is
obtained using high-performance liquid well within the ADI for sulphonamide of
chromatography (HPLC) of extracts from the 0-3000 llg per person and without any harmful
tissue. effect.
 Chemical Residues in Meat 309
GROWTH PROMOTERS (HORMONES implanted ovum, protects the embryo,
AND ANTIBACTERIALS) encourages placental growth and decreases the
frequency of uterine contractions.
• Natural sex steroid hormones - Oestradiol,
progesterone, testosterone. Oestrogen: A hormone that promotes female
characteristics induces oestrus receptivity in the
• Synthetic steroid androgens - Nandrolone, female, creates secondary sex characters.
norethandrolone, nortestosterone,
phenylpropionate, ethinyloestradiol, laurate.
• Synthetic non-steroidal oestrogens -
Use of hormones
Stilbene oestrogens (diethylstilboestrol
(DES), hexoestrol), zeranol, trenbolone Hormones have been used for a variety of
acetate. therapeutic and growth-modifying purposes in
• Synthetic steroidal progestens - animals. They are a particularly important
Melengestrol acetate (MGA). group because of the reports from toxicological
• Peptide hormones - Growth hormone (GH), experiments claiming to show that there may be
growth hormone-releasing factor associations with neoplasia. The most
thryotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH). commonly cited example is diethylstilboestrol
• ~-Adrenoceptor agonists (beta-agonists) - (DES) therapy previously given to pregnant
c1enbuterol, cimateratol. mothers with threatened miscarriages. A
• Antibacterials - Zinc bacitracin, flavomycin, significant proportion of girls born after this
virginiamycin, ionophore antibotics therapy subsequently developed cervical
(lasalocid Na, monensin Na, salinomycin), adenocarcinomas. While this example
non-ionophore antibiotics (avoparcin, demonstrates that a risk exists, the therapeutic
flavophospholipol), arsanilic acid, gut active concentrations were considerably higher than
growth promoters (enzymes and probiotics). those that could arise through the consumption
of meat from treated animals. Nevertheless, it
is an unnecessary risk and best avoided. In 1981
Glossary
an EC ban (EC Directive 81/602) was
Anabolic: Able to build up tissues; the implemented in all member states. Although
synthesis of complex molecules from simpler there have been a number of reported cases of
ones with the storage of chemical energy, as violation, the ban has been effective. When the
opposed to catabolic, which is the breaking ban was first introduced, the producers had
down of complex molecules into simpler ones. access to other growth-promoting hormone
implants (trenbolone, zeranol and natural
Steroid (lit. 'fatty'): Steroids are a group of hormones) which gave better responses at
natural hormones naturally produced by the
slightly higher costs. The effectiveness of these
'steroid glands' (adrenal cortex, testis, ovary,
implants continued the economic benefits that
placenta and corpus luteum) and include the
would have been expected from continued use
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens,
of DES. The subsequent ban on all growth-
oestrogens and gestagens which have synthetic
promoting hormones (EC Directive 85/649)
counterparts - anabolic steroids (ethyloestrenol,
appeared to provoke more resistance from
nandrolone, norethandrolone. etc.).
producers.
Stilbene: Synthetic non-steroidal oestrogen, The safety of five compounds, zeranol,
e.g. diethylstilboestrol (DES), hexoestrol trenbolone, oestradiol, progesterone and
dienoestrol, currently banned in most countries testosterone, was considered by an EC Expert
as anabolic agents because of their Committee. This committee reported
carcinogenetic effect and the fact that they are (Lamming, 1984; Lamming et al., 1987) that
not easily metabolised. these five compounds were not harmful to
consumers provided that the implants are used
Androgen: A steroid hormone that promotes
according to accepted husbandry practices, i.e.
male characteristics.
that they are applied in the correct site and the
Gestagen: A hormone that promotes full withholding period is observed. Indeed, the
progesterone activity, i.e. prepares the uterus committee concluded that the products were
for conception, prevents expulsion of the safe even with a zero-withholding period but
310 Meat Hygiene
did not consider the effect that implantation which, when injected into laboratory animals,
deep into a muscle mass might have in creating elicits an immune response. High-affinity
residues. antibodies can be produced which, when
It was postulated that this subsequent ban diluted, result in very sensitive and selective
would result in a return to the use of stilbenes. tests. The synthetic hormones may be
However, monitoring as required by EC confirmed by liquid chromatography - mass
Directive 86/469 has shown no evidence that spectrometry or gas chromatography. The
this reversion has occurred. The illegal use of ~­ confirmatory tests are normally less sensitive
agonists began shortly after the ban on the use than the screening tests.
of all growth-promoting hormone implants and Antibodies produced for screening tests can
may have provided a satisfactory, albeit illegal, be used in affinity chromatography to
substitute. concentrate material for the confirmatory test.
Incorporation of these immunoaffinity
techniques as part of the extraction procedures
Testing presents an opportunity to reduce the number
Tests for growth-promoting hormones are of stages during extractions and to introduce an
included in the NSS procedures of all EC element of concentration of the analyte. These
Member States and, in addition, samples are steps will make the confirmatory tests more
taken from animals that are suspected of having sensitive. The development of monoclonal
been implanted when these are presented for antibodies promises to provide antibodies both
slaughter. The range of tests required for all with uniform quality and in quantities which
applications is large and the most appropriate will be required for greater use.
is determined by circumstance. In the live Before residue tests were required for
animal, which is tested on-farm, blood or faeces endogenous hormones, methods for natural
are the most convenient samples to collect. hormones had already been developed to
Urine may also be collected but this is not quantify concentrations within the normal
normally used under national control schemes. range. The residue programme relies on these
At slaughter, blood, rectal faeces, liver, kidney tests to quantify accurately the concentration
and muscle can be obtained from all animals; that is present in the tissues. However, it was
bile is usually available but the quantity may necessary to examine the extremes of the
vary. The urinary bladder is frequently empty normal range before the value of testing for
and is occasionally damaged during natural hormones could be established.
evisceration. To provide the greatest flexibility Selection of carcases for testing is part of
for laboratory procedures, a complete set of normal ante-mortem inspection procedures.
samples is preferable. Samples should be Paragraph 27(b) of Directive 64/433/EC
cooled rapidly and despatched to the requires that the veterinarian must be on the
laboratory in an insulated container also look out for 'any signs that the animals have
containing a freezer pack. When received at the had substances with pharmacological effects
laboratory, the samples are maintained at 2°C administered to them'. In this case, specific
prior to sub-sampling for testing.
Screening tests for residues of hormonal
growth promoter are based on immunoassays. Table 13.3 Typical limits of quantification for
Initially, radioimmunoassays developed for the recognised growth-promoting hormones.
study of physiological variations in natural
hormones were employed. More recently, Compound Matrix Limit of detection
ug /I
many of these assays have been modified to
enzyme-linked immunoassays. These tests are Diethylstilboestrol Urine 2.0
rapid, sensitive, selective and cost-effective. Hexoestrol Urine 2.0
Examples of typical limits of quantification Zeranol Urine 2.0
(LOQ) for these assays are shown in Table 13.3. Trenbolone Bile 2.0
The critical component of each assay is the Oestradiol Serum 0.04 (male)
antibody. These antibodies are prepared by Progesterone Serum 0.05 (male)
linking the hormone to a larger protein Testosterone Serum 2.0 (female)
molecule, thereby creating an immunogen Nortestosterone Urine 2.0
 Chemical Residues in Meat 311
observation of the behaviour and conformation of extraction procedures because significant
each animal is necessary, since the objective of dilution is necessary prior to identification. Since
hormone implants is to improve both efficiency the regulatory measures were introduced, a
of lean meat gain and the conformation of the small number of producers have attempted to
carcase. It has been suggested that the introduce the implants at unusual sites, e.g.
behaviour of treated animals differs from that brisket, legs, lateral to the spine, in the tailor
of normal beef cattle, e.g. frequent mounting, directly into the muscles. Although individual
aggression and restlessness demonstrated by cases have been encountered, the tendency for
the animals continuing to mill around long abscessation at implant sites continues and
after other animals have settled down to rest. It indicates those carcases that require special
is therefore possible that animals may be attention. At present, confirmation of natural
selected at ante-mortem inspection. However, hormone implants is possible only if the injection
the value of these inspections will depend site is found.
largely on the experience, dedication and skill When no implant is found, testing is
of the observer. There has been no scientific concentrated on the tissue or fluid that is most
study to evaluate the effectiveness of visual likely to provide the optimum detection and/ or
selection. Knowledge of local market confirmation rate. In the case of the synthetics
conditions and production systems can also be or xenobiotics, the concentrations in urine, bile
valuable in targeting animals for specific and faeces are higher and more stable than
detailed post-mortem investigation. This those in kidney, liver and muscle. Blood is
selection would apply to those growth usually an unreliable matrix for testing.
promoters that are administered by implant or The natural hormones (progesterone,
orally. The latter would not be detectable by testosterone, oestradiol) are also present in
gross post-mortem investigation. normal animals, hence tests are aimed at
Post-mortem examinations need to be detecting abnormally high concentrations for
extended to include specific examinations for the sex or physiological status of the animal.
the presence of implants and lesions that may have There is a wide range of physiological values
been caused by implants. These are normally within normal animals and therefore confir-
placed between the concha of an ear or into the mation is not possible unless an implant site
muscle at the base of an ear. The presence of an is found.
implant may be suspected if a small knot of A study of over 2000 injection sites collected
granules or small plastic tube is palpated in that over a period of 15 years in Belgium
area. However, in several cases the small demonstrated the illegal use of a wide range of
nodules have not contained any hormone injectable compounds with hormonal action
residue and have been shown by histological (Vanoosthuyze et al., 1994). Over this period the
examination to be fibrous tissue. Implantation natural hormones oestradiol and testosterone
with growth-promoting hormones does not (mainly present as their esters) were used
take place under sterile conditions. Frequently extensively. From 1990, closterol acetate was the
abscesses form at a site of implantation. Any most used exogenous hormone. While the use
abscess in a subcutaneous site requires investi- of nandrolone decreased, abuse of progesterone
gation for residues. and certain androgens such as stanozolol and
Preliminary investigation consists of the fluxymesterone increased.
detailed dissection of the area to identify objects
that resemble pellets. Allowance must be made
for deterioration in size and alteration in the ~-AGONISTS
shape of individual pellets which occurs as the
interval between implantation and slaughter The ~-agonists have the activities of
lengthens. On dissection a presumptive neurotransmitters and of hormones and as such
diagnosis may be possible on the basis of have both physiological and metabolic
number, colour and shape of pellet. However, activities. They act through binding to receptors
these diagnoses must be substantiated by on target cells. Those which are important in
definitive laboratory tests. In view of the residue analysis have major metabolic effects
quantity of drug that remains at the site, these by repartitioning energy from fat to lean meat
laboratory tests require less sophisticated production. They are detected in tissues by
312 Meat Hygiene
immunoassay procedures and confirmed by 1996 GB Statutory Survey results
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
There was no evidence of the illegal use ot
There are some 20 ~-agonists which can be
clenbuterol in either live or slaughtered
exploited in production of food animals. The
animals.
most commonly identified by residue analysis
include clenbuterol, mabuierol, cimaierol,
ractopamine and salbutamol. The first of these has
been licensed for the treatment of respiratory PESTICIDES (See also Chapter 20)
disease and tocolysis in farm animals but is also
abused in altering the growth pattern of
Pest control chemicals must be toxic to some
ruminants. The net effect when added to the feed
living organisms to fulfil their role. Depending
of cattle is to reduce the fat content of the carcase,
on the pest being controlled, they may be
producing leaner meats which are favoured by
termed insecticides, fungicides, etc. The
health-conscious consumers. For this effect the
insecticides that are directly applied to food
dose required is several times greater than
animals and the anthelminiics are regarded as
therapeutic. At this concentration significant
the most important subgroups. Pesticides
residues accumulate in edible tissues such as
undergo careful evaluation by the Advisory
liver or kidney (Meyer and Rinke, 1991; Elliott et
Committee on Pesticides before being approved
al., 1993a, b). On a number of occasions these for use. This evaluation includes consideration
have caused adverse reactions in consumers
of the safety factors for consumers.
which have required hospital treatment
(Martinez-Navarro, 1990; Pulse et al., 1991).
Insecticides
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are extremely
Testing durable, persistent and bioaccumulating
In member states of the EU, a battery of tests compounds which find their way into the food
have been developed using a variety of chain usually through use in controlling
matrices to detect illegally-treated animals. environmental or animal pests. The more
These have been applied using both randomly recently-developed organophosphate pesticides
selected and targeted sampling procedures. are excreted rapidly and do not persist to the
The most useful criterion for targeted selection same extent in the environment. They are,
is the recognition of superior conformation for however, frequently more toxic in small
breed, ageand sex. An adult male animal of dairy amounts as their biological activity is greater.
parentage yet with beef breed conformation Following its introduction, DDT
and light fat carcase cover constitutes the most (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) was one of
obvious target. The optimum tissue for detection the most successful synthetic insecticides and
for some of these drugs is the retina of the eye continued in general use for many years.
because the drug residues persist in this However, the bioaccumulation that occurred
location for very long periods after the abuse in various food chains eventually resulted in
has occurred. Persistence in this matrix is much the banning of organochlorine pesticides by
longer than in edible tissues and will identify the 1970s. In use, the toxicity of DDT was quite
illegal administration (abuse) after any risk to low, but the ease with which it could be
consumers has passed. However, it is incorporated into many formulations resulted
necessary to target abuse to avoid illegal use of in a high environmental load. There have been
the drug. Since there are legalised cases of human illness and poisoning as a
pharmaceutical preparations available, it is result of ingesting chlorinated hydrocarbons.
necessary to allow producers to justify the These occurred when endrin was incorporated
presence as a result of therapeutic use under in flour and consumed as bread and when
veterinary supervision. hexachlorobenzene was used on seed grain
Using a system based on targeted sampling, which was diverted and used as human food.
laboratory analysis of retinal tissue and owner Unacceptably high tissue concentrations have
certification, abuse in Northern Ireland has also occurred in broilers fed on treated grain.
been prevented (Elliott et al., 1995). The experience gained through using these
 Chemical Residues in Meat 313
compounds demonstrated the usefulness of sensitivities at the ppm level but these methods
synthetic organic pesticides but also ensured have been replaced by chromatographic
that agrochemicals are assessed for techniques. The latter are required to cope with
biodegradation. As a result, strict powers to extracts that can contain complex mixtures of
control the use of pesticides that could organic compounds. Although the earliest gas
adversely affect food for human consumption chromatographic techniques required
have been introduced. Before a pesticide is milligram amounts, the introduction of argon-
approved for use, it is examined by activation and electron-capture detectors has
independent experts of the Advisory increased the sensitivity to the picogram range.
Committee on Pesticides and the precautions The need for even more specific techniques has
that must be observed during use are been met by the development of gas
specified. chromatography interfaced with mass
The organophosphates (e.g. coumaphos, spectrometry. These procedures have expanded
malathion, dichlorophos, diazinon) are since the development of complementary
extremely toxic to mammals but are highly microelectronic computing facilities. These
efficient insecticides. They are less persistent in detection systems are capable of simultaneous
the environment than organochlorines because multiresidue detection but are still in a state of
they can be hydrolysed chemically and development. Further refinements may lead to
enzymically. The organophosphate compounds greater sensitivity and selectivity.
therefore produce few tissue residues and have The importance attached to analyses for
been used successfully in cattle to eradicate pesticide residues can be seen from the
warble fly with few adverse effects. A number requirement that registration applications need to
of the members of this group can be taken up by be accompanied by data on tissue concentrations
plants and can enter the food chain unless following use. These requirements have become
proper pre-harvest precautions are taken. more compre-hensive so that an extensive
Concern about the long term safety of the background of toxicological test results is now
handler using organophosphates, especially as essential. In some countries there is also a
sheep dips, has led to the much wider use of the requirement that analytical methods capable of
syntheticpyrethroid-containing products. Although detecting and quantifying 0.1 ppm in meat, 0.01
safer to handle, they are not as effective at ppm in food crops and 0.001 ppm in milk are
eliminating the sheep scab mite and are made available to the monitoring authorities
potentially very harmful to the environment. before registration. These concentrations have
Several agrochemicals based on the phenols been selected as a result of previous
are used as preservatives or herbicides (e.g. 2,4-D, toxicological experience with pesticides and are
MCPA, 2,4,5-T). Although these are not used on subject to variation if particular problems either
food crops or livestock, they pose residue are foreseen or occur after registration.
problems when treated products are used for As pesticides accumulate in the environment
bedding. When absorbed by animals or poultry and are only slowly degraded, it is important to
they cause disagreeable flavours in meat or egg distinguish between the concepts of absolute
products. Although they are not individually freedom from residues and concentrations that
highly toxic, they have derivatives that are are below the detection limits of the
regarded with suspicion (2,4,5-trichlorophenol methodology. When persistent chemicals have
has a highly toxic condensation product, been in use for some time, absolute freedom
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). In these from residues is highly unlikely, but the
cases restrictions are required, not because of concentration may be below that which can be
the product, but because of the potential for a detected by existing techniques. As techniques
metabolite or derivative to be toxic. become ever more sensitive, a spiral can
develop in which the acceptable concentration
is the detection limit of the tests. These
Testing detection limits may be below concentrations
These pesticides are detected by chemical that could be hazardous in food. It is important,
techniques. In the laboratory, spectrographic therefore, that full account is taken of the
methods of pesticide analysis using colour- toxicological evidence when establishing
producing reactions were the first to reach acceptable concentrations.
314 Meat Hygiene
There are other more durable organic the 60-day withdrawal period. If no reliable
environmental contaminants. The development treatment history is available, the inspector
of the plastics industry required stable may have to trim a large number of carcases
materials and the halogenated hyrocarbons were and detain them until receipt of laboratory
well suited to this purpose. Two of the most results.
frequently used were the polychlorinated Thiabendazole was the first highly-effective
biphenyls (PCEs) and the polychlorinated broad-spectrum anthelmintic and has been
naphthalenes (PCNs). An outbreak of disease in followed by the benzimidazole and
cattle in the USA in 1941 in which the signs were probenzimidazole compounds which have
hyperkeratosis, inappetence, depression and improved efficacy and provide a wider
liver damage was traced to the PCNs used as spectrum of activity (parbendazole,
lubricants on machinery. The compounds were cambendazole, mebendazole and
excreted in the milk from these animals and oxibendazole). The introduction of the less-
were toxic to man (Clarke and Clarke, 1967). soluble benzimidazoles, fenbendazole,
Attention focused on the PCEs in the mid-1960s oxfendazole and albendazole secured a leading
when the first of a series of exposure-associated place for this group in the treatment of
human diseases was recorded. The variability nematode infections.
and subjective nature of the problems mad~ These anthelmintics have high therapeutic
correlation with known exposure difficult even indices. They are extensively metabolised in
when residues were detected in the fatty tissue. mammals after administration, the parent
The extreme persistence of the PCEs in the compound is generally short-lived, and the
environment has continued to highlight their metabolites predominate in plasma, tissues
toxic potential and has halted their and excreta. Lethal doses have not been
manufacture and use. Nevertheless, in some established for overdoses of the less-soluble
areas the fauna of lakes and rivers can be compounds. The main toxic effect is
expected to remain positive for some time. teratogenicity. This was identified in sheep,
making the time of administration to pregnant
ewes highly critical. When twice the normal
Anthelmintics dose of parbendazole was given to sheep in
Pesticides used to remove internal parasites such the third week of gestation, congenital defects
as liver fluke and nematodes are important in of the skeleton were observed. As re si dues of
animal production systems. The MRLs for a benzimidazole compounds can occur in meat
number of common anthelmintics for different and meat products, it is necessary to observe
species and tissues are shown in Table 13.4. withdrawal times for meat and milk after
The salicylanide flukecides, oxyclosanide, therapy. In tissues, the benzimidazoles may
closantel and rafoxanide, are active against be unbound or bound to protein. The
Fasciola hepaiica. They are commonly used to unbound drugs or metabolites are most likely
control infections and are extensively bound to to be associated with the toxic effects. The
plasma proteins in treated animals. As a result tightly-bound protein residues, which persist
they have long terminal plasma half-lives (14.5, in the tissues for longer periods of time, are
16.6 and 6.4 days, respectively). These are thought to be less significant toxicologically
detectable at a limit of 0.1 ug /rnl for 90,112 and (Delatour and Parish, 1986). In general,
17 days after normal therapeutic dosing. All are therapy of human helminthiasis by
distributed poorly in tissues, the tissue-to- benzimidazoles indicates that residues in
plasma ratio being 1:6 kidney, 1:12 liver, 1:30 tissues resulting from proper therapeutic
muscle and 1:100 fat. These ratios reduce the doses in animals followed by adequate
concern to the consumer which might result withholding periods should not cause undue
from persisting residues in meat. concern.
Nitroxunil injection is a bright orange-red The aoermeciins are a family of antiparasitic
compound used widely in the treatment of agents produced by fermentation of the
fascioliasis. It is of particular concern in meat actinomycete Streptomyces aoermiiilis and
hygiene since the brightly-coloured stain and include ivermectin, moxidectin and
tissue reaction which accompany the doramectin. These have a broad range of
subcutaneous administration persists long after activities against internal and external parasites
 Chemical Residues ill Meat 315
Tab le 13.4 Maximum residue levels for common an the lmintics.

Anthelm intic Species Target tissue Maximum

residue level
("g/ kg)
Leva misole Bovine, ovine, porcine. po ultry ~fu scle, kidney. fat 10
Live r • 100
lve rm ectin Bovine Liver 100
F'f .fll
Ovine Live r 15
Po rcine F" 20
Abamectin Bovine Liver 20
F" 10
Doramectin Bovine Liver 15
F" 25
Eprinomectin Bovine ~Iuscle. fat 30
Liver 600
Kid ney 100
~fi1 k . 30
Moxidectin F" 500
Live r 100
Muscle, kidney 50
Closantcl Muscle. liver 1000
Kidnev, fat 3000
O ..ine Mu scle. liver 1500
Kldn ev 5000
Fat • 2000
Febantel , Fen bend azole All food-producing species Liver 1000
Mu scle, kidney. fat 10
Oxfendazole Bovine, ovine Milk 10
Triclabendzole Bovine, ovine Muscle, kid nev~ liver 150
Fat • 50
Thiabendazole Bovine, ovine, caprine Muscle 100
Netobimin Bovine, ovi ne, caprine Liver 1000
Kid ney 500
Mu scle, fat 100
Milk 100

of ani ma ls. Ivcr mcctin has been used Lexawieote has bee n associa ted wit h a
extensively as an oral dose of 0.2 mg /kg number of undesi rable side-effects in anim als
wit hout any ad verse drug-related effects. Man (Hs u. 1980). Toxic effects have also been
has been show n to be less sensitive to this drug observed in man at oral doses of 2.5 mg/ml.
than laboratory animals. The therapeu tic doses In general, these therapeutic drugs are used
arc low and safety margins arc increased by the to strategically control helminth infections in
fact that levels in muscle are much lower than farm animals and are therefore unlike ly to be
those in liver. In the edible tissues, liver and fat, ad ministered close to the time of slaughter. The
the depletion hal f-lives are 4.8 and 7.6 days , most signi ficant probl em is with those
respec tively Within 7 da ys, 60-80% of the dose administered by injection, where there may be
is excreted . Therefore if withdrawa l periods arc an irritant reaction. This may requ ire trimming
obse rved , concentrations in edible tissue will be of the sites and laboratory checks for muscle
negligible. residues. •
316 Meat Hygiene
HEAVY METALS Special attention has to be taken .when
dealing with the carcases of game animals,
Excessive intakes of heavy metals in food have particularly fowl.
caused intoxications in man. These are most
often caused by contaminated cereals or by
accidental additions during processing. Arsenic
Occasionally, toxic concentrations occur in
Although restrictions h~ve be~r: [Link] on the
animal tissues and products. These can be use of arsenic because of Its tOXICIty, this element
associated with soils naturally high in the was once widely used in farm practices and is
element or through environmental
persistent in the environmer:t. [Link] probably the
contamination from local industry and are second most important pOlsonmg hazard for
cumulative in animal tissues. They may also farm animals.
occur from feeding grain treated with the toxic The animals may be exposed to inorganic or
metal or from excess amounts remaining in the orzanic arsenic compounds when they are
environment following previous use in paints, ai~en feed, forage or liquids contaminated with
etc. ~rsenical herbicides, rodenticides or
These toxic chemicals are detected by atomic insecticides. Arsenic-containing compounds
absorption spectrometry. have been used for parasite control, and for the
treatment and control of swine dysentery, but
Lead these have largely been removed from the
market.
Lead can accumulate in the tissues of animals Chronic toxicity can occur when arsenical
grazing close to smelting plants ?r in .animals compounds are fed at low levels because the
ingesting paints or substances with h1g~ lead metal accumulates in the liver, kidney and
contents. Interestingly, samples of SOlI and bones. Arsenic is slowly excreted in the faeces,
herbage collected at the Rothamsted
sweat and milk. Although accumulation occurs
Agricultural Experimental Station d? not show
in exposed animals, the risk to consumers is
a correlation with increased environmental

I
small because the concentrations in the muscle
loading caused by the addition of lead as an
are not above the maximum safe level for
anti-knock petrol additive (Williams, 1974).
human consumption. Only the liver approaches
Ruminants are more commonly affected
the hazard level for man (Clarke and Clarke,
than other farm species. During chronic
1967). Where it is suspected that toxicity may
exposure, e.g. from low-level envirom~ental
have occurred after chronic ingestion, then a
contamination, the metal accumulates m the
withholding period of 40 days may be needed.
bones. Acute cases are rare and occur most
Following normal therapeutic dosing, a muc.h
commonly after ingestion of lead-containing
shorter withholding period of 5 days IS
paint. In these the highest concentrations are
considered sufficient.
found in liver and kidney. In 1989 cattle feed
Shellfish can accumulate particularly high
was contaminated in the UK following the
concentrations if taken from polluted waters.
importation of a maize gluten substitute. A
Bottom feeders from these areas also
total of 30 animals died. However, the
accumulate the metal but free-swimming fin
Department of Health considered that, owing
fish are less affected.
to the acute nature of the episode, even in the
worst case of maximum intake there was no
hazard to human health. This conclusion is
supported by experimental evidence. When Mercury
100 ppm was fed to cattle for [Link], the liv~r Mercury preparations containing inorganic salts
contained 2.3 ppm compared WIth 0.6 ppm m or organic mercurial compounds ha:re been
controls, but no lead was detected in the used widely in agricultural and horticultural
muscle of the experimental animals. Acutely- dressings and in veterinary medicines.
affected animals should be detected during Although mercury is extremely toxic, cases of
ante-mortem inspection At post-mortem the poisoning are rare. They have been most
muscle of acutely-poisoned bovines is frequently associated with feeding to anim~l~ of
unusually pale. seed grain treated with mercury-contammg
 Chemical Residues in Meat 317
dressings to prevent fungal growth. Above reported cases of toxicity to humans due to this
average concentrations may also occur when source. Copper-supplemented feed prepared
industrial pollution contaminates grazing areas for pigs has accidentally been fed to sheep and
or when sewage sludge is used intensively as a led to chronic copper poisoning in this species.
fertiliser (Vos et al., 1987). (There are indications that particular breeds,
Absorbed inorganic mercury is stored in the e.g. Texel, are more susceptible.) Cases are
liver and kidneys but organic preparations are usually encountered in veterinary practice,
more widely distributed. The metal is excreted when sudden deaths occur. Non-clinical cases
slowly in the urine, but to a smaller extent in are unlikely to be detected ante-mortem but an
faeces, saliva, sweat and milk. enlarged yellow liver, jaundice and
Mercury-containing products have been haemoglobinuria can be observed during a
replaced by less toxic compounds and therefore post-mortem inspection.
there is now only a very small risk to
consumers from the meat of farm animals.
Selenium
Selenium is an essential element for animals and
Cadmium man. Although it is widely distributed, areas of
Cadmium has received much attention because deficiency and of toxicity occur. In some cases
of its reported toxicity to humans. This metal acute selenium poisoning may occur in cattle
accumulates in body tissues and is said to cause grazing pasture that contains plants which
kidney failure. In farm animals the greatest accumulate this element (e.g. Astralagus
concentrations occur in kidney and liver. racemosus, USA; Nepiunia amplexicaulis,
Random samples of horse kidney reveal Australia). Toxicity is unlikely to occur in the
levels above the maximum residue level, and UK, where many areas are known to be
there have been recent reports of high levels in selenium deficient. The most common sign of
bovine and porcine kidney. The origin of these selenium deficiency is flaccid white muscle.
residues may be sewage sludge or
organocadmium fungicides. It has been
postulated that horses live longer than other
OTHER SUBSTANCES
farm animals and may accumulate the metal
over many years, but more recently residues
Fluorine
have been detected at very low concentrations
in other species, e.g. pigs. Cases of fluorosis have been reported in cattle
Concentrations as high as 200 /-tglg (dry grazing pasture contaminated with industrial
weight) in kidney have been observed in cattle discharges. This chronic disease is associated
grazing pasture irrigated with aerobically with staining of the teeth and excessive wear
digested sludge, but there were no signs of and degenerative changes in the skeletal system
disease or pathological conditions in these and internal organs. It has not been associated
animals (Fitzgerald et al., 1985). Kidney with illness in man.
malfunction in man begins when the
concentrations are above 200 /-tglg wet weight. NSAIDs especially phenylbutazone (/bute')
Although a one-off consumption of horse
kidneys containing cadmium residues at the The NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
usual levels encountered does not pose a drugs) are a large group of compounds which
hazard for man, there is a voluntary agreement can be divided into two main groups -
with horse abattoirs for all offal from animals carboxylic acids (salicylates, aspirin, propionic
destined for human consumption to be acid, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen,
discarded. carprofen, etc.) and enolic acids
(phenylbutazone, oxyphenbutazone, dipyrone,
isopyrin, etc.).
Copper Phenylbutazone is a powerful NSAID
Copper-supplemented feeds are prepared for widely used in the horse to provide
pigs. The metal tends to be accumulated in the symptomatic relief from muscle, bone and joint
liver and kidney. However, there have been no lesions. The drug can also be used in ruminants
318 Meat Hygiene
and dogs. A pyrazolone-derivative, it is vulnerable to residue accumulation (Shank,
probably used in the horse on occasions which 1981) and transmission of toxic amounts into
militate against animal welfare the human food through meat and meat products
suppression or partial suppression of pain in does not appear likely (Ciegler et al., 1981). The
animals with severe lesions. Unscrupulous results of feeding trials using contaminated
individuals have used phenylbutazone to mask feed have produced equivocal results on the
lameness in horses prior to examination for accumulation of residues in beef cattle, dairy
soundness. Although designed for slow cattle, pigs and poultry.
intravenous use it is frequently given as an Ochratoxins are produced by some
intramuscular injection, when it can cause Penicillium spp. and some AspergillUS strains.
severe local irritation in addition to cardiac and Ochratoxin A is the most common and the most
renal dysfunction and ulceration of the toxic to mammals, birds and fish. The kidney is
alimentary tract. the primary target organ, but liver damage has
Its detection and that of its longer-acting also been recorded at high concentrations. It has
metabolite oxyphenbutazone in racing horse been shown to be a teratogen in laboratory
urine samples has given rise to the so-called animals but has not been proved to be
feight-day rule', 8 days being the minimum carcinogenic (Busby and Wogan, 1981). The
period suggested between the last treatment highest risk for consumers is the potential for
and the commencement of racing to ensure a residues to accumulate in kidney. Lower
negative urine test. concentrations occur in liver, fat and muscle.
Because of its toxicity to man, The presence of these toxins can be detected
phenylbutazone and similar NSAIDs are not by a range of commercially-produced
normally approved for use in food-producing immunoassay kits, and, if positive animals are
animals (except for the horse in the USA), even identified, they should be retained on a toxin-
though they do not accumulate in high free diet for 4 weeks prior to slaughter to ensure
concentrations in tissues and are almost that the levels in kidney have decreased. In
completely metabolised. Horses undergoing poultry/ re sidues have been detected in liver,
treatment, however, should not be slaughtered kidney and muscle but not in eggs. A 48-hour
for human consumption. withholding period is sufficient to clear muscle
(Prior and Sisodia, 1978). In ruminants,
ochratoxin A is detoxified in the rumen, hence
accumulation in their tissues is highly unlikely.
NATURAL TOXINS

Mycotoxins Shellfish toxin

Mycotoxins are products of toxigenic moulds Shellfish tissues can contain at least three
(fungi) growing in food and foodstuffs. These different groups of natural toxins which are
agents have caused many problems in grouped according to the clinical signs
livestock, and the potential for residues in meat, produced in the consumer: paralytic shellfish
poultry or dairy products is a cause for public toxins, diarrhoetic shellfish toxin and
concern. However, the risk to human health anamnestic shellfish toxin. These result from
from direct consumption of contaminated grain the accumulation of toxins produced by algae
is much higher than that arising from animal in the environment which are eaten by the
products. shellfish. These toxins occur in most shellfish
Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus harvesting areas and the concentration can vary
and Aspergillus parasiticus. There are four major considerably depending on seasonal
types of toxin labelled AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and conditions. There are no overt signs by which
AFG2. AFG1 is the most commonly produced toxin-containing shellfish can be detected.
and the most toxic. Much of the ingested toxin Acceptable limits have been set for these toxins
is excreted within 24 hours and excretion is based on the effect on experimentally-injected
almost complete within 96 hours after ingestion laboratory animals or chemical quantification
ceases. Liver and kidneys retain detectable of already recognised toxins. Biological testing
quantities for longer periods than other tissues. has been retained because it is believed that all
Dairy products are considered to be the most toxins may not yet have been identified. Testing
 Chemical Residues in Meat 319
for consumer protection depends upon regular Hsu, W. H (1980) Toxicity and drug interactions of
sampling for biological, immunological or levamisole. J. Am. Vet. Assoc. 176, 1166-1169.
chemical testing. Lamming, G. E. (1984) Commission of the European
Communities (Agriculture) Report Eur 8913.
Lamming, G. E., Ballerini, G., Baulieu, E. R, Brookes,
P, Elias, P. S., Ferrando, R, Galli, C. L., Heitzman,
REFERENCES R J., Hoffrnan, B., Karg, H, Mayer, H H. D.,
Michel, G., Paulsen, E., Rico, A, van Leeuwan, F.
Anon. (1967) Report of a new chemical hazard. X. R and White, D. S. (1987) Scientific report on
Scientist 32, 612. anabolic agents in animal production. Vet. Rec.
Busby, W. F. and Wogan, G. N. (1981) Ochratoxins. In 121, 381-392.
Mycotoxins and N-Nitroso Compounds: Martinez-Navarro, J. F. (1990) Food poisoning related
Environmental Risks, Vol. II, ed. R C. Shank. Boca to consumption of the illicit beat agonist
Raton, FL: CRC Press. clenbuterol in livers. The Lancet, 336, 1311.
Bogaerts, R and Wolf, F. (1980) A standardised Mercer, H D., Baggot, J. D. and Sarns, R A (1977)
method for the detection of residues of Application of pharmacokinetic methods to the
antimicrobial substances in fresh meat. drug residue profile. J. Toxicol. Enuiron. Health. 2,
Fleischwitsclzaft 60, 671-675. 787-801.
Ciegler, A, Burrneister, R F., Vesonder, R F. and Meyer, H H D. and Rinke, L. M. (1991) The
Heseltine, C. W. (1981) Mycotoxins and N-Nitroso pharmacokinetics and residues of clenbuterol in
Compounds: Environmental Risks, ed. R C. Shank. veal calves. J. Anim. Sci. 69,4538-4543.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Prior, M. G. and Sisodia, C. S. (1978) Ochratoxicosis
Clarke, E. G. C. and Clarke, M. L. (1967) Gamer's in White Leghorn hens. Poultry Sci. 57,619-683.
Veterinary Toxicology, 3rd edn, pp. 287-29l. Pulse, c.. Lamison, D., Keck, G., Bosvironnais, c..
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. Nicolas, J. and Descotes, J. (1991) Collective
Delatour, P. and Parish, R (1986) Benzimidazole human poisonings by clenbuterol residues in veal
Anthelmintics and Related Compounds: Toxicity and liver. Vet. and Hum. Toxico!. 33, 480-48l.
Evaluation of Residues in Drug Residues in Animals, Shank, R C. (1981) Mycotoxins: assessment of risk. In
pp. 175-203, ed. A G. Rico. New York: Academic Mycotoxins and N-Nitroso Compounds:
Press. Environmental Risks, ed. R C. Shank. Boca Raton
Elliott, C. T., McEvoy, J. D. G., McCaughey, W. J., FL: CRC Press.
Shortt, H D. and Crooks, S. R H. (1993a) Effective Sundof, S. F., Craigmill, A C. and Riviere, J. E. (1986)
laboratory monitoring for the abuse of the beta Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank
agonist clenbuterol in cattle. Analyst 121, 447-448. (FARAD): a pharmacokinetic based information
Elliott, C. T., McCaughey, W. J. and Shortt, H D. resource. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 9, 237-245.
(1993b) Residues of the beta-agonist clenbuterol Vanoosthuyze, K., Daeseleire, E., Overbeke, A. van
in tissues of medicated farm animals. Food Addit. and Peteghem, C. van (1994) Analyst 119 (12),
Coniarn. 10,231-244. 2655-2658.
Elliott, C. T., McCaughey, W. J., Crooks, S. R H, Veterinary Medicines Directorate, Annual Reports on
McEvoy, J. D. G. and Kennedy, D. G. (1995) Surveillance for Veterinary Residues in 1996.
Residues of clenbuterol in cattle receiving Veterinary Medicines Directorate. ISBN
therapeutic doses: implications for differentiating o 953123405.
between legal and illegal use. Vet. Q. 17, 100-102. Vos, G., Havens, J. P. C. and Delft, W. V. (1987)
FAO/WHO (1987) Codex Alimentarius Commission, Arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury in meat,
1987. Alinorm 87/31. livers and kidneys of cattle slaughtered in the
Fitzgerald, P. R, Peterson, J. and Lue-hing, C. (1985) Netherlands during 1980-1985. Food Addit.
J. Vet. Res. 46, 703-707. Coniam. 4, 73-88.
Hoffsis, G. F. and Walker, F. H. (1984) Therapeutic Williams, C. (1974) The accumulation of automobile
strategies involving antimicrobial treatment of emissions on the lead content of soils and herbage
disseminated infections in food animals. J. Am. at the Rothamsted Experimental Station. J. Agric.
Vet. Med. Assoc. 185, 1214-1216. sa., Camb. 82, 189-192.
 Chapter 14
Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology

Part 1 - Food Poisoning

Food poisoning is as old as civilisation itself and TYPES OF FOOD POISONING

man acquired, often by bitter experience, a
considerable knowledge as to what was Food poisoning thus includes bacterial and
suitable or unsuitable to eat. Many of the viral infections, chemical contamination of
'dietary laws' of the Old Testament Books of food, plant or animal toxins and food allergies.
Leviticus and Deuteronomy can be regarded Almost all agents capable of causing human
primarily as health injunctions, some being infection can be transmitted through food.
related to the prevention of food poisoning, Food allergies, or hypersensitivity to certain
e.g. 'Ye shall not eat of anything that dieth of foodstuffs, are not uncommon and together
itself' (Deuteronomy 14:21); 'Thou shalt not eat with other allergic diseases may be increasing.
any abominable thing' (Deuteronomy 14:3); 'But The allergens are generally protein in nature, e.g.
of all clean fowls ye may eat' (Deuteronomy milk, eggs, cheese, fish, shellfish, pork, but also
14:20). mushrooms, tomatoes, etc. In recent years
Despite this biblical history, there is still a hypersensitivities to nuts such as peanuts have
continuing and indeed increasing attention to been well documented and food ingredients are
food poisoning by the public, health care carefully scrutinised by susceptible individuals.
workers and especially the media. This current In some cases the reaction can be so acute and
interest is set against a background of severe as to require a few individuals to carry
apparently ever-increasing numbers of reports acute medical supplies. Nuts and cereals are
of food-borne illness, for example, between also vehicles for aflatoxin produced during the
1985 and 1996 annual notifications of food growth of fungi, either before or after harvest.
poisoning in England and Wales more than The tendency to sensitivity to certain foodstuffs
quadrupled. Such apparently simple facts, may be hereditary and a documented case in
however, need to be treated with considerable the literature describes an allergy to hens' eggs
caution. which persisted throughout four generations.
The Public Health (Control of Diseases) As many as 30% of all people may be allergic to
Act 1984 gives all doctors in clinical practice one or more foodstuffs.
a statutory duty to notify, to the proper Chemical contamination is not common and
officer of the local authority, cases or usually occurs by accidental contamination, or
suspected cases of food poisoning. However, perhaps some unintentional chemical reaction
'food poisoning' is not defined in this between a foodstuff and its container. The metals
legislation. The definition of food-borne disease encountered include copper, lead, arsenic and
adopted by the World Health Organisation, antimony. In England and Wales outbreaks
and in use since 1992 throughout the United caused by chemical contamination have been due
Kingdom, is 'any disease of an infectious or to the presence of zinc in acid fruits which have
toxic nature caused by or thought to be caused by been stored or cooked in galvanised containers. In
the consumption of food or water'. This Germany the storage of prepared foodstuffs in
interpretation gives a very wide spectrum of zinc containers is prohibited by law. Water is at
disease, ranging from, for example, acute particular risk from chemical contamination
gastrointestinal infection caused by (usually accidental) such as by aluminium or
verotoxigenic E. coli to chronic toxicity such phenols. Lead may, of course, be leached from
as that caused by lead in water. lead pipes or even from soldered lead capillary

321
322 Meat Hygiene
joints. Not only metals are involved; a large
outbreak of illness occurred in Spain following 1 Notifications of food poisoning.
chemical adulteration of cooking oil. 2 Surveillance of laboratory-confirmed infec-
Inherently poisonous substances can occur tions.
in normally edible plants and animals 3 Investigation of outbreaks of food poisoning.
including certain fungi, berries, fish and
shellfish. This is well-recognised in the case of Each of these surveillance methods provides
mushrooms, where some types are toxic. Less valuable, but incomplete, information and none
well-known are foods that are poisonous unless on its own will measure the true extent of all
properly prepared, e.g. red kidney beans. Other food-borne disease. Specifically, most of the
foods in the right circumstances can acquire information gathered relates to infectious
toxins from the environment. This is a causes of food poisoning. It is estimated that
particular problem with shellfish, which can only between 1% and 10% of all food-borne
filter out the algal toxins that cause paralytic illness is even counted by the various
and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning in surveillance systems, and this varies from cause
consumers. In some instances breakdown to cause (Fig. 14.1).
products can produce illness, as in the case of In any population, not all of those who
scrombotoxin poisoning when bacterial action become infected become ill. Of those who are
in scromboid fish such as mackerel and tuna unwell, only a proportion will seek medical
converts histidine to histamine. A similar type help and can be counted as 'notifications'.
of illness has been associated with cheese. Those who do not require medical assistance
are not included in any surveillance system. If
the clinician suspects 'food poisoning' then that
SURVEILLANCE OF FOOD POISONING patient may be formally notified, for which the
GP will receive a notification fee. The number
There are several different methods of of notifications may be supplemented, for
gathering statistics on food-borne disease and it example, EHOs including cases they become
is important to recognise the limitations posed aware of during their investigation. The doctor
by each of these. The three most important may submit appropriate samples for laboratory
sources of data are: investigation and this forms the basis of

100%

c
o
"-§
:;
o,
oo,
o
c
o
"-e
oo,
e
n,

0% '---:-::--:--_-:-:- _
Infected Unwell Notified as Sample Pathogen Reported to
"Food- taken found surveillance
poisoning" system

Fig. 14.1 Surveillance of food-borne illness.

 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 323
laboratory surveillance. The sample taken may reports can be attributed to improvements in
affect the result; for example, vomitus is more the way the information has been collected. For
appropriate for a viral agent than is a stool example, in Scotland infections with
sample. Unless the sample is submitted within Campylobacter spp. were specifically excluded
24 hours of onset of illness, a viral cause is likely until 1995. Including such infections in the
to be missed. If a pathogen is identified then the reports for 1996 resulted in notifications rising
result should be recorded by the laboratory from 4940 to 10100, a 100% increase. This was a
surveillance. When no pathogen is identified it statistical anomaly, not an increase in illness in
does not, of course, mean that none were the public. There is also no doubt that at least
present but rather that the laboratory did not part of any apparent rise is due to
identify anything. This will depend on the ascertainment, which may be self-fuelling.
organisms under scrutiny. When an outbreak Heightened public and media attention
occurs it is likely that there will be greater encourages reports which might otherwise not
investigation of the source of infection than get into the system. It is therefore wrong to
might be the case when only a single patient is claim that there was a four-fold increase in
unwell. Causes of outbreaks may be different clinical disease between the middle 1980s and
from the causes of sporadic infections and it the middle 1990s.
may not be possible to extrapolate.

LABORATORY REPORTS OF ENTERIC

NOTIFICATION OF FOOD POISONING INFECTIONS

In the UK, notifications of food poisoning have Routine reporting from medical laboratories
increased very significantly since the 1980s, gives a useful picture of the importance of
although the change has been more marked in pathogens present in the population. It does, of
England and Wales than in Scotland (Fig. 14.2). course, only record the results from samples
It is likely that differences in the way the actually submitted to laboratories, and can
information has been gathered, or in what is therefore be distorted by any factors which
designated as 'food poisoning', at least partly might influence sampling, e.g. increased media
explain the variation between different parts of attention. Results can also be influenced by the
the UK. Similarly, some of the increase in likely success of identifying a pathogen when

90000,----------------------------------,

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

OL...l.._---'-_---'_ _'--_.l...-_-'--_-'--_---'-_-'---_----'-_-'--_--'-_---'-_--'_ _'-'

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Year
Fig.14.2 Food poisoning notifications in England and Wales, 1982-96; includes formal notifications and
those cases otherwise ascertained.
324 Meat Hygiene
present, and this success may change as labora- Similarly, improvements in the methods for
tory methodologies improve. For example, dur- isolating verotoxigenic E. coli 0157 contributed to
ing the 1980s better techniques for the recovery the rise in reported isolations during the 1980s.
of Campylobacter spp. became routinely avail- The use of further refinements such as immuno-
able and this undoubtedly contributed to the magnetic separation may increase the ability to
overall increase in numbers reported during the isolate organisms by a factor of 10, especially if
1980s and 1990s. However, since the early 1990s the organisms are present in small numbers, as is
methods have been standardised and should the case with E. coli 0157 (Fig. 14.4).
not be the explanation for the continuing Other extraneous events also play a part
increase for Campylobacter spp. (Fig. 14.3). when identifying laboratory-confirmed cases. A

50000,---------------------------------,

40000

30000

20000

10000

o '
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Year

Fig.14.3 Laboratory isolates of Campylobacter spp. in England and Wales, 1986-96.

1500 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

1200

900

600

300

OL...L------'--------'-------'--------'-------'-----'-----'-------'-----'------L..J
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Year

Fig.14.4 Laboratory isolates of E. coli 0157 in England, Wales and Scotland, 1986-96.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 325
change in policy occurred when the Advisory 1980s, it became clear that S. enteritidis was
Committee on the Microbiological Safety of replacing S. typhimurium as the more common
Food recommended in 1995 that all stool serotype and in particular that S. enteritidis PT4
samples be screened for E. coli 0157. Previously, was the predominant serotype. In the middle
many laboratories were selective and had 1990s, S. typhimurium has again been increasing
perhaps restricted the examination for this in particular definitive type 104. This has
organism to stools from children or from become the second most common salmonella in
patients with bloody diarrhoea. the UK, and is increasingly being reported from
The variation in laboratory methods and other parts of the world (Fig. 14.6).
sample submissions may partly explain the
geographical differences seen throughout the
UK. For example, the average annual rate of E. OUTBREAK SURVEILLANCE
coli 0157 infection in England and Wales is
approximately 1 per 100 000/ yet that for Investigation into outbreaks can give valuable
Scotland is more than four times as high. Even information on the organisms involved, the
within Scotland there is very significant food vehicles and the factors contributing to the
variation between Health Boards, which in 1996 cause of the outbreak. The main limitation is
varied between 0 in Shetland and 32.3 per that the majority of cases of food poisoning
100 000 in Lanarkshire. This latter rate was occur as single cases or involve a single
influenced by the largest outbreak (496 cases household only, and it is much more difficult to
and 20 deaths) recorded in Europe (Fig. 14.5). confirm a source of infection - even if an
Laboratory surveillance is, however, crucial investigation is carried out.
to determining changes taking place within an Outbreaks are investigated in most parts of the
organism such as Salmonella spp. During the world, although there is no common approach in

D <2 D 4-10
D 2-3 ~ 20-30
II1II 3-4 D 30-40 G~
t
po f-Shetlaodo
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ---ir:3"<j{ >,
Orkney 0 ~
\i'1

_-----7''------------ Highland 5.8

.----yL.- Grampian 7.9

. - - - - - " T , L - - - - - - Tayside 2.3

-r-~c------- Fife 4.3

Argyll & Clyde 2.3 --------,,----71'H1.3 =-t'----------Forth Valley 24.5
Greater Glasgow 4.3 ----f!;£;-Y---&'~~ ~----- Lothian 8.2
Lanarkshire 32.3 -----H-':-+-------+---'=,-e
~----- Borders 21.7
Ayrshire & Arran 4.2 ----~~-----t

Dumfries & - - - - - - f l ' F = - - - - .

Galloway 7.4 Scotland 9.5

Fig. 14.5 Rates of E. coli 0157 in Scotland (per 100000) by health board of reporting laboratory, 1996.
326 Meat Hygiene
40000 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

/
- --"

/
10000 /

~ -
_---~L----------- -- ------------- --- ----- --.
o ' 1995 1996
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Year

Fig.14.6 Laboratory isolates of Salmonella spp. In England and Wales, 1986-96: - - - ,

total Salmonella; - - - - - -, S. typhimurium; - - - - - -, S. enteritidis.

the way this is performed. Lack of identified, in 551 of which a bacterial or virus
standardisation makes comparison of reports pathogen was identified (Table 14.1).
from different countries very difficult, even Many more laboratory reports of
though the World Health Organisation in Europe gastrointestinal pathogens are received than
has a coordinating programme. The sixth and reports of outbreak investigations and CDSC
latest report was published in 1995 and covered recorded in the same period 122 388
the period 1990-92. It identified a wide and Campylobacter spp. infections, 92416 Salmonella
differing range of foods involved in different spp. and 1266 E. coli 0157 (Table 14.2).
countries. The relative importance of individual
pathogens also varied. While in the UK
Clostridium periringens and Staphylococcus aureus Food vehicles
are now uncommon pathogens, these continue to
In England and Wales the food vehicle was
be important in France. In the UK, poultry and
identified in 204 (44%) of a series of 458
red meat are the most frequently identified foods,
while in Germany cakes, puddings and ice cream
are the most common and France and Spain
Table 14.1 Pathogens from general outbreaks of
report that eggs and egg products are the most
food-borne infection, England and Wales, 1992-94
important foods involved in outbreaks of food
poisoning. Bacillus cereus 17
Many of the differences may be due to
Campylobacter spp. 12
historical attitudes towards food and how food
is handled, prepared and stored. Social Clostridium periringens 89
practices as well as food preferences contribute E. coli 0157 9
towards the different national pictures. Salmonella spp. 362
National surveillance of outbreaks of food Shigella sonnei 2
poisoning in England and Wales is coordinated Small round structured virus 42
by the Communicable Disease Surveillance
Centre (CDSC) at Colindale, London. During Staphylococcus aureus 10
1992-94, a total of 642 general outbreaks were Others 8
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 327
Table 14.2 Laboratory-confirmed cases of enteric Table 14.3 Food vehicles involved in 458
infections in England and Wales. outbreaks of food-borne disease.

1994 1995 1996 Milk/milk products 9

Meat (unspecified) 70
S. typhimurium 5522 6692 5573
Gravy/ sauces 17
S. enteritidis 17371 16086 18296
Poultry/ eggs 18
Other salmonellae 7518 6939 5242
Fish/shellfish 28
Campylobacter spp. 44414 43902 43240
Desserts 32
Cl. perfringens 449 342 720
Salads /vegetables 25
Siaph. aureus 74 59 150
Water/ice 3
Bacillus spp. 87 87 27
Other foods 15
Listeria 112 91 115
E. coli 0157 411 792 660

Table 14.4 Reported food vehicles in general outbreaks of food poisoning in England and Wales, 1989-91.

Salmonella Clostridium Staphylococcus Bacillus cereus

Food vehicle spp. perfringens aureus and Bacillus spp.

Chicken 23 13 3 2
Turkey 21 5 2
Other poultry 1
Beef 7 22
Pork/ham 5 12 3
Lamb/mutton 9
Mixed and other meats, pies and sausages 24 24 3 2
Gravy / sauces 1 1
Milk/dairy 4
Eggs 50 1 1
Others/not stated 250 59 5 50

outbreaks (Table 14.3). Meat, desserts, salads Table 14.5 Location of general outbreaks of food-
and fish predominated. In some outbreaks borne disease in England and Wales, 1992-94
more than one food vehicle was identified.
Some foods are more associated with Restaurant/cafe/public house/bar 170
particular pathogens than others (Table 14.4). Private house 101
Hotel/ guest house/residential public house 75
Risk factors Residential institution 59
Shop / retailer 38
Between 1992 and 1994, investigations of general
Canteen 35
outbreaks identified where these occurred and
the risk factors involved (Table 14.5). School 30
The common factors contributing to the Armed services camp 20
outbreaks included inappropriate storage, Hospital 19
inadequate heating, cross-contamination, and Mobile retailer 5
infected food handlers. This indicated that in
Miscellaneous 90
most outbreaks it was a failure of adequate
328 Meat Hygiene
hygiene and food handling practices which current problems associated with food
resulted in the outbreak. poisoning are usually the consequence of the
food becoming contaminated either at the time
of production or subsequently. This has placed
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS an even greater emphasis on the need for strict
hygiene and temperature control. That this is not
There are many and varied sources of the always achieved is emphasised by the
organisms causing food poisoning. Most continuing and apparently increasing problem
originate directly from animals, particularly of foodborne infections.
Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and E. coli. Not all food-poisoning organisms cause illness
Others not only have animal sources but in animals; many bacteria are part of the 'normal'
survive or even increase within the intestinal flora, e.g. Yersinia spp, Clostridium spp.
environment. This includes, for example, the Even with those which can cause animal illness
Clostridia spp., Listeria spp. and Bacillus spp. Yet this may be the exception rather than the norm.
others have people as the source or reservoir - Campylobacter infection is a good example of
particularly Staphylococcus and viruses. Other this, the organisms being widespread in animals
human gastrointestinal infections such as and birds yet rarely making them ill. But other
dysentery (Shigella spp.) can be passed by organisms, such as Salmonella spp., do cause
contaminated food, although this is not the considerable animal ill health, although it is not
main route of spread. usually the 'sick' animals that enter the food
Regardless of the origin of the organisms chain, rather recovered or carrier animals which
involved, they all have one factor in common. are still shedding the pathogen.
There has been failure to adequately control the Most of the organisms causing problems are
hygiene and temperature control of the whole food spread by thefaecal route and the main problem is to
chain. This chain, when it involves animals, can prevent food becoming contaminated with animal
be divided into a number of separate stages: faeces.
Animal feed, e.g. the feed mill
On farm, e.g. suckled calves FOOD-BORNE PATHOGENS
During processing, e.g. abattoir, cutting plant
Further processing and distribution, e.g. Most cases of food poisoning are caused by
butchers bacteria which arise from animal, human or
Final preparation, e.g. domestic or commercial environmental sources. Viral infections are
kitchen unlikely to be from animals and may be due to
direct human contamination or indirectly
Each of these is important in the prevention of through the environment, e.g. from shellfish
food-borne disease and satisfactory practices must be contaminated by discharged human sewage.
in place. No single part of the food chain bears the Bacterial food poisoning may take one of two
total responsibility for the prevention of food forms: infection with living organisms or
poisoning. intoxication with pre-formed toxins such as
Food-borne disease is not static and with Siaph. aureus. The feature which chiefly
constantly changes and evolves. The traditional distinguishes the two types clinically is the
illnesses such as bovine tuberculosis caused by incubation period, that is the interval between
milk, which have often determined the eating the food and the development of
procedures historically used in meat inspection, symptoms. Where pre-formed toxins are present,
have largely been controlled. In the case of TB the conditions are somewhat analogous to
this has been achieved by reducing the infection chemical poisoning and symptoms will
in animals, by identifying and removing develop very rapidly, usually within a few
infected animals, and by treating risk foods, e.g. hours. If living organisms are ingested, time will
milk, by pasteurisation. elapse before their multiplication in the body
These traditional zoonotic diseases were has proceeded sufficiently to provoke the usual
usually examples where the food, meat or milk, reactions of diarrhoea and vomiting.
was itself carrying the pathogen when the A summary of bacterial causes of food
animal was slaughtered or milked. The more poisoning is given in Box 14.1.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 329
Box 14.1 Bacterial causes of food-borne infection.

Normal Normal Main Commonly

Agent incubation duration clinical symptoms associated foods
period

B. cereus emetic toxin 1-5 hours < 24 hours Vomiting Cereals, rice

[Link] enterotoxin 8-16 hours < 24 hours Abdominal pain, diarrhoea Cereals, rice

Campylobacter spp. 3-5 days 2-7 days Abdominal pain, diarrhoea Poultry, cooked
(sometimes bloody), meats, milk
headache, fever

Cl. botulinum 12-36 hours Extended Swallowing difficulties, Preserved foods, e.g.
perhaps as respiratory canned, bottled
failure

Cl. perfringens 10-12 hours 24 hours Abdominal pain, diarrhoea Stews, roasts

E. coli 0157 12 hours-10 days Possibly Abdominal pain, diarrhoea Beefburgers, meat,
extended (may be bloody). May lead dairy products
to renal failure

Listeria monocytogenes 3-21+ days Varies Fever, headache, Soft cheeses, pates,
spontaneous abortion, poultry meat
meningitis

Salmonella spp. 12-36 hours 2-20 days Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, Meat, poultry, eggs,
fever, nausea dairy products

Staph. aureus 2-6 hours 12-24 hours Vomiting, abdominal pain, Cooked meat, human
diarrhoea source

Vibrio parahaemolyticus 12-24 hours 1-7 days Abdominal pain, watery Shellfish
diarrhoea, headache,
vomiting fever

Yersinia enterocolitica 3-7 days 1-3 weeks Acute diarrhoea, abdominal Pig meat products
pain, fever and vomiting

Salmonella spp. Some salmonellae usually only affect a

single animal species including, for example, S.
The salmonellae constitute a large group of typhi in humans, S. dublin in cattle and S.
over 2200 different serotypes, although only pullorum in poultry. This is not absolute and
100-200 different serotypes are identified in any cases of human infection with S. dublin do
one year in the UK. They are members of the occasionally occur, often as a serious systemic
Enterobacteriaceae, are Gram-negative, and can invasive infection. Most salmonella species
readily grow on a wide range of media including those associated with food
including foods. They are temperature sensitive poisoning, can infect many species of animal,
and readily destroyed by cooking. although they may not cause illness in all of
The different serotypes are identified by these. A good example of this is S. enteritidis,
means of the somatic (0) and flagellar (H) now the most common salmonella in humans,
antigens using the Kauffmann-White serotyping which is widespread, but usually causes no
scheme'. Further sub-typing can be carried out illness in poultry.
by phage typing and, increasingly, molecular While not as resistant as the spore-forming
methods such as plasmid profiling. organisms such as the Clostridium spp.,
330 Meat Hygiene
Salmonella spp. can exist for many months in the in the OK. Prior to 1986 S. typhimurium was the
environment, especially if protected from most common serotype reported. However, since
extremes of temperature and sunlight. This then S. enteritidis, in particular S. enteritidis phage
means that recycling through the environment type 4, has predominated and this single serotype
is an important route for animal (and human) in 1996 accounted for over 60% of all human cases
infection (Fig. 14.7). of salmonella. This type is largely associated with
This ability of salmonella to exist within poultry.
different self-contained compartments makes Other serotypes are much less common, with
eradication difficult. Control is a more practical the exception of S. typhimurium, which is
option, although specific salmonellae such as S. widespread in different animal species,
pullorum have to all intents and purposes been particularly cattle. During the 1980s, S.
eradicated in commercial poultry. There is typhimurium DT 204c was the major animal
considerable ongoing effort being expended by salmonella, affecting mainly calves. It
the poultry industry to reduce salmonellae occasionally caused human infection, usually in
causing human illness, in particular S. people in direct contact with infected livestock.
enteritidis. Since the beginning of the 1990s this salmonella
type has largely disappeared but has been
replaced by S. typhimurium DT 104, a major
Infection in humans pathogen of cattle of all ages and most other
The incubation period in people is variable but animal species.
is usually between 12 and 36 hours. The typical Unlike S. typhimurium DT 204c, it is also an
presenting symptom is diarrhoea but this may important human pathogen accounting for
be accompanied by nausea and abdominal about 15% of all human salmonella infections.
pain, although vomiting is not usual. There The difference between S. typhimurium 204c and
may also be a headache and fever. While the S. typhimurium DT 104 is partially explained by
infection is normally self-limiting and does not the opportunities for the organisms to enter the
require antibiotic treatment, occasionally, with food chain as a consequence of infection in
more invasive salmonellae such as S. oirchoto, slaughter cattle, even though they may show no
bacteraemia can occur. The infection is rarely signs of infection.
fatal in people.
Until the late 1980s, when campylobacter
infections increased, salmonella was the most
Source of human infections
common bacterial pathogen isolated from human People can become infected following a failure
cases of intestinal infection. During the 1990s over of personal hygiene after contact with infected
30000 laboratory isolates were reported each year animals (or other infected people). Environ-

Imported
livestock

Imported
feed

Fig.14.7 Salmonella recycling in food animals.

 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 331
mental contamination, especially untreated common types in the UK are C. jejuni and C.
water, is also important. Most cases are thought coli. Serological subtyping is not as well
to be the result of food-borne infection and developed as that for salmonella and most
highlight the importance of controlling hygiene isolates are not further sub-typed. This makes
in the food chain. Meat can become epidemiological investigation very difficult as it
contaminated during the slaughter process is not easy to confirm the origin of human
either from intestinal contents or from faecal infection.
contamination on the hide. As with any Unlike many other food-borne organisms
faecally-spread organism it is essential that clean Campylobacter spp. are fastidious in their
animals are presented for slaughter to help minimise growth requirements. They are Gram-negative
the latter and that the abattoir operates hygienically and microaerophillic, requiring a low oxygen
to prevent both. concentration (5%). They are slender, curved
and highly mobile and grow best at 42-43°C
and not at all below 30°C. They are most
Antibiotic resistance unlikely to multiply on food at room
A particular concern with S. typhimurium DT temperature. They are not heat resistant and
104 is that it has resistance to many antibiotics can be killed by cooking. As though to
and often acquires resistance to others. Most compensate for their inability to grow on food,
strains are resistant to ampicillin, they have an extremely low infective dose, with
chloramphenicol, streptomycin, the as few as 500 cells being sufficient to cause
sulphonamides and tetracycline. Recent human infection.
resistance additions include resistance to
trimethoprim and, of particular concern, to the
fluoroquinolones. Resistance to this latter
Infection in humans
group of antibiotics is a major worry as they are The normal incubation period is 3-5 days, but
among the drugs of choice for the treatment of some evidence exists that this can be
invasive salmonella in humans. There is considerably extended. A characteristic of
considerable debate as to what factors result in infection is acute abdominal paint which can be
the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains of so severe as to be mistaken for appendicitis,
bacteria, and it is alleged that antibiotic use in sometimes precipitating unnecessary surgery.
animals is part of the problem. Equally the use This pain is often accompanied by bloody
or misuse of antibiotics, in humans, for diarrhoea and fever, but vomiting is rare. Most
example, also lead to the development of infections resolve spontaneously within one
antibiotic resistance. The continuing week while others can be prolonged.
development of antibiotic resistance may lead Complications during the acute phase are
to sufficient pressure ultimately to restrict the unusual and only exceptionally does death
antibiotics available to the veterinary occur. There is, however, increasing evidence
profession for animal treatment. that there may be longer-term sequelae to
campylobacter infection including both reactive
arthritis and even peripheral polyneuropathy
Campylobacter spp. (Cuillain-Barre syndrome).
Campylobacters, although long recognised by In excess of 50000 infections with
veterinarians as a cause of animal disease, were Campylobacter spp. are now confirmed each
not associated with human enteric infection year in the UK.
until 1975. Since then the number of isolates in
the UK has steadily increased until they have
become the most numerous cause of human
Source of human infection
bacterial enteric infection. Undoubtedly, The lack of a routine discriminatory typing
improved laboratory methods have contributed scheme has often hindered investigation of the
to this rise, although, in addition, a true source of human infections. Unlike
increase has occurred. salmonellosis, most cases of campylobacter
The traditional animal strains of infection are not recognised as part of an
Cmnpylobacter fetus fetus and C. fetus oenerealis outbreak and detailed investigation is not
rarely cause human infection and the most carried out. The exceptions to this are outbreaks
332 Meat Hygiene
associated with milk and water, when While several serogroups such as 0111 and 026
hundreds of patients can be involved. In 1995 have been involved in the UK the majority of
following contamination of a public water infections are caused by serogroup 0157. In
supply with stream water, into which treated other countries, other serogroups have been
sewage was discharged, 711 people reported reported as more important than 0157. As with
gastrointestinal illness. Campylobacter jejuni of campylobacter a small infective dose - perhaps
the same molecular type was isolated from a as few as 10 cells - is required to cause human
number of those affected. The Advisory illness, but unlike campylobacter they can
Committee on the Microbiological Safety of multiply on food.
Food investigated infections with
campylobacter and reported in 1993 that
poultry was the most common vehicle of Infection in humans
infection. However, the types affecting humans
The low infective dose plays a major part in the
can also be isolated from all species of animals
spread of these bacteria. Incubation is normally
(including pets) and a wide range of foods
1-10 days and a considerable spectrum of
including poultry, milk, water and cooked
symptoms can be seen. These range from
meats. Person-to-person spread is also
asymptomatic infection, abdominal pain and
important.
diarrhoea, bloody diarrhoea and haemorrhagic
The low infective dose for campylobacter
colitis to haemolytic uraemia resulting in renal
means that cross-contamination is a particular
failure. Although the total number of cases,
risk since a relatively small amount of
with about 1000 reported each year in the UK,
contamination may be sufficient to establish
is low, the consequences are serious. In one
human infection. This cross-contamination
series of cases in Scotland 59% of cases
must be prevented throughout the whole food
required hospitalisation, 15% required renal
chain.
dialysis and 3% died. Serious systemic disease
is a particular feature in the old and the young.
Following a large milk-borne outbreak in
Escherichia coli 0157 Scotland in 1994, several children required
renal transplants. Conversely, many people
Verotoxigenic E. coli infections, particularly appear to carry and shed the bacteria yet show
serogroup 0157, were first reported in the UK no signs of infection.
in 1983. Since then they have become
recognised as a major source of human
morbidity and mortality. Source of human infection
E. coli are ubiquitous inhabitants of the
intestinal tracts of animals and man. A variety Various studies have identified three main
of serogroups cause infections, usually in a routes of transmission: consumption of
single animal species, for example bowel contaminated food or water, direct or indirect
oedema in pigs. In humans, a number of contact with animals, and person-to-person
different disease syndromes are recognised, spread. Beefburgers were recognised as a
including: significant vehicle of infection following a large
outbreak across several states in the USA in
Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) 1993 in which 732 people were affected and 195
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) hospitalised with 4 deaths. However, a wide
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) range of foods have been implicated, including
Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). apple juice, vegetables, potatoes, bean sprouts
and water. Contamination of the food with
Some of these EHEC have the ability to animal faeces is thought to cause most of the
produce one or more toxins (verotoxins), which problem.
can be detected using tissue culture (vero cells), Early studies in the UK suggested less than
and are often referred to as verotoxin- 1% of healthy cattle examined at slaughter were
producing E. coli (VTEC). Together with other excreting E. coli 0157. When this has been
virulence factors they have the ability to cause repeated with more sensitive laboratory
human illness but apparently no animal illness. methods, as many as 40% of cattle have been
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 333
found to be excreting. Another study Infection in humans
demonstrated that 30% of carcases, derived
The incubation period is about 3-7 days and
from cattle which were faecally positive in the
infection causes acute diarrhoea, abdominal
lairage, were contaminated with E. coli 0157 in
pain, fever and vomiting. It is more common in
the chill, and 8% of those negative in the lairage
children, although cases in adults may be
were also contaminated. More recent work has
followed by longer-term problems including
shown the presence of VTEC in sheep and goats
skin rashes and arthritis. Infection is usually
but not yet in pigs and poultry. Further down
self-limiting but, in people with some other
the food chain the greatest level of
underlying pathology, septicaemia with a high
contamination was found in lamb meat
products, particularly lamb burgers. mortality may follow. About 500 cases a year
are reported in the UK.
As with all organisms found in animal
faeces, control is based on minimising carcase
contamination. This begins on the farm by Source of human infection
reducing the number of animal carriers, but at
present insufficient is known about the natural This organism is often associated with pig meat
products, either fresh or cured. The ability to
transmission of E. coli 0157 to devise a control
grow at refrigeration temperature means that
strategy. The most important measure is to ensure
contaminated food, even if properly chilled, can
that only clean animals, with the minimum of
cause infection. Such foods can also cross-
faecal contamination, are slaughtered. This was a
contaminate other foods in the kitchen.
major recommendation of the Pennington
group which reported after a large outbreak in
Central Scotland (at Wishaw) in 1996 in which
496 people were affected and 20 elderly people Listeria monocytogenes
died. Products from a single butcher's Of the several Listeria species only L.
premises, including cooked meat, were monocutogenes is thought to cause human
implicated as the cause of the outbreak. infection. It is widely distributed in animals,
Slaughter of clean animals must be birds, humans and the environment but has
accompanied by the hygienic operation of the only been recognised as a food-borne pathogen
whole slaughterhouse and effective control of since the 1980s. Like Yersinia spp., L.
the food chain. Ultimately, thorough cooking will monocytogenes can grow at a wide range of
kill the organisms. The low infective dose temperatures (0-42°C) and especially well at
means that contamination unlikely to cause 30-37°C. Listeria spp. can also grow slowly at
problems when Salmonella spp. or Campuiobacier refrigeration temperatures. A wide range of
spp. are present may be enough to cause serotypes exist, but most human infection is
infection if E. coli 0157 prevails. associated with types 4 and 1/2.

Yersinia enterocolitica Infection in humans

Yersinia enterocoliiica was identified as a Most human cases are sporadic and the
human pathogen in the late 1930s. It is a Gram- extended incubation period (several weeks) can
negative non-spore-forming bacterium which make identification of the source very difficult.
grows over a wide range of temperatures Unlike the case with most food-borne
(0-40°C) and optimally at 29°C. The range of pathogens, the illness produced is systemic
growth temperatures allows multiplication at rather than intestinal. Most infected people are
refrigeration temperatures. It is Widespread in symptomless and as many as 5% of the
the intestinal tract of animals and is readily population are faecally excreting at anyone
recovered from the environment, including time. Illness is most likely to be seen in people
water and soil. It can be divided into biotypes, with reduced immunity, when the symptoms
serotypes and phage types. Different types are range from a 'flu-like' illness through fever and
associated with different parts of the world. In septicaemia. There is a particular risk to
Europe, serotype 03 is most commonly pregnant women (who have a naturally
recorded in humans and is also associated reduced immune capability) and the unborn
with pigs. child, when the mortality can be as high as 30%.
334 Meat Hygiene
Although there was a significant rise in multiplication can take place, since optimal
reported cases of listeriosis in the late 1980s, growth occurs at 43-47°C. The heating process
this was not maintained in subsequent years. of cooking also drives off oxygen, creating the
Listeriosis is now relatively uncommon, with anaerobic conditions necessary for growth.
about 100 cases reported each year in the UK. These conditions are most likely to be found
when large volumes of food are cooked and
cooled, particularly large joints of meat or stews
Source of human infection and casseroles. Thorough reheating (above
This is often not identified because of the length 75°C) will kill any vegetative cells present and
of the incubation period. The organisms are prevent food poisoning. Most cases occur as
ubiquitous and widespread in animals and the outbreaks, which may be large and are often
environment. Listeriosis can cause animal associated with hospital or commercial
disease, including abortion in ewes and catering. About 50 outbreaks are reported in the
meningitis in younger sheep. A wide range of UK each year.
foods have been implicated including cheese,
pate and poultry meat. Vulnerable groups,
especially pregnant women and the
Staphylococcus aureus
immunocompromised, are advised not to eat Unlike most bacterial food poisoning, illness
risk foods such as pates and soft cheeses. caused by Staph. aureus is due to the
consumption of preformed toxin and not the
bacteria, which may be absent. The toxin is
Clostridium perfringens heat-stable and may survive for 1Yz hours at
The mode of action of food poisoning with Cl. boiling temperature, even though the
perfringens is through the consumption of large staphylococci themselves are destroyed. Five
numbers of bacteria which rapidly form major enterotoxins are known to be produced
enterotoxin in the small intestine. It is a Gram- (A to E) of which type A is the most common.
positive spore former, requiring anaerobic The Gram-positive cocci can grow over a wide
conditions for growth. In the UK a better range of temperatures (10-45°C) with the
understanding of food hygiene, in particular optimum at 35-40°C.
the importance of thorough cooking and rapid
cooling, has resulted in a decline in the
importance of this pathogen. Infection in humans
Five types (A to E) of Cl. perfringens are The presence of preformed toxin results in a
known to exist but only type A has been short incubation period of 2-6 hours. The
implicated in food poisoning. The clostridia symptoms are primarily nausea and vomiting,
form part of the normal intestinal flora of with additionally diarrhoea. The illness may
animals and are Widespread in the also be so acute as to cause fainting or collapse.
environment. Most patients recover within 12-48 hours.

Infection in humans Source of human infection

The rapid production of enterotoxin in the Staph. aureus infection usually follows
intestine results in a short incubation period of contamination from a human source. The
10-12 hours. The toxin causes diarrhoea and organism can cause wound or skin infections
abdominal pain but not usually vomiting. and is present in the nose of up to 40% of
Illness normally lasts 24 hours and is self- healthy people. A failure of basic hygiene,
limiting. Subsequent complications and death including covering skin lesions, results in
are rare. contamination of food and subsequent
multiplication and toxin production. The foods
usually implicated are cooked meats, poultry
Source of human infection
and dairy produce. This has been an
The clostridial spores survive normal cooking, uncommon cause of food poisoning in the UK
and the heating process may in fact stimulate since the 1950s, with around 10 outbreaks
them to germinate. As food cools, very rapid reported each year.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 335
Clostridium botulinum temperature is. above 10°e. It can multiply
rapidly at ambient temperatures but is easily
Botulism is one of the most feared causes of
killed by cooking.
food poisoning because, although it is
exceptionally rare, it is a severe disease with a
high mortality. Cl, botulinum is a Gram-positive
spore-forming obligate anaerobe producing one Infection in humans
or more of seven toxins (A to G). Toxins A, B
The incubation period is 12-24 hours after
and E have been associated with human
which profuse diarrhoea and abdomin;l pain
~isease. !ypes A and B are more commonly
develop. Less commonly, fever and vomiting
~mked w~th meat and vegetables, while type E
IS associated with fish. The toxin is not may be present. The symptoms may persist for
7 days.
thermostable and can be destroyed by cooking
at 80 e for 30 minutes.
0

Infection in humans Source of human infection

!he organism is found in sea waters, especially
The clostridia produce potent neurotoxins and
If the temperature is greater than 10°e. Fish and
the symptoms reflect muscular paralysis.
~[Link] from affected waters may cause illness
Symptoms can appear within 2 hours but may
If madequately c?oked or if subsequently
take as long as 5 days. There can be an initial
recontammated. It IS rarely acquired in the UK,
short period of diarrhoea with vomiting and
although one incident involving locally-caught
s~~sequ~nt constipation. Blurring or double
crab was reported on the south coast of
VISIOn IS. often the first systemic sign,
England.
accomp~med by dry mouth and difficulty in
swallowmg. T~e patient is usually mentally
alert and there IS no loss of sensation. Paralysis
can extend to the limbs and eventually result in Bacillus cereus
respiratory failure. The effects of the toxin may
B. cereus has been recognised as an uncommon
persist for several months.
cause of food poisoning since the 1970s. It is a
Gram-positive, spore-forming, motile bacillus
Sources of human infection producing two different toxins. A heat-sensitive
enterotoxin causes a diarrhoeal illness, while
Cl. botulinum is ubiquitous and can be found on
the heat-stable 'emetic' toxin causes vomiting.
a wide range of foods. Toxin production only
The spores are heat-resistant and can survive
takes place when growth occurs. This can
normal cooking temperatures. The bacteria are
happen during preservation processes, such as
Widespread in the environment, including soil
smoking or fermentation of fish and meat,
and water, and consequently contaminate
which result in a suitable anaerobic
many foods, particularly dry foods such as
environment. Improperly bottled or canned
cereals. Any food such as meat, dairy products
foods can also allow growth to take place.
and vegetables can be vehicles of infection.
Botulism is very rare in the UK. The first
reported outbreak occurred in 1922 in Loch
Maree in Scotland when eight people became ill
after eating potted duck paste and all died. The Infection in humans
largest outbreak occurred in 1989 when 27 cases
The two toxins produce different disease
(one death) were caused by hazelnut yoghurt.
syndromes. The more common illness is
In total only 10 outbreaks have been described
vomiting caused by the 'emetic' toxin after an
in the UK.
incuba tion period of 1-5 hours. This is
p~rticularlJ:' associated with rice and pasta. The
diarrhoeal illness caused by the enterotoxin has
Vibrio parahaemolyticus an incubation period of 8-16 hours. Both forms
V parahaemoluiicus is a Gram-negative rod of infection usually last no longer than 24 hours
usually found in sea water where the and complications are rare.
336 Meat Hygiene
Source of human infection the vehicle does not have a wider distribution.
e.g. via a widely-distributed product such as
Many foods are contaminated with a few spores
cheese, baby infant powder or salami.
and these can survive the initial cooking. If food
Clinical management is important for
is subsequently kept at ambient temperature,
infections such as campylobacteriosis whirl-
the spores germinate and the vegetative cells
can readily be passed from person to person.
multiply rapidly, producing toxin in the food.
The investigations assist the identification of
The 'emetic' toxin is not destroyed by further
foods or practices which may cause future
heating, but the enterotoxin can be inactivated
problems and allow controls to be put in place.
by thorough reheating. This latter toxin can,
For example, eggs have been identified as a
however, also be produced in the intestine of
vehicle for salmonella: advice is then issued to
the patient following consumption of the
susceptible groups not to eat lightly-cooked
vegetative cells. The disease is controlled by
eggs. Similar outbreak investigations
keeping cooked foods either hot or at
highlighted the role of beefburgers as a vehicle
refrigeration temperatures. About 30 outbreaks
for E. coli 0157 and have led to improved
a year are described in the UK.
controls such as cooking temperatures and
The protozoa, Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia times.
lamblia and Entomoeba histolytica are also causes Normally when an outbreak is identified, an
of food poisoning. 'Outbreak Control Group' (OCG) is created and
this group puts into practice an existing
Outbreak Control Plan. The membership of the
MANAGEMENT OF FOOD POISONING OCG will vary depending on the circumstances
but will normally include Public Health,
The investigation and management of Environmental Health and Medical
outbreaks of food-borne illness in the UK is a Microbiologists. Other disciplines can be
shared responsibility between Health invited to attend as necessary, e.g. a
Authorities and Local Authorities. These act veterinarian from the State Veterinary Service.
under specific legislation contained in the It is the role of the OCG to ensure the proper
Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984 and investigation and control of the outbreak,
the Food Safety Act 1990. It is this latter act including determination whether there is an
which gives powers to the Local Authority, outbreak; collection of histories - clinical and
which has the statutory duty to enforce food food from patients; and collection of samples -
safety. stools and faeces.
While the responsibility extends to all cases In some outbreaks the food is immediately
of food poisoning, not surprisingly most effort identifiable, whereas in others there may only
is expended on the management of outbreaks. be a statistical association after extensive
However, where the disease is particularly investigation, e.g. by a case control study. In
serious, e.g. involving E. coli 0157 or botulism, many outbreaks no food is identified as being
the same extent of investigation and responsible.
management would be carried out. Often a standard investigation form is used to
The objectives of any investigations are gather the large amount of information
three-fold: required, an example of which is shown in Box
1 To prevent any further cases arising from the 14.2.
specific outbreak by identifying and The initial information allows a hypothesis
removing the food source. to be formed with regard to the source of the
2 To control further spread, by person to outbreak. This can be confirmed
person, from those already infected. microbiologically or epidemiologically by
3 To use the information to reduce the analysis of the data, including food-specific
likelihood of further outbreaks. attack rates, odds ratio, etc. Software is
available which will not only generate the
The first of these may be of limited value in a questionnaires but create the database and
point source outbreak such as a single meal, e.g. carry out the analysis. This is available as a
at a wedding. However, it is important to public domain package produced by WHO and
identify the source of infection to ensure that CDC Atlanta (Epi Info).
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 337
Box 14.2a

Case RefNo General Outbreak Household Outbreak Sporadic Case Aetiological Agent
11 I I I I
Name ............... ........ ....... -. ............. ......... G.P. .... ........................ ............. ....... .. ........ ........

Address .... .. .......... ............ ....... ...... Address .. ...... .............. ............... .... ..... ............ ........ Health Board

....... .. Tel .............. . ...... ...... ...... ......... .. ........ ...... . .. Tel .......... ............. ..... .................. .......
Notification by .. ....... ........... ............ ......... Hospital Admission Date ............. ......... ... ..... .... ............. LocalAuthority

Notification date ................ HospitalDischargeDate. ..- ....

DETAILS OFPATIENTS(S) AND HOUSEHOLD

+veor-ve Name Age Occupational Details Name and Diarrhoea Vomiting Other Durationof

(inclPart time) Address of Onset Onset Symptoms

Employer/School

Date Time Date Time Illness Incub

Name and detailsof any other persons similarly affected_ _~ ~ _

Details of'recent travel (including abroad) by !!!!y"lllel.11bers of household _

DETAILS OF a) FOOD CONSUMED BY INDEX CASE, AND VENUE, IN 72 HOURS PRIOR TO ONSET OF SYMYfOMSAND h) SOURCE OF PREPARED

FOODS PURCHASED FROM COMMERCIAL CATERING OUTLETS DURING 7 DAYS PRIOR TO ONSET

DATE TIME FOOD AND DRINK WHERE EATEN REMARKS

Any type offoodnot eaten for health, religious or any other reason ~

Epidemiological implicated food Batchuame/Batch No _

Epidemiologically implicated eating ontlets of suspected foods _

Detailsof purchase,storage,preparation,cooking,re-heatingetc ~ _

Details of any raw meats, poultry or pet foods prepared in kitchen during 7 day, prior to onset ~ _

Placets) where food apparently contaminated or mishandled

338 Meat Hygiene
Box 14.2b

REGULAR AND CASUAL HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIERS OF FOOD

(include such details as designation, type, brand name/batch number, fresh, frozen ete)

Milk

Cream

Cheese

Icecream

Bakeryproduce

Fish

Shellfish

Meat-raw

Meal-cooked

Meat-tinned

Poultry

Egg'

Fruit

Vegetables

Delicatessen foods

Other

ENVIRONMENTAL FACfORS

Petsfann or otheranimals/verrnin ~~ ~ ~_ _~ ~ _

Walersrrpply- specify: public/private ~ Cistern/mains direct ~_~~_ _~_ _

Source ~ Treatment _

Date visited Signature Designation _

 Part 2 - Meat Microbiology

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF organoleptic examination; its value is as a

CARCASES supplementary test to assist judgement when
septicaemic or bacteraemic infection is
In the healthy and physiologically normal suspected. The only thing to be gained from a
animal, those organs which have no direct bacteriological examination of such overtly
contact with the exterior may be regarded as unfit material is the identification of the
virtually sterile, though the actual operation of infecting organism - this in itself may be
slaughter and dressing may introduce bacteria sufficient reason.
to the blood, tissues and organs. These A bacteriological examination may be
organisms are usually a mixed flora of non- considered obligatory in the case of animals
specific organisms of environmental origin but which:
can include Salmonella, Campulobacier, E. coli and 1 have been slaughtered in emergency;
other food-poisoning organisms. In addition
specific pathogens may be present in organs or 2 have been slaughtered on account of a disease
associated with systemic disturbances;
tissues such as the spleen, muscular tissue or
lymph nodes and their presence can only be 3 show pathological changes on post-mortem
inspection that lead to doubt as to the
attributed to a generalised septic or bacteraemic
suitability of the meat for human
infection in the animal at the time of slaughter. consumption, even though the animal was
Where such organisms are of intestinal origin, found healthy on ante-mortem inspection;
their entry into the systemic circulation may be
4 have been shown by bacteriological tests to
explained by a breakdown in the natural have been excreting food-poisoning
resistance of the animal with emigration of the organisms prior to slaughter, or which
organisms from the intestinal tract. emanate from a herd in which the presence of
Haematogenous invasion may, however, occur food-poisoning organisms has been officially
from other naturally infected cavities of the reported;
body for the same reason. Such systemic 5 have not been eviscerated within 1 hour of
invasion is most likely to occur in animals that slaughter or where the parts of the
are ill or exhausted, which should be identified slaughtered animal necessary for post-
during the pre-slaughter inspection. mortem examination are absent or have been
Subsequent bacteriological examination of the handled in such a way as to make satisfactory
flesh and organs post-mortem would provide judgement impossible;
definitive material assistance to an inspector 6 have been slaughtered without the prescribed
charged with assessing the fitness or otherwise ante-mortem inspection.
of a carcase for human food.

Indications for examination Material submitted

The examination of food of animal origin for The following samples may be taken for
fitness requires the three stages of ante-mortem, submission to the laboratory for bacteriological
gross post-mortem and, where necessary, examination:
further laboratory tests. 1 Two complete muscles, with their fascia, one
There is no justification for conducting a from a forequarter, and one from a
bacteriological examination on a carcase or its hindquarter, or cubes of muscle, each side
organs when they exhibit marked pathological measuring not less than 7.5cm.
changes of a non-infectious nature. Such 2 The prescapular or axillary lymph node from the
conditions or evidence of severe systemic other forequarter of the carcase and the
disturbance are themselves sufficient to justify internal iliac node from the other hindquarter,
condemnation of the carcase. A bacteriological including the surrounding fat and connective
examination can never substitute for a careful tissue of the nodes.

339
340 Meat Hygiene
3 The spleen, which should not be incised except The bacteria of the specific group regarded
in cases where the organ is considerably as specific pathogens include the haemolytic
enlarged, in which case a piece as large as the streptococci, pneumococci, haemolytic
hand should be taken. staphylococci, Pasteurella, Salmonella, E. coli,
4 A kidney. Erysipelothrix insidiosa, Listeria monocytogenes,
5 In the case of small animals, the whole liver with Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium perfringens,
the gall bladder; in other animals, a portion of Yersinia enterocolitica and Corynebacterium
liver twice the size of a fist and including the pyogenes.
portal vein, or the caudate lobe and including
the portal vein, and also the portal lymph
nodes and gall bladder.
6 Parts showing pathological change and which, in Laboratory quality assurance techniques of
view of their position, are suspected of microbiological examination
containing pathogenic bacteria, together with Provided care is taken in the interpretation of
the associated lymph nodes (e.g. in the case of results, microbiological examination of meat is
pneumonia a portion of lung and associated
lymph nodes). of value in the assessment of wholesomeness; of
hygienic methods adopted during slaughter; of
7 A portion of small intestine along with a dressing and processing techniques and of the
number of mesenteric lymph nodes in those
cases where animals have suffered from efficiency of methods of preservation. It can
enteritis and have been reported to be also indicate the potential shelf-life and help to
excretors of Salmonella organisms, or animals identify potential health hazards.
known to emanate from a herd infected with One of the difficulties associated with
such pathogens. microbiological examination is the lack of a
standard technique accepted and applied
Laboratory experience has shown that the uniformly between different countries. There
liver frequently contains intestinal bacteria are variations in sampling techniques, times of
which have gained entry by way of the portal sampling, culture media, parts of carcase to be
vein. As this invasion may occur after slaughter, examined, number of samples, which bacteria
the demonstration of organisms in the liver is of to assess, counting methods, etc., all of which
no real significance unless the organisms require standardisation if comparisons are to be
isolated are of a specific pathogenic type. drawn and if the results are to be uniformly
Similarly, the kidney should theoretically be of interpreted. While it would be useful to have a
value in bacteriological examinations, but in presence or absence of bacteria approach, the
practice bacterial invasion rarely occurs post- possibility of false positives due to
mortem. environmental contamination makes this
difficult unless special precautions are taken,
e.g. use of laminar airflow cabinets.
Types of bacteriafound The bacterial status of the meat is dependent
The bacteria found may belong to a non-specific on a number of factors, namely the condition of
group that are non-pathogenic or only the animal at slaughter, the spread of
potentially pathogenic. The most frequently contamination during slaughter and the
isolated bacteria found on meats and poultry processing and temperature during storage and
belong to the Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, distribution. Thus, as discussed previously,
Campylobacter, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, meat may be contaminated with a range of
Listeria, Micrococcus, Moraxella, Pseudomonas, bacteria which may be significant in spoilage or
Psychrobacter and Vagococcus genera. Bacteria may be pathogenic. The quality and safety of
are present naturally in the intestinal flora and meat is dictated by the nature and numbers of
some, such as the non-haemolytic spoilage and pathogenic species which form the
staphylococci, are part of the natural skin flora; total flora. The microbiology of meat is
their invasion of the bloodstream is of a therefore normally considered under two
secondary nature occasioned by some other criteria: total bacterial counts, which provide an
pathological condition and does not indicate indication of gross levels of contamination, and
that the animal was affected with a generalised specific counts of species of spoilage/pathogenic
infectious disease. bacteria of significance.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 341
Before microbiological analysis can be Rinses and washes
carried out it is necessary to obtain samples
~~es and washes are prepared by washing or
from t~e carcase ru:der investigation. This may
rmsm~ one part by weight of the meat in 10 parts
be achieved by taking either superficial or deep
by weight of the sterile diluent. This method is
samples, or both if necessary. Superficial samples
suitable for sausages, beefburgers, whole
may be taken by removing thin slices, by rinses,
poultry, etc. Samples of 1:10 dilutions may also
swa~s or acU:esive tape, or by the agar sausage
be prepared from comminuted forms of the meat
and impression plate techniques. A rapid, but
since ~urface washing and rinsing do not give a
relatively inaccurate, indication of the number
true picture of the degree of contamination.
and types of microorganisms present on the
The United States Department of Agriculture
s~rface i~ acquired by pressing microscope
has mandated a rinse method for sampling
slides agamst the surface which are then either
poultry carcases for generic E. coli as a tool to
pressed on to a growth medium for culture or
verify process control. The method requires the
fixed and stained on the slide.
poultry carcase, randomly selected after the
Superficial samples provide an indication of
chill tank at the end of the drip line, to be placed
the levels of surface contamination present on
in a 3.5-litre stomacher bag and have 400 ml (in
th~ . carcase. Surface contamination may
the case of domestic fowl, 600ml for turkeys) of
ongmate from contact with contaminated
Butterfield's phosphate diluent poured over it.
surfaces, tools, operatives and airborne
The b~g is then given 30 shakes, taking
contamination. These organisms are all
approximately 1 minute; the bird is removed
environmental in origin and generally contain
and 30 ml of diluent is decanted. Counts,
the organisms which will form a spoilage flora
established by any validated laboratory
- Pseudomonas, lactic acid bacteria, members of method, of over 1000 du/ml are considered to
the family Enterobacteriaceae, Moraxella,
be unsatisfactory (cfu = colony-forming unit).
Brochothrix, Acinetobacter and Alteromonas.

Swabs
Deep samples Swabs are usually made of sterile non-absorbent
Deep samples are used to determine the levels cotton wool, 4 cm in length and 1-1.5 cm thick,
of systemic contamination/infection within a 'wound on a sterile thin stick or stainless steel wire
carcase. Such contamination is not normally of and k:pt in ~ ste~e pl:rgged alloy tube. They are
environmental origin, having resulted from used m conjunction WIth a sterile template with
pre-existing disease or infection. Bacteria an opening of defined area, often 100 cm'. The
isolated from deep samples tend to be swab.s are moiste~ed in dilute (25%) Ringer's
pathogenic in nature. Deep samples of meat solution and applied to the meat surface, using
must be taken with care in order to avoid the template; the exposed area is swabbed first in
contamination by superficial organisms. Such one direction and then at right angles to the
samples can be obtained using sterile scalpels original direction. The swabs are then placed in
and forceps or, in the case of frozen meat, a cork the tubes and, before plating out, 10 ml of 25%
borer or an electric drill fitted with a bore- Ringer's solution is added to each tube, the swab
extracting bit. The surface should first be being rinsed in this solution 10 times. Rinsings
prepared by flaming, followed by an aseptic (1 ml) are used to prepare plate counts and
dissection of about 10 g of meat. dilutions can be prepared as required. Colony
co~ts are recorded as the number per square
centimetre of surface. The culture medium is
usually cooled nutrient agar or other agar
Surface slices medium. The counts are recorded as the number
A known weight (usually 10 or 25 g) is removed per square centimetre of surface swabbed.
with sterile scalpels and forceps, then
homogenised in a suitable diluent, e.g. Ringer's
solution, using a stomacher or other means, to Sponges
provide a 1:10 dilution before plating on As an alternative to swabs, sponges may be
appropriate culture media. used. Such a method is authorised by the
342 Meat Hygiene
United States Department of Agriculture to surface. The blade is flamed prior to the making
verify process control for cattle and pig of the cut, and between successive cuts is kept
slaughter by determining the number of immersed in 70% alcohol to avoid
generic E. coli on carcases sampled in the contamination during slicing. The cut surface of
chillers. Three areas, each of 100cm2 determined the sausage is applied to the surface to be tested
using a sterile 10 cm x 10 cm template, on each for 1 second. A slice about 1.5 mm deep is cut
carcase are sampled using the sponge, which from the exposed end and, contact surface
has been moistened with 10 ml of sterile uppermost, transferred immediately into a
Butterfield's phosphate diluent. After wiping Petri dish. The Petri dish and media are then
each of the three sites 10 times horizontally and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. The large surface of
10 times vertically, the sponge is placed in a the medium renders it easy to count the
sterile plastic bag with 15 ml of the diluent. bacterial colonies.
Counts, established by any validated technique,
of greater than 100 dui cm' for cattle and
greater than 10 000 dui cm- for pigs are Impression plates
considered to be unsatisfactory.
Impression plates are commercial
developments of the agar sausage contact
Adhesive tape method. They consist of sterile, disposable,
lidded plastic plates with an inner well filled
Adhesive tape or labels are used to take
with agar medium with a convex meniscus
superficial samples by pressing a standard area which can be pressed against the surface to be
against the surface and then removing it
sampled.
immediately. The tape is pressed against the
Perhaps the greatest difficulty associated
culture medium and then removed and
with any contact method of sampling is that if
discarded. The medium is incubated for 24 h at
the organisms are present in high concentration
37°C.
the confluent bacterial growth makes
interpretation of the sample impossible. This
The agar sausage situation is considerably worsened if any of the
organisms present are motile, such as members
The agar sausage method has proved simple,
of the Proteus genus. As a result, non-contact
reliable and valuable. The medium required is
methods involving the removal of a small
poured into a sterile cylindrical plastic casing to
representative sample from the carcase or organ
fill it. A casing with a diameter of 7.5cm is suitable
for subsequent analysis form the most
for animal carcases but a smaller diameter may be
frequently employed approach. These samples
preferred for poultry. The sausage is then placed
are analysed as described below.
into a larger casing, the mouth of which is tied
firmly, and the whole is sterilised by steaming for
30 min on two successive days, thus ensuring that
Microbiological analysis
not only vegetative forms but also bacterial spores
are destroyed. The meat sample or the rinse from swabs or
Various media may be used in the sausage: sponges form the basis for the microbiological
nutrient or blood agar for total counts, neutral red analysis. The solid samples are homogenised in
lactose agar for E. coli, brilliant green phenol red a suitable quantity of diluent to suspend the
lactose agar for salmonellae, and malt agar for organisms. A dilution series is then prepared by
yeasts and moulds. In the assessment of the effi- decimally diluting this original bacterial
ciency of the hygienic procedures in an abattoir it suspension. This dilution series ensures the
may be considered that the essential tests should growth plates are not subsequently overgrown
be for: (a) total bacterial count, (b) presence of sal- by a large inoculum of bacteria. All suspensions
monella organisms and (c) the presence of faecal are then plated out on a suitable growth
coli. The method cannot be used for assessing con- medium.
tamination due to anaerobic organisms. A general growth medium such as a total
The test is carried out by folding back the count agar (TCA) will allow the growth of
outer plastic container and cutting the end of almost all organisms present that are capable of
the inner sausage to present a smooth flat growth under the selected incubation
 PLATE 1

Fig. 1 Lumpy skin disease. Bovine. Fig. 2 Scrapie. Ram.

Fig. 3 Scrapie . Lesions in vestibu lar nucleus of Fig. 4 Melanosis. Liver, lungs, kidney and heart. Sbeep.
brain .

Fig. S Endocard itis. Heart . Bovin e. f ig. 6 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia.

Lung . Bovine.
 PLATE 2

Fig. 7 Lym phosarcoma . Peritone um . Bovine.

Fig. 8 Epizootic lymphangitis. Leg. Horse.

Fig.9 Haema toma . Spleen . Bovine . Fig.10 Goitre. Thyroid . Calf .

Fig. 11 Goat POl( . Tail. Goat. Fig. 12 Vitamin 0 deficiency. Sheep.

 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 343

conditions. TCA is normally incubated automatic dilution and spiral plate makers.
aerobically at 20°C and 35°C to assess the levels Automatic video-based colony counters are also
of mesophilic Gram-positive and Gram-negative available. These are valuable improvements but are,
organisms present. The plated samples can also of course, expensive to buy and operate and there is
be incubated anaerobically to assess anaerobic still an unacceptable time delay in obtaining results
and facultative anaerobic populations. On associated with the analysis incubation time.
completion of incubation the number of In an attempt to reduce the time required to
organisms per gram of sample or per ern- may be make accurate and meaningful results available,
back-calculated depending on the original a number of rapid methodologies have been
sample size and the levels of dilution employed. developed. These include the use of hydrophobic
The colonies on these primary plates can be grid membranes, bioluminescence, electrical
sub cultured to purify bacterial colonies in order methods, radiometry, microcalorimetry,
to help identify the organisms. biochemical reactions, immunological and
The medium used for growth may be serological reactions, nucleic acid (DNA) probes,
selected specifically to provide information on DNA amplification (polymerase chain reaction)
one particular group / genus of pathogens or and flow cytometry. It is outside the scope of this
spoilage bacteria. Thus, specific agars have chapter to consider each in detail. However, in
been developed for almost every pathogen generat while these developments must be
based on the resistance of those particular welcomed, they lack the general applicability
pathogens to certain antimicrobial substances. and field robustness of the plate count procedure.
For example, Listeria monocytogenes is resistant In addition there are also question marks over the
to naladixic acid, cycloheximide, acriflavine interpretation of the results produced, and they
and fosfomycin, and the inclusion of these in involve considerable capital investment and
the media (Oxoid) restricts the growth of usually require skilled personnel to operate
contaminating organisms, allowing a them. Thus despite the many problems
determination of the levels of these target associated with plate count procedure it probably
organisms. represents the best compromise between cost and
Despite being both simple and cheap the performance and is the method which is most
plate count procedure is not an ideal method for widely accepted - in fact it is the standard against
measuring bacterial numbers. The most which all other techniques are compared.
significant drawback is the time interval before
a result is obtained. The incubation period
necessary for the development of visible Bacteriological standards for meats
colonies is dependent on a number of factors Various authorities, for example the EU, WHO
and may range from 2 to 7 days. In addition, the and the Codex Alimentarius Commission have
precision and accuracy of this technique are attempted to lay down acceptance criteria for
low, with errors originating from sampling, different types of meats. Although, as yet, there
preparation of dilutions and counting of are no universally accepted criteria for the
colonies. In practical terms it is only possible to interpretation of bacteriological findings, the
test a proportion of the product and it must be following are frequently used:
assumed that this sample is representative of
the carcase as a whole. Analytical accuracy also
Microbiological standards, which are mandatory
criteria with legal backing;
contributes to low levels of reproducibility, and
variations in incubation conditions such as Microbiological specifications, which are
generally contractual agreements between a
time, temperature and humidity may also result manufacturer and a purchaser to check
in large variations in the results obtained. Thus whether the foods are of the required
manually completed plate counts are only quality;
accurate ± 210g lO• Microbiological guidelines, which are non-
In an attempt to improve on the rapidity, mandatory criteria usually intended as a
accuracy and reliability of the plate count guide to good manufacturing practice.
procedure, a number of developments have
attempted to automate the plate count procedure, The International Commission on
thus removing operator error as a source of Microbiological Specifications for Foods
inaccuracy. These include media preparators, (ICMSF of the International Association of
344 Meat Hygiene
Microbiological Societies) has stated that any 5 Environmental conditions, e.g. temperature,
microbiological criterion for a food should pH and type of sampling, markedly influence
contain the following information: bacterial growth:
6 Counting of microbes is a cumbersome and
1 A statement of the microorganisms andlor time-consuming procedure.
toxins of concern.
2 Laboratory methods for their detection and To remove the reliance on end-product
quantification. testing, hazard analysis systems were
3 The sampling plan. developed. HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical
4 The microbiological limits. ControlPoint), is a systems approach to assuring
product safety. It is based on identifying and
5 The number of samples required to conform monitoring the most critical points in the
to these limits.
production process rather than relying on
testing the final product. The Commission of
The ICMSF recommended that the total viable the European Union has produced a Code of
count at 35°C (or at 20°C in the case of chilled Good Hygiene Practices which gives
meats) should be less than 1071g and that indications on the microbiological checks on the
Salmonella should be detected in not more than general hygiene of conditions of production in
one of five 25 g samples. The ICMSF also establishments producing fresh meat, giving
recommended that frozen poultry when specifications on the nature of these controls,
examined by rinsing should give a count at their frequency as well as the sampling
20°C of less than 107 / m l of the rinsing solution methods and the methods for bacteriological
and that Salmonella should be detected in not examination.
more than one of five 25 g samples of the
poultry meat.
These microbiological techniques may also be
used to assess the nature and degree of bacterial DECOMPOSITION AND SPOILAGE
contamination on walls, floors, equipment and
fittings and the hands and clothing of personnel. Decomposition is the breaking up of organic
Tests at various operational stages, e.g. at the matter, chiefly protein, but also fats and
beginning and end of work and after cleansing carbohydrates, by the action of bacteria,
procedures, should provide criteria which can moulds and yeasts, which split the meat up into
be reasonably maintained under everyday a number of chemical substances, many of
conditions. The results should be interpreted which are gaseous and foul-smelling. All forms
carefully and allowance made for factors such as of foods in their natural state remain in a fresh
the time of year, time of day, type of stock being and edible state for only a comparatively short
handled, cleanliness of animals, staff quality, etc. time. Foods are rapidly contaminated by
While microbial counts form the basis of bacteria, moulds or yeasts, which are the main
food microbiological analysis, they are causes of spoilage or decomposition. Before
defective indicators for the following reasons: terminal decomposition changes occur,
however, other factors such as enzyme action
1 Bacteria in food are not stable like heavy and oxidation take place in some foods.
metals; their populations change constantly. Present in all living cells are enzymes which
Different strains of bacteria vary in toxin and catalyse the complicated chemical reactions
allergen production and in invasiveness:
taking place in the cells. The process of autolysis
2 Food usually contains a variety of - self-destruction or self-degradation - is
microorganisms, some or all of which may essentially brought about by enzymes and at a
enhance or inhibit each other: rate which varies markedly in the different
3 Time of sampling, usually at plant or retail tissues. In general it is highest in those tissues in
shop, gives no indication of the final which protein is synthesised in large amounts
microbial count in the consumer's home,long and which have high water contents, e.g.
after sale: gastrointestinal mucosa, testes, pancreas and
4 The number of organisms or amount of toxin adrenals. The water contents of some types of
or allergen which affect man is not known: meat and offal are given in Table 14.6. Tissues
such as the liver, kidneys and endocrine glands
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 345

Table 14.6 Water content of meat and offal. mostly Gram-positive mesophiles. Depending
on the types of bacteria present, meat-borne
g water/lOO g disease or spoilage or both may result,
especially if substandard handling methods are
Liver, ox, raw 73.3 adopted.
Chicken breast, raw 73.7 The various forms of food preservation are
Beef steak, raw 68.3 designed to prevent decomposition by limiting
Chicken, boiled 61.0 the activity of enzymes, the process of oxidation
Beef,corned, canned 58.5 and bacterial spoilage.
The main types of bacteria involved in the
Bacon, Danish, tank-cured 46.9
spoilage of meat belong to genera listed below
Bacon, English, dry-cured 36.3 with their characteristics.
Meat, dehydrated 7.5

Gram-positive organisms
1 Micrococcus. Some are salt tolerant, some
have slower autolytic rates and the tissues with thermoduric and some psychrophilic. Cause
the lowest metabolic rates such as skin, spoilage of salted and chilled meats. Optimal
muscles, bone, heart and blood vessels have the growth temperature, 25-30°C.
lowest autolytic rates of all. 2 Staphylococcus. Staph. albus is responsible for
All forms of food are subject to natural spoilage and Staph. aureus for food poisoning.
deterioration, their shelf-life being dependent Salt tolerant. Optimum temperature 37°C but
on their structure, pH, composition, water can grow below this temperature.
content, presence or absence of bacteria and/ or 3 Streptococcus, e.g. Str. jaecalis, Str. [aecium, Str.
damage and conditions of storage. It is accepted durans. Wide temperature range for growth,
that meat from fatigued animals spoils faster. 10-45°C. Some degree of salt tolerance.
The pH of the meat from these animals, on the 4 Lactobacillus. Mainly mesophilic with some
completion of rigor mortis, is in the region of thermoduric and psychrophilic strains. a;
6.5 rather than the normal value in a rested limit (water activity) value for growth - 0.91.
animal of around 5.6. An adverse (usually low) Can grow at pH of less than 4.5.
pH slows the growth of bacteria grown outside 5 Leuconostoc. Can produce slimes especially in
their optimal pH range by slowing down the high-sugar foods. Some are salt tolerant and
functioning of the enzyme systems and the some can elaborate flavours due to diacetyl
transport of nutrients into the microbial cells. production.
Bacteria, moulds and yeasts in turn are 6 Bacillus, e.g. B. subiiiis (mesophilic), B.
affected by factors such as temperature, ihermophiius and B. coagulans (thermoduric).
moisture, availability of oxygen, nutrients and Very active biochemically with strains that are
the presence or absence of growth inhibitors. saccharolytic (able to split carbohydrates),
Control of one or more of these factors inhibits proteolytic and lipolytic. Some forms can
cause flat sours in canned meats. Limit of a;
microbial growth and lengthens the shelf-life. value for growth is 0.95.
In addition to microbial spoilage, physical
damage which occurs during handling, 7 Clostridium. Originate from soil and animal
intestine. Proteolytic and putrefactive, e.g. Cl.
transportation and processing can be regarded sporogenes, Cl. histolyticum. Saccharolytic, e.g.
as a form of spoilage, as can the presence of Cl. perJringens, Cl. butyricum. Limit of a; value
insects, other pests and chemicals. Foods for growth is about 0.95 with no growth at a
damaged in this way are more susceptible to pH of less than 4.5. An important member is
change by microbial action. Cl. botulinum.
Fresh meats may be initially contaminated 8 Corynebacterium. Fine, non-sporing rods.
from many different sources - soil, dust, faeces, Limit of aw value for growth, 0.98-0.95. No
water, equipment - the hands and clothing of growth below pH of 4.5. Some strains
personnel subsequently adding to this. And sensitive to reduced pC02 •
although it was originally thought that the flesh 9 Microbacterium. Limit of aw value for growth,
of healthy animals at slaughter was sterile, it is 0.98-0.95. No growth below pH 4.5.
now known that it can harbour organisms, Psychrotrophic, insensitive to reduced aw and
346 Meat Hygiene
able to spoil meat stored at chilling practically impossible to avoid their
temperature with reduced relative humidity. contamination of carcases during dressing
procedures. The time taken for slime to develop
Many of the organisms tested above are able on raw meats is directly related to the initial
to grow under reduced and elevated p02 number of organisms on the carcase surface. It is
(partial pressure of oxygen). The former thus especially important to pay attention to
situation is made use of in vacuum packaging; efficient methods of hygiene at slaughter,
the latter along with a reduced initial load of during carcase dressing, refrigeration, storage
spoiling organisms, lowered temperature and and transportation. Chilling procedures do not
aw , and increased pC02! has enabled chilled prevent the activity of spoilage organisms,
meat to achieve a shelf-life of over 6 months which can grow at about - 7°C; however,
within modified-atmosphere packaging. temperatures below 2°C will delay the onset of
slime formation. Control of the relative
humidity in chill rooms, i.e. reducing the aw , can
Gram-negative organisms reduce bacterial spoilage, but results in a loss of
1 Pseudomonas. Widely distributed in soil, fresh carcase weight and liability to spoilage by
and sea water and decomposing organic psychrotrophic bacteria (Micrococcus,
matter. Grow well in protein foods with the Brochothrix, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus) and
production of slime, pigments and odours. some moulds (Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium,
Preference is for a high aw . Many are Fusarium, Thamnidium, Sporotrichum). A reduced
psychrophilic, but temperature range is wide. oxygen partial pressure (pO,) in the vicinity of
2 Flavobacterium. Pigmented colonies (orange stored meat is of value in curtailing spoilage, as
and yellow) causing discoloration of meat is increased pCO l .
and other foods such as eggs, butter and milk. In recent years attempts have been made to
Some types are psychrophilic.
counter the adverse action of spoilage bacteria
3 Acinetobacter. Able to oxidise ethanol to acetic by the use of irradiation, mainly with gamma
acid. rays. Using a dose of about 0.1 Mrad
4 Achromobacter. Similar in action to immediately before shipping, the storage life of
Pseudomonas. Forms slime. carcases under refrigeration has been
5 Alcaligenes. Present in soil, water, dust and prolonged and salmonellae eliminated.
manure. An alkaline reaction is produced in However, the use of ionising radiation is subject
some foods, including meat. to legislative control in most countries and it is
6 Halobacierium. Obligate halophiles spoiling thus used infrequently.
meats high in salt content. The spoilage process is initially fuelled by
7 Moraxella. Sometimes classified as the breakdown of carbohydrate. As time passes,
acinetobacter, e.g. M. liouejaciens. however, protein molecules are broken up into
8 Escherichia. Abundant in the soil and simpler substances by acids, alkalis,
intestines of man and animals. Commonly endogenous enzymes and bacteria, the degree
found in large numbers in raw foods of of decomposition varying greatly with the
animal origin and also in cooked foods that different agencies. Of these agencies the
have been contaminated in various ways. E. putrefactive bacteria carry the process further,
coliis indicative of faecal or sewage pollution. breaking up the protein molecule into
Spoilage of meat by fermentation of
carbohydrates to acid and gas causing 'off' proteoses, then peptones, peptides, amino
odours. The verotoxic strain, E. coli 0157:H7 acids, and finally indole, skatol, phenol,
is an important food-poisoning bacterium. together with various gases including
9 Klebsiella. Non-motile, non-sporing rods. The hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane
pathogenic Salmonella, Shigella and Proteus and ammonia. It is the amino acids, non-toxic in
belong to the same group. nature, which furnish bacteria with abundant
and available nutritive material, and their
The main types of spoilage organisms on breakdown products which give the typical
chilled fresh meats belong to the above groups, appearance and odour of decomposed meat.
which are responsible for slime formation The recognised everyday signs of
during storage. These particular bacteria are decomposition are marked changes of colour to
found almost everywhere in nature and it is a grey, yellow or green, a softening in the
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 347
consistency of the tissue, a pronounced presence of a greenish hue, first apparent on the
repulsive odour and an alkaline reaction caused kidney fat and peritoneal wall, with the
by the formation of ammonia. diaphragm soft and flaccid and lying close to
After slaughter of a healthy animal, the ribs, is a strong indication that evisceration
decomposition eventually develops in the parts of the animal has been delayed and calls for a
exposed to the air, the time taken depending severe judgement on the carcase. Lambs
particularly on the temperature and humidity coming straight off grass and slaughtered in hot
of the environment. The primary surface sultry weather have been known to exhibit
growth is initiated by aerobic bacteria, among evidence of incipient decomposition within 1
these being Pseudomonas, Achromobacter and hour of dressing. Pigs in which evisceration has
some coliforms. These organisms extract been delayed, particularly in the summer
oxygen from the meat surface and produce months, may show a greenness of the
conditions suitable for the growth of anaerobic abdominal fat in 12 hours, while the kidneys,
bacteria, e.g. Clostridium sporogenes, which can and also the liver, may exhibit a superficial
also grow within the deeper tissues where there black coloration; in the kidneys this
is no oxygen. After surface putrefaction of meat pigmentation is frequently confined to the
has commenced, the process spreads gradually anterior poles where blood collects due to
by way of the nerve and connective-tissue hypostasis. This coloration, known as sulphiding
sheaths and along the surfaces of blood or or pseudomelanosis, is due to the formation of
lymph vessels. The rapidity of the extension of iron sulphide by chemical action between
the putrefactive process throughout a carcase is hydrogen sulphide from the digestive tract and
greatly influenced by the condition of the iron from the blood haemoglobin.
animal before slaughter. In exhausted animals In the case of shot deer which cannot be
or in those that have suffered from fever gutted immediately, it is customary among
(especially from a septic cause) where the meat sportsmen to incise the abdominal wall, as a
is alkaline, decomposition sets in very rapidly current of air cools the abdominal viscera and
and quickly reaches the deeper parts. delays emigration of putrefactive bacteria from
The condition known in Britain as 'heated the intestinal tract. Venison, which is
beef, and in North America as 'sour side', is particularly rich in connective tissue and
caused by inability of the freshly-killed carcase therefore exceedingly tough after slaughter,
to dissipate heat rapidly when carcases are requires conditioning by hanging before it is
hung too close to each other, thus preventing a rendered palatable. It can hang for long periods
proper current of air around the sides. This without decomposition, and it is stated that the
usually affects the prominent areas of the muscular tissue of deer possesses antibacterial
hindquarters and ribs. In mild cases where hot substances which have an inhibitory action on a
sides of beef have not been in close contact for great number of putrefactive bacteria as well as
too long, there is merely a blanching of the on the bacteria responsible for food poisoning;
surface with no major loss of quality. The in this way conditioning or ripening can take
condition is also observed in rabbits, hares and place in venison unassociated with
game which are packed in hampers or baskets decomposition.
while still warm, and is known in the trade as The smaller animals such as game or hares,
green struck. lose heat rapidly after death and at an
In animals that have died and have not been atmospheric temperature of 16-1SSC. Small
eviscerated, both external and internal carcases such as rabbits cool to air temperature
decomposition occur simultaneously, owing in about 12 hours, whereas larger carcases such
partly to the high blood content of the meat and as sheep require about 24 hours. As this rapid
partly to the invasion of the abdominal veins by heat dissipation inhibits the growth of
putrefactive bacteria from the intestines. The putrefactive bacteria, it is practicable to consign
first bacterium to invade the carcase from the feathered game and hares to market without
bowels after death is E. coli, which in warm removal of the abdominal viscera and packed
weather may reach the joints within 24 hours; in crates or baskets.
these bacteria use up the oxygen in the carcase In British fresh sausage, the early stages of
and pave the way for penetration by anaerobic decomposition usually take place
bacteria, e.g. Cl. perfringens, from the bowel. The simultaneously throughout the meat substance,
348 Meat Hygiene
but all the accepted changes associated with continues at low temperature since little energy
decomposition may not be present. Valuable is required for the biochemical reaction.
indications of unsoundness in fresh sausage, as Exposure to light is another factor which can
distinct from smoked, are stickiness on the predispose fatty tissues to oxidation. The
surface of the casing; in the early stages, a sour natural resistance of some fats, e.g. chicken fat,
rather than a fetid odour as a result of the to the development of rancidity is due to the
activity of lactic acid bacteria and Brochothrix presence of antioxidants such as vitamin E. Beef
thermosphactum; easy separation of the sausage and mutton fats are relatively resistant, and
meat from the casing; and a grey colour on cause little trouble except when frozen and
section of the sausage. The odour of early stored at -lOoC for periods longer than 18
decomposition may be detected by a boiling months.
test, especially if a little limewater is added to Bacon fat, particularly when exposed to
the water before boiling. light, is much more susceptible to oxidation.
It is important to remember that while the The type of feeding of the bacon pig also affects
spoilage organisms indicate their presence by the rapidity of oxidation, for example, extensive
off-colours, odours and tastes as well as swill feeding produces a soft fat with a high
changes in consistency, most food-poisoning proportion of unsaturated fatty acids which
organisms give no indication of their presence tend to be converted to aldehydes and ketones,
in food. Some, such as Bacillus cereus, E. coli, imparting the acid flavour associated with
Pseudomonas, Proteus and Citrobacier, as well as rancidity. The rapid onset of rancidity, together
causing spoilage, can also on occasions cause with a yellow coloration of the fat, has
food poisoning. E. coli is commonly found in frequently been observed in carcases of pigs fed
foods of animal origin and is an indication of on cod liver oil or fish meal. A further
sewage pollution of water and unhygienic deleterious factor in bacon manufacture is that
methods of preparation. The factors responsible during curing much of the natural resistance of
for the onset of food poisoning (mainly lack of the pig tissues to oxidation is broken down by
hygiene and careless storage of cooked and the specific action of the pickling salts (sodium
uncooked foods at temperatures suitable for chloride is known to have a catalytic effect in fat
bacterial growth) are virtually the same as those autoxidation), and for this reason bacon fat is
that lead to the spoilage of food. more liable to develop rancidity than pork fat.
Even at -lOoC oxidation of bacon fat is
appreciable within a few weeks, though if
Decomposition of fat bacon is smoked subsequently to curing the
The problem of fat rancidity crops up in the absorption of phenolic substances confers a
storage of practically every foodstuff. An certain amount of protection against oxidation
unpleasant odour or flavour in a fat may be due during storage. The time factor in the curing of
to absorption of foreign odours, as in the bacon and ham is therefore of particular
tainting of meat or butter stored in a chamber importance, and bacon which undergoes a long
previously used for fruit, atmospheric period of manufacture, e.g. Midland cured
oxidation, or the action of microorganisms, bacon which takes 3-5 weeks, is more liable to
which may give rise to extensive hydrolysis of become rancid than Wiltshire bacon which is
fat. A small amount of free fatty acids, however, produced in 2-4 weeks. The still greater length
has little effect on flavour; it is more likely that of time taken to manufacture York hams, about
the tainted flavour normally accompanying 3-6 months, renders it essential that the fat of
bacterial growth is mainly due to nitrogenous such hams is of excellent quality, because soft
breakdown products of connective tissue. fat, which might be admissible in pork or
Rancidity from atmospheric oxidation does Wiltshire bacon, will lead to noticeable
not require the presence of microorganisms and rancidity before the slowly maturing York ham
is the most common type of deleterious fatty is ready for the market.
change. The important oxidative lipids in food Marked rancidity in pig fat is usually
are the unsaturated fatty acids, particularly associated with a change in colour of the fat
oleic, linoleate and linolenate, with the from white to yellow, and the rancid odour may
susceptibility and rate of oxidation increasing be detected if a piece of fat is rubbed between
with their degree of unsaturation. Oxidation the hands. Chemical methods of assessing
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 349
rancidity include the measuring of peroxides organisms enter the bloodstream before death,
produced utilising potassium iodide. The rather than during it or at the bleeding stage,
thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test and the Kreis test and that this entrance is facilitated by pre-
both rely on the intensity of a colour change to slaughter exhaustion, fright, shock or a sudden
indicate the degree of rancidity which has strain, e.g. the ascent to the top floor of the
developed. factory, which predispose the tissues around
As already mentioned, a further factor the head of the femur to bone taint. There is
causing taint in fat is the activity of practical evidence that putrefaction can
microorganisms which produce hydrolysis, commence in the blood vessels of the bone
resulting in the liberation of free fatty acids. marrow. The synovial fluid of the hip joint is
Experiments show that the fat of the kidney, also a favourable medium for bacterial growth
brisket and back of the ox develops a taint with a pH between 7.0 and 8.0, whereas that of
when the free fatty acids reach 2.5-3.0%. The muscle in complete rigor is usually below 6.0.
deep intramuscular fat of meat, as is seen in the The lymph stream may also be important, for
marbling of prime beef, is not affected by bacteria resembling those in taints have been
hydrolysis or atmospheric oxidation and is isolated more frequently from lymph nodes
therefore likely to remain sound for long than from bone marrow and muscle. These
periods, but the kidney and abdominal fat, bacteria may therefore be present in the lymph
being more exposed, is likely to develop nodes during life and, under suitable
rancidity early; it is for this reason that these conditions, may spread to the surrounding
superficial fats are removed by the retail muscular tissue. The odour of bone taint is
butcher before the carcase is hung up in the apparent in both the musculature around the
shop. Fats should be regarded with suspicion if femur and in the bone marrow; it is very
they contain over 2% of free fatty acids, typical, quite unlike that of decomposing meat
although in practice the appearance, odour and and resembles the sewage-like smell associated
flavour are the usual guidelines. with gut-cleaning. The condition may be
associated with a change in the muscle
coloration to a grey, or at times a blackish-
Bone taint purple, but frequently the normal red
The rapid dissipation of body heat from a coloration is entirely preserved.
freshly-killed carcase is facilitated when the Bone taint in cattle can be reduced by
surrounding air is cool, dry and in rapid avoiding bacterial contamination of the carcase
circulation. The rate of cooling is slow in heavy with rapid cooling to lSC. Experimentally,
carcases owing to their greater thickness and tetracycline injections immediately before
also in those which carry an excessive amount slaughter and antibiotic spraying of the carcase
of fat, with the result that a high temperature can prevent taint. The smaller butcher can aid
may persist in the deep-seated musculature of the dissipation of heat from the freshly-killed
these animals and give rise to deleterious carcase of beef by removing the fat from the
change. This change, known as bone taint, is kidney and the pelvic cavity. Incision of the
associated with the growth of putrefactive stifle joint, to promote air access and rapid
bacteria and occurs most commonly in the cooling, will prevent the growth of anaerobic
region of the hip joint of the ox and pig, but bacteria. To avoid bone taint, the temperature at
occasionally in the shoulder region of the ox, the centre of the round must not exceed 4.5°C
especially when ambient temperatures are after 48 hours. Bone taint is a local condition
high. The condition, which was commonly requiring condemnation of the affected tissues,
encountered in the days when there was but in many cases, when the hip joint or round
inadequate refrigeration and during the warm of beef is affected, generous trimming of the
summer months, is not a serious problem today. muscle around the femur is all that is necessary.
Bone taint, or deep-seated spoilage of meat,
is undoubtedly of bacterial origin. More than
Taint in hams
one organism may be involved, but the
anaerobic spore-jorming bacteria are the most Taint in hams is also known as souring, and is
important and probably emanate from the gut attributed by American authorities to
of the animal. It appears likely that the contamination by Clostridium sporogenes, Cl.
350 Meat Hygiene
pufrefaciens and Cl. putrificum, which are which are widely distributed in nature,
proteolytic organisms and break down proteins especially in sea water, and may contaminate a
into amino acids and ammonia. The taints in chilling room. These organisms are resistant to
hams and beef are fundamentally similar in chilling room temperatures and their invasion
origin, being in each case a deep form of of cold stores can be a matter of considerable
decomposition which is unassociated with any inconvenience. At the commencement of
surface change. Though the blood, marrow, phosphorescence, which occurs in 7-8 hours
muscle and bone of normal live pigs are free when the condition is artifically produced, the
from ham-souring bacteria, these surface of the meat, when seen in the dark
microorganisms may be present in such tissues room, shows luminous areas scattered over its
soon after slaughter and develop rapidly along surface and appears as if it were studded with
connective tissue bands between the muscle stars. If decomposition develops in the meat,
bundles. The sticking knife undoubtedly the phosphorescence disappears. Salted or
contributes bacteria to the bloodstream, which stored meat may show various changes in
can be demonstrated experimentally by placing colour due to bacterial action. Scattered areas,
pure cultures of uncommon bacteria on the knife reddish in colour and not unlike beetroot juice,
blade and isolating them from the tibia and are caused by Serratia marceecens, and a similar
other long bones. The marrow of the femur superficial change, but blue in colour, is seen as
tends to harbour fewer bacteria than the tibia a result of surface contamination by
and, as American authorities note, 'tibia sours' Pseudomonas cyanagenus. Pseudomonas cuiirubra
are much the commoner. Too large a sticking appears to be the primary cause of 'red mould'
wound also facilitates deep-seated on charque, the dried salted beef of South
contamination, for the ham-souring bacteria America. Meat affected with phosphorescence
appear to resist the high bactericidal properties or abnormal surface coloration is unsightly and
of pigs' blood. French experience suggests that repugnant, but if no putrefactive changes are
heavy eating may be conducive to ham taint as present it may safely be dealt with by
the bacteria then migrate from the intestines - 'la trimming.
bacteremie habituelle de digestion'. Other species of
bacteria are frequently involved, e.g. faecal
streptococci, micrococci and vibrios which are
Moulds
salt-tolerant and Proteus, E. coli and Pseudomonas
which are not salt-tolerant and are associated In contrast with yeasts and bacteria, moulds are
with 'mis-cured' hams, i.e. hams not properly readily seen with the naked eye, appearing
cured. typically as fluffy growths on old damp
A further factor which encourages bacterial newspapers, walls, rotting fruits, cheese, jam,
growth within the pig carcase is that glycogen is etc. They can occur in various colours, e.g.
less readily deposited in pig muscle than in other white, black, green, blue. Unlike bacteria and
domestic animals, while it is also lost more yeasts, they are multicellular and typically
readily by excitement and fatigue. Pig muscle consist of a mass (mycelium) of branched
thus often fails to reach an adequate post-mortem filaments or hyphae which bear reproductive
acidity, and the incidence of deleterious bacterial bodies or spores. Along with yeasts, mildews,
change is therefore high. Adequate and rapid rusts, smuts and mushrooms, they belong to the
refrigeration of freshly-killed carcases of pork class Mycota or fungi. Like bacteria, they are
with prompt handling and careful sawing of the present everywhere and are responsible for
shank, together with bacteriological control of the many beneficial and harmful activities.
pickling solution have, however, done much to Saprophytic moulds are largely concerned
obviate this troublesome condition from with the decomposition of organic matter and
commercially prepared bacon and ham, and have the decay of foodstuffs. By breaking down
reduced all types of taint to a minimum. complex organic matter they contribute to the
rotting of vegetable material and its eventual
conversion into soil. Some act as parasites on
Phosphorescence plants, causing death of the host, while others
Phosphorescence is caused by a number of take part in fermentation processes which are of
organisms, e.g. Pseudomonas phosphorescens, value in industry, e.g. the ripening of cheese.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 351
The breakdown is due to the secretion of Black spot
enzymes on to the surface and the mould
This is the most troublesome affection of imported
absorbinz the resultant fluid as food. Moulds
meat and is caused by the mould Cladosporium
can produce valuable antibiotics - e.g.
herbarum. Pullularia and Rhizopus may also be
penicillin, by several species of the green mould
involved. It is liable to attack quarters of chilled
Penicillium one of which is P. noiaium.
A few ~oulds are pathogenic: Aspergillus
beef taken from ships and placed in cold store at a
temperature above - 8°C; some varieties grow at
flavus causes aflatoxicosis in swine, cattle, sheep
- 7SC, while all grow well at around O°e. In beef,
and poultry by the production of aflatoxins on
black spot is commonly found on the neck,
groundnuts, soya beans and other cereals
diaphragm and pleura, and in. frozen mutto.n on
during storage; Claoiceps purpurea causes
the legs, inside the neck or m the thoracic or
ergotism in cattle and horses due to the
abdominal cavities. The spots are about 6-13 mm
alkaloids ergotamine, ergo sine, etc. on rye, rye
in diameter and occur on the surface of the meat.
grasses and other forage plants; and ~ouldy
The dark colour is due to the fungal threads in the
corn toxicosis is caused by the rubratoxms and
superficial layers of the meat, and from which the
other mycotoxins from Penicillium rubrum,
mould derives the moisture necessary for growth.
Aspergillus flavus and others. .
Black spot cannot be remove~ by ge~tle
Moisture, temperature and orgamc matter
scraping with a knife, and microscopical
are important factors in determinin~ t~e
examination shows that the threads of the
presence and activity of moulds.. The majority
fungus, dark green or olive. in colour, ~re
are mesophilic and have an optimum growth
interlaced between the fat cells m the connective
temperature of 20-30°C, but several types can
tissue on the surface of the carcase; they do not
grow at or just below OnC, e.g. the so-called
snow moulds and those responsible for the
penetrate to a greater depth than ~ rnn:-,and the
contiguous muscular and connective tissues are
spoilage of refrigerated foods. ° Some
perfectly normal. Black s~ot may. at times be
thermophilic species can grow at 50 C and
accompanied by bactenal spoilage, w~en
higher but not below 30°e. Although ~ost
decomposition is manifested by a softening,
favour moist conditions, some, e.g. Aspergillus,
darkening and sliminess of the carcase surface
Botrytis, Cladosporium, Fu~a:ium, Mu co:', and is associated with the growth of
Penicillium, Rhizopus, Thamnidium, Aliernaria
microorganisms of the Achrom~bacter gro~p.
and Sporotrichum, are relatively tolerant t.o
Black spot which is not too extens~v: and which
water availability (limit of a" value for growth IS
is unaccompanied by decompos~tlO~ may be
0.88-0.80) and can grow in a pH lower than ~.~.
removed by trimming. T~IS IS mvanab~y
Moulds first appear and grow most prolifi- practicable in quarters of chilled beef, but m
cally on the cut surfaces of the lean meat.
frozen mutton the mould formation may be so
Although the spores of m~ulds [Link] have a extensive on the inner aspect of the carcase, neck
ubiquitous existence, often m the a~r attac~ed
and pelvic cavity that t?tal [Link] is
to dust particles, they cannot germmate WIth-
required. Mould formation accompanied .by
out moisture. The growth of moulds can be
bacterial spoilage requires more generous parmg
prevented by low temperatur~s [Link] ~ttenti~m and, at times, condemnation of the whole
to humidity; thus, proper ventilation m refng-
quarter. It has been repeatedly borne out .by
erating and storage works is necessary so that practical experience that meat affected WIth
circulating air may dry the surfac~ of food and mould, and subsequently refrozen after
containers. The control of moulds m food prod-
trimming or wiping, will develop mould more
ucts with chemicals is neither approved nor
rapidly and in greater abundance than meat
successful' the concentration of chemical
which, though mouldy, ha~ not been so .treated.
required t~ inhibit gr~wth increases rapidly Meat which has been trimmed or WIped to
with humidity. The chief causes of mould on
remove mould therefore requires a quick sale.
meat are exposure to dust and variations in
temperature causing condensation on the meat
surface. Intermittent freezing or temperature
fluctuations in a refrigerating chamber are
White spot
common predisposing causes to mould White spot is caused by Sporotrichum and
growth. Chrysosporium and is the most commonly
352 Meat Hygiene
encountered defect of imported meat. It is seen necessarily be harmful; the question is simply
as small, flat, woolly spots, frequently which bacteria and what conditions were
accompanying black spot of similar size, but it concerned in the contamination. Cl. botulinum
is whitish in colour and entirely superficial in produces serious specific symptoms, but in
nature. The spores can develop at - SOC, grow other illnesses attributed to the eating of
more plentifully at - 2.5°C, and become profuse decomposed meat there are no specific
when the temperature is above O''C. symptoms and the affection is usually an acute
afebrile gastrointestinal inflammation which is
'Whiskers' frequently of short duration but may on
occasions prove fatal.
This fungoid growth belongs to the closely Another factor which dictates condemnation
allied genera Thamnidium and Mucor. The of decomposed meat is the aesthetic one. The
hyphae grow well at O°C and may project more appearance, odour and taste of decomposing
than 2.5 cm beyond the surface of the meat, but meat are repugnant to most of the more civilised
they collapse in a relatively dry atmosphere. nations of the world, and in some individuals its
Though the growth of these moulds ceases at consumption may be accompanied by marked
temperatures below -7.5°C, they retain their psychological effects. The position may be
viability and proliferate if the temperature rises summarised by the statement that anyone
above freezing point; thus the presence of selling a decomposed food is negligent in the
'whiskers' indicates the meat has been exposed legal sense of the word, and, although in most
during storage to a temperature at or above o°e. cases eating decomposed meat will do no harm,
experience has shown that it can be responsible
Bluish-green moulds for human illness. As it is impossible to state
Bluish-green moulds belong to the genus beforehand whether the bacteria present are
Penicillium and are seen frequently on cheese, harmful or not, decomposing meat should in all
on unsound fruit, and also on meat. They are cases be condemned.
superficial in character and grow with difficulty
at O°C, though conspicuous growths will occur
at a slightly higher temperature. ASSESSMENT OF DECOMPOSITION
The superficial nature of white spot,
'whiskers' and the bluish-green moulds renders The need has long been felt for a laboratory
their removal easy, either by wiping with a method to establish the extent of spoilage in
cloth steeped in vinegar or salt water, or by meat. To be of practical value such a test must
trimming, the latter procedure being often be short and simple and must provide
preferable, as mould on meat may be associated unambiguous results which can be interpreted
with a characteristic musty odour. In imported with confidence. During the last 50-60 years,
forequarters of beef affected with mould, chemical, bacteriological and physical tests
particular attention should be paid to the sawn have been developed.
surfaces of the vertebrae, especially the cervical Chemical tests Various chemical methods
and first four or five dorsal vertebrae; all have been suggested:
affected bones should be removed (an affected
pleura or peritoneum may be removed by 1 Tests based on the detection of free ammonia.
stripping). In spite of the non-pathogenic 2 The determination of the total amount of
nature of most moulds, they may impart a volatile bases produced during spoilage.
mouldy odour and taste if extensive and of
long-standing. Moulds, too, may promote In neither of these cases does the test give a
rancidity of fat, and in doubtful cases a portion clear indication of spoilage until the meat itself
of the meat should be subjected to a boiling test smells sufficiently to be condemned sensorially.
after the meat has been wiped or trimmed. 3 The determination of free amino acid content
as an indication of decomposition has been
suggested, but it is likewise unsuitable except
The danger of decomposing meat to man as a guide to advanced putrefaction.
Though decomposition is an index of bacterial 4 The production of indole, sulphur and other
growth, it is not an indication that the meat will volatile products in decomposing meat has
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 353
also been investigated, but although in fish Estimation of the pH of meat is of value in the
there seems to be a relationship between judgement of borderline cases, particularly of
spoilage and the amount of total volatile emergency-slaughtered animals, for it indicates
reducing substances and total volatile acids whether or not the meat will possess adequate
present respectively, such a relationship has durability. It is a routine procedure in many
not been established in meat.
continental abattoirs. In animals suffering from
S Tests for meat spoilage based on either the febrile disease or exhausted at the time of slaughter,
oxygen requirements of the meat or on its the glycogen content of the muscles is low and the
power of reduction have been in existence for
some time but have not proved of practical pH of the flesh will remain at a high level. pH can
value. be measured accurately with an electronic meter or,
less accurately, by methods employing colour
changes using, for example, nitrazine yellow.
Bacteriological test In animals slaughtered because of fractures
of the lumbar vertebrae, pelvis or hind limbs, it
Bacteriological methods have been devised to is common to find that the pH of the immobile
relate bacterial plate counts to the quality of hind limbs falls to the normal figure of about
meat, but these do not show any close 5.8, whereas the struggling of the animal causes
relationship between the number of bacteria the forequarters to remain at 6.5 or more.
present and the degree of spoilage as assessed
sensorily. It is known, however, that anaerobes Chemiluminescence (see also p. 377)
cause putrefaction and the desirability of a test
for anaerobes in meat comparable with the E. Chemiluminescence has been studied by the
coli test in water analysis has been suggested. Battelle Columbus Laboratories in Ohio, USA,
as a possible 'marker' for assessing the freshness
Of all the methods suggested to date, none is of food. As food deteriorates, the unsaturated
sufficiently discriminating to replace sensory fats, oils and other lipids emit light. It is
assessment and there is little doubt that the suggested the technique could accurately gauge
experienced inspector can arrive at a sound the shelf-life of products which might
conclusion by estimating the texture, otherwise be prematurely withdrawn, develop
appearance, taste and odour of the food, with an indicator of the life of oil, thereby improving
the use of a boiling test where necessary. It is, the flavour of food fried in the oil, and assess
however, contended that in certain cases pH the effectiveness of antioxidant additives.
measurements may be of value.

LEGISLATION AND DURABILITY OF

pH estimation PROCESSED FOODS
Meat from freshly-killed cattle has an average
pH of 6.4-6.8 and sometimes up to 7.2, i.e. The Food Labelling Directive (79/112/EEC)
slightly acid or slightly alkaline. The pH then requires most pre-packed foodstuffs to carry a
falls rapidly, reaching its lowest level of around date of minimum durability. This is known as a
5.6 within 48 hours after slaughter. The pH then 'best before' date on the label, which is the date
remains constant for some time, this period up until which the foodstuff will retain its
depending on whether the carcase has been optimum condition, i.e. it will not be stale.
properly cooled, the degree of bacterial Article 9a of the Directive, which was
contamination and the storage conditions. introduced by amending Directive
Subsequently the pH rises slowly owing to 89/395/EEC, requires the 'best before' date to
autolysis and bacterial growth. When a pH of be replaced with the 'use by' date on those pre-
6.4 is reached, there is suspicion of the presence packed foods 'which, from the microbiological
of incipient decomposition; when muscle point of view, are highly perishable and are
reaches a pH of 6.8 or over, the objective signs therefore likely after a short period to constitute
of decomposition - odour, colour and texture - an immediate danger to human health'. The
become apparent. It is an unfavourable 'use by' date is the date up to and including which
indication if the pH does not fall to 6.1 or below the food may be used safely, e.g. cooked or
within 24 hours. processed or consumed, if it has been stored
354 Meat Hygiene
correctly. The 'use by' da te is not a voluntary The ' use by ' da te must be placed on the
alternative; it must be used instead of the 'best packaging within the same field of vision as the
before' da te when both of the conditions set out name of the food . The date mark mus t be
abov e are met. In addition to the above, pre· followed by a description of the storage
p acked fresh poultry meat is required to bear a conditions, including a maximum temperature
' use by' date und er the terms of Council at or below which the food should be stored,
Reg ulation (EEC) 1906/90 on marketing and cond itions of use which m ust be observed.
standards for po ultry mea t.
 Part 3 - The Meat Plant Laboratory

Laboratory facilities should be readily available lesser extent be involved with parasitological
to provide the inspector with the information and clinical chemistry matters.
he requires in doubtful cases involving Completesterility of equipment and methods is a
abnormalities, diseases or residues and in prerequisite for all laboratory procedures.
which a macroscopical inspection alone cannot
provide the evidence required for passing
judgement on a carcase and its viscera. BASIC LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
Of necessity, this laboratory in the slaughter
sector must be limited in size and function. • Microscope with x10 and x40 objectives and
Nevertheless it has an important preliminary x90 or x100 oil immersion objective
part to play in disease diagnosis, monitoring of • Immersion oil
potential pathogens, quality control/plant/staff
hygiene standards, assessment of water quality • Glass slides and cover slips
and chemical residues, photography of • Balance
pathological specimens/livestock disease cases, • Bunsen burner
etc., and the training of staff. • Camera with close-up facility
Although at the moment the judgement of • Autoclave
carcases assessed as fit for human consumption
• Incubator
is usually based on visual inspection in most
countries, microbiological assessment may well • Refrigerator
be essential in future in view of the serious • Homogeniser
situation regarding incidents of food-borne • Centrifuge with interchangeable heads
disease, especially those associated with E. coli • Stomacher Lab Blender
0157:H7, Salmonella, Listeria and Campylobacter, • pH meter
etc.
The present high levels of microbial • Thermometer
populations on all carcases (cattle, sheep, pigs, • Slit sampler, air sampling apparatus
poultry) following dressing and occasioned by • Colorimeter / photometer/luminometer
dirty hides and skins (and sometimes gut • Candle jar (Fig. 14.8)
contents) may well necessitate on-line carcase • Ready poured culture media, e.g. blood
pasteurisation followed by microbiological agar, MacConkey agar, agar sausages, plate
examination of random carcases to ensure count agar, etc.
absence of potential pathogens and complete • Commercial identification kits
fitness for human consumption. • Ringer's solution
Further detailed work such as
histopathological examinations and typing of • Anaerobic culture system
microorganisms involving serology must be • Antibiotic disc dispenser and discs
referred to a central laboratory. • Oxoid sensitivity test agar, test organisms
The plant laboraiorq should be located at some (B. subtilis, Sarcina lutea and Staph. aureusi
distance from slaughter/carcase dressing • 3% hydrogen peroxide
operations in order to minimise the amount of • 3% potassium hydroxide
contamination and further steps should be taken
• Specimen transport media
in the form of a barrier disinfectant bath near its
entrance. Sampling of tissues, equipment, walls, • Stains - Gram, Ziehl-Neelsen, polychrome
methylene blue, Giemsa, Loeffler's
floors, tools, hands and clothing of personnel, methylene blue, Leishman, etc.
etc. is performed on the factory floors thus
reducing the traffic to the laboratory. • Test tubes, holding and staining racks
While the laboratory will be involved mainly • Durham tubes
with microbiological procedures it will also to a • Centrifuge tubes

355
356 Meat Hygiene
• Petri di shes (dispo sable)
• Beakers a nd flasks
• Measuring cylind ers
• Imp ression plates
• 1OZ, 602, 8 0 2 bo ttles
• Universal containers
• Abso rben t co tton wool swabs, ga uze sw abs,
algina te sw abs
• Metal tem pla tes (50cm\ l OOcm')
• Mdntosh & Fild es jar (Fig. 14.9)
• pH reagent stri ps. electro nic pH meter
• Platinum loo ps
• Glass wool
• Plastic bags
• Self-adhesive cellophane tape
• Filter pads
• Specimen collection equipment - scalpels ,
forceps, spatulas, spoons, searing iron , cork
borer, skin scra per, m eta l cylind er

fig. 14.8 Candle extinction jar and inoculated

plate s. (By kind permission of Professors C. Mahon
and G. Manu sclis)
SAMP LING OF MEAT FOR TESTI NG

(Reference has been made to the M anllal of

Mmlllfnctllrillg Meat Quality by P. N. Ch urch and
1. W. Wood, Lealherhead Food Resear ch
Association, Chairman Or T. Toomev ) in the
com piling of the following notes.) •

A sample is a small portion of a larger amou nt

taken for examination (m icrobiological status,
residues /far / species content, etc.).
The sam pling of processed materials (to
which most attention appears to have been
given) is a complex procedure which requires
careful planning , special ised equipment and
tra ined sampling staff and will not be discussed
here. The reader is referred to specialised tex ts
on th is type of sampling.
Sampling should be as representative as
pos sible, which may mean swabbing several
areas of a carcase or re-swabbing with a dry
swab.
It shou ld be borne in mind in relation to beef,
lamb and pigmeat that the su rfaces to be
examined arc very tack y and do not readily
release bacteria. In addition, microorganism s
are irregularl y distributed. ove r carcases.
Fig. 1-I.9 McIn tosh & Fild es anaerobic jar. (By kind Th e samp ling of frozen meat s is more
perm ission of Oxoid Marketin g) comp licated than that for fresh meat. Blocks of
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 357

meats can be cut into 9 cubes from which cores requires expertise and experience. Carcases will
can be removed with an auger or drill. display vast differences in the number of
Chilled and frozen poultry carcases can be organisms at different sites, being greater in
sampled by rinsing the whole skin, defined number at points in contact with faecal
areas of skin or the whole carcase. material, e.g. the anal region and those areas
Full details of the material sampled, site, requiring close contact with the knife and
date, nature of examination required, etc. must hands of operatives, such as shin and leg.
accompany the sample. A representative sample can be achieved by
Care should be taken to ensure that samples pooling 8-10 smears from these areas,
arrive at the laboratory in good condition. balancing the low and high contamination
areas.
Purpose of microbiological testing Agar plate counts (APCs) of mesophilic
Microbiological testing determines: organisms (grow best at 20-S0°C) after 30-3SoC
incubation are useful measures of the
1 Types and numbers of microorganisms bacteriological status of carcases and slaughter
present. hygiene. Taken over a period of time they are a
2 Presence/absence of pathogens. good indication of the overall standard of plant
3 Quality of meat for further processing. hygiene. Counts of psychrotrophic bacteria (grow
4 Standard of animal hygiene. best at low temperatures: 0-7°C) are a good
5 Standard of slaughter and carcase dressing indication of hygiene practices which affect
methods. shelf-life.
6 Standard of personnel and environmental
hygiene. Aerobic plate count (APe) Also known as the
7 Evidence of spoilage due to bacteria/moulds Total Viable Count (TVC), Aerobic Mesophilic
- may be evident on incorrectly stored Count (AMC) or Standard Plate Count (SPC),
carcases. this is the most common method of assessing
the number of organisms in raw meat.
The meat plant veterinarian will be mainly
concerned with the possible presence of There are three methods in use: Aerobic Plate
pathogenic microorganisms, the main ones Count (Standard Plate Count, Pour Plate
responsible for food-borne disease in man being: Count), Drop Plate method and Surface Plate
(Spread Drop Method).
Bacillus cereus The colonies on plates represent the rapid
Campylobacter jejuni growth of individual organisms - bacteria,
Clostridium botulinum yeasts, moulds - and can easily be counted to
Clostridium perfringens give the number of live organisms originally
Enteropathogenic E. coli especially 0157:H7 present in the incoculum. Depending on their
colour, shape, etc., colonies can often be
Listeria monocytogenes differentiated to count different types of
Salmonella spp. organisms. This can also be achieved by using
Staphylococcus aureus selective culture media on which yeasts,
Toxoplasma gondii moulds, lactic acid bacteria, coliforms and
Yersinia enterocolitica staphylococci can be counted as visible
colonies.
The numbers of these microorganisms The colony-forming unit (CFU) is the unit of
present on carcases will be determined largely measurement in this particular test and is
by the standards listed above, especially that of usually expressed as 10 efu (101 efu), 100 efu
animal hygiene. (10"efu), etc., or mean log 10 CFU, all occurring
per cm".
(Refer to Microorganisms in Foods and Their
Colony counts of mesophilic aerobes - agar Significance and Methods of Enumeration, 2nd
plate methods edition 1 (1978), 2 (1986)), International
The system of sampling carcases, choice of test Commission on Microbiological Significance
method and the interpretation of results for Foods (ICMSF) of the International
358 Meat Hygiene
Association of Microbiological Societies, The sampling plan is the same for all the
University of Toronto, for details of the Aerobic meats shown in Table 14.7. Only the limits m
Plate Count methods.) and M vary. For example, for carcase meat
Although colony counts are the customary before chilling the target value m is 10/5 and
methods used, other techniques include Direct the maximum value is 10/6, while for boneless
Microscopic Count (DMC), electrical methods, frozen meat these values are higher at 5 x 10/5
Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique (DEFT) and 10/7, respectively.
and commercial kits using immunological and A microbiological standard is a microbiological
DNA-probe hybridisation for rapid detection of criterion that is part of a law or regulation,
pathogens such as Salmonella and Listeria and mandatory and enforceable by the regulatory
some bacterial toxins (staphylococcal and agency involved.
mycotoxins). A microbiological specificaiion is a micro-
biological criterion that is applied a condition of
acceptance of a food or ingredient by a food
manufacturer.
Sampling plans and recommended Standards of microbial specifications currently
microbiological limits for raw meat before used by industry include levels for:
chilling
• Frozen boneless forequarter beef for
The International Commission on the hamburger production
Microbiological Specification of Foods (ICMSF) • Chilled stewing steak for canning with
in Microorganisms in Foods 2 (1986) classifies the gravy
potential hazards in foods into 1-15 cases or
• Chilled beef for further processing
degrees of increasing hazard, raw meat that is to
be cooked being regarded as the least hazardous • Frozen beef head meat for further
(Case 1). Cooked meats are given higher processing
classification, cooked poultry meat being Case 8. • Frozen boneless forequarter beef
Within each case there are recommended • Frozen beef suet
sampling plans for each lot of product. • Frozen, rindless, boneless lean pork
trimmings for further processing
• Frozen, rindless pork backfat and cutting fat
Sampling plans for further processing
Each sampling plan has several characteristics, • Fresh chicken with giblets
for example: • Frozen mixed hen meat
n number of samples to be taken from the
lot;
c number of samples permitted to fail;
EC microbiological standards for meat
m = microbial count below which the sample
is considered to be satisfactory; These do not exist in the United Kingdom at
M = microbial count above which the sample present except for Directive 88/657 /EEC,
is considered unsatisfactory. which deals with the testing of minced meat
and meat pieces of less than 100 g and includes
These characteristics result in three possible a new category'S' which equals 1000 x m, at
classes of microbial contamination (the three- which the meat must be considered toxic or
class sampling plan): tainted.
(i) samples with counts below m; This Directive (not yet accepted) states that
five samples per lot will be taken and a three-
(ii) samples with counts between m and M class sampling plan used.
and
It lays down standards (legal requirements)
(iii) samples with counts above M. in terms of m and M as in Table 14.8.
The three-class sampling plan allows for the It is likely that the ICMSF recommendations
known variability of raw meat counts by for the microbiological testing of raw meats will
allowing a certain number to fall between m eventually become the standard for the
and M (see Table 14.7). European Commission.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 359
Table 14.7 Sampling plans and recommended microbiological limits for raw meat" (ICMSF, Microorganisms
in Foods, Vol. 2, 1986).

Product' Test Case Plan n c m M

class

Carcase meat, before chilling APC* 1 3 5 3 10/5 10/6

Carcase meat, chilled APC 1 3 5 3 10/6 10/7
Edible offal, chilled APC 1 3 5 3 10/6 10/7
Carcase meat, frozen APC 1 3 5 3 5 x 10/5 10/7
Boneless meat, frozen APC 1 3 5 3 5 x 10/5 10/7
(beef, pork, mutton)
Comminuted meat, frozen APC 1 3 5 3 10/6 10/7
Edible offal, frozen APC 1 3 5 3 5 x 10/5 10/7
Raw chicken, fresh or frozen APC 1 3 5 3 5 x 10/7 10/7

aFor in-plant quality control use but not at port of entry.

bUnfrozen carcases and primal cuts, swab counts per cm'; other meats per g.
*Aerobic plate count.

For example:
11 = 5
m = 10/5 cfu per cm' or gm
c = 3
M = 10/6 cfu per cm' or gm

Table 14.8 Provisions of Directive 88/657/EEe.

Organism 11 c M m

Aerobic mesophile bacteria (total viable count) 5 2 5 X 10' 5 X 105

E. coli 5 2 5 X 102
50
Cl. perfringens (sulphite-reducing anaerobes) 5 1 10' 10
Staphylococci 5 1 5 X 102 50
Salmonella 5 o Absence in 25 g

SPECIMEN SAMPLING TECHNIQUES The swabs are on the ends of wooden sticks
(see also pp. 341-2) and packed in sterile tubes which are plugged
and sterilised.
The cotton wool swab is dipped into a small
Swabbing screw-capped bottle containing 10ml of diluent
Moistened cotton or alginate wool swabs used (quarter-strength Ringer's solution or MRD)
in conjunction with a sterile aluminium and five small glass beads. (MRD, Maximum
template to give a defined surface area (25 cm') Recovery Diluent: a peptone saline solution of
(of carcase, equipment, wall, floor, etc.) for 0.1 g peptone and 0.85 g sodium chloride in
sampling are widely used. Instead of metal 100 ml of distilled water.) If sanitising agents
templates, disposable paper templates may be have been used for cleaning, 0.05% sodium
used. thiosulphate should be added to the diluent.
360 Meat Hygiene
Rub the moistened swab over the test surface of spread (a fast spread makes a thinner film). A
area, turning the swab while doing so. After thick film can be made by pooling several drops
use, break off the cotton wool end into the 10ml of blood which are then spread over an area of
diluent. Repeat with another swab and shake 1.5 cm.
the diluent bottle until the swabs are
disintegrated.
Examination of swabs should be carried out Diagnosis of intracellular blood parasites
immediately after sampling by setting up (e.g. Babesia, Plasmodium/ Trypanosoma)
general viable counts using dip slide, pour 1 Make thick and thin films.
plate, membrane filtration, spiral plate, etc., 2 Apply Giemsa stain (5 min) for thick and thin
methods and incubating at 30 QC for 3 days. films and Wright stain for thin films. CA thick
film is best for detecting blood parasites and a
thin film for accurate diagnosis.)
Interpretation of results
3 Fix blood smear in methanol for one minute
and air dry for 6 hours before staining.
General viable count per cm' Interpretation 4 Scan first with x10 objective lens and then
with at least x100 oil immersion.
Not more than 5 Satisfactory
5-25 Further investigation
required
More than 25 Very unsatisfactory - Other sampling techniques
immediate action Agar contact or impression, e.g. Ten Cate agar
necessary sausages, can be applied to surfaces and slices
cut off for incubation in a Petri dish with the
Swabbing techniques can also be used for impressed side uppermost. Agar impressions
poultry but the recovery rate of organisms is can also be used for poultry in which they are of
usually lower. value in the monitoring of plants for specific
Smears should also be made at the same time organisms.
for staining by Gram's method. Cut the end of an agar sausage and squeeze
out a small portion from the outer covering.
Press the cut end against the test surface and
Preparation of blood smear (Fig. 14.10)
then cut off a thin slice for placing in the Petri
1 Apply a small drop of blood near one end of dish.
a clean microscope slide. This method is of more value in checking
2 Place a second slide (with thumb and surfaces of equipment, walls, floors, etc., rather
forefinger) at an angle of 30 degrees on left than carcases.
edge of drop of blood.
Self-adhesive cellophane tapes or labels can
3 Spread blood by moving upper slide towards
free end of horizontal slide. be applied to surfaces after removal of the
backing paper which is then reapplied for
4 Dry slide immediately in air and examine.
transport. The tape, free of backing paper, is
N.B.: The thickness of the blood film can be applied to an agar plate for incubation.
modified by varying the size of the drop of Bacterial counts compare with those achieved
blood, the amount of blood drawn and the rate by agar contact but are usually less than swab
counts. The sterility of the tapes and labels
should be checked before use.
Moistened membrane filters and flamed glass
slides may also be used as contact methods, the
latter being pressed on to freshly-cut surfaces
after surface sterilisation. The slides can then be
used to make an impression plate or pressed on
to poured plates of media for incubation. Fixing
and staining, e.g. Gram's stain, of the slides
Fig.14.10 Preparation of blood smear. should be performed.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 361
Surface contact or impression plate The lid is Another method is to press a sharp-edged
removed from the plate which is then pressed cylinder against the skin to encircle a known area
evenly against the test surface (or the skin of of skin; 25 ml of diluent is then poured into the
poultry). The lid is replaced and the plate cylinder and stirred, with scraping of the skin.
incubated according to the requirements of the Whole poultry are shaken vigorously for 30 s
particular organism. in a plastic bag containing 1000 ml of 0.1%
peptone-saline diluent (about half the weight
Dip slide The dip slide is removed from its
of the carcase). Small glass beads may be used
container and the agar surface pressed against
to assist removal of bacteria from the carcase.
the test surface. The slide is then reattached to the
An amount of fluid is removed from the plastic
container cap and placed in the container which
bag and further decimal dilutions are made in
is then incubated at the appropriate temperature.
0.1% peptone-saline. Conversion of the number
Sweep plate technique This is a useful of bacteria/ml of rinse water to the number
system for testing surfaces for standard of per cm' is made by applying a factor: the surface
cleanliness. Air exposure plates with the lids of a broiler expressed as cm' equals the weight (C) x
removed are placed face down on the test 500. A high-pressure spray to rinse a defined
surface and moved sideways ten times over a area of poultry skin can be used to recover
distance of 30 cm. The lids are then replaced surface bacteria.
and the plates incubated. Rinses may also be used to examine small
items of equipment, e.g. buckets and other small
Membrane slide cultures Several commercial
containers using 500 ml of Ringer's solution
kits are available for this method of surface
(quarter strength).
testing. The swab is removed from the
receptacle containing 18 ml of buffer solution, Collection of faeces Faeces can be collected
excess buffer solution being expressed from it. easily from the ground in plastic bags and
The swab is then rubbed and rotated over the directly from the animal during defaecation or
test area and returned to the container, which is by the use of a harness to which a plastic bag is
sealed and shaken vigorously. The swab is attached.
discarded. The membrane slide sampler in the
Collection of material from drains Gauze
other container is placed in the test buffer
swabs or tampons are suitable for suspension in
solution and left for 30 s. It is then returned to
drains for, e.g., salmonella examination.
its original container, which is incubated.
The colonies are counted on the sampler
membrane or compared with the kit chart.
Since the sampler absorbs 1 ml of buffer Potable water samples
solution, the plate count is multiplied by 18 to
A sufficient, clean and wholesome supply of
give the number of cfu per area sampled.
hot and cold water, or water pre-mixed to a
Rinses and washes These have a limited suitable temperature, available at an adequate
application except for small items like sausages pressure and meeting the requirements of
and similar products and poultry. The item is Council Directive 80/778/EEC is required and
washed in sterile diluent (10 parts by weight) must be separated from other water used for
with agitation-comminution of the product will firefighting, refrigeration and steam boilers.
allow more organisms to be recovered. Pipes for the two systems must be separate and
Various techniques have been used with clearly distinguishable. The outside and inside
poultry depending on whether skin or whole of the tap or faucet nozzle must be cleaned and
carcases are being sampled by swabbing. Skin flamed before collection and the water allowed
samples of defined areas can be taken from to run for several minutes before filling the
under the wing, near the vent and from the container, which should not be opened until the
neck. The results from these areas can be commencement of filling.
combined to obtain an overall body estimation. If the water supply is chlorinated, a chlorine-
The neck skin flap is removed aseptically with neutralising agent, e.g. sterile sodium
the carcase in its plastic bag and 20 g is thiosulphate must be added to the sample
homogenised in 180 ml peptone-saline in a before analysis at a rate of 0.1 ml of a 2%
stomacher for 2min as the primary dilution. solution for each 100ml of water sample.
362 Meat Hygiene
Because of the intermittent contamination of COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS OF
some water supplies with certain bacteria in BLOOD, PUS, MUSCLE, FLUIDS, ETC.
small numbers, it is necessary to have a regular
system of testing. Testing should provide an The meat plant will be dealing mainly with the
indication of the overall microbiological quality collection of specimens from detained carcases,
of the water supply as well as evidence of on occasions from carcases passed as fit for
possible faecal contamination. human consumption and also from casualty
animals.
It may be necessary, for example, in cases of
hypomagnesaemic tetany/milk fever, etc., to
Tests obtain blood from an affected live animal in a
Plate counts for total and faecal coliforms (37°C lairage, but such cases are usually diagnosed on
and 22°C) in 100 ml are as follows: clinical signs. However, the future may demand
that blood from live animals be taken for the
Maximum concentration" diagnosis of parasitic diseases such as bovine
cysticercosis using the ELISA or other test, a
Total coliforms oper 100ml procedure which would obviate much of the
Faecal coliforms oper 100ml present inefficient and mutilating post-mortem
Sulphite-reducing examination for this condition.
clostridia > 1 per 20 m! Various techniques are adopted using sterile
Faecal streptococci oper lOOm! syringes for blood, fluids and pus while
samples of muscle, lymph nodes, etc.. require
Colony counts No significant increase
over that normally the use of scalpels and forceps.
observed. (Recorded as The aim of specimen collection is to obtain a
the number at 20°C or sample that is representative of the disease
37°C) process without contamination.
Post-mortem cases If specimens are to be
Water shall not be regarded as unwholesome taken at necropsy they must be recovered as
solely because the maximum concentration for soon as possible after death especially where
the total coliforms is exceeded: rapid decomposition takes place, e.g. in sheep
and in most species during warm weather.
1 if, in the preceding 12 months 50 or more Opportunistic bacteria will quickly obliterate
samples have been taken in accordance with
the regulations (UK Water Supply (Water normal post-mortem changes under suitable
Quality) Regulations 1989, 1991) in respect of environmental conditions making many cases
that parameter, and in at least 90% of those useless for accurate diagnosis. Prior treatment
samples coliforms were absent; or of the animal, e.g. with antibacterials, may also
2 in any other case, in the last 50 samples so preclude proper bacteriological examination
taken, it is established that in at least 48 of and an accurate diagnosis.
those samples coliforms were absent. A searing iron must be used on tissues prior
to the collection of tissue for bacteriological
examination.
Blood, abscesses and fluids from closed body
Sampling of air cavities can be aspirated with a sterile syringe
which may also be used to obtain urine from the
An overall impression of the density of bacteria bladder. Swabs may also be used for these
and fungi in the meat plant atmosphere may be specimens in some cases but in general it is
gained by using air exposure plates in various advisable to collect larger amounts of body
positions for 15 min. The number of colonies fluids, exudates, blood, etc., since there are
developing on the plates represent the number usually limited numbers of organisms on swabs.
of individual organisms settling on approxi-
mately 0.1 m" per min. Blood Screw-topped plastic tubes (with
Special slit samplers and membrane filters may separate syringes and needles), evacuated glass
be used where absolute concentrations of tubes ('Vacutainer') and plastic collecting
organisms in the air are required. syringes ('Monovette', 'S Monovette') are now
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 363
normally used for blood collection. The latter samples be maintained in their original state as
two are convenient to use in that they combine far as possible in order to limit changes in
container, needle and syringe. bacterial numbers. Chilled specimens must be
Blood, usually from the jugular vein in the kept at O-soC and frozen specimens kept frozen.
larger farm animals, except the pig in which the Specimens taken directly from carcases should
anterior vena cava is used, goes directly via the be examined as soon as possible.
needle (1 inch 19G or 20G) into the container Proper identification of the specimens is essential.
with or without coagulant (sodium citrate), For onward transport, chilled or frozen
depending on the type of examination required. samples must be sent in special insulated
Blood can be allowed to clot and the serum containers. Additional transport media, e.g.
aspirated for serology testing while the clot can Stuart's or Amies transport media, which will
be used for microbiology. ensure optimal survival of the bacteria may be
required. Special transport media are required
Faeces A small metal or wooden spoon is for fastidious organisms such as Chlamydia,
used to place faeces samples in a sterile screw- Mycoplasma and Rickettsia and usually contain
cap container. Neutral glycerol saline is added antimicrobial agents to inhibit the growth of
to the container if a delay in bacteriological contaminants. UK postal regulations require
examination is anticipated. that pathological specimens be enclosed in a
Serous fluids are treated in the same way as hermetically sealed container which is placed in
blood since they are also liable to clot on a strong wooden, metal or fibreboard case with
standing. adequate packing material. The words
PATHOLOGICAL SPECIMEN and FRAGILE
Pus or exudate Swabs are normally used to WITH CARE must be conspicuously marked
collect pus and exudates but syringes or on the package.
pipettes may also be used.
Urine A syringe and needle can be used to LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF
collect urine from the casualty carcase and the SPECIMENS
'line' carcase before the commencement of
evisceration. Types of culture media
In the live cow stroking of the skin beneath
the vulva with a wisp of hay or straw is often Non-selective media These are able to sup-
successful. Urination may also be stimulated by port the growth of most bacteria and usually
flapping together the lips of the vulva. exist in agar plate form. Example: sheep blood
Catheterisation of the cow and mare is agar, nutrient broth, nutrient agar, litmus milk. /
sometimes adopted, while holding closed the Enrichment media Where the causative
mouth and nostrils of the ewe will stimulate organism is few in numbers or outnumbered by
urination. numerous undesirables, it is necessary to
These procedures should be carried out with enhance the required organism. This is
due regard to safety in a crush for the cow and achieved by media such as selenite broth,
mare. Gram-negative (GN) broth and xylose lysine
Urine samples from cattle and horses are desoxycholate agar.
sometimes successfully obtained by first
providing drinking water and waiting for Selective media These media contain certain
voluntary micturition. Special harness can be antibacterial or other inhibitory chemical
used to collect urine and faeces samples in the substances which prevent the growth of some
large animals. bacteria allowing others to grow. For example,
MacConkey agar is selective for the Gram-
negative coliform organisms, while glucose
azide broth is used to isolate faecal streptococci
TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF in water supplies and Loeffler's serum agar for
SAMPLES corynebacteria.
If the intention is to send the specimens to a Differential media These types of media
regional laboratory it is essential that the produce colonies which are easily recognisable,
364 Meat Hygiene
e.g. haemolytic and non-haemolytic colonies thioglycollate, 0.02-0.25 agar and 0.0002%
are distinguished on blood agar (a non-selective methylene blue as an indicator of
medium) by the forming of clear zones of oxidation-reduction potential.
haemolysis round the haemolytic colonies. Containers containing media for the growth
Some media are both selective and differential, of anaerobes can be incubated in McIntosh and
e.g. MacConkey's agar which produces red Fildes jar in which the oxygen-free atmosphere
lactose-fermenting coliform colonies and is created by the passage of an electric current
colourless Salmonella spp. colonies which are through a heating coil surrounded by a wire
non-lactase-fermenting. gauze. The Gaspak system provides a hydrogen
supply in the anaerobic jar by means of a
Elective media These are used for certain
disposable foil envelope which contains
bacteria with special nutritional requirements,
sodium borohydride and a mixture of citric acid
e.g. yeasts which need nitrogen are grown on
and sodium bicarbonate. The former generates
lysine agar.
hydrogen and the second mixture produces
carbon dioxide, both when water is added.

Culture methods
Test tubes, flasks, McCartney bottles, etc., Inoculation of media
contain media in various forms depending on Each culture plate must be marked on the
the type of inoculation adopted: bottom to indicate the specimen, date, etc.
1 Streak plates Petri dishes with a thin layer of Most specimens for culture will initially be in
solid medium, e.g. blood agar. These are used the form of swabs. (If tissues collected post-
for the separation of mixed colonies of mortem are to be cultured, the surface of the
bacteria or the examination of individual organ must first be seared (but not cooked) and
colonies. Blood agar containing 5% sheep the culture inoculum collected with a swab.)
blood is the most commonly used primary The same swab may be used for the inoculation
isolation medium since it is able to grow most of several media, the least inhibitory, e.g. blood
pathogenic bacteria and is useful for noting
colony and haemolysis characteristics. agar, being used first and the most inhibitory
last.
2 Pour plates The inoculum under
examination is added to the tube of liquid
medium at 45°C, mixed and then poured into
a plate.
3 Shake cultures are made by dissolving a solid PRIMARY ISOLATION
medium in test tubes or bottles, cooling to
45°C, inoculating with the test organisms, Blood agar (trypticase soy agar with 5% sheep
mixing and allowing to solidify in the upright blood) is probably the most widely used
position. primary isolation medium for all specimens in
4 Semi-solid cultures contain sufficient agar to which pathogenic bacteria are suspected
make the culture semi-solid. because of its ability to support the growth of
S Liquid batch cultures in bottles, flasks, etc., e.g. most pathogens.
nutrient broth.
6 Agar slope or slant cultures are contained in test
Method 1
tubes or small screw-capped bottles in which
the medium is allowed to cool in a sloped 1 Inoculate one-third to one-quarter of the plate
form for surface inoculation. with the swab specimen.
7 Stab cultures are agar or gelatin media which 2 Make successive light streaks at right angles
are allowed to solidify. A long straight wire and overlapping the initial inoculum with the
containing the bacterial inoculum is then platinum loop for two applications, flaming
plunged into the medium. the loop and allowing it to cool between
inocula. (Fig. 14.11)
Anaerobic culture media include Robertson's
Cooked Meat Medium; shake culture of If several plates are to be inoculated (4 is
nutrient agar, and semi-solid media, e.g. usual), use the least inhibitory medium, e.g.
nutrient broth with 0.5% glucose, 0.1% sodium blood agar, first and the most inhibitory
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 365

containers should be incubated with the cap

loosened.
Cultures are incubated at the optimum
temperature for the organism under
investigation, which for the majority of
Fig. 14.11 Streaking method for plate inoculation. pathogens is 37Q C. Certain special cultures, e.g.
gelatin stabs, however, are usually held at 22 QC.
The usual length of time for incubation is
medium, e.g. MacConkey agar, last. 24 h (overnight) but some fastidious slow-
(MacConkey is a selective medium for the growing types, e.g. C. pyogenes may require
isolation of Enterobacteriaceae and related longer.
Gram-negative bacteria). Subsequent plates can
be streaked with the same swab, overlapping a
portion of the previous area while flaming the
platinum loop and allowing to cool between EVALUATION OF CULTURES
each plate.
Blood agar, containing 5% sheep blood, is Examination of primary cultures can often
valuable for describing colony morphology as provide tentative identification of a bacterium,
well as determining the presence/absence of yeast or mould but usually requires considerable
haemolysis. Like MacConkey agar, another experience and may indicate the need for the
commonly used primary isolation medium, it assistance of a specialist laboratory.
can also be used as a differential medium for Important features to be noted include the
subcultures. number of different types of bacteria isolated,
Primary growth in a broth medium is often the relative number of each type, the
difficult to interpret because of contaminants, characteristics of the various colonies, and the
so liquid media should not be used solely for presence/ absence of haemolysis, odour, etc.
primary isolation purposes. The presence of haemolysis is often the
For secondary isolation (utilising a colony indication of a possible pathogen, e.g.
from a solid medium for subculture) the above coagulase-positive isolates of Staphylococcus
method may be used. show as double zones of haemolysis. Similarly,
pigmentation of colonies may also be associated
with a possible pathogen.
Method 2 Colonies which are discrete, raised, convex,
1 Make two streaks from the initial inoculum opaque or grey with an entire edge are more
(one extending at right angles across the plate likely to be organisms of significance, especially
and the second halfway). if they are in pure culture. On the other hand
2 Succeeding streaks are made parallel and at large, rough, irregular, spreading growths are
right angles to the initial inoculum. (Fig. more often of no importance unless in pure
14.12) culture. In mixed cultures the most common
colony type is not necessarily the most
important. Odours of cultures are sometimes of
Incubation of cultures value in identification.
The amount of growth of the various
Inoculated plates are incubated in an inverted organisms in the four streak plates is an
position in order to prevent condensation important observation.
dropping on the medium. Screw-capped Knowledge of the characteristics of the more
common pathogens and contaminants will
assist the bacteriologist who will profit from

ome
experience, especially that gained at a specialist
laboratory.
11
An important consideration is to relate the
1
streak plate findings to the source of the specimen.
If a carcase, the body site would be sufficient.
Fig. 14.12 Plate inoculation. Separation of colonies. But if a casualty animal is involved, the body
366 Meat Hygiene
Table 14.9 Normal animal body flora.

Site Aerobes Anaerobes

Ear, skin Diphtheroids, Micrococcus,

Siaphs, faecal contaminants
Mouth nasopharynx Actinobacillus, Bacillus, coliforrns, Actinomyces, Bacteroides,
Haemophilus, Micrococcus, Fusobacterium, spirochaetes
Mycoplasma, Pasteurella, Proteus,
Staphs, Streps
Trachea, bronchi, lungs Transient contaminants
Stomach, S. intestine alpha-Streps Lactobacilli
1. intestine: Enierobacier, E. coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Bacteroides, Clostridium,
Streptococcus
Diphtheroids, faecal contaminants, Fusobacterium, Latobacillus
Micrococcus, Staphylococcus
Vulva, prepuce, conjunctiva,
udder, uterus Occasional contaminants

site and even a brief description of carcase example, may be present on the first, second,
findings and a tentative diagnosis would be of third or fourth quadrant of the streak plate(s).
value. In such cases information regarding
antibiotic treatment of the animal is an
important element since this may result in poor
or no plate growth. If the specimen were taken
PRESUMPTIVE IDENTIFICATION OF
from a normally sterile site and properly
ORGANISMS - TESTS (Figs 14.10-14.12)
handled, any growth would be considered
significant. On the other hand specimens from
The characteristics of colony growth,
intestinal sites are usually contaminated with
haemolysis, odour, growth on MacConkey, etc.,
mixed anaerobic types making interpretation
in conjunction with the Gram-staining reaction
difficult.
will materially assist in identification.
It is important to be familiar with the normal
Biochemical tests can be used to confirm the
flora of the various organs of the animal body.
identity of an organism. Many of these are
Some of these are-potential pathogens and if
available in kit form, the powder requiring
identified on the plate(s) and reported may lead
reconstituting and sterilising before use.
to an inaccurate diagnosis (Table 14.9)
Laboratory records Accurate records of
culture characteristics on the various media Potassium peroxide (3%) test
should be made whether or not a further ouside This test may be used as an alternative to the
laboratory is to be involved. Growth, for Gram smear.

Table 14.10 Differentiation of Gram-positive and catalase-positive cocci.

Organism Haemolysis Oxidase Glucose fermentation Coagulase

Staph. aureus +* + +
Staph. epidermidis ± +
Micrococcus +
* Double zones of complete and incomplete haemolysis often observed.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 367
Table 14.11 Differentiation of small Gram-positive non-sporing rods.

Organism Motility ~-Haemolysis Catalase H,S in TSI Urease Colonies

Rhodoc. equi + + Large, mucoid,

pink
C. pseudotuberculosis V + + "Dry, white,
grainy
C. pyogenes + Very small
C. renale + + + Av. size
E. rhusiopathiae ± + Very small
1. monocytogenes + + + Very small

* Brown halo round colony on Tinsdale agar (sheep blood. ox serum. cystine. potassium tellurite).

Table 14.12 Differentiation of Gram-negative and oxidase-positive bacteria.

Glucose Growth on
Organism Motility Haemolysis fermentation MacConkey Urease Indole

Actinobacillus spp. ± + ± +
Aeromonas spp. + + + + +
Bard. bronchiseptica + + ±
Brucella abortus' +
Moraxella bovis ±
Pasteurella spp. + ±
Past. haemolytica + +b + ±
Past. muliocida + +
Pseudomonas spp. + + + ±
After D. M. McCurnin (1985) Clinical Textbook for veterinaru Technicians. W. B. Saunders.
, Brucellae exhibit bipolar staining and most require CO for growth.
b Haemolysis under colony.

Corynebacterium from other small Gram-

1 Mix a small drop of the reagent with a colony positive rods.
from the blood agar plate with a platinum
loop. 1 Smear a few bacteria from a colony centre on
2 With the loop, lift the mixture slowly at 5- a clean, dry slide.
second intervals to determine whether 2 Add a drop of hydrogen peroxide to the
strands of a viscous gel have formed in smear.
20-30s.
The presence of gas bubbles (splitting of
Formation of a viscous gel is indicative of a H 202 ) represents a positive test and usually
Gram-negative bacterium. The Gram-positive occurs within a few seconds, but may be
organisms mix diffusely in the potassium delayed for up to 2 min with Pasteurella and
hydroxide. Actinomyces.
The test may be difficult to interpret with
some weak species - adequate controls are
Slide catalase test required. False positives may occur with media
This is used to differentiate streptococci from containing low levels of glucose. Blood agar
staphylococci and Erysipelothrix and should not be used.
368 Meat Hygiene
Coagulase test positive reaction is shown by the colony
turning pink then black.
For detection of Staph. aureus which produces
coagulase that can coagulate plasma, unlike
other strains of Staphylococcus. The plasma used
should not contain citrate, HIV and hepatitis DNAse (deoxyribonuclease) test
positives. Used for confirmation of Staph. aureus, which
Slide coagulase test detects clumping factor or produces heat-stable DNAse, other strains of
'bound' coagulase. Confirm negative results Staphylococc1lS producing DNAse which is not
with tube coagulase or DNase test. heat-stable.
1 Emulsify a colony of the test organism with 1 Prepare DNase medium by mixing a
two separate drops of saline on a microscope sufficient amount of DNA of known
slide. concentration with nutrient agar to give a
2 Mix a loop of plasma with one of the final concentration of 2 mg/ml. Sterilise by
suspensions. autoclaving at 121°C for 15min.
3 Examine second (control) suspension to 2 Prepare plates each containing 15-20 ml of
ensure absence of agglutination. DNAse agar.
3 Place a small spot or streak of the test colony
Agglutination should occur at (1) within on the plate(s) and incubate for 18-24 h at
5-10 s to indicate presence of coagulase. 37°e.
Delayed clumping of organisms is not a 4 Cover surface of each plate with 2-3ml of IM
positive result. (10%) hydrochloric acid and remove excess
Tube coagulase test HCl after 30s.
1 Mix 0.5 ml of plasma (diluted 1:10 in saline) Staph. aureus organisms will cause medium
and 0.1ml of an 18-24h nutrient broth culture to become opaque with clear zones round the
of the test organism in a test tube (75mm x DNAse-producing colonies.
12mm). If dyes such as toluidine blue and methyl
2 Examine after 1/ 3 and 6 h and overnight green are incorporated into the medium, this is
incubation for clot formation. coloured accordingly, the colours changing as
Clot formation indicates a positive result. the DNA is hydrolysed.

Oxidase (cytochrome c oxidase) test

Hippurate hydrolysis test
Detects all Gram-negative bacteria except
lactose fermenters which are negative. Useful This is used to confirm campulobaciers which
for identifying Vibrio, Neisseria, Camputooacier, can hydrolyse hippurate to form glycine and
Aeromonas. Commercial oxidase reagents are hippuric acid.
readily available and packaged for use. Reagents Ninhydrin, a 3.5% solution in equal
Alternatively, they can be freshly prepared. parts of acetone and butanol. Sodium
1 Moisten a piece of filter paper with 2-3 drops hippurate, 5% aqueous solution in 0.5 ml
of oxidase reagent in a Petri dish. volumes stored at - 20°e.
2 Transfer a heavy inoculum of the colony of 1 Grow test organism on blood agar for 18-24h
the test organism to the filter paper using a at 37°C under microaerophilic conditions.
wooden stick, glass rod or platinum loop (not
a nichrome bacteriological loop ). 2 Mix a 2 mm loopful of colony with 2 ml of
distilled water and add 0.5 ml of sodium
3 Examine for a dark purple colour indicating hippurate.
oxidase production. This should appear
within 10s but may be delayed for up to 2min 3 Incubate at 37°C for 2h.
with some reagents for Pasteurella and 4 Add 1 ml of ninhydrin solution and leave for
Actinobacillus. 2h at room temperature (or 10min at 37°C).
Alternatively, the oxidase reagent may be Positive reaction Purple colour indicates the
dropped directly on to the test colony. A formation of glycine.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 369
Haemolysis test culture of the test organism and incubate at
37°C for 2 days.
Some organisms have the ability to produce
haemolysins which can affect red blood cells. 2 Add 5-10 drops of Kovac's reagent, shake and
allow to stand for 10min.
Beta haemolysis appears as clear zones round the
bacterial colonies where the RBCs are Indole is indicated by a pink colour at the
completely lysed. Alpha haemolysis shows as surface.
green discoloration round the colonies
repesenting a partial clearing of blood.
Alpha-haemolysis occurs with Str. CAMP (Christie, Atkins, Munch-Petersen)
pneumoniae and certain viridans streptococci; test
beta-haemolysis with Str. pyogenes, Listeria This test differentiates L. monocytogenes from
monocuiogenes, Str. agalaciiae. the other Listeria species which are CAMP
negative. Siaph. aureus and Rhodococcus equi
(cause of respiratory infections in animals) are
Hydrogen sulphide test also CAMP positive.
Used to differentiate the Enterobacteriaceae - 1 Streak the centre of one plate of 5% sheep
Campulobacier, E. coli, Klebsiella, Shigella, blood agar with the recommended standard
Salmonella, Yersinia. strain of Staph. aureus and across the centre of
Two indicators: sodium thiosulphate and a similar plate with the standard strain of
ferrous sulphate in medium (triple sugar iron Rhodococcus equi.
(TSI) agar slopes (slants)). 2 Inoculate each plate with the test organism by
streaking at right angles to within 1-2 mm of
1 Inoculate organism deep into agar slope with the standard organisms. Incubate the two
a straight wire and streak up the slope. plates at 37°C for 18h.
2 Incubate at 37°C (Salmonella) and at 30°C 3 Examine for evidence of haemolysis in the
(Yersinia) for 18-24 h. Incubate form of a clear arrow at the closest points of
campylobacters in a reduced oxygen and the two cultures.
increased CO, atmosphere for up to 3 days.
L. monocutogenes and R. equi: haemolysis
Positive result: Blackening of medium. should be clear but may occur in a reduced or
A rapid test for Campylobacters consists of 'block' form which is not to be regarded as a
placing a large inoculum from a 18-24 h blood positive reaction.
agar culture incubated at 37°C in a reduced
oxygen atmosphere in the upper third of ferric Urease test
bisulphite pyruvate (FBP) medium (screw-
Urease - the first enzyme to be purified and
capped tube) which is incubated at 37°C for 2h.
crystallised - catalyses the decomposition of
Positive result: Blackening of medium. urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is
possessed by intestinal organisms and is
present in the stomach of man and animals,
where it is able act on any excess urea ingested.
Indole test A positive result in urea broth is indicated by
Some organisms that possess the enzyme a bright pink colour produced by the presence
tryptophanase can de aminate the amino acid of ammonia.
tryptophan with the production of indole,
pyruvic acid and ammonia. These include the
Enterobacteriaceae and non-glucose-fermenting STAINING TECHNIQUES AND
rods. MICROSCOPY
Reagent: paradimethylaminobenzaldehyde
(Kovac's reagent). Swabs of pus, thin or thick liquids or
semisolids, e.g. faeces, are made by rolling the
1 Inoculate tryptophan broth (1%) which swab backwards and forwards over the slide to
contains trypticase, a peptone rich in deposit a thin, even layer of the sample
tryptophan, and sodium chloride with a pure material.
370 Meat Hygiene
Thick, granular material, e.g. Actinomyces Bunsen flame. This action kills the bacteria and
bovis, Myco. bovis, or mucoid material should be allows the stain to penetrate into the cell body.
spread evenly and may require crushing
between two slides, rotating the upper slide
Types of stains
and finally pulling it off sagittally to spread the
material on the under slide. In such cases it is Simple stains such as carbol fuchsin, methylene
useful to have both thick and thin areas on one blue and methyl violet colour the bacteria,
slide. Use the better smear or both smears for showing shape and size.
staining. Differential stains such as Gram's and
Thin fluids, transudates, urine and blood can Ziehl-Neelsen allow the differentiation of
be dropped on to a slide and spread by using bacteria into specific groups and are of great
another slide at an angle of 45° drawn from the importance in routine microbiology, especially
edge of the material backwards (Fig. 14.11). The the former.
thickness of the smear can be varied according to Negative or background staining, e.g. using
the amount of material drawn by the upper slide. India ink, colours the background dark and
Smears of bacteria on culture plates can be leaves the organisms unstained.
prepared for staining by first placing a drop of Silver impregnation techniques are used to
water on a clean slide with a platinum loop. demonstrate spirochaetes.
Two to four drops may be used. A small portion Some organisms adopt a peculiar beaded
of a colony on the culture plate is carefully form of staining, for example, Pseudomonas
picked off with the loop which has been first (Actinobacillus) mallei, Myco. bovis, some forms
flamed and allowed to cool and then of Corynebacterium spp. or bipolar, e.g.
transferred to the water drop with the loop, Pasteurella, Yersinia spp.
mixed and then spread evenly over its area.
The slide is allowed to dry and fixed gently
in the Bunsen flame. Staining of spores
Note that smears of bacteria made from 1 Stain with carbol fuchsin for 5min with gentle
liquid media do not require the addition of heat.
water. 2 Wash.
3 Decolorise with 5% sodium sulphite for
5-10s.
STAINING TECHNIQUES 4 Wash.
While the morphology of bacteria can be 5 Counterstain with Loeffler's methylene blue
for 8min.
studied in an unstained condition (unstained
wet films, hanging drop for demonstration of 6 Wash and dry.
flagellae, use of dark-ground illumination, Spores stain red or pink and bacilli blue.
phase-contrast microscopy), special techniques
are required for this purpose. Staining of In Gram's method, spores can be seen as
smears is an essential procedure and enables colourless round or oval spaces in vegetative
organisms to be more readily seen along with bacteria stained, for example, by Gram's stain.
their morphology, spore formation, flagellae, A modified Ziehl-Neelsen method can be
etc., and aids classification when Gram and applied using carbol fuchsin for 3-5 min with
Ziehl-Neelsen stains are used to differentiate gentle heat, washing in water and then
Gram-positive/Gram-negative and acid- counterstaining with methylene blue for 4-8
fast/nonacid-fast forms. min and a final wash and dry. The spores
Staining only colours the protoplasm of the appear bright red and the protoplasm blue,
bacteria leaving the cell wall or capsule similarly to the acid-fast reaction.
unstained and appearing as a clear surround
against the stained background. Capsules can
be seen in a wet India ink film or with Leifson's Gram's stain (see Table 14.13)
flagella stain. H. Christian J. Gram (1853-1938), a Danish
Before a stain is applied, the smear must be physician, in 1854 devised the important
fixed by drying in air and heating gently in a system of bacterial staining which divides all
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 371
Table 14.13 Some Gram-positive and Gram- As a first step in the identification of bacteria,
negative cocciand bacilli. stains like Gram and Ziehl-Neelsen are also
useful in demonstrating the morphology, size
Gram-positive Gram-negative and grouping of organisms as well as the
presence/ absence of spore formation.
COCCI COCCI
Staphylococcus Neisseria
Streptococcus Procedure
1 Fix smear on slide with gentle heat after
BACILLI BACILLI drying.
Bacillus Brucella 2 Stain with crystal violet for 1 min.
Clostridium Pasteurella 3 Wash slide with water for a few seconds.
Corynebacterium Escherichia
Erysipelothrix Vibrio
4 Flush with iodine solution and allow to stand
Lactobacillus for 1 min.
Klebsiella
L. monocytogenes Campulobacier S Wash with water and allow to dry.
Actinomyces Salmonella 6 Wash with 95% ethyl alcohol until stain
Nocardia Shigella ceases.
Borrelia Legionella 7 Wash with water.
B. aniliracis Proteus
Yersinia 8 Counterstain with carbol fuchsin, etc., for 10 s.
Pseudomonas 9 Blot dry.
Haemophilus
Gram's stain can also be used for some of the
smaller bacteria, e.g. Rickettsia, Coxiella and
bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negative Chlamydia, but the reactions are generally weak
types according to whether or not they resist and generally Gram-negative except for C.
decolorisation with acetone or alcohol after burneiii, which appears Gram-positive.
being stained with a para-rosaniline dye such Care must be taken to ensure that the various
as crystal violet, methyl violet and dilute reagents are used properly, otherwise false
iodine. reactions will occur, for example, if the crystal
The Gram-positive organisms (e.g. Bacillus violet is rinsed too vigorously before mixing
spp., Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Listeria) are with the iodine solution or the carbol fuchsin
stained a dark purple/blue/black colour, while not allowed to act for a sufficient length of time,
the Gram-negative organisms (e.g. E. coli, the Gram-negative organisms will not stain
Pseudomonas, Salmonella) appear pink or red properly. If decolorisation is too strong, the
when counterstained with basic fuchsin, dilute Gram-positive bacteria will be denuded of stain
carbol fuchsin, neutral red or safranine. and fail to colour, but if it is insufficient the
The Gram reaction may vary in certain organisms may be falsely Gram-positive.
situations, e.g. old cultures, in which some
broken Gram-positive bacteria may stain as
Gram-negative types while the opposite
reaction can occur.
Ziehl-Neelsen stain for acid-fast staining
The Gram-positive cell wall, unlike that of This staining reaction is a combination of the
Gram-negative organisms, is very thick and stains devised by Franz Ziehl (1897-1926), a
composed of a murein layer containing teichoic German bacteriologist, and F. K. A Neelsen
acid and lipoteichoic acid. This difference in cell (1854-1894), a German pathologist. It is used as
wall structure and content also divides the a method to distinguish acid-fast (e.g.
bacterial world into two other groups - Gram- Mycobacteria spp.: M. bovis,M. tuberculosis) from
positive bacteria being more susceptible than non-acid-fast bacteria.
Gram-negative organisms to the action of Acid-fastness in microorganisms is
antibiotics, acids, detergents, basic dyes, attributed to their impermeability due to a high
proteolytic enzymes but more resistant to content of fatty acids, lipids and alcohols,
alkalies, proteolytic enzymes, antibody and which makes them resist decolorisation with
complement. strong mineral acids (H2S0~, Hel) following
372 Meat Hygiene
staining with a strong dye such as hot basic 3 Wash in water and dry.
fuchsin.
Acid-fast organisms are stained red with the
carbol fuchsin while the non-acid-fast ones are Wright-Giemsa stain (modified)
stained blue with the counterstain methylene A rapid stain for films and imprints to colour a
blue or green with malachite green. large variety of microorganisms. It is a
combination of basic thiazine dyes and acid
Procedure eosin.
1 Fix smear with gentle heat after blot drying. 1 Prepare smear and fix in alcohol.
2 Stain with carbol fuchsin for 5 min using 2 Dip slide in fixative solution 5 times for 1 s
gentle heat. each time.
3 Wash with water. 3 Allow to drain.
4 Decolorise with acid alcohol until preparation 4 Dip slide in Solution I five times, for 1 s each
turns pink. time.
S Wash with water and dry. S Allow to drain.
6 Counterstain with methylene blue for up to 6 Dip slide in Solution II five times, for 1s each
2 min. time.
7 Wash and blot dry. 7 Allow to drain.
S Rinse in water. Dry and examine.
The Kinyoun and modified Kinyoun stains
for acid-fast staining are similar to the above Bacteria stain blue. The nuclei of protozoa are
method. coloured red. White cell chromatin stains
Examples of acid-fast organisms include M. purple.
bovis, M. tuberculosis, M. paratuberculosis, M.
kansasii, M. avium, M. leprae, M. marinum. Calcofluor white/Fungifluor Kit
Calcofluor white is a colourless dye that binds
Leishman stain to cellulose and chitin. This is a rapid stain for
(0.15 g Leishman powder in 100 rnl methyl fungi.
alcohol) The 1% (w Iv) stock solution is made by
dissolving calcofluor powder in distilled water
1 Run or pipette undiluted stain on to slide and with gentle heat and then diluting to make a
allow to act for 2 min. (The methyl alcohol 0.1% solution with 0.08% Evans blue as a
fixes the smear.) counterstain.
2 Add diluted stain (double the volume with 1 Place 1-2 drops of Calcofluor white or
distilled water) and allow to act for up to Fungifluor solution A to fixed smear for
10min. 1-2 min.
3 Wash in water to turn film pink. 2 Apply a coverslip or rinse and dry.
4 Remove excess water and dry in air. 3 Examine smear under fluorescent microscope
using filters G 365/ LP 450 or FT 395.
Along with Giemsa, Castaneda and
Michiavello stains this is useful for staining 4 Add Fungifluor solution B if quenching of
rickettsiae, babesia coxiella and chlamydiae. non-specific staining is required.

Fungi cells and hyphae show a bright apple-

Giemsa stain green or bluish-white fluorescence.

(Mixture of several compounds - Azur 1/ Il,

eosin in methyl violet) Suspect anthrax blood/transudate smears
1 Fix undried smear with pure methyl alcohol 1 Allow smear to dry.
for 3 min. 2 Stain with polychrome methylene blue for
2 Add one part of Giemsa stain to two parts of 2-3 min.
distilled water and apply to film for 5 min. 3 Wash and blot dry.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 373
Anthrax bacilli show as chains of short/ through the liquid or appearing as a sediment
truncated/ dark blue rods surrounded by and sparse or profuse.
purplish-red /granular/ material which Colony morphology should be noted
represents disrupted capsules - the so-called carefully since in some instances it may provide
'Mcl-adyean reaction/ which is not displayed by a clue to the identity of the organism under
other organisms. investigation.

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF
COLONY MORPHOLOGY
SUSPECT CARCASES
When a specimen containing bacteria - from a
The following procedure is recommended for
swab or platinum loop - is inoculated on to a
the examination of cases which would warrant
solid culture medium/ colonies develop from
condemnation in the absence of an assurance
each individual bacterial cell.
that they are of an acceptable microbiological
Depending on the species of bacterium/ type
standard and is indicated for the following:
of solid medium/ etc., these colonies vary
greatly in size/ shape/ colour/ opacity 1 All emergency and casualty slaughter
(translucent/ transparent/ opaque) and animals (except obvious injury cases).
consistency (soft/ viscid/ granular/ buttery) and 2 Imperfect bleeding.
smell. Colour may be internal or excreted into 3 Poor setting.
the surrounded medium. Shape includes 4 pH value higher than 6.5 or more 24 h after
round/ irregular and rhizoid colonies which slaughter.
may be flat/ convex/ raised or umbonate in S "Trimmed' carcases/ i.e. carcases with organs
cross-section with entire/ dentate/ lobate or parts missing at veterinary examination.
undulate or rhizoid edges. (Fig. 14.13)
6 Septic conditions.
Colonies vary in size from being barely
visible to several millimetres in diameter. Yeasts 7 Cases of enteritis.
and moulds are generally larger than the true 8 Carcases heavily contaminated during
bacteria. Bacteria grown on agar slant media dressing.
exhibit much the same morphology as those in
Petri dishes but growth in liquid media/ e.g. Samples required Neck muscle/ spleen/
peptone broth/ may be confined to the surface mesenteric lymph node/ carcase lymph node/
as a firm surface pellicle/ uniformly distributed liver.

Shape

0 Round
0
Irregular Rhizoid

Elevation
t \ ~ ~
Flat Raised Convex Umbonate

Edge

Entire Dentate Undulate Lobate Rhizoid

Fig. 14.13 Colony morphology on solid media.

374 Meat Hygiene
Smears stained by Gram and Ziehl-Neelsen (Source: Laboratory Handbook on Food Hygiene,
should be made from lesions initially. Food Hygiene Laboratory. Department of Large
Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary
Culture media Blood Agar, MacConkey Agar,
Medicine, University College, Dublin,
Brilliant Green Agar. Each sample is cultured
Professors J. D. Collins and J. Hannan.)
on these media and incubated at 37QC for 24 h.
If Salmonella spp. are suspected, Selenite
Broth at 43QC for 24 h should also be used for all
the samples prior to inoculation on to Brilliant
Green Agar. IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIAL
If Clostridium spp. are suspected, anaerobic PATHOGENS (see Fig. 14.14)
culture is necessary using the 1 % Glucose Agar
Stab method, McIntosh and Fildes jar, etc. Primary isolation media
Potential pathogens which may be isolated Streak for colony isolation Observe growth
include Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp.,
rates, colony morphology and haemolytic
C. pyogenes, Clostridium spp., enterpathogenic E.
patterns. Test selected colonies for Gram,
coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Rhodococcus equi, catalase and oxidase reactions. Differential and
Erysipelothrix insidiosa, Salmonella spp. antimicrobial susceptibility tests can be
performed from well-isolated colonies.
MacConkey agar is a selective, differential
Interpretation of results medium which selects for Enterobacteriaceae
Tentative identification may be based on (Citrobacter, Edioardsiella, Escherichia, Klebsiella,
staining characteristics and colony morphology. Salmonella and Shigella) and other Gram-
In general, if two out of three samples are negative rods and differentiates them into
positive for one of the bacterial species listed lactose-fermenters and non-lactose-fermenters.
above, this represents a septicaemia or It is commonly used as a primary isolation
bacteraemia and total condemnation is medium as it can provide useful information
warranted, action being based on the post- about bacteria, even group classification and
mortem, microbiological and residue findings. presumptive identification.
If Salmonella, Listeria or Erysipelothrix are Streak for colony isolation: growth is usually
isolated from samples of neck muscle only, Gram-negative. Pink to red colonies with
other parts of the carcase should be examined increased redness in medium are lactose-
for these bacteria. fermenters, e.g. Escherichia, Klebsiella,

Isolated bacterial colony

I
(Gram stain reaction)

Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacteria

(morphology) (oxidase test)

~
Cocci Rods
~
Negative Positive
(catalase test)
inoculate Inoculate

~
Negative Positive
TSI, SIM, urea TSI, SIM, urea

Streptococcus

Fig.14.14 Flow diagram for bacterial identification. TSI, triple sugar iron agar slant, SIM, test culture to
detect sulphide, indole and motility (Esterobacteria reae),
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 375

Enterobacter. The colourless colonies are non- 2 Inoculate a pure culture of the organism into
lactose-fermenters. the tubes and incubate at 37°C (30°C for
Yersinia) or up to 7 days.
Liquid medium such as thioglycollate broth is
often used as an enrichment broth in the Acid production is shown by the medium
primary isolation procedure. This is an all- turning pink. The Durham tubes will show the
purpose medium of value in isolating a wide presence/ absence of gas.
range of bacteria which were present in small
numbers or as anaerobes or facultative
anaerobes not recovered on primary plates Methyl red test
incubated aerobically. Primary growth in a
broth medium is often difficult to interpret: This test utilises the metabolism of glucose by
Gram stains of the broth should be compared the mixed acid fermenters with the production
with growth obtained on primary culture of acids and a low pH. The medium is glucose
plates. phosphate broth and the indicator a methyl red
solution.
Five drops of indicator are mixed with 5 ml
Citrate utilisation test of culture and incubated at optimum growth
temperature for 2-7 days.
This test indicates the ability of a bacterium to
A red colour indicates a positive result.
utilise citrate as a source of carbon for
metabolism. Most strains of E. coli and Shigella
are unable to utilise citrate, but Salmonella is
positive to the test. Motility test
Motility of bacteria, as demonstrated by their
possession of flagella, differentiates motile and
Fermentation of sugars (glucose, lactose, non-motile organisms. Salmonella, Enterobacter,
mannose, xylose, etc.) most Yersinia and Listeria are flagellate while
A study of the production of acid by various Shigella, Klebsiella and Yersinia pestis are non-
sugars is usually an integral part of bacterial flagellate.
identification. The reaction is shown by a change Motility can be demonstrated fairly easily by
of colour in the pH indicator present in the examining an unstained drop of fluid culture
culture medium. Lactose is one (the most useful) ('wet preparation') by direct microscopy on
of a range of carbohydrates which can be used to glass slide using:
identify members of the family Enterobacteriaceae
(Gram-negative bacilli). MacConkey's agar is
frequently used to distinguish laciose-jermenters Urease test
(LF), e.g. Escherichia coli or Klebsiellae, showing as
red colonies, and the non-lactose-fermenting (NLF) The ability of a bacterium to split urea with the
types (Salmonella, most Shigella, Proteus and liberation of ammonia and an increased pH is
Yersinia), appearing as straw-coloured colonies. another test applied to enterobacterial strains.
Salmonella ferments glucose as do all Christensen's urea medium (agar slope or
Enterobacteriaceae. broth) is inoculated with the test organism and
Gas formation can be detected when the tests incubated at 37°C or 30°C.
are carried out in liquid media by using small The medium changes from yellow to pink or
inverted tubes. red in positive cases.
1 The basic medium consists of 10 ml of a 10%
solution of the required sugar (sterilised at
115°C for 10min) and 90ml of peptone water Voges-Proskauer test
with 1-2 ml of Andrade's indicator solution. This test utilises the ability of certain bacteria to
This is transferred in 5-10 ml amounts to a
series of test tubes or bijoux bottles. (If gas degrade carbon compounds to butylene glycol,
formation is to be checked, Durham tubes are acetoin and finally diacetyl, which in the
used.) Sterility is checked by incubating presence of the reagents 40% potassium
overnight at 37°C. hydroxide and a-naphthol forms a red colour.
376 Meat Hygiene
The medium is glucose phosphate broth as in indirect fluorescent antibody, immunoassays
the methyl red test (q.v.). with labelled reagents (enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA)), DNA-DNA
hybridisation (gene probe) test, immunoblot-
ting or western blotting, etc. The current high
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION OF cost of equipment, however, precludes their use
BACTERIAL PATHOGENS in small laboratories.
Many of these tests are commercially
Most procedures for the identification of available in kit form and take less time than
microorganisms in foods follow five main conventional techniques and are capable of
steps, following the use of Gram (and being automated. Some, however, are not
Ziehl-Neelsen) stains. (See also Fig 14.14.) perfect and reliance has to be placed on
traditional methods in some cases. Many,
1 Pie-enrichment of the sample in a non-selective especially the immunoassays with labelled
broth, e.g. nutrient broth, selenite broth,
antibodies or antigens, have been improved in
trypicase soy broth, lactose broth, Gram-
negative (GN) broth. (These media contain quality and will be of value in the future, not
several nutrients for growth.) Cultures are only for bacterial and viral diseases, but also for
incubated at 37°C for 24h. the diagnosis of parasitic disease.
2 Selective enrichment of a portion of the pre- The field of diagnostics is constantly being
enriched culture using/ e.g., glucose azide improved with the result that many traditional,
broth, selenite cystine broth, tetrathionate laborious, non-serological methods fall into disuse
broth, MacConkey agar, Loeffler /s serum with the emergence of tests based on nucleic acid
agar. (These media contain antibiotics and techniques.
other inhibitory substances which allow the
test organism to grow while restricting
competing bacteria.) Cultures are incubated COMMERCIAL IDENTIFICATION KITS
at 37°C or 43°C.
3 Streak selective enrichment cultures on to The development of these systems for the rapid
selective agar plates, e.g. MacConkey agar, identification of bacteria, assessment of plant
xylose-Iysine-desoxycholate (XLD), bismuth hygiene standards, and so on, has been a major
sulphite. Cultures are held at 37°C for 24-48h
and examined for colonies. (Differential advance in food microbiology. For low-volume
media may be used to detect haemolytic and laboratories they have been a great boon, not
non-haemolytic colonies, e.g. sheep blood only for their rapidity in identifying organisms
agar.) (often 4-24 h, compared with several days for
4 Biochemical reactions. Suspect colonies are first traditional methods) but also because they are
tested on differential agars, e.g. triple sugar cost-effective and do not require specialist
iron agar slant (TSI) or lysine iron agar butt operation.
(LIA). Typical colonies are then tested against Prior to 1970/ bacteriologists relied totally
a battery of biochemicals for confirmation - on the longer methods of growth and isolation
fermentation of sugars with, or without, of microorganisms on solid agar and broth
production of gas; indole test, methyl red test, cultures. Diagnosis of disease was a laborious,
urease test, sodium malonate test, complicated and time-consuming task - in
Voges-Proskauer test, etc. reality, a retrospective process. Today the use
5 Serology. The availability of antibodies and of many of these systems with their fast
antigens of high purity has enabled many identification of pathogens means an early
different serological tests to be used in the diagnosis and swift action in the judgement of
differentiation of bacteria as well as the
diagnosis of frank disease in man (AIDS, suspect carcases and possible avoidance of
hepatitis C virus infection and Lyme disease) outbreaks of food-borne disease. There are
and animals (TB, brucellosis, etc.). now new ways of identifying microorganisms,
e.g. by staining them with fluorescein-labelled
Serological tests include particle agglutina- antibodies (immunofluorescence microscopy),
tion/ precipitation assays, double immunodiffu- by using immunoelectrophoresis, gas-liquid
sion/ counterimrnunoelectrophoresis, floccula- chromatography, pyrolysis gas-liquid chroma-
tion, complement fixation, virus neutralisation, tography/ electrical impedance monitoring of
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 377
flu id s, microcalorime try, ELISA (enzyme- firefly (Photinue pyralis). The PllOtillllS enzyme,
linked immunosorb cnt assay) or biomctry ludferase. uses th e energy in ATP to drive the
lum inescence (ATP biolu minescence). decarboxylation of luci ferin w ith the
Most commercial kits for bacterial immediate production of lig h t, which is
identification co nsist of a number of test displayed on the lum inometer Le O. The
compartm ents ar ranged in a compact unit. In amount of light prod uced (in Relative Ligh t
one system as many as 300 samples a day (80 Units) is directly proportional to the number of
samples would be more appropriate for the microorganisms (plus any residue) in th e
meat p lan t laborato ry) can be processed sample, on e mol ecule of ATP em itting one
simultaneously for salmonella, listeria and photon of light. This m easureme nt of ATI' is
staphlyococcal endotoxins . (E. coli 0157:H7 and thus a ra pid system for d etecti ng
other pa thogens can also be processed .) m icroor ganism s and is used extensively toda y
Results for m ost pa rameters can be ob tained in monitoring food plant hygiene and water
wi thin 60 min (90 min for SfaphylococCIIs standards.
cntcrotoxins) after pre-enrichment of samples The system consists essentially of a sam pling
(which may take 42 h). Th is system ut ilises swab (for surface sampling) or pen (for water
reagents in a closed reagent/sample section sampling) conta ini ng all the necessary reagen ts
which eliminates contamina tion . The reagent and a microprocessor-controlled lu min ometer.
consists of a solid p hase and pipetting device The ability of ATI' monitoring to deal with
and a bar-coded strip containing all the aerobic, sulphate-red uc ing an d nitrogen- cycle
necessary reagents in ready-to-use form. For the bacteria, Legioneita, yeasts. fungi and algae
larger systems, the unit can be connected to a compares with s tandard plate counts for
computer and printer to record results (Fig. checking only aerobic bacteria and with dual
14.15). media d ipslides for monitoring only aerobic
bacteria, yeasts and fungi.
Its portability also adds to its usefulness.
ATP biolum inescen ce
ATI' (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide
Steps in AT? monitoring (Fig. 14.16)
occurring in all living cells, including bac terial,
yeast and mould cells, in which it stores energy 1 Moisten swab with mo isten ing fluid and
in the form of high-ene rgy phosphate bonds. swab test surface. (For water use sam pling
ATP bioluminescence is based on a reac tion pen. )
that takes place naturally in the American 2 Immerse swab in enzyme sol u tion.

Fig. 14.15 Automated

imrnunoanalvser (miniVidas)
capable of handling 80 samples a
day. (By courtesy of bioMerieux
Vitek lnc., Missouri, USA)
378 Meat Hygiw e

Step 1
mic ro- .,,,,...
organism

+
lysing
agent
-
- "'L~. - r::..~ ATPis
released into
buffered
solution

Step 2 Stf:P 3
. ..
-, .' . the amount of

.
light emitted
•• , + en zyme ----.
reagents is measured
'., • • •
in RLU's
ATP
Fig.14.16 Summary of ATr mon itoring steps. (By cou rtesy of Biotracc [Link] , Brid gend . Wales, UK)

3 Place swab (pen) in lu minome tcr and read and in red meat bv seve ral wo rkers (lcnscn and
result. Hcss, 1941; Labadie et al., 1977; Mackey and
Derrick, 1979).
Results with beef carcases showed tha t
MONITORI NG OF PLANT HYGI ENE bagging the excised anus reduced, but did not
prevent, the spread of the marker organism
Aerobic plate counts (3QlIC incubation) have from an anal incoculum site. Sheep carcases
been advocated as 'a useful measure of were found to be con tami na ted with the marker
slaughter hygiene and the bacteri ological status after the fleece had been inoculated at a single
of carcases' (Microorgallisms ;/1 Foods 6, IC MSF, sill'. The washing of the hands, arms and ap ron
1998). The au thors fu rther state that of the operative performing the flayi.n~ before
'accumulating such APes as a trend analysis is and during this operation along wit h freq uent
a particularly use ful measure of hygiene over kn ife sterilisation, however. sig nifican tly
time'. However; although reaso nably accura te red uced the con ta mination (P < 0.001).
gauges of hyg iene sta ndards, they are time- Subsequen t washing of carcases had little or no
consum ing, and therefore retrospective, and in effect on the levels of the ma rker organi sm.
any case do not d etect food rcsiducs. With these It was conclud ed that the use of the ma rker
method s, results are ava ilable w hen production E. coli may be of value in assessing hygiene
ru ns arc long com pleted. con trol, improv ing p resen t p ra ctices an d
training abatto ir personn el.
What is requ ired is an assessmen t of plant
Ass essment of meat p lant h yg iene usin g a
hygiene sta nda rds within minutes rather than
marke r org anism
davs in order that corrective action can be taken
A recent study (Hudson et ai., 1998) using a qu ickly. Action may invo lve an exa m ination of
non-path ogenic strai n of E. coli K12 as a marke r the cleaning met hods ad op ted , the efficiency of
organism resistant to nalid ixic acid , was carried equipment and personnel and even the quality
out to assess the efficiency of of the detergents and d isinfectants.
slaughter/dressing techniques. Such a ma rker Efficient cleaning/ disinfection is the first line
organism can be detected and counted by direct of defence against microbial contamination,
plating on a highly specific isolation medium spoilage o f product, infections in staff and poo r
and has been employed in poultry processi ng working cond itions and is, therefore, a
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 379

fu ndamen tal pa rt of GMP and II ACCP. The sampling pen acts as a sampler and activator. A
condition of the changing rooms, an d espec ially printer can be combined with the luminometer
th e lockers, will give a goo d ind ication of the to give an immediate printou t. Results, which
emp has is placed on hygiene by pe rsonnel . are delivered in seconds, can be stored for trend
While conscie nt ious inspection usin g keen analysis. The meat plant ca n programme the
eyes ight (for all surfaces. especially hidden sy stem with its own sa mpling plans. Plan s for
ones), th e sense o f smell an d th e use of a good every cont rol point can be programmed in,
torch are essential components of exa mina tion , en abli ng the techn ician to be led , point by
they cannot gua rantee an efficient cleaning and point, th rou gh eac h tes t poi nt w ithin a p roces s
disi nfectio n level. What may look and smell line.
clean may still harbour bac teria and food
res id ues (which also contain ATP). Efficient
clea ning and d isin fection involves the removal RESID UE SAMPLING AND
of all ATP (in trace llular and extracellular) in PRO CEDURES
soil, d ebris, faeca l material. fat, blood, c tc., and
product resid ucs in the further processing area. This importan t sector is governed by Council
The results of ATP tests sho uld be corre lated Directive % /23/ EEC which requires ran d om
with aerobic pla te counts, with which they may samp ling for drug residues by Member States
not tally. The tota l amount of ATP is firs t of all and details the freq uency of sampling for the
determined. When no ATP can be found , the va rious drugs. In the United Kingd om the
pla nt is considered dean. If ATP is discove red relevant legislation is conta ined in the An imal s
above a rejection level, the plant is co ns idered a nd Ani mal Prod u cts (Examina tion for
not clean; it is an indication of amounts of non- Residues and Max im um Resid u e Limits)
microbial AT? or soil rcstducs although the Regulations 1997. The Veterinary Medicines
p late cou nts may ind icate sterility. Therefore, Directorate coordinates a Nat ional Sam pling
the overall number o f microorganism s per se and Su rv eillance Scheme (NSS) in the Un ited
d oes not necessarily ind icate efficient clea ning King d om and speci fies the tota l number of
met hods. sa mp les required ann ually.
All these mea su res are d esigned to prot ect
th e consu mer against th e co ns u m ptio n of
Portable ATP d et ecti on system (Fig. 14.17) p otenti ally harmful residues o f veterinary
Most of these sys tems cons ist of a swa b, an medicines and apply to catt le, sheep, pigs.
activator and a lumi ncm eter, In som e a horses and poultry (live anima ls and carcases ).

Fig.14.17 Plant hygiene

monitoring with portable ATP kit.
(By courtesy of ldexx Labo ratories .
Westbrook, Maine, USA)
380 Meat Hygiene
Annex 1 - Types of Analyses and Samples Use of the compound microscope
Required. (Variations occur with different models)
Annex 2 - Methods of Collection. The microscope should be clean before use,
(Full details are given in Chapter 17 of the especially the objective lenses, eyepieces,
Meat Hygiene Service Operations Manual, to mirror and condenser.
which the reader is referred.) 1 Line up the light source with the microscope.
2 Adjust the condenser to produce a sharp
image.
MICROSCOPY
3 Adjust the draw tube to the correct length
using coarse adjustment.
Compound light microscope
4 Place the specimen slide in position.
This instrument is used for viewing objects as S While viewing the object with a x10 objective
small as bacteria and is the instrument lens in position, focus on the slide using
generally used for most microbiological work, coarse and fine adjustments.
the electron microscope being necessary for the 6 When focused with the x10 or x40 objectives,
study of viruses and large molecules. The light select a field for the oil immersion lens.
microscope has a resolving power of about
7 Raise the objective, rotate the immersion oil
x1500, whereas the electron microscope permits (Or) lens into position, place one drop of
a much greater magnification, x300 000 or more. immersion oil on specimen and very gently
The light microscope consists of a stand lower the or lens on to the specimen without
supported by a horseshoe foot or box touching the coverslip.
containing a built-in light source (low-voltage 8 While viewing the object, use coarse
tungsten bulb). The stand carries a body or draw adjustment and then fine adjustment to
tube fitted at its upper end with binocular produce a clear image.
eyepieces and at its lower end with a nosepiece 9 Raise the objective from the specimen and
with several objective lenses capable of being clean off the immersion oil.
rotated, depending on the degree of power of 10 Place the protective cover on the microscope.
magnification required. The body tube
possesses coarse and fine adjustment enabling
the objective lenses to be brought into focus
Dark ground (dark field) microscopy
quickly and accurately - an action which must
be done carefully. A monocular tube is often Ordinary light microscopes are unable to detect
provided near the eyepieces to carry a camera. certain microorganisms because they are weakly
The objective lenses are normally of low, refractile, e.g. leptospires and spirochaetes.
medium and high power, measured in focal These can be viewed with dark ground
lengths of 25,50 and 75 mm (low power), 8 and microscopy by focusing a hollow cone of light
16mm (medium power) and 2 and 4mm (high from below on to the top of the microscope slide
power). Lenses are often classed as achromats, to make the light diverge again and miss the
semi-apochromats or apochromats, the lens for front lens of the objective. The bacteria shine
high power being designated 'oil immersion'. An brightly against a dark background because
oil immersion lens is not affected by spherical they have been struck by light on the side. The
aberration due to a coverslip, the oil occluding effect can be produced by having water or oil
a space between the two. between the condenser and the slide to prevent
An arm of the stand is fitted with a total internal reflection of light within the
mechanical specimen stage with knobs for condenser as for 'wet preparations'.
quickly moving the stage in various directions. The effect is the same as observing fine dust
The coarse and fine focus controls for the body particles when viewing a narrow shaft of
tube are placed near the stage knobs for sunlight from the side.
convenience of operation.
Below the specimen stage is the condenser,
'Wet preparation' ('Hanging drop')
which may be combined with a mirror or prism
and iris diaphragm, enabling light to be directed A drop of a fluid culture is suspended from a
accurately from the built-in light source. coverslip over a hollow-ground slide. It is then
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 381
examined using a high-power objective with a • Resistant to penicillin and similar
restricted amount of light by moving the antibiotics.
condenser down slightly from its normal
position and partially closing the iris
diaphragm. Bacteria and other objects that Clostridium botulinum
diffract light appear dark against a bright
background. Size, shape and motility of The misleading term 'botulism' derives from
organisms can be detected but the motility the latin botulus, a sausage, in which food the
must be differentiated from Brotonian movement, disease was first described. The extremely
which is a continuous agitation affecting all potent neurotoxin (of seven different types, A
small objects, whereas true motility involves a to G), is ingested with the food in which it is
specific direction using flagella. formed. Botulism can also occur as a rare
wound infection with Cl. botulinum infecting a
tissue and also as infant botulism in which
India ink film toxin is formed by the organism in the
This is a negative stain used to demonstrate the intestine.
capsules of bacteria and yeasts. The fine ink • Gram-positive, obligately anaerobic, motile,
particles are excluded from the capsules which sporing large rods (Sum x Lum).
appear clear against a dark background. • Spores are oval and subterminal. Motility is
1 Pace a drop of India ink on a clean slide. achieved by peritrichous flagella.
2 Mix in a little bacterial suspension. • Widespread in nature - soil, vegetables,
fruits, hay, silage, manure.
3 Cover with a cover slip and press with
blotting paper to make a thin film. • Demonstration of toxin in foods, faeces and
serum is the test usually adopted for the
4 Examine with a high-power or oil immersion diagnosis of botulism. The suspect food is
lens. homogenised in buffer-gelatin solution and
supernatant fluid is centrifuged to produce
a test extract. Test extract (0.5ml)
(neutralised with antitoxins A, Band E
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR (main types encountered) and extract
PATHOGENS (treated with buffer) used as a control) is
inoculated intraperitoneally into 2 mice (per
1. FOOD-BORNE BACTERIAL PATHOGENS (see sample) which are observed over 3 days.
also Part 1) Survival of all mice indicates absence of
botulinum toxin. Death of one or more mice
Bacillus cereus along with prior incoordination and
dyspnoea indicates suspect botulinum toxin.
• First diagnosed in Norway in 1947.
Considered by FDA to be an emerging In vitro neutralisation: Mixtures are held for
pathogen. Two types of illness - diarrhoeal half an hour at 37°C and then injected (dose
and emetic (resembles S. aureus in terms of 0.5 ml) into separate pairs of mice.
incubation period and symptoms). Widely In vivo neutralisation: IP dose of 1.0 unit of
distributed in nature - common in soil and
vegetables. Can be found on surface of one of the antitoxin types is given to separate
meats, including poultry. pairs of mice and control mice are given buffer
solution. All mice are then challenged
• Gram-positive, motile, ~-haemolytic,
sporing, aerobic, large rods (3-5/lm x 10-30 min later with 0.5 ml of test extract.
1.0-1.2 urn). Related to B. anihracis and B. Botulinum toxin is demonstrated by
megaterium. Spores are oval or cylindrical, neutralisation of a particular toxin with
located centrally or terminally and do not survival of protected mice.
distend the cell.
• Grows well on blood agar and most
enriched media - frosted glass colonies. Clostridium perfringens
• Ferments salicin but not mannitol. • Normal inhabitant of man and animals and
• Voges-Proskauer positive. Egg-yolk extremely Widespread in nature. First
lecithinase positive. isolated in 1890. Now responsible for some
382 Meat Hygiene
10% of all outbreaks of food-borne disease immunocompromised, making it an
in man in addition to gas gangrene as well important zoonosis).
as serious outbreaks of enterotoxaemia in
• There are six species of Listeria (only three of
farm animals (Types A, B, C, D, E) and focal
which are virulent) giving rise to 17
symmetrical encephalomalacia in foals
serovars.
(Type D).
• Gram-positive, non-motile, haemolytic, • The organism has been isolated from a wide
anaerobic (not strict), sporing, capsulated, range of animals (domesticated and wild),
truncated rods (4-6 urn x 0.8-1.5 urn) usually birds, fish, crustaceans, flies, ticks and
occurring singly or in pairs. In young animal products.
cultures the bacteria appear like cocci and in • Gram-positive, motile, aerobic, haemolytic,
old cultures very long (up to 15-20)lm). non-sporing, slightly curved, tiny rods
• The spores (rare in laboratory media) are (1-2.0)lm x 0.5 urn) with rounded ends,
large, oval, central or subterminal and often occurring in pairs at an acute angle.
distend the cells. • Catalase positive (cf. Streptococcus) and ~­
• Optimum temperature for growth: 45°C haemolytic (cf. Corynebacteria).
with a pH range of 5.5-8.0.
• Colonies on sheep's blood agar are very
• Ferments a wide range of sugars - glucose, small, smooth, raised, translucent and show
galactose, fructose, lactose, maltose, a narrow zone of ~-haemolysis. The colonies
mannose, sucrose and inositol but not have a close resemblance to those of group
mannitol, sorbitol, trehalose or xylose. B streptococci. Older colonies often have
Hydrolyses gelatin and reduces nitrate. cells that stain Gram-negative.
• Recommended media Egg yolk agar
(EYA) detects lecithinase, lipase and • Optimum growth occurs at 30-37°C (range
proteolytic enzymes. The lecithinase 0.5-45°C) with a slightly increased CO 2
reaction appears as a wide zone of opacity (10%) atmosphere. L. monocytogenes is able
round the colonies. The lipase reaction to grow at refrigeration temperatures and in
produces colonies with a multicoloured a high salt medium (up to 10% salt).
sheen like mother-of-pearl. On blood agar • The motility of the organism in wet
colonies are normally circular (1-3 mm in preparations is characteristic, exhibiting a
diameter), grey or greyish-yellow with 'tumbling' movement. This is best seen in
glossy appearance, but older colonies may special motility media in which an
appear umbonate. 'umbrella' pattern occurs. Motility occurs
best at 25°C in young broth cultures in
Haemolysis is double-zoned. which up to four flagellae can be seen.
Selective media containing various antibiotics • Glucose, maltose (lactose, sucrose slowly)
(to which Cl. perfringens is resistant), sulphite are fermented without gas formation, but not
and iron are used to isolate the organism. These mannitol.
include TSN (tryptose-sulphite-neomycin), • Thermal death point is 72°C in 1 s.
TSC (tryptose-sulphite-cycloserine) and SPS
(sulphite-polymyxin-sulphadiazine). Colonies • Isolation media for listeria:
turn black with sulphite and iron. 1 Cold enrichment method: Macerate material and
• Cl. perfringens in contaminated food samples add to tryptose broth. Incubate at 4°C (retards
tends to die off quickly, so these should be growth of contaminants). Sample at intervals
examined as quickly as possible. on to McBride Listeria Agar (inhibits Gram-
negative bacteria). Add sheep blood to
medium to show haemolysis. Incubate plates
Listeria monocytogenes (with 10% CO 2, 5% O 2, 85% NJ for 48h at 35°C.
• Listeriosis in sheep and cattle was Screen colonies for motility, biochemical
recognised in Germany in 1925, the first and catalase reactions.
record in humans being in 1926. Since then 2 Use trypticase soy-yeast extract enrichment and
the incidence appears to have increased selective broth containing acriflavine
although still relatively uncommon. It is, hydrochloride, naladixic acid and
however, a serious disease in animals and cycloheximide. Store cultures at 30°C and
humans (especially in neonates, pregnant plate after 24 hand 7 days on modified
women and the elderly and MeBride Listeria Agar (without blood).
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 383
Transfer suspect Listeria colonies to blood their exact roles in disease are not always
agar for haemolysis activity. clear. Potential zoonotic roles. Species
3 Selective enrichment method (SEP). The includes Helicobacter pylori, recently
antibiotic polymixin B is included with identified as the cause of type B gastritis
acriflavine, naladixic acid and cycloheximide and gastric ulcers in man. Formerly
for selectivity. classified with the vibrios (carbohydrate
Sample cultures after 24 h at 37Q C fermenters),
4 Serology includes restriction enzyme analysis • C. jejuni. Gram-negative, motile (single
(REA), bacteriophage typing, ribotyping, flagellum at both poles), microaerophilic
multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MEE) (requires low levels of oxygen), slender,
and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). spirally curved rods (0.5-5 urn x 0.2-0.5 urn)
with tendency to form chains (S-shaped,
seagull-winged). Appears as coccobacilli in
older cultures.
Campylobacter spp. (Fig. 14.18) • Grows best at temperatures between
42-45 Q C Sensitive to freezing (- 20QC to
• Campylobacteriosis due to C. jejuni now -5 QC) and heat (thermal death point D
regarded as the most common form of acute value -55QC for 1 min in skim milk).
bacterial gastroenteritis in man. The disease
is also important in farm animals, causing • Samples for testing should be held at 4Q C
sporadic abortion in cattle, diarrhoea and • Catalase-positive. Oxidase-positive.
dysentery in calves and enzootic abortion in • No fermentation of carbohydrates.
sheep (c. fetus), diarrhoea and colitis in
young pigs (c. coli). Normal commensals in • Biochemical reactions and the characteristic
intestine of cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry- 'darting' motility in 'hanging drop'

Fig.14.18 Campulobacier jejuni; electron micrograph showing typical spiral shape and uni/bipolar flagellae.
(By courtesy of Professor Diane Newell, Central Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, UK)
384 Meat Hygiene
preparations o r phase-contrast microscopy bovine cystitis and py elonep hritis,
are presumptive ev ide nce of Campylobacter colibacillosls of po ultry).
spp. • Cram -nega tive bacillus, mot ile and non-
• Enriched media: Ca mpy BAP (blood agar motile strains. Possesses 0 , H a nd K
plate con taining 10% shee p blood a nd a ntige ns. Fer ments glucos e, lactose,
combina tion 0( antimicrobials- trehalose and xylose . Ind ole and me th yl red
trirnethoprim, vancomyci n. polymixin, etc.) positive. 11;;, DNase, urease and
or Skirrow medium (Oxoid blood aga r base voges-Proska ucr negative. Does not grow in
and lysed . defibrinated horse RBCs). po tass ium cya nide. Cannot utilise citra tc as
• Ideal a tmos phere is 5-10% 0 , and 10% CO,. a source of ca rbon . On MacConkey aga r
shows d ry, pink, lactose- positive areas of
• Colony appearance - moist and spreading. precipitated bile sa lts.
tra nslucent. round. raised or flat.
• There are different types Chased on different
• Gram stains are faint with safranin - better O:H types, virulence factors , clinical
with carbol fuchsin. manifestations and epidemiology):
• Serology: Latex agglutination tests are no w
available for rapid ide ntification. Enteropathogenic (EPEC)
Enterotoxigenic (!:.T EC)
Entcroinvasive (EIEO
Escherichia coli (Fig. 14.19) Enteroadherent ([AEO
• First described by Theodore Escherich in Enterohaemorrhagic (EHEel serotype
1885. An important potential pathogen in 0157:H7 (verocytotoxigcntc - vrso
ma n (bacterieria , septicaemia. neonatal
sepsis, meningitis and dierrhoeal syndrome) • LAboratory diJZgllosis of [Link] 0157:H7
and anima ls <diarrhoea in newborn animals,
especially calves, colibacillosis of newborn, 1 Faeces culture on highly d ifferential medium,
oedema d isease, coliform gastroenteritis, e.g. sorbito l MacCo nkey agar: hea vy
cerebrospina l angiopa thy, se pticaemia , colo u rless growth but no fermentation of
sorbitol unlike most E. coli.
2 Demonstration of verotoxtn in faeces - high
leve ls produced.
3 Demo nstratio n of fourfold or greater increa se
in neutralising a ntibody.
-I Demon strati on of antigen using anti body-
coated magnetic bea ds. A com mercial E. coli
Latex Agglutination Test for serogrollp 0 157.
A bioche m ical test is ava ilable co mmercia lly
to scre e n fo r 01 57:117, th is tests for so rbitol
fermenta tion a nd productio n of the enzyme Il-
glucuronid ase (/Jo t produ ced by 0 157:H 7 bu t
by m ost o the r E. coli).

Salmo nella s p p . (Fig . 14.20 )

• The natu ral habitat of th e Salmonetia species
is the intestinal tract of man and a nima ls.
Most of the 2300 serotypes at present know n
are non-host-a da pted and capable of being
carried by many d ifferent species. A few are
host-ad apted , viz. Salnumeita ga//illarmn (fowl
typ hoid) and Salmonella pullorum (bacillary
w hite diarrhoea in chicks) occurring o nly in
Fig.14.19 Escherichia coli type 1; electron poultry, S. cnoleme suis and S. typhisuis in pigs
micrograph. <By courtesy of Central Veterinary and S. typ1li and $. paratyphi in man. Only
Laboratory, Weybridge, UK) some 200 of the total number are pathogenic.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology

,
385

Fig. 14.20 Sn/mollel/a spp .;

electron micrograph. (By C'Ou rtpsy
of Centr al Veterinary Laboratory,
Weybridge, UK)

It ha s been es tima ted that the number of • Ferment glucose and xylose with gas
reported cases of salmonellosis in Canada is production (excep t S. typhj) but not sucrose
underestimated by a factor of 350:1. At an or lactose.
average cost of about 5700 per case, the annual • Dulcitol positive.
cost to the Canadian economv for sal monella • Triple sugar iron aga r (TSJ) - alka line red
poisonin g is about 51344 million (o r ove r £6 slant a nd acid yellow butt wi th or withou t
billion in the UK). H,5 (med ium black wi th U,s).
Two types of Salmonella, S. enteritidis a nd S. • Lysine iron aga r (L1A ) - alka line purple butt
typhimurium account for 75% of the food with or without .I~.
poisoning cases in man, of which S. enteritidis • KCN broth - no growth.
accounts for ha lf.
• Indole nega tive.
• Salmonella are Gram-nega tive , motile (most • Lysine deca rboxylase po sitive.
by pcritrichous or po lar flegclla ), non-
sparing. faculta tive a naerobic, non- • Methyl red po sitive.
haemolytic, straight or cu rved rod s (2J.1 m x • Phe nylalani ne nega tive.
0.5 [Link]) indisting uishable un der the • Potassium cyanide - no grow th.
microscope from E. coli an d SlIigd /l/. to
w hich they a re closely relat ed genetically. • Urease negati ve.
• Grow best a t 3K wit h range of 5-45"C. pH • vog es-Proskau er negati ve.
ra nge: 4-9. Water activity: 0.945-0.999. • Serology: Agglutin ation assays w ith
• Colony (on lll lt ioJ1 : I Iekt oen enteric agar - a ntibod ies for 0 , 11and Vi antigens, latex
gree n/ blue green with black centres due to a nd flagella r agglutination assays, grid
I I~ production. membra ne filtration, DN A-DN A
Xylose-lysine deoxycholat e aga r (XLD> - hybridisation (gene) probes.
red with black centres du e to H~. • Several commercial kits are available for
Salmonella identification.
• Salmonetla and Enterobacter are flagellate;
Shigella and Klebsiella a re non-flagellate - a • Presence orabsence test
useful criterion for differentiation .
• Classification: 50 groups based on the 0 , H For detection of the presence of a pathogen,
and Vi (caps ular) antigens. e.g. Salmo nella, it is the presence of a pa thogen,
386 Meat Hygiene
ra ther than its actual number, that is significant
since they a rc u sually expecled to be present in
small numbers.
• Routine method for the detection of Sa/monel/a
This is a simplified version of ISO 3565 1975
Meat an d Meat Prod u cts - Detection of
Salmonella (Reference Met hod ) and ISO 6579
1981 'Microbiology - General Guid ance on
Me thod s for the Detection of Salmonella', except
tha t Rappaport- Vassiliad is Broth is used in
place of Mu ller Tetrathionate Broth and the
plating med ia use d are XLD and BSA instead of
Brillian t Green (Mod ified ) Agar. It is probable
that RV will be incorporated into these ISO
methodologies wi th an incubation temperature
of 429 C. If a high level of background flora is
anticipated, it may be desirable to omit the pre-
enrichment to avoid ovcrgrowth of Saimcneila . f ig.14.21 Shigella; electron micrograph showing
(Most of the required media are available from complete absence of tlagellae. (By kind permission
several commercial sources.) of Or Peter Hawtin)

1 Pre-enrichment of a SOgsub-sample in 4S0ml

buffcrcdJ'eptone water (BPW) (Lab M lab 46) • Ferment many carbohydrates (except
incubate at 3K for 18-24h. lactose) with acid but no gas.
2 Selective enrichment of 1 ml BPW culture in • Mannitol fermentation: positive by S. eounei,
100 ml Rappaport-Vassiliadis Broth (RV ) S. flexlleri and S. boydii.
(Difco 1858- 17) at 41QC and 10 ml in 100 ml
• Lysine decarboxylase negative
Selenite-Cystine Broth (SCB) (Difco 0687-17)
at 37"-'C, both incubated for 2G-24h. • Phenylalanine deaminase nega tive
3 Selective isola tion on Xylose Lysine • Urease negative
Desoxycholate Agar (XLD) (Oxoid CM 469) • MacConkey agar: clear, colourless colonies.
and Bismuth Sulphite Aga r (BSA) (Difco • Hektoen enteric (HE ) agar: green without
0073-01), incubated at 371lC for up to 47h. black centres (no H,5).
4 Where appropriate, biochemical confirmation • Serolog}f Grouping (A, H, C, D) based on 0
using API lOS or API 20E test systems antigen by agglutination .
followed by serological confirmation using
polyvalent 0 and H Salmonella antisera.
5 Additional biochemica l tests are performed Staphylococcus s pp.
where necessary.
• In all there are some 23 species of
6 Serotyping is carried out if required . staphylococci. Besides being responsible for
food-borne disease, Staphylococcus aureus, a
(Salmonella antisera: Behr ing Institute, Difco common commensal of man, occurs in the
Laboratories, wcllcomc Diagnostics.) skin, nose, throat, ear and faeces. The
relatively mild food -borne disease is caused
S/ligella (Fig. 14.21) by the ingestion of a toxin formed in the
food .
• Obligate parasites of man causing bacillary
dysentery or shigellosis mostly in children. • S. aureus is also one of the most common
Isolated by Kyoshi Shiga in 1896. Closely causes of pyogenic infection in man and
related to E. coli. animals - skin abscesses, boils, carb uncles,
scalded skin syndrome and toxic shock
• Gram-negative, non-motile (non-flagellate), syndrome in man and in recent years has
facu lta tively anaerobic, non -haemolytic assumed a greater importance because of
straight rods or coccobacilli . the emergence of methicillin-resistant strains
• Colony ionnotion: Large, moist, grey colonies (MRSA), some of them ema nating from
like all Enterobacteriaceae (except Klebsiella). hospitals.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 387
• Gram-positive spherical cells appear singly, cholerae produces a potent enterotoxin in the
in pairs or clusters ('bunches of grapes'), small intestine.
non-motile, non-sporing, facultatively Other vibrios, e.g. V. parahaemoluticus, are
anaerobic (most) and ~-haemolytic (some
incriminated in human gastroenteritis from
species).
contaminated seafoods, especially in Japan and
• Colonies on blood agar are white or golden USA. Also causes meningitis, bacteraemia and
in colour, round and raised after 24 h
incubation. meningitis. V. vulnificus and other vibrios are
increasingly being isolated from foods causing
• Differentiation of staphylococci, streptococci and enteritis in man.
micrococci (Table 14.14).
• Vibrio organisms are Gram-negative, motile
Coagulase positive (most strains). (polar flagella), facultatively anaerobic,
Maltose: + acid haemolytic (ex, ~, y), small, pleomorphic
Mannitol: + acid (straight, curved, comma-shaped) rods
([Link] x 1.5-3.0 urn).
Mannose: + acid
Sucrose: + acid • Growth on thiosulphate citrate bile salts
sucrose (TCBS) agar - yellow colonies. This
Xylose: - medium differentiates yellow (sucrose-
fermenting, e.g. V. cholerae, V. fluvialis) from
• Detection of enterotoxin in foods the green (non-lactase-fermenting, e.g. V.
Slide agglutination parohaemoluticus, V. mimicusi vibrios. It is a
useful selective medium following
Latex agglutination enrichment on alkaline peptone water.
Radioimmunoassay
• Sheep blood and chocolate agar - fairly
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay large smooth, opaque, iridescent colonies
(ELISA) with a greenish tinge ex-, ~- or y-haemolysis.
• MacConkey agar - most grow as non-
Vibrio lactose-fermenters.

• Thirty species in all, but only some 12 • Grow best between 30D C and 37D C (range
responsible for disease. Found mostly in 15-42 DC) and pH of 6-10.
aquatic environments. Type species is Vibrio • Halophilic, i.e. salt loving, dying quickly in
cholerae, the cause of human cholera, a an acid environment. Addition of sodium
serious diarrhoeic disease, pandemics of (at 6.5% NaCl) necessary for optimum
which have been recorded since 1817. V. growth and accurate identification.

Table 14.14 Differentiation of staphylococci from streptococci and micrococci.

Staphylococci Streptococci Micrococci

Motility
Strict aerobe +
Facultive anaerobe ± +
Anaerobic acid/ glucose + +
Catalase + +
Growth 5% NaCl + ± +
Growth 12% NaCl ± ±
Benzidine test + +
Erythromycin +
Bacitracin + ±
Furazolidone +
388 Meat Hygiene
• Oxidase positive (separates Vibrios from • Y. enterccotitica and Y. pestis used to be
Enterobacteriaceae), The vibriostatic agent classified as Pasteurellae.
0/1 29 (150llg) separa tes vibrios from
Aeromonas, the former not growing while
the latter do not grow.
Y. enteroco/it ica
• Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, non-
Yersini a ep p - (Fig . 14.22) motile (at 379<:) but motile when grown
• Of 11 species on ly 3 are regarded as under 3QIIC Ip eritrichous flag clla ).
pathogens - Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y. pestis pleomorphic rod sometimes occurring in an
an d Y. en /eraco/i fica . Y. pseudotu bercul osis ovoid form.
causes typhoid-like septicaemia /mesenteric
adenitis in man. Y. enterocoliticn- • Psychrotroph, i.e. can grow at temperatures
enterocolitis and mesenteric adenitis in man . as low as O''C and as high as 4511(: (optimum
temperature range: 32-34 QC). Optimum pH
Y. pestis is the cause of bubonic plague range: 4.5- 9.
(Black death' of the Middle Ages) .
• Halophilic at 5% but not 7% NaCl.
Yersiniosis is the disease in man caus ed by Y. • Suitab le enrichment media include
entercoiitica. Occurs mostly in children and is of MacConkey agar, blood agar,
grea t im por tance in Europe (De n ma r k, cefsulodin-lrgasan-novobiocin (CIN). The
Germany, Belg ium, Norway, Sweden and organism is more easily isolated at lower
Ca nada) but not a major entity in the USA. temperatures.
Contaminated foo d such as vacuum-packed • Urease pos itive.
beef, lamb, pork, shri mps a nd wa ter have been
re ported as vehicles of infection. • Biochemical reaction - acid slant, acid butt
Rese rvo irs of infecti o n include many species on triple sugar iro n agar.
of animals including p igs, cats and dogs. • Mann itol -. fermented .

rig. 14.22 Yersinia enterocolitica; electron m icrograph. (By courtesy of Cen tral Veterinary laboratory,
weybndgc. UK)
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 389
2. NON-FOOD-BORNE BACTERIAL PATHOGENS • Oxidase positive.
(see also Chapter 17) • Urease positive.
• Serology: Direct fluorescent antibody test.
Actinobacillus (A. lignieresi, A. equuli, A. Nucleic acid detection.
suis)
• Gram-negative, non-motile, non-sporing,
aerobic, haemolytic (variable) small rods or Brucella spp.
cocci. Urease positive, catalase positive, • Six species - B. abortus, B. canis, B. melitensis,
oxidase variable, indole negative. B. neotomae and B. oois.
• Growth • Gram-negative, non-motile, aerobic, non-
Blood agar - round, translucent, sticky sporing, non-haemolytic, non-capsulated
colonies. coccobacilli (0.5-1.5 urn x 0.5-0.7 urn).
MacConkey agar - colourless colonies. Intracellular parasites.
Growth variable. • Gram stain may show bipolar staining.
• Enhanced CO 2 (5-10%) atmosphere • Growth
required. Blood agar - pin-point circular, translucent,
• Ferments glucose (with or without gas). opalescent colonies.
MacConkey agar - no growth.
Actinomyces spp. • Require increased CO, (5-10%).
• Useful selective media: buffered chocolate-
• Gram-positive, anaerobic, non-sporing, yeast extract agar (BCYE), modified
partially acid-fast, straight or slightly Thayer-Martin.
curved rods which may form short chains,
clusters or long filaments. Staining may • Catalase positive.
show a beaded effect. • Hydrogen sulphide positive.
• Growth • Oxidase positive.
Blood agar - small, rough, irregularly- • Urease positive.
shaped, dry, granular colonies slow to • Direct smears from exudates may reveal
develop. Resemble Nocardia colonies. small Gram-negative coccobacilli.
MacConkey agar - on growth.
• Serology: Based on presence of antibodies in
• Enhanced CO 2 (5-10%) atmosphere samples. Serum agglutination test (limited
required. in value). Complement fixation test (CFT).
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA)
test. Rose Bengal test (buffered antigen or
Bacillus anthracis (see Ch. 17, Anthrax card test) - an earlier field plate test for
above) infection in serum.
• Detection of B. anihracis is normally
confined to use of McFadyean's polychrome
blue stain. Chlamydia spp.
• Chlamydiae and rickettsiae belong to the
Bordetella spp. grouping between the bacteria and the
viruses although they are closer to the
• Gram-negative, obligately aerobic, non- bacteria - they possess DNA and muramic
motile, non-sporing. haemolytic (variable), acid in cell walls, multiply by binary fission
small rods or coccobacilli. and, unlike viruses, stain by Gram's
• Growth (best at 35-36°C) method. They resemble the smallest bacteria
Blood agar - tiny, circular, dewdrop and largest viruses in size. Like viruses,
colonies. however, they are intracellular parasites and
MacConkey agar - as for blood agar. cannot multiply outside host cells.
Charcoal/horse blood agar - smooth, • Isolation and culture methods resemble
glistening, whitish-grey colonies. those for viruses.
• Catalase positive. • Gram-negative (better stained by Giemsa,
• Citrate positive. Castaneda or Machiavello), round, minute
390 Meat Hygiene
bodies with unusual development cycle: and C. sepiicum to swarm across the plate on
elementary bodies (0.3 urn) in diameter are solid media.
phagocytosed by host cells and develop into • Suitable media: Anaerobic blood agar
larger forms (reticulate bodies, up to 2 urn in (brucella blood agar), anaerobic broth (e.g.
diameter) that multiply into more reticulate thioglycollate, chopped meat), egg yolk agar
bodies and eventually large numbers of (EYA),bacteriods bile aesculin agar. Many
elementary bodies, all within 40-48 hours. suitable media for anaerobes are available
Host cells then rupture to release commercially.
elementary bodies to infect new host cells.
• Anaerobic culture: In anaerobic jars with
• Microscopy - as stained organisms, use of atmosphere of 90% hydrogen and 10% CO 2
fluorescent or electron microscopy. or 80% nitrogen, 10% hydrogen and 10%
• Culture (fastidious grower): yolk sac, tissue CO, after evacuation of air. Evacuation of air
culture or mouse inoculation. can"be achieved with a catalyst, e.g. Anatox
• Serology: complement fixation (CF), (palladium-coated alumina pellets; Don
microimmunofluorescence (micro-IF). Whitley Scientific, Shipley, Yorkshire, UK).
Results are often difficult to interpret.
Anaerobiosis can be achieved by adding
reducing agents like glucose or sodium
thioglycollate to the medium or using cooked
meat medium.
Clostridia spp.
Instead of metal or polycarbonate jars
• Causative organisms of serious animal and commercially available anaerobic plastic
human diseases - botulism, tetanus, food pouches or bags (GasPak Pouch, BioBag, Remel
poisoning, gas gangrene, enterotoxaemia, Pouch) can be used. These contain an oxygen-
blackleg, bacillary haemoglobinuria, braxy,
removal system that is activated after one or
etc.
two plates are inserted and the bag sealed and
• Gram-positive (most), anaerobic, motile incubated normally. Growth can be observed
(except Cl. perfringens) sporing (spores
distend cell wall in most cases), haemolytic, through the plastic.
fairly large rods.
• Producers of potent exotoxins, e.g. botulin,
tetanospasmin. Erusipelothrix rhusiopathiae
• Haemolysis of Cl. perfringens is double- • Gram-positive, non-motile, microaerophilic,
zoned. ex-haemolytic or non-haemolytic,
• Size (4-8 urn x 1 urn) is intermediate pleomorphic thin rods (1-2 urn x 0.2-0.4 urn)
between Corynebacterium and Bacillus. often arranged singly, in V-shapes or short
• Spores: oval and subterminal - Cl. chains with a tendency to form long
botulinum, Cl. perfringens, Cl. sepiicum, Cl. filaments in culture media. V-shapes closely
sporogenes, Cl. novyi, Cl. sordellii, Cl. difficile; resemble those of corynebacteria.
large, round and terminal - Cl. ieiani, Cl. • Some biochemical reactions resemble those
tertium. of Listeria (Table 14.15).
Some Clostridia spore freely but others • Blood agar - dewdrop sized colonies with a
require adverse conditions. smooth surface and haemolytic or non-
• Indole negative (most pathogenic types). haemolytic at 24h. After 48h there are two
• Lecithinase negative (except notrfi, types of colonies - smaller, transparent,
perfringens and sordelli). smooth and convex with entire edges; and
larger, flat, rough, opaque colonies with
• Lipase negative (except novyi and indented edges.
sporogenes).
• MacConkey agar - no growth.
• DNase variable.
• Agar shake - grows best below surface.
• Glucose positive (except Cl. tetani).
• Gelatin stab - 'test tube brush' growth.
• Urease negative (except sordelli).
• Glucose and lactose - fermented (without
• Culture: Grow best at temperatures at or just gas).
below 37°C. Most form diffuse, greyish,
semitransparent colonies of irregular shape. • Sucrose and mannitol - not fermented.
There is a tendency for colonies of Cl. ieiani • Indole positive.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 391
Table 14.15 Characteristics of E. rhusioputhiae, L. monocytogenes and Corvnebacterium spp.

Motility Haemolysis Catalase Acid from H,S Nitrate Urease

Organism glucose production reduction production

E. rhusiopaihiae none/a: + +
Corynebacterium spp. V + V V V
L. monocytogenes +(25°C) ~ + +

V = variable.

• Oxidase negative. protecting the organisms against

• Voges-Proskauer - negative. phagocytosis.
Demonstration of capsules is indicative of
presumptive identification.
Flavobacterium spp. • Blood agar - K. pneumoniae grows as large,
mucoid whitish, non-haemolytic colonies.
• Gram-negative, non-motile, long, narrow
bacilli with bulbous ends that on occasions • MacConkey agar - large, mucoid pink
possess a yellow, green or orange colonies.
intracellular pigment, sometimes • Biochemical tests are necessary to
accompanied with a fruity odour. distinguish Klebsiella from Enterobacter.
• On blood agar media - lavender-green • Klebsiella pneumoniae: indole + ; methyl red
discoloration of agar. +/ -; gas from glucose + ; lactose + ; urease
• Proteolytic activity - positive. +; Voges-Proskauer +.
• DNase positive.
• Indole positive.
• Oxidase positive. Legionella
• Penicillin-susceptible (unusual for Gram- • Gram-negative, aerobic, thin, pleomorphic
negative bacteria). rods (1-2J..!m x O.5J..!m). On occasion,
organisms may reach 20 urn in length.
• Intracellular (macrophage and neutrophil)
Francisellla tularensis parasites able to multiply at 20-45°C, with
• Gram-negative, non-motile, obligately capacity to adhere to pipes, plastics, rubber
aerobic, capsulated, coccobacilli (0.2 x in water tanks, shower heads, cooling
0.7J..!m) with great tendency to towers of air-conditioning systems. It can
pleomorphism especially in older cultures. survive in the presence of commensal
• Intracellular parasites. bacteria and algae and within free-living
protozoa.
• Culture: Requires addition of egg yolk or
rabbit spleen to liquid media or glucose and • Staining characteristics: Stain weakly with
cysteine to human blood agar. Infected Gram and Giemsa. Gram stain can be
tissues, e.g. spleen, are used for culture. enhanced by using safranin counterstain for
10 minutes.
• Diagnosis: Confirmed by inoculation of mice
or guinea-pigs with infected exudates. • Culture: Fastidious grower. No growth on
sheep blood agar. Organism requires the
amino acid L-cysteine for growth.
Klebsiella spp. • Chocolate agar (and t-cysteine) and
buffered chocolate yeast extract (BCYE) with
• Gram-negative, non-motile, non-haemolytic, antibiotics polymixin, anisomysin,
capsulated, medium-sized (1-3J..!m x 0.5J..!m) vancomycin or cefamandole: greyish-white
rods. or bluish-green translucent colonies
• Most capsulated bacteria are regarded as (2-4 mm) after 3-5 days' incubation.
virulent, the polysaccharide capsule Dissecting microscope: centre of young
392 Meat Hygiene
colonies is grey and granular and periphery regarded as pathogens and about 12 as
pink and/ or blue or green with furrows. potential pathogens.
• Biochemical reactions • Thin, straight or slightly curved, non-motile,
Acid from glucose - negative. non-sporing, non-capsulated, aerobic, acid-
fast rods (2-10 urn x 0.2-0.4 urn).
Nitrate to nitrite - negative.
• M. kansasii exhibit well-defined cross-
Catalase - positive (weak). banding.
Peroxidase - positive (weak). • Growth: Slow growth, most pathogenic types
Urease - negative. requiring up to 6 weeks. Extra (5-10%) CO,
• Commercial media and reagents are and pH of 6.5-6.8 enhance growth, which is
available. best at 37°C.
• Definitive diagnosis: Fluorescent antibody • Staining (see acid-fast staining): The use of
technique. Serological detection of the dye auramine instead of carbol fuchsin
antibodies. Urinary antigen detection. or safranin in the Ziehl-Neelsen method,
examined microscopically by ultraviolet
light, is a better means of detecting the
Leptospira organisms.
• Leptospira spp. are Gram-negative, obligately • Microscopy: Dark-ground microscopy of
aerobic, very tightly coiled spirochaetes in unstained wet preparations and
contrast to Borrelia and Treponema, which are immunofluorescence may also be used to
more openly coiled. They are approximately view mycobacteria and other bacteria. In the
6-20 urn long and 0.1 urn wide. Unlike latter method, fluorescent dyes, e.g.
Borrelia and Treponema the leptospires have fluorescein isothiocyanate or lissamine-
hooks at one or both ends and possess two rhodamine, are coupled with antibodies.
periplasmic flagella. The organisms are When an antibody of this type combines
covered with an external membrane. with its appropriate antigen, the
• They do not stain readily with the ordinary antigen-antibody complex fluoresces, the
stains but can be impregnated with silver, isothiocyanate giving a green and the
e.g. by Levaditi and Fontana. They are lissamine-rhodamine an orange
readily cultured, although growth is slow, fluorescence. Electron microscopy may also
the media requiring the addition of animal be used with ultra-thin sections or material
serum. mounted on a thin collodion membrane.
• Dark-ground and electron microscopy in • Culture: Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) medium
wet preparations show the numerous tight (eggs, asparagine, potato starch, glycerol,
coils and the motility, which is mainly mineral salts and malachite green) is the
rotary. medium of choice for primary isolation of
mycobacteria:
M. bovis: small, round, granular, white
Moraxella (e.g. M. caiarrhalisi colonies with irregular edges.
• Gram-negative, non-motile, strictly aerobic M. tuberculosis: yellowish, flat, spreading,
short rods often occurring as pairs or in granular and friable colonies.
chains. M. avium: complex, yellowish, thin,
• Optimum temperature for growth: 32-37°C. opaque/transparent, smooth colonies.
M. kansasii: Middlebrook 7HI0 agar-
• Culture rough or smooth with dark centres and
Sheep blood and chocolate agar - smooth, irregular edges. Grown in dark: pigmented
opaque, greyish-white colonies. or buff colonies. Grown in light: yellowish
Sugars - no fermentation. colonies.
• DNase positive. • Serum albumin agar media, e.g.
Middlebrook 7HI0 selective (albumin, beef
• Catalase positive. catalase, oleic acid, glycerol, glucose,
• Nitrate to nitrite positive. vitamins, cofactors and mineral salts) and
liquid media (in which mycobacteria grow
Mycobacterium spp. more rapidly) such as BACTEC broth
(contains palmitic acid and various
• Some 54 species, only M. bouis, M. antibiotics) are also used for primary
tuberculosis, M. leprae and M. ulcerans being isolation.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 393
• Specimens should be collected in wide- Colonies of Mycoplasma have a 'fried egg'
mouth jars with screw-cap lids and appearance with a light blue periphery and
examined as soon as possible. While tissue a dark blue centre.
specimens do not require • Culture: Pinpoint, glistening, round, raised
decontamination/ digestion, fluids such as colonies with centre of colony embedded
exudates, CSF, etc., may need the addition beneath the surface (anaerobic blood agar).
of a digestant and/ or decontaminating
agent such as sodium hydroxide (2-4%), • Serology: Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and
oxalic acid (5%), H 2SO. (4%). Centrifugation indirect haemagglutination (IHA) are
of fluid material may be used to concentrate commercially available.
the mycobacteria into a small volume.
• TCH (thiophene-2-carboxylic acid
hydrazide): differentiates M. bovis and M.
tuberculosis (see Table 14.16).
Neisseria
• Guinea pig inoculation to detect presence of • Family includes Neisseria, Moraxella,
tubercle bacilli in specimens is now rarely Acinetobacter and Kingella. Neisseria
used. gonorrhoeae is the causal organism of
gonorrhoea in man.
• Serology: Undeveloped because of lack of
antigen specificity. • Gram-negative, aerobic, non-motile
diplococci shaped like kidney beans.
Intracellular parasites. Catalase positive.
Oxidase positive.
Mycoplasma • Growth: Optimum temperature is 35°C in a
• Smallest of all free-living organisms, once 3-5% CO 2 atmosphere. Small, grey,
regarded as viruses. Slow growing, translucent, raised colonies (N. gonorrhoea)
facultative anaerobes, fastidious, on selective agar media.
pleomorphic organisms that do not possess • Positive identification of Neisseria: Rapid
a cell wall. carbohydrate degradation and chromogenic
• Growth is slow and only on very rich substrate tests. Coagglutination and
media, which must contain sterols derived fluorescent antibody (FA) tests using
from blood and serum, e.g. supplemented monoclonal antibodies.
PPLO agar.
• Staining reaction: Organisms do not stain
well with Gram and other stains because of Nocardia
absence of cell wall. • Gram-positive (some weakly acid-fast),
• Dienes stain is used by placing a small aerobic thin bacilli that form branching
portion of growth on agar plate on a filaments or hyphae. Gram staining often
microscope slide, covering a colony with the shows a beaded appearance. Yellowish
stain and examining under low power. granules containing numerous organisms in

Table 14.16 Some distinguishing features of M. botns, M. tuberculosis, M. avium and M. kansasii.

M. bovis M. tuberculosis M. avium complex M. kansasii

Colonies on MacConkey Agar See above

Growth on TCH' + + +
Growth 5% NaCI
Niacin accumulation +
Nitrate reduction +
Catalase ±
Urease + + + +
TCH = thiophene-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide: differentiates M. bonis and M. t uberculosis.
394 Meat Hygiene
pus from skin infections (cf. Actinomyces • Gram-negative, aerobic, facultatively
bovis when crushed between two anaerobic, non-sporing, straight rods or
microscope slides). coccobacilli.
• The Nocardia resemble Actinomyces and the • They grow well over a wide range of
fungi morphologically. temperatures.
• Culture: Most species grow well on normal • The two main types are P. vulgaris and P.
nonselective media at 25-37°C, colonies mirabilis differentiated as follows:
appearing whitish, lustreless or velvety in
appearance. Urease Indole H S Sucrose Ornithine
N. asteroides ferments only glucose with
acid production. P. vulgaris + + + +
N. brasiliensis ferments glucose, inositol P. mirabilis + + +
and mannitol with acid production.
• Confirmatory identification of the several • Proteus spp. are often resistant to several
species of Nocardia is a matter for a reference antibiotics and are thus able to persist in
laboratory. wounds.

Pasteurella spp. Pseudomonas spp.

• Gram-negative, non-motile, facultatively Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been documented
anaerobic, non-haemolytic, ovoid,
as the cause of mastitis, pericarditis and
pleomorphic coccobacilli. Some strains are
capsulated. pneumonia (cattle and pigs), while melioidosis
With Gram's stain the organisms may be in rodents, and occasionally farm animals, is
single, in pairs or as short chains and often caused by P. pseudomallei. P. mallei is the cause of
show bipolar staining. glanders in solipeds. P. aeruginosa is involved in
• Culture: Sheep blood - mucoid colonies with man with pneumonia (especially in cystic
narrow green or brown halo after 48 h fibrosis), endocarditis, wound infections,
incubation. urinary tract infection and bacteraemia.
• Biochemical reactions: Most strains are • Gram-negative, motile with polar flagella
catalase and oxidase positive, ferment (except Pseudomonas mallei), aerobic, ~­
glucose and xylose but not lactose and haemolytic (most) bacilli or coccobacilli,
maltose, without gas. many of which produce green or yellowish
pigments (pyocyanin and pyoverdin).
• All pseudomonads grow well on MacConkey
agar. A green metallic sheen is produced on
Proteus spp. sheep blood agar due to the pigment
• Along with Citrobacter, Enierobacter, pyocyanin. A fruity grape-like odour is
Morganella and Protndencia, Proteus is an produced by many strains of P. aeruginosa.
opportunistic member of the • Oxidase and catalase positive. Citrate and
Enterobactericaeae, which also includes E. cetrimide positive.
coli, Edtoardsiella, Ertoinia, Klebsiella,
Peciobacierium, Salmonella, Serratia, Shigella • N.B. Allied to the Pseudotnonads is the
and Yersinia. genus Acinetobacter, members of which are
ubiquitous in the environment (soil, water,
• Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia are generally sewage, milk, frozen soups, hospital
considered to be the true pathogens of the ventilators and humidifiers, etc.). Some
family Enterobacteriaceae. Proteus, however, species are opportunistic, being responsible
can occur in wound infections, bacteriuria in man for pneumonia, urinary tract
and even septicaemia. infections, septicaemia, endocarditis,
• Several of the four species of Proteus have a cellulitis and meningitis. Acinetobacter has
tendency to swarm over many solid recently been advanced by Professors
nonselective culture media, burying other Ebringer and Pirt (King's College, London)
bacteria, and producing an odour as the cause of BSE, genetically susceptible
resembling burned chocolate. Colony persons producing antibodies against
formation -large, greyish-white, opaque Acinetobacter, thus making the disease an
and moist. autoimmune one. They state that the
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 395
organism can cause brain damage similar to Group A W-haemolytic, Streptococcus
that attributed to the prion protein. pyogenes): Can be further divided into a
number of Griffiths types (M, T, R) according to
antigenic structure. Haemolysis is best seen
Rhodococcus equi (formerly known as under anaerobic conditions. Growth is
Corynebacterium equi) improved by addition of blood or serum at
• Gram-positive, non-motile, non-sporing, 37°C. Colonies are fine (1 mm after 24 h), dry,
partially haemolytic, sometimes acid-fast, greyish-white, opaque or transparent. Granular
pleomorphic rods often appearing as V or L deposit with clear supernatant in fluid cultures.
formations or branching filaments. Susceptible to bacitracin and vancomycin.
• No fermentation of carbohydrates and Hippurate hydrolysis negative. Campo test
reaction to nitrate reduction and urease negative.
variable.
Group B (~-haemolytic (most); e.g. Str.
• On blood agar colonies resemble those of agalactiae): Isolation is made easier by use of
Klebsiella - large, entire, raised, mucoid selective medium containing aminoglycoside.
colonies.
Haemolysis not as marked as with group A
types. Some strains are a-haemolytic and some
Streptococcus spp. non-haemolytic. Resistant (usually) to
bacitracin. Susceptible to vancomycin.
• Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic
(most) but some anaerobic, non-motile, non- Hippurate hydrolysis positive. Campo test
sporing, some capsulated, a-haemolytic, ~­ positive (distinguishes Str. agalactiae from all
haemolytic or non-haemolytic, spherical or other haemolytic streptococci, which are
oval cocci (Lflum diameter) arranged in negative).
chains of varying length, depending on the
Group C (haemolytic): Mainly animal
species involved. Catalase negative.
parasites, e.g. Str. equieimilis. Neonatal
• Chain formation is best seen in fluid bacteraemia and septicaemia.
cultures or in pathological tissues.
• Four main groups are involved as Group D e.g. Str. suis (meningitis and arthritis
commensals and pathogens in human and in pigs) and Str. faecalis (streptococcosis in
animal diseases (abscesses, mastitis, poultry, neonatal infections, endocarditis in
endocarditis, metritis, meningitis, sheep). Resistant to bacitracin. Susceptible to
pneumonia, lymphangitis, polyarthritis, vancomycin. Hippurate hydrolysis negative.
septicaemia):
Group E (~-haemolytic): Often occurs in
1 Pyogenic streptococci - pus-forming; mostly chains of 3-16 capsulated cocci. Ferments
~-haemolytic. sugars.
2 Viridans streptococci - a-haemolytic or non-
haemolytic. Viridans group of streptococci Resemble Str.
3 Enterococci - a-haemolytic, ~-haemolytic or pyogenes. Green pigmentation round colonies
non-haemolytic. on blood agar and heated chocolate agar. Cause
4 Lactic acid streptococci - non-haemolytic. of jowl abscesses in pigs. Resistant (usually) to
bacitracin. Susceptible to vancomycin.
a-Haemolytic: partial lysis of RBCs - green Hippurate hydrolysis negative (usually).
colour round colony.
~-Haemolytic: complete lysis of RBCs - clear
zone round colony.
Treponema spp.
Non-haemolytic: no lysis of RBCs round • Treponema spp. T. pollidum is the cause of
colony - no change of colour. syphilis in man, while T. hyodysenteriae is
responsible for swine dysentery and T.
cuniculi for vent disease (syphilis,
spirochaetosis) in rabbits.
Lancefield grouping of streptococci.
• The treponemas are slender, openly coiled
Haemolytic streptococci are divided into organisms measuring 0.1-0.2/lm in
Lancefield groups A-H and K-V depending on thickness and 6-20/lm in length. There are
antigenic structure. some 4 to 14 regular spirals in each
396 Meat Hygiene
organism, which bears three periplasmic microscopy), culture, biochemical testing
flagella at each pointed end. Motility is (urease test, potassium nitrate and
rotational along the longitudinal axis with carbohydrate assimilation) and serological
occasional flexes along their length testing.
• The organisms are microaerophilic but The germ tube test is used for the
cannot be grown in culture. Staining is identification of yeasts such as Candida albicans
difficult, only prolonged contact (24h) with that possess germ tubes without constricted
Gram's stain producing pinkish threads, bases when grown on media containing serum.
while other spirochaetes appear deep Wood's lamp (a source of DV light) is used to
purple.
diagnose dermatophytosis (ringworm)
• Dark-field microscopy is used to detect the infections (Trichophyton oerrucoeum, T. eqinum, T.
organisms, which appear white against a mentagrophytes, T. nanum, Microsporon gypseum,
dark background. India ink can be used in
etc.). Infected hair shafts fluoresce under the
wet films.
lamp.
Preparation of specimens of dermatophytes
3. MYCOTA (FUNGI) (mildews, morels, Cleanse the affected area with water or 70%
moulds, slime moulds, mushrooms, alcohol to reduce contaminating organisms.
puffballs, rusts, smuts, stinkhorns, Remove hairs and scale and place on an agar
truffles, yeasts, etc.) (see also Chapter 17) plate and cover or seal to reduce evaporation.
Incubate at room temperature - growth is
Only moulds and yeasts are of importance in usually apparent in 3-7 days but may require
meat hygiene. up to 3 weeks.
Fungi are plant-like structures that differ A 10-20% preparation of potassium hydroxide
from bacteria in that they possess a nucleus, is used to detect fungi in skin, hair, etc. Mixed
nuclear membrane and mitochondria, i.e. they with equal proportions of the specimen on a
are eukaryotic, bacteria being prokaryotic microscope slide and covered with a coverslip, it
because they lack these structures. Unlike dissolves keratin when heated, making the
plants they do not possess chlorophyll. hyphae more readily detected.
Typical fungi consist of a mycelium which is Stains to detect fungi include India Ink,
a mass of thread-like tubular processes Ciemsa, Masson-Pontana, Calcofluor White,
(hyphae) that may be septate or non-septate periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), acid-fast.
and aerial or vegetative, the aerial forms
extending above the colony while the
vegetative ones extend downwards to provide
nutrients. The cell wall of the hyphae contains Some characteristics of pathogenic fungi
chitin or cellulose or both. The mycelium forms • Aspergillus fumigatus: Septate hyphae;
the thallus or body of the fungus. conidia and conidiophores in long chains or
Reproduction is by the formation of spores easily separated and coloured black, white,
(conidia) and may be asexual or sexual by the yellow, green, pink and tan.
fusion of two sex cells or gametes. • Blastomyces dermatidis: Oval to spherical
Moulds have a hairy or woolly appearance smooth conidia. Direct microscopy may
due to the mycelium possessing numerous reveal large, spherical yeast cells with
aerial hyphae. double-contoured walls attached by broad
Yeasts are single vegetative cells that form a base. Culture (25°C): white to brown fluffy
smooth, yellowish bacterial-like colony without or smooth colonies in ring formation.
aerial hyphae. • Candida albicans: Most common cause of
Identification of the various species of moulds fungal disease in man and animals. Grows
and yeasts depends on the clinical sites of well at temperatures as high as 45°C.
infection, presence of certain specialised Produces chlamydoconidia and hyphae.
shapes, hyphae structure, absence/presence of Urease positive (medium turns bright pink).
dimorphism (tissue and mould phases), use of Potassium nitrate assimilation negative.
Wood's lamp, direct examination of specimens • Coccidioides immiiis: Barrel-shaped
(Wood's lamp, KOH, tissue stains and arthroconidia convert to larger (30-60 urn)
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 397
spherules containing endospores. Culture Acridine orange stain may be used as an
shows moist greyish-white colonies and alternative with the smear viewed under
abundant brown aerial mycelia. DV light.
• Cryptococcus neojormans: Capsule formation The organisms vary in size, B. bigemina
produces typical mucoid colonies. True being large (4-5Ilm x 21lm) and B. bovis
hyphae not produced on cornmeal agar. small (Zum x 1.5Ilm). Early cases in which
Urease positive. Phenol oxidase positive organisms are few may require thick
(differentiates from other cryptococci). smears. A red blood cell could contain as
many as 12 trophozoites.
• Histoplasma capeulaium: Direct Giemsa smear
- small yeast cells (5 x 3 urn). Cells often • Besnoiiia spp.: The large (up to 500 urn in
present in macrophages and monocytes. diameter), round, thick-walled cysts in the
Culture: white to brown mould with skin, subcutis, lymphatics, blood vessels,
colonies showing spiny or tuberculate mucous membranes, etc., are visible to the
conidia. naked eye and are fairly characteristic of
besnoitiosis. These are filled with crescent-
• Microsporum gypseum: Culture - abundant shaped bradyzoites (trophozoites) (5-7Ilm
conidia produced with powdery, granular, in size) which resemble toxoplasmas and
brownish appearance of colonies. Brown or invade endothelial, macrophages, histiocytic
red pigment may form under some strains. and other cells. Other clinical signs also help
Fusiform conidia may contain up to 6 cells. to make a presumptive diagnosis.
• Rhinosporidium seeberi: Microscopic • Cryptosporidium spp.: The round oocysts in
demonstration of spherules (which may be faecal samples are small (4-6Ilm),
numerous) in biopsy specimens confirms transparent, easily broken and resemble a
diagnosis. Spherules vary in size (up to yeast cell. Two forms exist: thick-walled and
300 urn) and possess thick periodic thin-walled.
acid-Schiff-positive walls and endospores. They can be acid-fast stained - oocysts
• Sporothrix schenckii: Direct Gram or Giemsa stain bright red whereas yeast cells stain
smear: small, cigar-shaped yeast usually blue or green according to the counterstain
present in small numbers. Cells are small used. Use of sugar and zinc sulphate
and pleomorphic and often seen in flotation methods aids detection, as does
macrophages in tissue exudates or biopsy high-power magnification with phase-
specimens. S. schenckii is dimorphic. contrast illumination.
Culture: smooth, white mycelial colonies • Eimeria spp.: Finding of numerous round,
that become darker and mycelial with age. oval or ellipsoidal double-walled oocysts in
Hyphae bear conidia in the form of a ping- faecal samples is diagnostic especially if
pong paddle in a rosette at the end of the schizonts are present in subepithelial
conidiophores. tissues. Colour varies from transparent to
• Trichophyton oerrucosum: Most commonly brown or green. Numbers can vary greatly,
isolated dermatophyte. Culture: rapid making repeat examinations necessary. Sizes
grower. Granular and fluffy forms of and shapes vary according to species.
growth. Macroconidia are thin-walled, Eimeria oocysts possess four sporozoites
smooth, cigar-shaped and appear singly on (Isospora two sporocysts).
non-septate hyphae.
• Giardia spp.: The trophozoite is pear-shaped
and bilaterally symmetrical. It is 9-211lm x
5-151lm in size with a rounded anterior and
4. PATHOGENIC PROTOZOA a pointed posterior. The dorsal side is
convex and the ventral side concave with a
• Babesia spp.: Diagnosis depends on large sucker. There are two oval nuclei and
demonstration of the causal organism in eight flagella arranged in four pairs, which
RBCs using thin blood smears fixed and give the organism a 'falling leaf' motility.
stained by Giemsa. The organisms appear as Oval cysts (10 x 141lm) containing up to
tiny purple or blue ring-shaped or pear- four nuclei are formed by which
shaped trophozoites with a prominent transmission occurs.
chromatic dot and lighter-staining Trophozoites may be detected in smears
cytoplasm. Some may be single, double or of loose faeces, but cysts are more readily
in the classic tetrad (Maltese Cross) seen, especially when concentrated by zinc
formation. sulphate centrifugal flotation. Staining with
398 Meat Hygiene
iodine, iron haematoxylin or trichrome that parasitise RBCs, histiocytes,
(Wheatley modification of Gomori stain) lymphocytes and monocytes. These
enhances detection and differentiation. schizonts (Koch's blue bodies) occur as
• Hexamita meleagridis: Diagnosis depends on round, oval or irregularly-shaped organisms
finding the spindle or pear-shaped, varying in size from 2 to 12 urn or more and
bilaterally symmetrical protozoon parasite during development in the WBC cause it to
(8 urn x 3 urn) in scrapings from the divide. Giemsa-stained smears of
duodenal and jejunal mucosa of turkeys, lymphoblasts in lymph node biopsies reveal
pheasants, quail, etc. It is a mobile organism numerous multinucleated schizonts.
(6 anterior and 2 posterior flagella) moving Romanowsky stains the organisms blue
by rapid, darting movements and must be with red chromatin granules.
present in numbers to justify a positive
• Toxoplasma spp.: Infected cats shed oocysts
diagnosis.
in their faeces. There are three infective
• Histomonas meleagridis: Although the liver forms of the parasite: (1) the crescent-
and caecal lesions of blackhead (infectious shaped trophozoite or tachyzoite of T. gondii is
enterohepatitis) in turkeys are reasonably the actively proliferating form of the
diagnostic when occurring together, parasite and can be found in a wide variety
separately they may be confused with of tissues and measures 4-6 urn x 2-4 urn: (2)
leukosis, tuberculosis, trichomoniasis and the bradyzoite or cystozoite (10-12 urn) is the
mycosis. resting form found in (3) oocysts, which are
The causal organism can be demonstrated 50-100 urn in diameter. Confirmation of
in stained liver sections, which show toxoplasmosis requires demonstration of the
necrotic holes containing the vegetative organism with Giemsa and/ or serological
form of the parasite which resembles a tests (CF, indirect immunofluorescence,
trichomonad without flagella. haemagglutination) and dye test using
methylene blue (now largely superseded).
• Leishmania spp. Definite diagnosis depends
on the demonstration of the organisms as • Trichomonas foetus: This is a pear-shaped
amastigotes in methanol-fixed, stained flagellated protozoan (three flagella at the
impression smears of affected tissues in anterior end and one posterior flagellum)
which they occur in reticuloendothelial cells. with an undulating membrane extending
This particular stage (2-5 urn in diameter) is the length of the organism (10-15 urn x
round or oval. Wright's stain shows a pale 5-10 urn),
blue cytoplasm and large red nucleus and Organisms may be found in the placental
rod-like kinetoplast in the cytoplasm. fluid, the stomach contents of aborted
The organisms as promastigate forms are fetuses, uterine and vaginal discharges, and
readily cultured on blood agar media. the prepuce and glans penis of bulls. Saline
• Sarcocystis spp.: These form cysts varying in washings can be used to obtain samples.
size from a few micrometres to several Centrifugation of washings, especially from
centimeters in the muscles of a wide variety the prepuce, may be necessary where
of intermediate hosts - domestic and wild organisms are sparse. Culture using media
animals and even man. containing serum may be used to
Sporozoites are liberated in the small concentrate numbers.
intestine of the intermediate host and give The special morphology (pear-shape,
rise to schizonts in vascular endothelial presence of axostyle, single nucleus and
cells. Merozoites from mature schizonts chromatic granules) and size of organisms
produce a second generation of schizonts along with characteristic jerky motility can
that invade striped muscle cells and develop be viewed in wet-mount preparations.
into typical sarcocysts. Stained preparations (trichrome, Ciemsa,
Some sarcocysts are very small but others Leishman, Wright) show structures in detail.
are large enough (up to several millimetres)
to be seen by the naked eye. Those of S. • Trypanosoma spp.: Diagnosis of
cruzi and S. lindemanni are 1-2 mm and are trypanosomiasis is confirmed by
similar in shape to Toxoplasma. The demonstrating the organisms in wet mounts
contained merozoites (12 urn) are banana- or stained smears (Giemsa, Leishman,
shaped in outline. Wright, etc.) of the peripheral blood - fairly
easy in the acute stage but not when the
• Theileria spp.: Theileria and Babesia are condition is chronic. Culture on serum
piroplasms (piro = pear + plasm = matrix) media may be necessary.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 399
A rapid method is to examine a wet pleomorphic coccobacillus (O.5llm long) that
mount of the buffy coat area of a FCV tube differs from other rickettsias in several ways
after centrifugation. (mode of transmission, intracellular
In some cases in man, xenodiagnosis is development, phase variation).
adopted - i.e. the use of bugs to feed on • Eperythrozoon spp. (E. oois, E. suis) appear as
suspect hosts and the subsequent minute pleomorphic (rods, rings, cocci)
examination of their stomach contents for which contain granular material at each end
trypanosomes. within a single membrane. They occur free
in the plasma, around platelets and on the
• Tyzzeria spp. Coccidia-like organisms of surface of red blood cells.
geese and ducks, domestic and wild. The
When stained with Romanowsky stain
oocysts (of T. anseris) are 10-16 x 9-12Ilm,
the organisms appear red. Giemsa (dark
ellipsoidal in shape and, when sporulated,
purple or blue), Leishman and new
contain 8 banana-shaped sporozoites.
methylene blue stains may also be used.
• Ehrlichia spp. (E. bonis, E. canis, E. equi, E.
otnna, E. phagocytophilia) are tiny
PATHOGENIC RICKETTSIAE pleomorphic coccoid or ellipsoidal p~ra~ites
with a diameter of 0.2-2.0 urn occurnng m
Rickettsia are Gram-negative, short, non- leukocytes, especially monocytes. They
motile bacilli (0.3-2.0Ilm x 0.3-0.5llm) possess a double membrane wall, contain
responsible for Rocky Mountain spotted dense granules and may be present in WBCs
fever, rickettsial pox, boutonneuse fever, singly or in mulberry-like bodies (morulae).
endemic typhus and scrub typhus in man, Blood smears or smears of cut organ
all transmitted by ixodid (hard) ticks. The surfaces, e.g. lungs, at post-mortem may be
largest rickeiisias are about the size of the stained with Giemsa for rapid diagnosis.
smallest bacteria.
Diagnosis depends on the isolation of the
organism from the peripheral blood and/ or
the serological (complement fixation)
response to infection measured against Spirochaetales
prototype antigens. Blood films of varying • Borrelia spp. Gram-negative large, slender,
thickness are made, fixed with alcohol for 2 microaerophilic, coiled, highly motile
minutes and stained with Ciemsa, Wright or organisms varying in thickness from 0.3 to
new Methylene Blue. 0.71lm and in length from 10 to 30llm.
Motility occurs by lashing and rotating
• Anaplasma spp. (A. marginale,~. [Link]).are
minute spherical Gram-negative rickettsias
occurring at or near the margins of red
blood cells in which there may be more than
one parasite. Mature forms are 0.3-1.0 urn in
diameter. Transfer of the organism from one
METHODS OF SPECIMEN COLLECTION
RBC to another is by puncture of the cell AND EXAMINATION (FOR ALL
membrane by an initial body that divides INTESTINAL AND BLOOD PARASITES)
into 2, 4, 6 or 8 bodies.
The organisms stain dark blue or purple Faeces
with Giemsa.
Several specimens taken at intervals of a few
• Cowdria ruminaniium is an obligate days are often required because of sparsity of
intracellular pleomorphic rickettsia that organisms and/or the frequent intermittent
inhabits capillary reticuloendothelial cells in excretion of intestinal parasites.
cowdriosis (heartwater) Methods of preservation (10% formalin,
While clinical signs are presumptive formalin-ethyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol)
evidence of the disease in acute cases, (PVA) fixative, zinc sulphate, sodium
diaznosis is confirmed at post-mortem by acetate-acetic acid-formalin) are used if
de~onstratingthe organism in Giemsa- immediate examination is not performed.
stained smears of cerebral grey matter
Commercial kits are also available.
• Coxiella burnetii, the cause of 'Q' (query) Initial gross examination may detect
fever, is an obligate intracellular tapeworm proglottids, eggs, oocysts,
400 Meat Hygiene
microfilariae, etc., and presence of blood. • Allow smear to dry for 6 hours before
Colour of faeces should be noted. staining.
• Scan first under low power (for
Microscopic examination microfilariae and larger organisms) and then
under xIOO oil immersion for tiny parasites
1 Direct wet mount, stained and unstained - to like Babesia.
detect motile protozoan trophozoites and
cysts, helminth eggs and larvae. Place a drop
of physiological saline at one end of a
microscope slide and a drop of iodine, e.g.
Lugol's, at the other. Add a small amount EXAMINATION OF CARCASE AND
(2 mg) of faeces to each drop and mix. Cover
with coverslip and examine under low- and
ORGANS FOR EVIDENCE OF
high-power objectives. PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS
2 Concentration methods wet mount
examination. Formalin-ethyl acetate (FEA), Specimen
zinc sulphate and sugar flotation are
commonly used methods of concentration. (a) Neck muscle
Zinc sulphate, however, may cause eggs to (b) Spleen
open and/or collapse and may distort (c) Mesenteric lymph node
protozoan cysts. High density eggs may be
missed due to sedimentation making early (d) Carcase lymph node
examination imperative.
Procedure
3 Permanently stained smears - morphology of
trophozoites, cysts, larvae, eggs necessary to • Identify specimen and carcase of origin
identify individual parasites. • Sear surface with spatula
• Stains - Iron haematoxylin, trichrome. • Cut into organ with sterilised scalpel
Commercial stains and reagents available. • Insert swab into cut surface and swab on
• Make a thin film of faeces on a microscope to agar
slide.
Culture on/in
• Fix in Schaudinn or PVA fixative.
• Scan for thick and thin areas under xIO and (i) Selenite broth (to be subcultured on
x40 magnifications. Brilliant Caveen agar (BGA) at 24 hours)
• Trichrome stain: protozoan trophozoites and (ii) MacConkey Agar
cysts stain blue-green. RBCs, nuclear (iii) Blood Agar (aerobic)
chromatin, karyosomes stain dark-red (iv) Glucose Agar (stab)
purple; eggs and larvae stain red;
background debris and yeasts stain green. Record findings including Gram stain findings
• Iron haematoxylin: organisms stain greyish- after inoculation
black; nuclei stain black; background
Specimen:
material stains light blue-grey.
BGA:
MacC:
Blood smears
B/A:
Giemsa and Wright stains are usually used, Glucose Agar: _ _
especially the former. (Wright stain cannot be
used for thick smears.) Interpretation: _ _
• Prepare thin and thick smears - both can be
made on the same slide. A thick film (best Decision regarding carcase of origin: - -
for parasites) is made by pooling several
drops of blood and spreading it on an area
Source: Collins, J. D. and Hannan, J. Laboratory Handbook on
of [Link]. Food Hygime. University College, Dublin Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine: Food Hygiene Laboratory.
• Fix thin film (but not thick film) in
methanol.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 401

THE MICROBIOLOGICAL THE MICROBIOLOGICAL

EXAMINATION OF FRESH MEAT EXAMINATION OF PROCESSED MEAT

Products under examination: 1. Chicken Microbiological:

carcase. 2. Mince meat 10-1 10-2 10-3 10--4 10-5
1. Mark all plates with its identification.
(a) TVC @ 30°C/3 days
2. Regarding the chicken carcase, state
whether the technique used was (a) neck (b) TVC @ 37°C/2 days
skin flap; (b) carcase washing.
(c) Total Enterobacteriaceae count 37°C/2
days
Assessment
1. Organoleptic: (d) Suiureus count @ 37°C/2 days
(a) appearance: _ _ (e) Presence of Clostridium perfringens
(b) odour: (presumptive): Take 10ml of 10-1
(c) texture: suspension, add to 100 ml of glucose
agar, heat @ 60°C/l0 minutes, to delay
2. Physical-chemical: vegetative forms, and incubate @ 37°C/2
(a) pH: _ (b) A,: _ (c) other: _ days.

3. Microbiological (f) Presence of Salmonella spp.: Take 10 ml of

10-1 dilution, add to 10 ml double
10-1 10-2 10- 3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 strength Brilliant Green/Selenite broth,
(a) TVC @ 30°C/3 days incubate for 24 hours @ 43°C followed
by plating on to Brilliant Green agar.
(b) TVC @37°C/2 days
(g) Microscopic examination _
(c) Total Enterobacteriaceae count
@ 37°C/2 days (h) TVC (10 @ 30°C/3 days _ _
(d) S. aureus count @ 37°C/2 days (ii) @ 37°C/2 days _ _
(e) Presence of Clostridium perfringens
(presumptive): Take 10ml of 10-1 • Total Enterobacteraceae count:
suspension, add to 100 ml of Glucose • S. aureus count:
Agar, heat @ 60OC/10minutes, to • Clostridium peifringens: present/absent: _ _
delay vegetative forms, and incubate • Salmonella spp.: present/ absent: _ _
@ 37°C/2 days.
(f) Presence of Salmonella spp.: Take
10 ml of 10-1 dilution, add to 10 ml Results and Interpretation: _ _
double strength Brilliant
Green/Selenite broth, incubate for 24
hours @ 43°C followed by plating Source: Collins, J. D. and Hannan, J. Laboratory Hundbook 011
FoodHygiene. University College, Dublin Faculty of Veterinary
onto Brilliant Green agar. Medicine: Food Hygiene Laboratory.
(g) Microscopic examination
(h) TVC @30°C/3 days _ _
@37°C/2 days _ _

• Total Enterobacteraceae count:

• S. aureus count:
• Clostridium perfringens: present/absent: __
• Salmonella spp.: present/absent __

Results and Interpretation: __

Source: Collins. J. D. and Hannan, J. Laboratory Handbookon

Food Hygiene. University College, Dublin Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine: Food Hygiene Laboratory.
402 Meat Hygiene
DETECTION OF ANTIBACTERIAL FAST ANTIMICROBIAL SCREEN TEST
RESIDUES IN FOOD (see also Chapter 13) (FAST) FOR DETECTION OF
ANTIBIOTIC AND SULFONAMIDE
RESIDUES IN LIVESTOCK KIDNEY
MEAT, KIDNEY, LIVER TISSUE. A SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL
GUIDE
Test system: Incubation of growth of (i)
"Bacillus subtilis and (ii)
Micrococcus luteus on media with (This guide is intended for use by FSIS
pH of (i) 7.2 or (ii) 8.0 veterinarians and designated food inspectors in
a slaughtering plant on tissues from red meat
'Note: trimethoprim is added to this
carcases. By courtesy of USDA FSIS
medium.
Administrative Human Resource Development
Division.)
Procedure:
FAST is based on the principle that if animal
1. Take 2 pieces of tissue each approx. 1 ern" tissue contains the residue of a previously
2. Place one piece in a test tube containing administered antimicrobial, fluid from the
5 ml saline solution and heat in tissues will inhibit the growth of a sensitive
waterbath at 85°e for ten minutes organism on a bacterial culture plate. In this
(extract). test, cotton swabs saturated with tissue fluid
3. To each of the pre-inoculated test plates from a suspected carcase are placed on a culture
add (i) tissue (direct), (ii) 4 drops of plate whose surface has been seeded with
extract into well. spores of a harmless organism (Bacillus
megaterium). This organism is known to be
4. Incubate the B. subtilis plate at 30 e and
0

sensitive to most of the commonly used

the M. luteus plate at 37°e for 24 hours.
antimicrobials.
5. Remove plates and read the results as The swabs and plate are incubated to allow
follows: growth of the organisms; then the plates are
(i) a zone of inhibition 2mm in radius examined for zones of inhibited growth around
around any sample is regarded as the swabs. The presence of such zones is
positive; presumptive evidence that the carcases tissues
(ii) absence of such a zone is regarded as contain an antimicrobial residue.
negative. Positive cases are submitted to the central
laboratory. Negative cases may be released
Test: within about 6 hours provided all other
B. subtilis [Link] inspection criteria are met.
Direct: Time required to complete test is 5-10
minutes.
Extract: _

Interpretation:
Equipment
• Clean knife, plastic bags, fine-tipped
Source: Collins, J. D. and Hannan, J. Laboratory Handbook: 011 permanent marker and rubber bands.
FoodHygielle. University College, Dublin Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine: Food Hygiene Laboratory. • Sterile cotton swabs.
• FAST agar plates.
• Bacillus megaierium spore suspension.
• Antibiotic sensitivity N5 discs.
• Thumb forceps.
• Incubator stabilised at 44°C ± [Link].
• Metric measuring device with millimetre
graduations.
• 'Retained' tags.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 403
Storage of reagents Avoid touching the cotton tip with any
surface and do not reuse the swab to streak
• Agar plates should be kept at room additional plates.
temperature with protection from extremes
of heat, cold and moisture. 5 Gently touch the side of the vial with the
swab to remove excess fluid.
• N5 discs and spore suspension require to be
refrigerated. 6 Replace screw cap on vial and set aside.
• Container for N5 disc dispenser should not 7 Commencing at mark '»:' streak spores over
be opened until discs are to be used. After the agar surface to opposite side (Fig. 14.23B).
use, the dispenser and desiccant pellet Turning the plate X; clockwise for three
should be placed in a sealed plastic bag for occasions with 7'; final turn, streak plate in a
refrigeration. sirrtilar manner so that whole surface of plate
is evenly covered with spores. Discard the
used swab.
S Draw a line with a permanent marker on the
Sample collection bottom of plate from mark 'x' to divide plate
1 Using a clean knife, collect ~ Llb of kidney into two halves (Fig. 14.23C). Identify the
from detained carcase and place in plastic plate with last three digits of the tissue
bag. sample at 90 degrees at two places on vertical
2 Attach 'detained' tag to carcase and record outside of plate.
carcase number/pathology details, injection
site, if present, plant number, etc.
Positioning the N5 disc
With thumb forceps, carefully place a N5 disc
Preparation of tissue swabs on spore-covered agar about Y2 inch from mark
1 Open swab pack, remove one swab and jab 'x' and press gently without breaking agar
the sharp end just through the plastic bag surface (Fig. 14.23D). Replace the cap on the N5
containing the kidney tissue, making a Y2 inch disc vial and refrigerate.
hole.
2 Macerate the tissue with the sharp end of the Positioning swab on plate
swab and completely soak the cotton end in
the tissue fluid. With fingers (not forceps) gently place the swab
3 Leave swab in place for at least 30 minutes to (with saturated end down to prevent fluid
ensure maximum absorption of fluid. flowing down shaft) in the centre of the left-
hand side of plate with the shaft end near the
The cotton swab must not contact anything N5 disc (Fig. 14.23E). Lightly press the swab
but the sample fluid and agar plate. shaft with the finger tip to ensure contact with
Hands, etc., should be clean and dry but not the agar. If two carcases are being tested, place
necessarily sterile. the second swab similarly in the centre of right-
hand side of plate.

Streaking the agar plate with spores

Incubation of FAST plate
1 Lift plate cover slightly and make an 'x'
reference mark on outer sidewall (Fig. Incubate plate with cover (and swabs and agar
14.23A). surface uppermost), properly stabilised (44 ±
2 Place plate bottomside down with reference O.5°C), for a minimum of 6 hours. Record TIME
mark 'x' at 12 o'clock. IN and TIME OUT and ensure security during
3 With cap tight, thoroughly shake the vial to incubation.
ensure even suspension of spores. Incubation can continue for a maximum of
4 Remove cap from spore vial (avoiding 24 hours without jeopardising results.
touching inside of cap and vial with hands) Prolonged incubation may allow growth of
and holding a sterile cotton swab by the shaft contaminating organisms and/or dissipate
carefully insert it into the spore vial to antibiotic activity and produce false negative
completely immerse the cotton swab (once results.
only) in the spore suspension. Retest if necessary.
404 Meat Hygiene

A B

c D

E F

"
'"
G

Fig. U .23 The FAST test procedure

(A ) Reference mark 'X'.
(8) Streaking the plate. H
(c) Dividing the p late into two halves and identifying.
(D) Position ing the NS di sc.
(E) Positioning the swab.
( F) Verifying function of the FASTsys tem.
(G) Measuring the zone of N5 disc inhibition.
(H) Interpreting and recording FASTda ta.
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 405

Verifying function of FAST system (Fig. residues are present. Except in the case of bob
14.23F) calves, if the FAST result is positive, tissue sam-
• Growth of test organism results in an overall ples must be sent to the laboratory for bioassay
yellow or amber colour within 6 hours. This testing. The purpose of the laboratory testing in
must be verified. larger animals is to confirm that violative levels
• A purple zone of inhibition round N5 disc of antibiotics or sulphonamides are present in
should be obvious within 6 hours (clear the tissues. Carcases other than those of bob
yellow or amber after overnight incubation). calves must be retained pending laboratory
Determine that this is within the acceptable results.
range of 20-26 mm. A If the zone of inhibition is 15 mm or greater
• A zone round of inhibition is an area free of and the species code is 21 (bob calf) condemn
colonies of the test organism (B. megaterium) the carcase.
caused by the presence of a growth- Collect approximately lIb each of muscle,
promoting substance, e.g. an antibiotic. kidney and liver from the retained carcase.
• If incubated for 6 hours, the colour will be Place each tissue sample in a separate
purple. If incubated for more than 6 hours, double bag and freeze. Send to the central
the colour will be yellow or amber. laboratory with sufficient coolant to ensure
• Turn the plate upside down on flat surface arrival in good condition along with full
and lightly tap the bottom to dislodge the details.
swab(s) into the cover. B If zone of inhibition is less than 15 mm for
• Observe the plate through the bottom. bob calves, test is negative: release carcase
after appropriate trimming, e.g. removal of
• If growth of test organism is evident in at injection lesions, etc., provided other
least the areas away from the N5 disc and reasons for retaining the carcase are
the swab(s), observe zones of inhibition and resolved. No tissues need be sent to the
measure and record (in mm) the diameter of laboratory.
the N5 zone of inhibition (Fig. 14.23G).
• If the N5 disc zone of inhibition is
20-26 mm, interpret results. If not, rerun test
or submit to central laboratory. Handling culture failures
• Failure of the test B. megaterium spores to
grow is rare.
Interpretation of results (Fig. 14.23H) • The plate may not have been streaked with
Interpretation is based on the presence or absence of spores.
zones of inhibition surrounding the tissue swab • The plate may be too old or dried out.
areas. • The incubator temperature may have been
• If no zone of inhibition is present, the test is incorrect.
negative. Record. • Sample tissues may have contained a very
• If a zone of inhibition is present, the test is high antibiotic level.
positive. Measure width of swab zone of • Complete form as 'Failure' under 'Test
inhibition in mm. Record. Results'.
• If the cause of culture failure has been
determined, rerun the FAST test.
Follow-up action - negative FAST • If the cause of culture failure has not been
Release carcases, after appropriate trimming of determined, submit tissues to the laboratory
injection lesion (if present), provided any other and proceed as under Follow-up Actions -
reasons for detaining carcase are resolved. positive FAST.
Record and notify appropriate authority of
action taken.
Finishing up FAST test
Follow-up action - positive FAST
Maintain an inventory of FAST supplies each
FAST is a screening test and is accurate in deter- time the test is run and follow instructions from
mining whether antibiotic or sulphonamide Regional Office.
406 Meat Hygiene
pH MEASUREMENT (HYDROGEN ION Before use, the probe (preferably a fibre-optic
CONCENTRATION) one) should be calibrated on buffer solutions at
the same temperature as the test material unless
The pH value is a quantitative measurement of the pH meter is equipped with a temperature-
the acidity/alkalinity of fluids, a value of 7 compensation unit. The probe must also be
being neutral, with figures less than 7 being cleaned in distilled water between readings
acid and those above 7 being alkaline. since blood and fat tend to cause inaccuracies.
Nutrient content, biological structures, The probe measures reflected light in lean
oxidation-reduction potential, antimicrobial meat. Different instruments have different
agents, moisture content and pH constitute the measurements, one commercially available
intrinsic parameters of animal tissues. model giving light readings between 0 and 100
It is acknowledged that most micro- (values less than 20 indicate DFD meat and
organisms grow best at pH values of 6.5-7.5. above 50 PSE meat). Readings taken 24 hours
Pathogenic bacteria tend to be more fastidious after slaughter and greater than 60 are typical of
in relation to pH, while yeasts and moulds are PSE meat, while those below 16 are
less so. representative of extreme DFD meat. It is
pH plays an important role in the keeping advisable to take several readings at different
quality of meats; for example meat from sites for each of the test samples.
fatigued and stressed animals spoils faster than The longissimus dorsi (eye) muscle is
that from rested animals as a direct result of the normally used for testing purposes. Care must
final pH on completion of rigor mortis. be taken to keep the electrodes from touching
Detection of PSE and DFD, evaluation of other objects. They should be rinsed in distilled
electrostimulation efficiency and suitability of water after use.
beef for vacuum packaging are among the many As an alternative, 10 g samples of meat may
reasons for measuring pH. be suspended in 20ml of distilled water and the
Effective electrical stimulation of beef pH measured after 10 minutes.
carcases should produce a pH of 6.1-6.3. DFD
meat (pH above 6.2 at 24 hours post-slaughter)
should not be vacuum-packed since conditions
Lovibond Comparator
favour the growth of Brochoihrix Meat suspension (5 or 10 ml in distilled water)
(Microbacterium) ihermosphacia. is added to two tubes of standard size and to
one tube is added a standard amount of a
suitable indicator. The tubes are placed in the
pH indicator papers
comparator and the colour change is compared
These give an approximate measurement of the against a colour disc rotated until a match is
pH but are suitable for use on the slaughter made. Suitable indicators include phenol red
floor. The colour change in the strips ranges (pH 6.8-8.4), methyl red (pH 4.4-6.0),
from pH values of 5.2 to 7.2 When used in an bromthymol blue (pH 6.0-7.6) and bromcresol
incision into meat at a depth of 2 cm for 2 purple (pH 5.2-6.8).
minutes or 10 minutes (pHi), the colour change
is compared directly with a given colour chart. (The above systems can also be used for the
measurement of pH of culture media.)

pH probes and meters

DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN CHILLED
pH probes and meters are the most accurate AND THAWED FROZEN MEAT
methods of measuring pH. A wide variety is
commercially available. Fibre-optic probes are On occasions unscrupulous suppliers have sold
more accurate than pH meters in the detection thawed frozen meat as chilled meat. Since the
of PSE and DFD. The measurement should be former is likely to be of poor quality and liable
performed with spear probes (sharpened metal to spoilage and rancidity, it is important that the
sheath), which help to prevent the two be differentiated.
contamination of raw meat from probe Two tests are available - photometric and
breakage. colour both of which measure the
 PLA T E 3

Fig. 14 Haernurrhagic septicae mia. Lungs. Bovine.

Fig.13 Deep pectoral myopathy . Fow l.

Fig.1 6 Coenurus cerelJra[js. Sheep.

Fig. 15 Coenurus serialis. Rabbit.

Fig. 17 Ana ploccphala magna. Small intestine.

Horse (l [Link] old ). Fig.18 Hyd atid cyst. Liver. Sheep .
 PL A T E 4

Fig . 19 OnchoceraJ gibsoui. Oesophagus. Bovine. Fig.20 T. S41gina ta. Scolex and p roglotti ds.

Fig. 21 Cysfiarcus allulosa~. Diaphragm. Pig. Fig.22 Blackhead. Liver. Tur key.

Fig. 23 Cboreogtobepauns. Broiler. Fig. 24 Marek's disease. Proventriculus. Broile r.

Plates 1-4 Grateful than ks for loan of transparencies are accorded to the followin g: Central Veterinary Laboratory (Jig
D. E. Count er (Figs 5, 10, 12); R. M. Edelsten (Figs 6, 8, 11, 14, 19); M. Fussey (Figs 4, 7, 9); M. [effrey (Fig. 13); J. A. Kends
(Fig. 1); Or K. A. Linklater (Fig. 2); C. J. Randall (figs 22. 23, 24); Pro fessor A. J. Trees (Figs 15 to 18, 20, 21).
 Food Poisoning and Meat Microbiology 407
concen tra tion of a mitochond rial enzyme (13- • PV between 5 and 10 mF.q /kg: comme ncing
hydroxy-CoA dehydroge nase, HADH) in meat rancid ity.
press juice.
H ADH activity is highe r in frozen meat
beca use freezing ru p tures mitochondria, w hich
release this enz ym e in to the mea t juice. MEAT S PECIES DIFFERENTIATI ON (see
also Chapter 2)

In ad d ition to the normal farm livestock (ca ttle.

FAT RANCIDITY sh eep, pigs and poultry), the meat of othe r
animals (buffalo. kan garoo, mule, goa t. donkey.
Ra ncid ity is a form of spoilage during which a n e tc.) is frequently used and is fit for human
unacceptable taste is produced by the chemical cons ump tion. On the other hand. substitution
ox idation of unsaturated fats in air a nd ca n be ca n occur, making the prod uct not of the na tu re
accelerated by ce rtain lipolytic bacteria such as and substance demanded by the consumer.
Acnromotacrer, Pseudomonas a nd yca st s. Traces Serological tesfs are u tilised to d istinguish
of metals such as copper, nickel a nd iron may between the mea ts derived from the different
ca use fat ra n cidity, as ma y the action o f s pecies of a nim als a nd include the precipitin
cll/.ym es such as lipases. • test , ELISA (e nzy me-linked imrn unoso rbc n t
The off-odours are due to ald eh ydes, ke toncs assay) and aga r diffusion. These se rological
a nd free fa tty acids (FFA). (im m uno logical) tes ts are based on the reac tion
Two tes ts are availab le a nd d epend on of specific antibodies and an tige ns.
w hethe r the cha nge is due to hydrolytic Commercia l kits are available for th e
rancid ity or oxid ative rancidity. serological id entification of meat species and
the det ecti on of unspecified mea ts, and even for
checki ng cooked beef, pork and poultry.
H yd rol ytic rancidity - fre e fa tty acids (f FA) In addition to the serologica l tests. H PLC
A sa m p le of fat is mi xed w ith neutralised (h igh-p ress u re liquid chroma tog ra phy),
e tha no l and titrated directl v with s tanda rd electrophoresis and histology a rc ava ilable but.
alkali to ob tain a res ult in terms of percentage compared w ith serology, a re less efficient.
olei c acid.
FFA values greater tha n 3% are cons id ered
inedible.
FURTH ER READING, Part 1, Food
Poisoning
O xid ative rancidity - Peroxide Val ue (PV)
of fat Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety
of Food (1993) Interim Report on Campylobacter.
This form of fat rancidity is more common than Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety
the hydrolytic type. Peroxide and of Food (1995). Report on Ve roc ytotoxin
hy dropcroxidcs arc produced from unsatu rated Producing E. coli.
fa tty acids. MaulIgl'lIIt'II j of Olltbreaks of Foodbome 1II11 "~~ .
The test depends on the release of iodine Guidance produced by a Department of Health
from potassium iodide in a chloro form-glacial Working Group 1995. Two Ten Communications.
acetic acid so lu tion of the fat. Th is action is Buildin g ISO, Thorpe Arch Trading Estate.
stopped by the addition of wate r a nd the w ethcrbv, West Yorkshire LS23 7EN. LX I5B:\"
0113216629.
released iodine is titrated .
Tilt' Microbiologicnl Safety of Food. Part I, 1990. ISB:\"
• PV bclowS mEq /kg: the fat is fresh or the 011 321273 9.
hyd roxyperoxtdes have deg raded in to TIlt' Microbiological Safrly of Food, Part Z. 1990. ISB:\"
second ary oxidation prod ucts such as 011 321.J.t76.
kctones. (m Eq/ kg = milliequivalents per The Pennington Grou p (1997). Repo rt on the
kilog ram.) (A chemica l equivalent [Eq} is the circums tances leading to the 1996 outbrea k of
we ight (gra ms) of a substance that will react Infection with E. coli 0157 in Central Scotland. the
with 1 mole of hyd rogen ion or 1 mole of implications for food safety and the tes-ce- to be
electrons. ) learned,
408 Meat Hygiene
WHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Roberts, H oopcr and Greenwood {eds) (1995),
Poodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe Practical Food Microbiology, 2nd ed . Pi lLS.
Sixth Report 1990-92. 1995. [SIN 09480307 ISBN 3 Sheridan, J. J., Buchanan, R. L. and Montville, T. J.
980423174. (1996) HACCP: An integrated approach to
assuring the microbiological safety of meat and
poultry.
FURTHE R READ ING : Part 2: Meat
Microbiology
Clean Catering. A Handbook: all Hygiellt' ill Catering FURTH ER READ ING: Part 3: The Meat
Eslablishmell ts (1972) London: HMSO. Plant Laborato ry
EEC Code ofCood Hygienic Practices, Vi/5938/87.
Llob bs, B. C. and Roberts, D. (19B?) Food Poisoning Church, P. N. and Wood, J. W. (1990) Mallual of
ami Food Hygiene, 5th edn. London : Ed ward Mmlllja cturiTlg Meat Quality. Leathcrheed :
Arno ld. Leatherhead Food Resea rch Association.
Jay, J. M . (1996) Modem Food Microbiology, 5th ed n. Hud son, W. R., Mead, G. C. and l linton, M. H.
London: Chapman and Hall. (1998) . Vet. Rec. H 2, 545-547.
Parry, R. T., Haysom, L., Tho mas, N. L. and Davis, R. jcnsen. L. B. and Hess, W. R. (1941) Food Res. 6, 273.
(eds) (1982) A Mmllw/ of Recommended M!!Illods for Labadie et al. (1977) Zen/ralblatt fur Bakteriologie,
the Microbiological Examination of Poultry 1111.1 Pamsucnkunde, I/lfecktiollskra/lkheilen IIl1d Hygiene
Poultry Products. London: British Poultry Meat (Erste Abteilllllg Origilll1/e) 164,390.
Association. Mac key, B. M. and Derrick, C. Y1. (1979) f. Appl.
Public llealth Laboratorv Service Communicable Bacterial. 46, 355
Disease Surveillance Centre, Weekly Reports.
 Chapter 15
Occupational Injuries and Infections

INJURIES efficiently maintained, fully guarded and

properly used by authorised personnel.
In an industry where livestock are handled, Rotation of staff should assist in the prevention
where machinery and knives are used and of RSI. An all-too frequent, and totally
where floors are often slippery due to water, unnecessary, cause of cuts is knife slips when
blood and fat deposits, injuries, sometimes skinning filthy cattle on which there are several
fatal, regularly occur. inches of adherent faecal material.
By far the most common form of injuries are Inadequate first-aid facilities and lack of
cuts incurred while using sharp knives. proper training frequently add to the problem
Excessive force with a sharp knife, a slip when of injuries and infections. ALL wounds, cuts
making an incision (often when cutting through and abrasions should be immediately treated and
contaminated hides), can result in a severe tetanus toxoid should be administered especially
wound and sometimes death. Abrasions are in cases of deep penetrating wounds.
sustained through knocks from equipment,
falling gambrels and trolleys often being the
cause of contusions and acute injuries. In
addition to knives, many injuries are caused by UK LEGISLATION
bone splinters, which can be responsible for
simple punctures or large lacerations and are Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
more serious than many knife cuts in that they Factories Act 1961
are more liable to infection. Prescribed Dangerous Machines Order 1964
Newly-employed personnel lacking in The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and
efficiency are most often at risk. Most of the Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1981
r recorded fatalities and injuries have been
associated with deboning operations in which
Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981
slips can occur when the knife is drawn The UK Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
towards the operative's body. Fatal stabbings requires all employers to ensure as far as is

I
have resulted in penetration of the femoral reasonably practicable, the health, safety and
artery and vein. In addition, modern meat plant welfare of their employees. The Act provides
operations entail the use of automatic for a safe workplace, safe machinery and
equipment and monotonous tasks which on adequate information, instruction, training and
occasion lead to repetitive strain injury (RSI), supervision. Employees have a duty to take
frequently a tenosynovitis of the hand. reasonable care of their own safety. Regulations
While carelessness and irresponsible under the Act lay down the accidents which
behaviour may account for some of these must be reported directly to the Health and
accidents, other reasons include the absence of Safety Executive (HSE). These relate to deaths,
protective equipment (chain mesh aprons and major injury and other dangerous occurrences
gloves) and helmets, the use of blunt knives as defined by the Act. If the injured person goes
and of steels without guards, holding bare to hospital, a report is only necessary if he or
knives while walking, catching falling knives, she is detained for more than 24 hours other
improper use of steels, use of knives other than than for observation. In all cases completion of
one's own, etc. Dangerous machines must be the'Accident Book' is necessary.

409
410 Meat Hygiene
The UK Factories Act of 1961 lays down personnel resist the use of steel-mesh gloves
specific requirements for first-aid arrangements. and aprons because of their weight and
A first-aid box or cupboard must be provided awkwardness in use. A washable lightweight
(more than one if there are more than 150 glove made of high-strength aramid and nylon
workers) in every factory. Its contents must with a steel core and cut-resistant, but not cut-
conform to certain standards and a responsible proof, is now available.
trained person must be in charge of it. If the Safety of personnel in the meat industry is of the
factory employs more than 150 personnel, this utmost importance - neglect involves injury,
person must be either a registered or enrolled pain, possible infection and time off work.
nurse or the holder of a certificate in first-aid Death from knife wounds is not unknown in
training issued during the previous 3 years by the meat trade, nor are infection and septic
an approved organisation. Details relating to arthritis resulting in finger deformity.
the siting of first-aid boxes, maintenance of Especially in cutting and boning rooms,
records, situation of ambulance rooms and safety gloves and aprons are essential along with
referral of cases to a doctor or hospital are also a high degree of cleanliness and tidy working
included in the Factories Act. conditions, with no extraneous material on
Failure to comply with safety regulations floors to cause falls. The collection of blood and
may involve employers in prosecution. fat in slaughter and carcase dressing areas is
The UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is notorious for causing accidents. Safety helmets
responsible for developing standards nationally are essential to prevent injury from moving
and for inspection and enforcement in food machinery and falling trolleys and carcases. All
factories, local authorities being responsible for machinery must be adequately maintained and
inspection and enforcement in shops, in proper working order. Plastic waterproof
supermarkets and catering establishments. footwear with microcellular soles is of great value
Because of the high number (over 1000) of in preventing slipping on floors.
hand-tool accidents which occur in the UK meat Special attention must be given to personnel
industry each year, inspectors of the Health and involved in the handling of BSE-infected
Safety Executive carried out an investigation in animals and those handling heads and spinal
1981 into the nature of knife accidents in meat cords of all stock.
and fish plants and reported as follows. Out of
254 instances of knife injuries examined 75
(29.5%) involved personnel with more than 5
years' experience of boning-out. In 169 (66.5%) ALLERGIES
instances there was no protection provided for
the non-knife hand and in 228 (89.8%) cases Some individuals are especially susceptible to
there was no protection for the wrist and animals and their environment. Among the
forearm. Butchers/boners appeared to be most reported allergies are rhinitis, which is
prone to injury, but slaughterers were involved sometimes combined with asthma (now a
in about one-third of the total incidents. prescribed industrial disease in Britain) and
It was concluded that injury could have been skin rashes. The former two conditions may be
prevented in 213 (83.9%) of the accidents. In related directly to contact with the animals or,
20% of the cases operatives were wearing for example, to mouldy hay and straw which
plastic or rubber aprons capable of being easily can set up the condition known as 'farmer's
penetrated by a knife. lung'. 'Farmer's lung' is caused by the inhalation
Usually the non-knife hand is injured, which of large numbers of the spores of the bacterium
would tend to indicate that knife-slip is the Micropolysporum [aeni, the antigens of which
most frequent immediate cause of injury. Good stimulate antibody production in the alveoli of
knife design, proper handle guards and adequate the lungs. Subsequent exposure to these
protection for the non-knife hand, wrist and microorganisms causes a localised inflam-
forearm together with the use of an apron of matory response, the Arthus reaction, producing
chain-mail are essential items for safeguarding acute or chronic symptoms of coughing, chills,
butchers and boners. It is important to keep dyspnoea, fatigue and weight loss. Less
knives constantly clean and sharp, knife edges commonly, simple chemicals, act in a similar
being sharpened 'little and often'. Many fashion.
 Occupational Injuries and Infections 411

In some cases faecal bacteria and Gram- period 1961-65 there were 56 cases with 4
negative bacterial endotoxins in organic dusts human deaths, the number of cases per year
cause nose and eye irritation, coughing, chest since 1969 has not exceeded 5 with no deaths in
tightness, headache and nausea. These man.
endotoxins may also play a part in byssinosis, The disease was made notifiable in the UK
which is a bronchoconstriction occurring in under the Public Health Act of 1966 in
workers handling cotton, flax and hemp. These December 1966 and the decline in incidence
organic dust conditions are not uncommon in was most noticeable in persons employed in the
intensive livestock farms, especially poultry hides, wool, hair, bristle, bone flour and meat
and pig units. and bone meal trades. This was mainly due to
Severe dermatitis of unknown origin affecting the introduction of vaccination (cell-free
the hands of operatives removing pancreases vaccine prepared from a culture filtrate
has been observed. containing the protective antigen) in 1965 for
Occupational skin diseases are relatively workers at risk and in 1978 to labelling of the
common, forming some 60% of all new spells of unsterilised product. Annual vaccination of
certified incapacity for which injury benefit is grazing stock where disease is prevalent using
payable and accounting for twice the number of spore or alum-precipitated antigen vaccine is
working days lost compared with all the other recommended.
occupational diseases together. However, workers in the above trades and
Many different causes exist - animal and those handling infected material are still at risk,
plant contact, organic and inorganic as indeed are those in the livestock sector.
compounds, trauma, insects, microorganisms, Infection can be introduced with the
radiation, etc. Factors such as the pattern and importation of bone meal, etc., contaminated
intensity of exposure, individual susceptibility, with Bacillus anthracis. Certain environmental
skin pigmentation, presence/absence of skin events such as floods may cause epizootics.
wounds, cuts and abrasions, skin protection Cutaneous anthrax appears to occur more
and the presence/absence of efficient first-aid often on the hands and arms of meat handlers,
treatment are also of importance. while the face and neck are more frequently
affected in workers employed in other
industries.
The fact that anthrax in animals is not
ZOONOSES (see also Chapters 17 and 18) necessarily associated with sudden death is a
sufficient reason for great vigilance and for
While injuries of various types, including efficient ante-mortem inspection at meat plants.
electrocution, are common, workers in the meat
industry, especially in the slaughtering sector,
Brucellosis
are at particular risk in acquiring certain
zoonoses (diseases naturally transmitted between While personnel engaged in the handling of
animals and man). A vitiated atmosphere livestock, dressing of carcases and offal and
contaminated with microorganisms, poor disposal of rejected material and hides are at
ventilation and skin injuries contributes to the greatest risk, all abattoir staff are at hazard,
development of zoonoses. especially when infected and reactor animals
The zoonoses include anthrax, brucellosis, are being slaughtered, for example, as a result
contagious pustular dermatitis, erysipelas, of an eradication scheme. In some instances
leptospirosis, listeriosis, louping ill, ornithosis, cases have occurred in meat plant staff
psittacosis, Q fever (rabies), ringworm, unassociated with these duties, making the
salmonellosis, staphylococcosis, streptococcal source of infection difficult to explain - the
meningitis, toxoplasmosis, TB and tularaemia. possibility of personnel having ingested
unpasteurised milk has to be borne in mind.
In 1966 a study in Edinburgh revealed
Anthrax antibodies to Brucella abortus in 12.5% of
There has been a significant decrease in the abattoir workers and (presumably from the
number of cases of anthrax in Great Britain in consumption of milk) in 1% of the population
recent years. While in England and Wales in the in that city.
412 Meat Hygiene
In the United Kingdom the introduction in The lesions of CPD occur fairly frequently in
1967 of voluntary schemes for the testing and abattoir workers mainly on the hands, wrists
removal of reactors from individual herds and forearm and sometimes the face. The early
followed by area eradication in 1975 and vesicle stage is rarely seen, however, and the
compulsory eradication in 1979 has ensured a usual presentation is a chronic, raised, circular
marked decline in the incidence of bovine dark red papule often found on the ulnar border
brucellosis with a parallel reduction of human of the hands. This papule is firm to the touch
infection. In 1972 there were 264 cases of human and may reach 3 cm in diameter. Painless at
brucellosis in England and Wales, these being first, the papule becomes dome-shaped with a
reduced in 1986 to 30 isolations of Brucella spp. depressed centre which contains a clear
of which 6 were Br. melitensis, 11 Br. suis, 23 exudate. Pus formation and granulation tissue
untyped but none proved to be Bt. abortus. Br. eventually take place, causing pain.
suis type 11 is believed to be prevalent in Britain
but asymptomatic in pigs and can cause a Systemic CPD Although most cases of CPD
bacteraemia in man on occasions. are local lesions, the virus probably gaining
There has been a tendency in the past in entrance through small wounds or abrasions,
disease eradication schemes to rely on the there is evidence that a systemic form occurs and
slaughter aspect without paying due regard to is becoming more prevalent (Shuttleworth,
the needs of the personnel responsible for 1988). The main features of this invasive CPD are
handling infected and reactor animals. Such a haemorrhagic blister at the site of virus entry,
animals must be handled with great care with an irregular blotchy rash on various parts of the
strict attention to hygiene at all stages. Workers body with swelling, pruritis of the affected part
must attend to personal hygiene, frequently and axillary lymphadenitis, malaise and a flu-
washing hands and arms using a bactericidal like feeling. Later stages involve aching limbs
soap, and avoid contact with infected organs, and joints, fatigue and exhaustion and adenitis
discharges and urine. Uteri and udders must not of the cervical and inguinal lymph nodes with
be incised and should not be handled with acute abdominal pain requiring hospital
unprotected hands. Hooks or other suitable admission. The average duration of clinical signs
instruments may be used. These organs should is 10 months with a range of 2-30 months. The
be carefully disposed of as rejected offal. Masks homoeopathic drug Thug« accideniaiis has been
and rubber gloves have been advocated but advocated by this author as effective treatment
present practical problems. for man, sheep and goats.
Although personnel handling sheep are
most often affected, the condition has been
reported in engineering staff concerned with
Contagious pustular dermatitis (CPD,
the maintenance of equipment, an indication of
contagious ecthyma, 'orf')
virus persistence. This ability is further
CPD in sheep and goats is a worldwide disease confirmed by the fact that while CPD is most
in distribution caused by a DNA virus of the prevalent in sheep and lambs in the spring and
parapoxvirus genus of poxviruses. Lesions on early summer, infections have been recorded in
the lips of lambs (mostly up to 1 year old) and abattoir staff in mid-winter. Undoubtedly,
udders of ewes are usually apparent, but a indirect as well as direct contact occurs,
more serious form with high mortality may infection being acquired by both man and
involve the tongue, palate, lungs and digestive animals through intermediate passive transfer
tract. from apparently normal animals contaminated
Between 1975 and 1981 in Scotland there by contact, knives, clothing and other forms of
were 344 reports of orf in human beings, most equipment. Person-to-person transmission,
cases affecting adults, especially men. In 49 however, is rare.
cases those affected were abattoir workers, Sensible protective precautions should be
butchers or meat handlers. Veterinary surgeons exercised - strict personal hygiene and prompt
may also be affected. It is likely that the actual attention to cuts and abrasions. Infected
number of cases greatly exceeds reported ones animals should be handled carefully in the
since many of the lesions, although intractable lairage and, as for all zoonoses, other staff should
to treatment are of minor importance. be alerted to the presence of CPD.
 Occupational Injuries and Infections 413
The use of a live virulent vaccine applied Human infections do occur from time to
following scarification of the axilla of sheep timet even in the British Isles, and are almost
would serve to reduce the incidence of CPD in always associated with rats in whose urine the
animals and man, but few owners appear to leptospires are shed. Hedgehogs, voles, shrews,
apply it. skunks, opossums, certain reptiles, amphibians
and fish also act as reservoirs of infection. Farm
and pet animals (cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and
Erysipeloid dogs) may also act as carriers. The size and
movement of the rat population may increase
A localised cutaneous infection of pig and fish
handlers, butchers, cooks and veterinary the risk of exposure of human beings to
infective material, the disease in man being
surgeons, this is caused by Erysipelothrix
more prevalent during the late summer and
rhusiopaihiae, the causal organism of swine
autumn months. Warm humid conditions
erysipelas which may also be associated with
appear to favour the proliferation of
arthritis, especially in finger joints.
leptospires. Outbreaks of leptospirosis occur
There is a spreading erythema and oedema
where people are exposed to canal, lake and
at the site which in rare cases may extend to a
fresh water contaminated with animal urine.
septicaemia with high fever. The condition
In addition to abattoir workers, livestock
responds well to treatment with penicillin or
handlers, veterinary surgeons, poultry and fish
erythromycin.
handlers, sewer and canal workers, etc., are
Diagnosis is confirmed by isolation of the liable to infection. Because of improved
causal organism from the local lesion or blood. working conditions, leptospirosis is not now
common in miners, sewer workers and fish
cleaners, who were at one time frequently
Erysipelas
infected. The reduction of the rat population
Erysipeloid must not be confused with and the control of litter with the adoption of
erysipelas, an acute cellulitis of human beings in hygiene precautions have markedly reduced
the form of a red, painful, oedematous the incidence of leptospirosis in many areas of
spreading lesion which often has a raised the world.
border and is caused by Group A streptococci. At least 200 different serotypes of leptospires
The lesions occur most often on the face and in 23 groups have been recorded in livestock,
legs of patients, especially women, who are occurring in two main complexes: Leptospira
suffering from a debilitating disease. In some interrogans, including most of the mammalian
cases the condition is severe with the strains and 1. biflexa, including the non-
occurrence of bacteraemia. pathogenic saprophytic types. Most of the
human cases of leptospirosis occurring in
England and Wales are of the
Leptospirosis (haemorrhagic jaundice, icierohaemorrhagiae serogroup, followed by
Weil/s disease, Canicola fever, mud fever, hebdomadis and canicola infections.
dairy worker fever, swineherd disease) Serovars commonly identified in causing
This is a bacterial disease of varying severity human infection are icterohaemorrhagiae, hardjo,
and sporadic occurrence transmitted by contact canicola, auiumnolis, pomona, hebdomadis and
with the urine of infected animals. The ausiralis.
condition is characterised by sudden onset, Although infection normally takes place
fever, headache, myalgia, conjunctivitis and through the skint especially if cut or abraded, it
sometimes haemolytic anaemia, skin and may also occur via mucous membranes and
mucous membrane haemorrhage, icterus, renal through inhalation or ingestion.
failure, meningitis and mental confusion. Fatal
cases are not common but may occur where
Listeriosis (listerellosis, mononucleosis)
there is jaundice and kidney failure.
In certain parts of the world leptospirosis is This bacterial disease is caused by Listeria
an important disease in the livestock industry, monocytogenes and manifested in man by
e.g. in parts of north and south America, Russia meningoencephalitis and/or septicaemia
and the near East. which may be fatal. Sometimes abortion takes
414 Meat Hygiene
place. A cutaneous form of listeriosis is also from Listeria and other food-poisoning
recognised in adults and appears to be organisms should be ensured.
increasing in incidence.
The reservoir of L. monocytogenes is forage,
Louping ill
silage, soil, water and a wide range of animals
(domestic and wild) and birds. The organism Louping ill and related tick-borne
has been isolated more frequently from the encephalitides (Central European tick-borne
faeces of abattoir workers than from any other encephalitis, Russian spnng-summer
class of employees. ~ encephalitis, Powassan virus encephalitis, etc.)
The disease occurs mainly in pregnant occur mainly in eastern and central Europe,
women, neonates, elderly persons and immuno- Scandinavia, Asia, Canada and the USA,
compromised individuals, including alcoholics. causing varying severities of encephalitis in
man depending on the virus involved,
Symptoms in man are usually sudden in onset individual susceptibility, and so on.
with fever, nausea, headache, vomiting, mental The frequency of cuts and abrasions
confusion and sometimes coma, collapse and undoubtedly predisposes to these infections
shock. when acquired occupationally. An incidence of
Lesion's of endocarditis are rare but granuloma- louping ill infection of 8.3% was detected in
tous lesions may occur in the liver and other Scottish abattoir workers in 1966, an incidence
organs along with internal and external skin which has been markedly reduced in recent
abscesses. years. In addition to infection from biting ticks,
The disease is sporadic in occurrence, human louping ill in man may also be acquired
infection normally occurring by ingestion of through the consumption of infected milk.
contaminated food (cheeses, vegetables, milk Adult ticks may procure infection from man.
etc.) or contact with infective material (fetuses, Symptoms usually take the form of fever,
fetal membranes, soil etc.). Infection can also be headache, flu-like symptoms, conjunctivitis
acquired by inhalation and by venereal sometimes accompanied with nervous signs.
transmission. The condition in man is generally mild.
In a few cases the ingestion of infected meat
by human beings has resulted in listeriosis. Preventive measures should include
Primary cutaneous listeriosis has been vaccination of ewes (inactivated vaccine grown
recorded by many authors. McLaughlin and in tissue culture).
Low (1994) cited 17 cases in adults in which the
disease appeared as an initial reddish rash Psittacosis and ornithosis (chlamydiosis,
which developed into vesicular or pustular parrot fever)
lesions 1-2 mm in diameter with either dark or
light centres. These cases occurred in a lorry Both diseases are transmissible to man,
driver, a wholesale butcher and the remainder psittacosis from birds of the psittacine order
in veterinary surgeons and farmers. Most cases (parrots, parakeets, etc.) and ornithosis from
in the farmers and veterinarians were birds other than psittacines. A sheep strain of
associated with the manual delivery of aborted Chlamydia psittaci can infect pregnant women.
bovine fetuses or stillbirths. Various phage The disease is worldwide in distribution and
types of L. monocytogenes were isolated from affects a wide variety of birds. Among domestic
the cutaneous lesions and the abortion poultry it is most common in ducks, turkeys,
specimens. geese and pigeons, which are the main source
of human infection.
Preventive measures against listeriosis The first recorded outbreak of ornithosis in
Pregnant women, immunocompromised the UK occurred in the winter and spring of
individuals, veterinary surgeons and farmers 1979-80 and was associated with commercially-
must avoid contact with potentially infective reared ducks. Some cases involved workers in a
materials such as aborted fetuses and fetal duck-processing plant, others occurring in 15
membranes. Only properly cooked meats and out of 46 veterinary surgeons attending a
pasteurised dairy products should be eaten. training course on the supervision of poultry
Freedom of all foods, especially soft cheeses, processing premises.
 Occupational Injuries and Infections 415
A survey of workers in the British duck chlortetracycline is advocated for control of the
industry has indicated a past exposure to disease.
infection rate (based on results of complement Satisfactory standards of ventilation and the
fixation (CF) tests on blood samples) of 11%. prevention of dusty atmospheres are essential
The workers employed on evisceration lines as is the use of dust masks where necessary.
showed the highest titres to the CF test.
Cases of human ornithosis originating from
ducks have also occurred in the Czech Republic Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis, tick-borne
meningopolyneuritis)
and Denmark. In the former country it was
found that covering the evisceration lines and This is a tick-borne bacterial zoonosis which
improving the plant ventilation by the occurs frequently in eastern and western USA,
installation of extractor fans solved the problem in Canada (Ontario), Russia, China, Japan and
in the workers. Australia. It also occurs less often in Europe,
While the number of human cases arising including England (especially the New and
from psittacine birds has been decreasing since Thetford Forests) and Scotland. The disease is
the implementation of the UK Captive Birds an occupational hazard for farmers, shepherds,
Order of 1976/ the overall number of ornithosis deer stalkers, veterinarians and abattoir
cases has been rising. workers.
Persons may become infected more than The cause is the spirochaete Borrelia
once and, whil~ the disease in man is usually burgdorjeri, which was first identified in 1982.
mild, occasionally it can be severe. Human infec- The borreliae are large (10-30)..lm long x
tion occurs by inhalation following exposure to 0.3-0.7)..lm wide), Gram-negative, motile
infected aerosols, dust-infected bird droppings spirochaetes (slender spiral or coiled, very
and nasal discharges and sheep fetuses and motile bacteria although they possess no
membranes. Chlamydia psittaci may also be flagella). Spirochaetes include Treponema
responsible for cases of conjunctivitis in poultry pallidum, the cause of human syphilis, and
workers, especially in dust-laden atmospheres. Leptospirae. In addition to Lyme disease, the
borreliae are responsible for European and West
Symptoms in humans include gastrointestinal
African relapsing fever (also transmitted by
pain and vomiting, headache, insomnia and
ticks).
pneumonia. Valvular endocarditis may
The hard tick Ixodes ricinus, which has a
develop. Mild attacks of the disease may be
reservoir in deer (especially white-tailed deer)
mistaken for influenza. Recovery is usually
and a variety of rodents, is responsible for
complete but convalescence may be prolonged.
transmitting Lyme disease.
Infection in pregnant women from a sheep In man the first clinical manifestation is
source can be very serious. usually erythema chronicum migrans, a
Diagnosis in man is based on serological tests redness which extends outwards from the site
(complement fixation and fluorescent of the tick bite. Untreated, the infection may
antibody). In birds the organism is extend to a chronic arthritis or to a CNS
demonstrated in stained liver and spleen infection. The latter is manifested by cranial
smears with isolation in tissue culture from neuritis (commonly involving the facial
fetuses, fetal membranes, etc. nerves), transverse myelitis and meningitis.
Obvious symptoms are fever, headache,
Preventive measures should include education
malaise, fatigue, stiff neck, pain in muscles with
of the public on the risk of exposure to infected
swelling of joints. Myocarditis may also be a
exotic pet birds and infected ducks, geese,
complication. The cases of arthritis are believed
turkeys and pigeons, including feral pigeons;
to be more common in the USA while the
regulation of importation of birds of the parrot
European cases more often assume a
family; efficient surveillance of pet shops,
neurological form, an unexplained anomaly.
aviaries, farms and processing plants; and
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs,
treatment or destruction of infected stock
association with tick bites and serological tests
combined with effective disinfection.
(IFA, ELISA), although the tests are insensitive
Treatment with tetracyclines is usually during the early stages of the disease especially
effective. Antibiotic prophylaxis with if antibiotic treatment has been used.
416 Meat Hygiene
The usual treatment is doxycycline for three asymptomatic. The organisms can survive for
weeks. long periods in cardiac cases with relapse long
Control includes avoidance of tick-infested after the initial infection. The severity of Q fever
areas, protection against ticks with proper increases with age.
clothing (arms and legs covered) with use of
Reservoir of infection Cattle, sheep, goats,
tick repellents. Adherent ticks should be
cats and many wild animals and ticks form the
removed carefully without crushing by gentle
reservoir. Cattle and sheep are the main sources
traction close to the skin. If the skin is carefully
of infection, especially at parturition/abortion
heated beforehand, the mouth parts of the ticks when numerous organisms are shed in
are more easily extracted. placentae and fetal fluids. Urine, faeces and
milk may also be infective. Many infected
animals are frequently asymptomatic. The
Q Fever (Query fever, pneumorickettsiosis, organisms, which can multiply in the genital
abattoir fever, Balkan influenza, Balkan tract and mammary gland, remain viable in
grippe) fodder and dust for long periods.
In a study of workers in an Edinburgh abattoir
Mode of infection Human infection is
(Schonell et al., 1966) it was found that 28.1%
acquired by inhalation and by direct and
showed antibodies to phase 2 antigen of
indirect contact with infected animals and
Coxiella burnetii, the rickettsial cause of Q fever. materials (straw, wool, clothing, fertiliser, etc.).
An earlier survey in 1953 revealed an incidence
The consumption of raw infected milk may
of 2.13% in the general population in Britain. In
sometimes be responsible. Infection through
1966 in Northern Ireland, 28.3% of abattoir
blood and bone marrow transfusion has been
workers and 24.4% of veterinarians were
reported.
positive, although there had been no evidence
of previous Q fever infection in animals and Diagnosis is by complement fixation and
man. The disease has been reported worldwide. ELISA tests. Demonstration of Coxiella burnetii
Q fever was first officially recognised in the in the blood of patients is rarely attempted
United Kingdom in 1949 and is now routinely because of risk to laboratory staff.
tested for in the differential diagnosis of human
Prevention and control Along lines
cases of pneumonia and pyrexia of unknown
enumerated above. Pasteurisation/boiling of
origin. Between 1975 and 1980 an annual
milk and hygienic measures, including
average of 100 cases were reported to the Public
disinfection, are important. High-risk groups in
Health Laboratory Service in England and
some countries receive vaccine prepared from
Wales. Outbreaks are rare and the source of
inactivated Cox. burnetii (Phase I)-infected yolk
infection is often difficult to establish.
sac.
In recent years in Australia, Q fever has been
such a serious disease in abattoir workers that
vaccination of susceptible personnel was
instituted; 924 non-immune volunteers were
Ringworm (dermatophytosis, dermatomy-
inoculated with a Cox. burnetii phase 1 vaccine,
cosis, trichophytosis, epidermophytosis,
and while 34 cases occurred in 1349 non-
micro-sporosis, tinea)
vaccinated workers, there were no cases in the A fungal disease of the skin, this is caused by
following 18 months. Q fever is a notifiable several species of Trichophyton and
disease in humans in some countries, notably Microsporum, especially T. mentagrophytes and T.
Australia, Israel and Italy. oerrucosum (from cattle, horses, rodents and
wild animals) and M. canis (from dogs).
Symptoms The disease in man is an acute
Spores of ringworm fungi can remain viable
febrile condition with sudden onset,
for years on carrier animals, tackle and
pneumonia, coughing, malaise, anorexia,
bedding, even longer than the active lesions on
myalgia and weakness lasting 1-2 weeks.
animals and man.
Hepatitis, pericarditis and endocarditis may
ensue in more severe cases. The mortality rate is Mode of transmission Direct and indirect
low - probably less than 1% in treated and contact with animals and their harness,
untreated patients. Many cases are brushes, combs, clothing, etc. Transmission
 Occupational Injuries and Infections 417
from person to person is rare. As with many wounds, impetigo and paronychia of 15
skin diseases, injuries in the form of cuts, patients involved in the slaughter and
abrasions and maceration of the superficial skin dressing of pigs and poultry, Staph. aureus
layers constitute predisposing factors. being recovered from 8 of these cases
(Barnham and Neilson, 1987).
Clinical signs in man These resemble those in
Outbreaks associated with Staphylococcus
animals - circular, scaly, pink to red, crusty
aureus and ~-haemolytic streptococci (Str.
lesions with slightly raised borders which
pyogenes being the most common) have been
expand peripherally with loss of hair. The
recorded in Scottish abattoirs. In association
hands, arms and forearms are mostly affected
with these outbreaks a survey of skin sepsis in
but other body areas may be involved due to
the different classes of meat handlers revealed
scratching.
that knife injuries constituted the greatest
Diagnosis The organisms are identified as percentage group with slaughterers, inspectors
characteristic hyaline ectothrix arthrospores in and gut cleaners principally involved. Had this
skin scrapings taken from the periphery of the survey been carried out in a processing factory,
lesion and treated with 10% potassium or the main category of worker most at risk would
sodium hydroxide. Culture should be made for have been boners (Table 15.1).
confirmation and species identification. Meat handlers appear to be particularly
Examination of hairs and scales under Wood's susceptible to streptococcal skin sepsis,
lamp (DV light) shows a yellowish-green which takes the form of impetigenous or
fluorescence for Microsporum but not for eczematous lesions, infection round the nail
Trichophuion species. fold and infected lacerations. Second, and
even third, episodes of infection may occur.
Prevention and control See also above.
Happily, the extremely serious infected
Disinfection procedures using formaldehyde
lesions resulting in hand joint arthritis with
are valuable for infected tools and equipment
deformity, common in earlier years, are now
and sodium hydroxide for buildings.
of rare occurrence.
Care should be exercised in handling
affected animals. Cattle appear to be more often
affected during the winter months in Britain, Cutaneous salmonellosis
the condition usually disappearing once spring
This condition has been reported in
sunshine arrives. In Russia and some other east
veterinarians following the delivery of dead or
European countries a live spore vaccine is used
emphysematous calves and cannot be excluded
in cattle to protect against Trichophyton
as a hazard for meat plant staff. The lesions take
infection.
the form of pustular dermatitis or folliculitis as
Oral griseofulvin is an effective treatment.
small, red, patchy spots on arms and hands
apparent within three days of the event. In
Skin sepsis
Streptococcal and staphylococcal skin Table 15.1 Survey of skin sepsis in meat handlers,
infections are fairly common in animal and Scotland,1983-85.
meat handlers and have become more frequent
in recent years. Percentage association of each
type of skin puncture
Outbreaks of skin infection due to
Streptococcus pyogenes have been recorded Occupation Bone Knife Graze
among workers in meat processing factories,
the first outbreak occurring in Yorkshire, Slaughterer 7 75 18
England, in 1978. In this instance there was an Butcher 31 35 34
attack rate as high as 44% in one department Gut cleaner 13 53 34
(packing). Altogether there were 103 episodes Loader 50 12 38
of infection in 82 workers out of a total staff Packer 40 40 20
complement of 347 (Barnham et al., 1980).
Inspector 20 60 20
Group L ~-haemolytic streptococci were
also isolated from the clinically infected Others 11 39 50
418 Meat Hygiene
some cases more severe lesions, even suis infection because of the presence of the
ulcerations, have occurred with mild systemic organism in palatine tonsils (Breton et al., 1986).
symptoms, headache and fever. In Australia and New Zealand an
Several types of salmonellae have been examination of 734 pig palatine tonsils showed
isolated - S. dublin, S. Saint Paul, S. typhimurizl71z that 54% were infected with Str. suis type 1 and
and S. virchow (Cameron, 1988; Collyer, 1988; 73% of 959 tonsils with Str. suis type 2
Visser, 1991). organisms. Both forms of bacteria were
recovered from the blood and reproductive
tracts of 3% of normal pigs (Robertson and
Clostridial cellulitis Blackmore, 1989).
An unusual form of infection occurred in a Streptococcal meningitis in pigs occurs after
male worker following a scratch from a bone in weaning and when pigs are mixed, the
a poultry plant in Wales in 1991. The tiny organisms apparently being conveyed by
wound become a cellulitis with swelling, pain healthy adult carrier animals in the
and an objectionable odour which 'travelled up nasopharynx. However, it is possible that
the arm and eventually enveloped the whole human carriers may on occasion be implicated.
body', making the man a virtual social outcast. Stress is probably a precipitating factor.
Various types of antibiotics were used in Streptococcus zooepidemicus has been isolated
addition to UV light, chlorophyll and oxygen from cases of mastitis in cattle.
without effect. A skin biopsy and
microbiological examination revealed the Human streptococcosis
presence of a Clostridium bacterium which was
Since 1975 there have been several reports of
secreting toxins, the cause of the foul smell.
illness in people due to Str. suis type 2 (Group
Recovery took place without apparent reason.
R) in England, Wales and Ireland. The persons
affected were abattoir workers, meat processing
plant operatives, butchers, farmers and
Streptococcosis (Sfr. suis infection, Sir. veterinary surgeons. In one case there was no
zooepidemicus infection) history of any occupational involvement. Some
of the patients developed meningitis while
Streptococcus suis type 2 infection is a disease of
pigs, transmissible to man and characterised by others suffered arthritis and lymphangitis with
meningitis which has been recognised in the bacteraemia. Fever is always present with
headache, numbness of the fingers, foot pain,
United Kingdom, Canada, USA, Brazil and
Netherlands. Recent surveys have shown that rigors and skin erythema.
the disease is widespread in pigs in the United Streptococcus zooepideinicus infection is
Kingdom, especially in the south and east. It is responsible for pneumonia and upper
probably present in all pig-producing respiratory symptoms, cervical adenitis,
countries. endocarditis and nephritis.
After the first UK outbreak in 1973 there was Humans acquire Str. suis infection through
an increasing number of incidents recorded, to handling contaminated meat, while Str.
a peak in 1976 after which there was an zooepidemicus infection occurs in people in
apparent decline. contact with sick and carrier animals and by
Carrier rates for SfI'. suis type 2 in tonsils of drinking infected milk.
pigs from 12 herds in England with a history of Prevention and control See under 'Injuries'
Str. meningitis varied from 20% to 90%. In two earlier.
herds thought to be free of the disease, the
carrier rates were 20% and 1.5% respectively
(Clifton-Hadley et al., 1984). Tetanus (lockjaw)
In Ontario, Canada, Str. suis type 2 was While abattoir workers are probably no more at
detected in 8.1% of 347 pig herds examined in risk than other occupations, nevertheless in an
1985. Microbiological examination of meat industry where livestock are handled and
operatives' hands and knives showed that where wounds, often deep, penetrating ones,
eviscerators involved in tongue and lung occur, the possibility of tetanus occurring is a
removal were more at risk of exposure to Str. very real one.
 Occupational Injuries and Infections 419
In England and Wales, reported cases of PREVENTION OF OCCUPATIONAL
tetanus usually range from 15 to 24 annually, DISEASE IN MEAT PLANT STAFF
with deaths varying from 1 to 10 a year, but the
actual number is probably four to five times 1 Education of workers as to the nature of
greater. The disease appears to be more zoonoses and how to minimise the risk of
common in persons over 45 years of age and in infection by careful handling of potentially
males. infected stock, carcases and offal.
2 Efficient veterinary ante-mortem inspection
Prevention and control See under 'Injuries' especially with casualty animals, and the
earlier. immediate alerting of staff to all disease
hazards.
3 High standards of personal and
environmental hygiene.
Tularaemia (rabbit fever, deerfly fever, 4 Avoidance of cuts, wounds and abrasions
O'Hara disease) with prompt and efficient treatment when
Tularaemia occurs worldwide and is especially theyoccur.
common in North America where some 2000 5 Proper meat plant construction and layout
human cases, often of rabbit and tick origin, are and ventilation with good staff facilities
reported annually in the United States. Japan (showers, toilets, handwashing, use of
also has an undue incidence associated with bactericidal soaps, etc.).
rabbits but the virulence of the causal organism, 6 Good first-aid facilities.
Francisella tularensis, is low. Some strains in 7 Vaccination of staff where appropriate.
North America are more virulent. In general, 8 Where possible, elimination of disease In
however, the fatality rate from tularaemia with domestic animals.
appropriate treatment is low, normally less than 9 Close liaison with medical expertise.
5%.
In addition to rabbits and hares, muskrats,
lemmings, beavers, birds and some domestic
animals, especially sheep, are sometimes
REFERENCES
infected. Ticks and mosquitoes are concerned in
the cycle of infection. Barnham. M. and Neilson, D. J. (1987) Epidemiol.
The skinning of infected rabbits and hares is Infect. 99,257-264.
a common means of human infection, the Barnham, M., Kerby, J. and Skillin, J. (1980) J. Hyg.
organism gaining entrance through small Canib. 84,71-75.
wounds. Insect bites may also be responsible. Breton. J., Mitchell, W. R. and Rosendal, S. (1986) Can.
Ingestion of the organism can cause a J. Vet. Res. 50,338-341.
pharyngitis. A rarer mode of transmission is via Cameron.T. R. D. (1988) Vet. Rec. 123, 528.
the conjunctival sac. Clifton-Hadley, F. A. et al. (1984) Vet. Rec. 115,
562-564.
Symptoms in man are variable and include Collyer, J. H. (1988) Vet. Rec. 123, 476.
fever, headache, myalgia, pneumonia, McLaughlin, J. and Low J. C. (1994) Vet. Rec. 135,
pharyngitis, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and 615-617.
vomiting. Where the organism is inoculated Robertson.T, D. and Blackmorc, D. K. (1989) Vet. Rec.
through the skin, an indolent ulcer usually 124, 391-394.
Schonell. et al. (1966) BM! 2, 148-150.
develops with an adenitis in the associated
Shuttleworth, V. S. (1988) Brit. Homoeopath. J. 77, 12.
lymph nodes. Visser, 1. J. R. (1991) Vet. Rec. 129,364.
Preventive measures include the avoidance of
wounds and cuts especially during the
skinning of carcases, control of rodents, dipping FURTHER READING
of sheep to control vectors and immunisation of
persons at high risk. The rodent-proofing of Andrewes, C. H. and Walton, J. R. (1976) Viral and
homes in endemic areas is recommended, with Bacterial Zoonoses. London: Balliere-Tindall.
the thorough cooking of meat and boiling of Bell, J. c. Palmer, S. R. and Payne. J. M. (1988) The
water. Zoonoses. London: Edward Arnold.
 Chapter 16
Pathology

A knowledge of the response of cells, tissues Infective microorganisms: These include

and organs of the living body to injurious bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa (see also
agents or deprivations is a prerequisite for Chapter 17).
efficient meat inspection. Microorganisms are widespread in the
environment - in the atmosphere, soil, fresh
and sea water, sewage, on the skin, in the
mouth and respiratory, genital and intestinal
THE NATURE OF DISEASE tracts of animals and man where they often
exist as normal commensals. (The virus of the
All pathological processes - disturbances in human common cold in the upper respiratory
function and structure - are associated with tract is a typical example.) Commensal
basic cellular changes. When the death of the microbes on the skin and mucous membranes
animal is sudden, e.g. in acute poisoning, aortic are capable of excluding more injurious types
rupture, lightning strike, there may be no (pathogens). Under certain circumstances, some
visible structural changes, while more chronic nutritional in origin and some related to
conditions such as Johne's disease and immunodeficiency, but many unknown,
contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP) commensals are able to multiply, become
lead to well-defined macroscopic changes in pathogenic and cause opportunistic infections.
cells and tissues, and in whole organs with loss 'Infection' is described as the presence of
of bodily condition. microorganisms in body tissues where they are
The actual causal agent, whether it be a normally absent and the term 'infective (infectious)
bacterium, virus, parasite, etc., produces its disease' is applied to the clinical entity (Micro-
specific deleterious effects and these are organisms resembling L. monocytogenes have been
followed by reactive changes which in many demonstrated in the brains of 5% of normal sheep
respects resemble physiological changes. These in which they have passed several barriers,
secondary changes may produce resolution of including the meningeal one (Gracey, 1958).
the disease provided resistance, nutritional Only a relatively few of these, however, are
status and so on are adequate, or the animal capable of causing disease and their ability to
may succumb. produce disease depends on their invasiveness,
their multiplication and their potential to be
transmitted to other hosts. Bacteria produce
Causes of disease their harmful effects through poisonous
Disease may be either acquired or genetic in substances termed toxins, the exact nature of
origin or a combination of both. which largely determines the actual features of
the disease. Viruses multiply in the living cells
of the host and can only thrive in such cells. The
Acquired disease type of viral disease depends on which cells are
Most diseases of animals are acquired, that is invaded along with the response of the host.
they are due to the effects of various Some viruses are involved in the causation of
environmental factors such as microorganisms, some forms of cancer, where their viral genes
metazoan parasites, etc., which produce become integrated into the genome (genetic
infections, or to different forms of malnutrition. inventory) of the host cell.

421
422
Whether pathogenic microorganisms are
Meat Hygiene
hypersensitivity to helminths, e.g. in parasitic
,
able to invade the animal host depends on pneumonia and gastroenteritis.
many complex factors such as bacterial and Anaphylaxis is an acute antigen-antibody
viral invasiveness and multiplication as well as reaction, often resulting in sudden death, which
specific and non-specific host defence occurs in animals previously sensitised to
mechanisms (the immune system). injections of drugs (lincomycin, erythromycin,
The occurrence and treatment of infective sulphonamides, etc.) glandular extracts, blood
disease is further complicated by the transfusions or vaccines, and given a second
phenomenon of bacterial resistance. This may be dose of the same allergen after an interval
primary (innate bacterial resistance) or acquired during which the allergen has had time to bind
as a result of mutation or genetic change. to mast cells.
Resistance to antibiotics by gene transfer is an
Deficiency diseases: Inadequate intake of
extremely serious entity, for example, with
high-quality protein, minerals, vitamins and
strains of Staphylococcus aureus or Neisseria
trace elements accounts for much loss in
meningiiidis. It can also occur between related livestock worldwide. Examples are copper
strains of organisms, e.g. the enteric Gram-
deficiency in enzootic ataxia ('swayback'), pica
negative bacilli, and can be transferred between
due to salt deficiency, rickets in lambs caused
species, for example, from commensal E. coli to
by phosphorus deficiency, hypomagnesaemic
Salmonella and even from animals to man tetany in cattle due to inability to mobilise
through the consumption of meat. It is
magnesium, nutritional muscular dystrophy
occasioned by the abuse of antibiotic usage in
(white muscle disease) due to selenium and
human veterinary medicine such as their
vitamin E deficiency (see Chapter 19).
prescription for viral conditions on non-
completion of courses of treatment, as well as
the incorporation of antibiotics in animal feeds Genetically-determined disease
for growth-promoting purposes.
Geneticallv-determined disease usually arises
Metazoan parasites such as liver fluke, warble
from some abnormality of the DNA of the
flies, Echinococcus granuloeus and other cestodes
zygote (fertilised ovum). It may also derive
are important causes of disease (see Chapter
from the absence or abnormality of a
18).
chromosome. These abnormalities may be
Chemicals: Chemical agents are now being inherited from one or both parents (inherited
increasingly used in agriculture and industry. diseases) or be occasioned by teratogenic
Substances such as strong acids and alkalis, (environmental) factors such as the effects of
plant poisons, cyanide organophosphates, drugs, chemicals, trace element and vitamin
pesticides, herbicides, copper sulphate, lead, deficiency, viruses, irradiation, toxic plants or
and various drugs, many of which exert toxic hyperthermia. In many cases there is no known
effects on the liver and kidneys (see Chapter cause.
20). Diseases which arise during fetal life are
termed congenital and frequently result in fetal
Mechanical Injuries: These include wounds death, abortion or stillbirth. But viable and non-
and contusions, etc. viable neonates (newborn animals) may be
Other physical agents such as excessive heat, born onlv to succumb a few weeks later.
cold, electricity and radiation cause local death Congenital abnormalities include
of cells and an inflammatory reaction. hydrocephalus and neonatal rickets in calves,
congenital tremor and various anatomical
Immunological factors: Hypersensitivity to defects in piglets, mummification, stillbirth and
various microorganisms, parasites, drugs and abortion in all species.
many other types of allergens (substances Inherited conditions may affect all body
capable of producing allergy or specific systems. Examples are freemartins (sterile
hypersensitivity) may result in harmful effects, female twin, usually bovine but sometimes
both local and general. Examples are Purpura ovine) born with a male; bulldog calves
haemorrhagica in horses, urticaria, allergic (inherited achondroplasia with hydrocephalus)
rhinitis in ruminants, contact allergy and of the Dexter breed; infertility in all species;
 Pathology 423
inherited goitre (cattle, sheep and goats); destroy infected tissues by mediating cytotoxic
inherited osteoarthritis of cattle; malignant reactions.
hyperthermia (porcine stress syndrome) in These cellular entities can act alone or in
pigs; inherited hydrocephalus in Aberdeen- association with the specific immune system.
Angus cattle; Pietrain creeper pigs (muscular
weakness). Specific immune responses protect only against
While genetic defects can produce numerous a particular microorganism or a closely related
perceptible anatomical abnormalities (there are one. Once infection with a particular organism
some 400 in the dog), it is being more and more occurs, protection against a second infection
recognised that with the current emphasis on takes place and is normally lifelong (secondary
productivity in farm livestock with no regard immune response). This response is known as
for disease resistance, animals susceptible to immunological memory. Such a reaction forms
general microbial disease are being created. A the basis for the immunisation against certain
further concern is the reduction in the diversity infectious diseases with vaccines and sera.
of the genetic pool, especially in cattle, with the Specific immune responses are activated by
use of artificial insemination. Embryo transfer substances termed antigens which produce
is also questionable on the same basis as well as specific antibodies, a group of proteins called
on welfare considerations. immunoglobulins, to produce active immunity.
Livestock health, fertility and productivity Both humoral (relating to body fluids) and
are inextricably determined by both cellular effects are involved in this response.
environmental and genetic factors. But while the protective effect of antibody can
be transferred through the use of serum in a
non-immune animal (passive immunity), the
cellular response can only be transferred by
lymphocytes.
BODY DEFENCE MECHANISMS
B lymphocytes (B cells), originating from the
bone marrow, spleen, fetal liver and fetal yolk
These consist of non-specific and specific
sac, are responsible for producing humoral
immune systems. antibodies. (The 'B' in B lymphocyte refers to
Non-specific immune systems are comprised the bursa of Fabricius in the cloaca of birds
of the intact skin and the mucous membranes of where B cell differentiation occurs.) T
the alimentary, respiratory and urogenital lymphocytes (T cells) from the thymus generate
systems. These act as the first barriers to the cellular immune response. T cells produce a
invasion by microorganisms and are assisted by number of substances called lymphokines which
the upward action of the cilia of the columnar direct cell functions. Both types of lymphocytes
epithelium of the respiratory system, intestinal originate from tissues referred to as primary
peristalsis and urine flow. Coughing, sneezing lymphoid organs. Secondary lymphoid organs
and weeping help to clear potential pathogens (spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer's patches
from the body. in the intestine) are the site of actions occurring
In the skin, blood, tears, internal secretions, during and after the detection of antigen.
intestinal fluid and saliva there is present the Many different types of Band T cells are
enzyme lysozyme which, along with sebum involved in the specific immune response - Bs
produced by the sebaceous glands, has an (memory, plasma) Ts (cytotoxic, memory,
antibacterial action. Inierjerons, glycoproteins helper, suppressor, dendritic), all with specific
released by certain cells to increase functions and acting along with non-
phagocytosis, complement (a series of enzymatic lymphocytic forms.
proteins) and C-reactive protein produced in The immune system itself may be involved
response to inflammation, also play important in disease processes - auioimmune disease in
parts in the body's defensive mechanism. which an immune response is generated
Cells in the form of leukocytes (macrophages, against 'self' or autoantigens to produce
neutrophils and eosinophils) phagocytose and pathological changes; hypersensitivity
kill invading microorganisms while other white reactions including anaphylactic shock;
blood cells (basophils and mast cells) and immunodeficiency; immunocytic and reactive
natural killer (NK) lymphocyte cells are able to amyloidosis; allograft rejection.
424 Meat Hygiene
INFLAMMATION, HEALING AND is occasioned by the escape of protein-rich fluid
REPAIR from the blood vessels into the extracellular
tissues and pain by the action of plasma
Inflammation (1. inflammare, to burn) polypeptides termed kinins (bradykinin and
kallidin). Loss of function is brought about by
Inflammation is the body's most important
reflex inhibition of muscular movement
defence mechanism which takes place in tissue
because of pain or by mechanical restrictions
cells, blood vessels and blood cells following
due to swelling of the affected part.
deleterious injury insufficient to cause actual
Microscopically, there is a temporary
cellular death.
contraction of arterioles followed by a
Its main function is to localise and limit
dilatation of all arterioles, capillaries and
tissue injury and restore the damage to the
venules (hyperaemia). The blood flow initially
normal or as near to it as possible. Acute
increases but later gradually slows owing to
inflammation is essentially a protective
loss of protein-rich fluid from the venules and
response.
capillaries and stops (stasis) because of
Inflammation of a tissue or organ is denoted
increased vascularity and hydrostatic pressure.
in most instances by the suffix -itis, e.g. enteritis
This protein-rich fluid is the inflammatory
(inflammation of the intestine) and myositis
exudate in which tissue factor promotes the
(inflammation of muscle), except in the case of
formation of fibrin. Leukocytes (polymorphs,
lungs (pneumonia) and pleurae (pleurisy).
monocytes, lymphocytes), through chemotactic
The type of inflammation and it stage of action, then begin to stick to the damaged
development are important considerations in meat endothelium of the blood vessels and most
inspection, acute inflammation in general being actually pass through the wall between the
more serious than the chronic form.
endothelial cells by active amoeboid movement
Causes With the exception of the deficiency (diapedesis). Platelets also adhere to the
conditions, these are very similar to the endothelium in clumps or thrombi. Neutrophils
acquired causes of disease, viz. toxins of dominate the early stages of inflammation (the
microorganisms, strong chemicals, mechanical first few hours) but are superseded by
injuries, thermal damage such as frostbite and monocytes (macrophages, giant cells and
heat burn, and allergic or immune reactions. In histiocytes) in the later stages. These are active
many instances two causes may act in unison; phagocytes and, along with plasma cells, are
for example, bacterial infection often follows also the main white blood cells in chronic
mechanical injury and frostbite. inflammation.
Should necrosis (death of tissue cells) occur in Phagocytosis is the process whereby bacteria,
an organ, inflammatory changes in adjacent tissue cells and debris and foreign material are
normal tissues are initiated. ingested by these specialised white cells,
The main forms are acute and chronic usually in the presence of opsonins (special
inflammation. plasma proteins).
Should the injury be severe or complicated
by bacterial, viral or protozoal infection,
Acute inflammation
systemic changes may result, with the animal
The cardinal signs of acute inflammation were being affected with fever / septicaemia/
summarised by Celsius (first century AD) as toxaemia and an increased production of
rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat) leukocytes (leukocytosis) by the bone marrow.
and dolor (pain), to which Virchow in the Certain infectious diseases, however, such as
nineteenth century added [unciio laesa (loss of those caused by rickettsiae and certain viruses,
function). are associated with a decrease in the number of
The acute form is rapid in onset and circulating leukocytes (leukopenia).
normally lasts for only days or a few weeks.
The chronic form, however, persists for weeks,
months, and even years. Morphology of acute inflammation
Macroscopically, the redness and heat are due The type of inflammatory reaction depends on
to vasodilatation of the smaller blood vessels a variety of factors - specific cause, tissue
due to histamine and serotonin release; sIuelling involved, presence or absence of
 Pathology 425

microorganisms, metazoan worms, etc., surfaces present an appearance as though two

virulence of microorganisms and susceptibility pieces of buttered bread were drawn apart.
of host. Inflammation may be differentiated This form of inflammation, characteristic of
according to the type of the exudate produced. more severe injuries and infections, occurs
The various forms may occur individually or in when the permeability of the small blood
combination. A change from one form to vessels is sufficient to allow the passage of
another may also be observed and all may fibrinogen molecules from the blood. Fibrin
merge into the chronic condition. appears as a network of threads or as an
Acute inflammation is normally rapid in amorphous coagulum or clot formed from the
onset and of short duration, lasting only a few fibrinogen of blood by the action of thrombin.
days or weeks. Common causal microorganisms are S. cholerae
suis, Fusobacterium necrophorum and the virus of
Catarrhal or mucous inflammation A
avian laryngotracheitis.
relatively mild affection of the mucous
membranes in which there is excessive Haemorrhagic inflammation is characterized
production of mucus from mucous glands and by the presence of excessive numbers of RBCs
goblet cells. The causes are usually benign in in the exudate which give it a reddish or brown-
character, e.g. bacteria and viruses of low ish colour like clotted or unclotted blood. The
virulence, irritating chemicals and foods, dust exudate itself also contains serum, leukocytes
and various allergens such as pollen. and fibrin. It may be associated with serous
Mucus is a clear, greyish, slimy, glistening inflammation as, for example, in Braxy or in the
fluid which is normally secreted by the mucosa haemorrhagic enteritis of anthrax and in cases
of the respiratory, alimentary and genital tracts. of severe parasitic gastroenteritis.
The increased flow of mucus from the cervical
glands during oestrus of the uterus is a natural Lymphocytic inflammation Where
phenomenon. lymphocytes accumulate in the tissues along
In catarrhal inflammation the mucus varies with hyperaemia, this term is sometimes
, in consistency from being watery to viscid applied. The condition may be seen in certain
viral diseases of the nervous system, e.g. rabies,

I
(sticky or glutinous) according to the nature
and stage of the infection and the body system Teschen disease and Aujeszky's disease, as well
involved. Examples are human cold and hay as in listeriosis, leptospirosis and
fever, nasal catarrh of calf pneumonia, mucoid toxoplasmosis. Lymphocytic infiltration is often
colitis, equine and swine influenza. Catarrhal manifested as an accumulation of lymphocytes
bacterial gastroenteritis in man is often a food round a blood vessel (perivascular lymphocytic
poisoning due to Salmonella. infiltration). Blood vessels in the liver are
sometimes affected owing to the presence of
Croupous inflammation is a form of fibrinous toxic substances and virulent microorganisms.
inflammation in which a layer is formed from a
fibrinous exudate and becomes loosely Purulent (suppurative) inflammation This

J attached to the underlying tissue.

Diphtheritic inflammation (pseudomembra-
form of inflammation is characterised by the
presence of pus or purulent exudate. Pus is a
yellowish, greenish or bluish coloured
nous inflammation) occurs when the superfi- substance which varies in consistency from
cial layers of a mucous membrane become watery to inspissated (thick) or even solid. Pus
necrotic and, together with a fibrinous exudate, is a protein-rich product composed of
form an adherent membrane. It is caused by numerous neutrophils, living and dead, fluid
bacteria which are non-invasive in type but pro- (liquor puris) which may become semi-solid or
duce potent exotoxins. solid, and necrotic cellular debris.
Typical examples occur in calf diphtheria, It is caused by certain types of bacteria,
fowl pox, necrotic enteritis and swine fever. especially staphylococci such as Staph. albus
Fibrinous inflammation is common on serous and Staph. aureus, Strep. pyogenes and members
and mucous membranes where the exudate is of the E. coli group which are termed pyogenic
coagulated and fibrin formed. When it occurs (pus-producing) bacteria. They produce potent
on opposed surfaces, e.g. pericardium in exotoxins which activate neutrophil emigration
traumatic pericarditis, swine erysipelas, the and the formation of pus by toxic necrosis and
426 Meat Hygiene
the digestion of dead tissue. If the bacterium serous membranes of the body cavities
present is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the pus (pleural, pericardial, peritoneal) which are
assumes a greenish-blue colour owing to the well vascularised. This serous exudate often
production of pyocyanin by the bacterium. Pus represents the first stages of pneumonia
can also be produced by Actinomyces bonis and caused by the inhalation of irritants. Later
Actinobacillus (Malleomyces) malleus. stages may involve the appearance of fibrin,
Suppurative changes are among the most changing the type to [ibrinous inflammation, or
serious in pathology since they indicate that the advent of RBCs (haemorrhagic
local, and sometimes general, defence inflammation). A localised form of serous
mechanisms have been overcome. In meat inflammation is seen in the vesicle or blister and
inspection the changes are often associated after second degree burns.
with septicaemia or pyaemia, which warrant Serous inflammation occurs in vesicular
total carcase condemnation. stomatitis, vesicular exanthema and aphthous
Phlegmonous inflammation refers to the fever.
condition in which amounts of pus are
scattered throughout a tissue, especially the
subcutis, and is similar to cellulitis.
Effects of acute inflammation
An abscess is a localised collection of pus in a Beneficial effects include the elimination of
tissue, organ or confined space. Abscesses may harmful microorganisms and their toxins by the
be almost microscopic in size or enormous, flow of exudate, action of phagocytosis,
containing several litres of pus, and either single dilution of toxins, formation of antibodies and
or multiple - for example, following metastasis- immunity and fibrin production. Along with
and can be found in virtually every body system. the accompanying loss of mobility of the part
In the early stages of abscesss development, due to the presence of oedema and pain, these
toxins released by pyogenic bacteria damage local are all designed to promote resolution.
tissue and cause acute inflammation and oedema. Depending on the part involved, however,
Where the abscess increases in size, coagulative there may be deleterious results, for example, in
necrosis of dead tissue by cellular (mainly acute oedema of the larynx where difficult
neutrophil) enzymes takes place. The pyogenic breathing occurs. Interference with blood flow
bacteria continue to proliferate and produce toxin, may result in increased pressure, e.g. in
resulting in the coagulative necrosis being encephalitis/meningitis, and in necrosis.
transformed into pus which tends to increase in Hypersensitivity reactions, e.g. anaphylaxis,
amount. Around the edges of the abscess, repair autoimmune diseases such as purpura
processes commence with the appearance of haemorrhagica, and isoimmune haemolytic
granulation tissue to form a pyogenic membrane, anaemia may develop.
which is eventually transformed into a fibrous
capsule in long-standing cases.
Hepatic abscesses in cattle often Outcome of acute inflammation
unassociated with clinical disease - may
There are four possible sequelae of acute
eventually heal and leave no scars. Should,
inflammation:
however, erosion of the wall of the posterior
vena cava occur, great loss of condition 'with (1) Resolution with restoration and normal
death may take place. functioning of the part and the overall animal
A pustule is a small circumscribed collection body. Complete disappearance of inflammatory
of pus, usually on the skin. reaction is usual when the injury or infection is
Empyema or pyothorax is an accumulation of minimal and where there has been little tissue
pus or purulent exudate in a pleural cavity. destruction. Exudate and fibrin are removed
Sources include infection of the pleura; lung into lymphatics along with cellular debris and
abscess; penetrating injuries of the chest wall or neutrophils. Gradually macrophages and
the oesophagus or from the reticulum in the monocytes replace neutrophils and actively
bovine; and via the blood vascular system. phagocytose dead tissues and bacterial cells.
The vasodilatation and permeability of local
Serous inflammation is identified by the blood vessels return to normal. Any fibrin
production of a thin, clear, watery fluid on the present is lysed by fibrinolytic enzymes and the
 Pathology 427

soluble end-products are removed in the diseases, and in ulceration, e.g. gastric ulcers
enlarged lymphatics. associated with some disturbance of gastric
secretion.
(2) Healing by fibrosis occurs in cases of
significant tissue damage, where fibrin
Chronic abscesses with fibrous walls develop
granulation tissue on the inside in an attempt to
production is excessive or has not been
fill the cavity when it is eventually drained.
removed by enzyme action and where tissue
Foreign bodies in the form of dirt, metals,
regeneration in general is failing.
wood, silica, necrotic tissue, etc., can initiate the
Leukocytes and fibroblasts migrate into the
formation of chronic inflammation.
fibrin and vascular endothelial cells form new
The persistence of gallstones is accompanied
capillaries (angiogenesis) to create granulation
by the chronic inflammatory changes of
tissue. This has a soft/ pink, granular
cholecystitis.
appearance on the surface of wounds and is
Certain bacteria can persist to produce
often oedematous. This granulation tissue
chronic inflammation from an original acute
gradually changes to a scar composed of
form.
fibroblasts, collagen and elastic fibres to form
Chronic inflammation assumes many
rigid scar tissue.
different forms - chronic abscess, chronic ulcer,
Collagen is the fibrous protein of the white
chronic sinus (an abnormal channel which
fibres of connective tissue found in the skin,
permits the passage of pus). fistula (an
tendons, ligaments and bone cartilage. Elastic
abnormal tubular passage, usually connecting
tissue is a connective tissue composed of yellow
two internal organs or leading from an internal
elastic fibres, often formed into sheets.
organ to the exterior) and chronic
When a wound heals without complication
granulomatous inflammation. This form of
and with a minimum of connective tissue
inflammation is characterised by greater tissue
formation and distortion, e.g. when uninfected,
destruction, by the formation of granulation
it is said to heal by first intention or primary
tissue, and later, fibrous tissue. There is less
union. Where, however, other factors operate, production of exudate which contains
such as suppuration, ulceration and infarction,
macrophages, lymphocytes and plasma cells
and where the wound is extensive, the healing
but fewer neutrophils.
process is more complicated and is
accompanied by extensive granulation tissue Chronic granulomatous inflammation This
formation - healing is by second intention or is a chronic reaction in which granulomas are
secondary union. Second intention healing is formed. These are collections of modified
always accompanied by wound contraction macrophages surrounded by connective tissue
and distortion. giant cells, plasma cells, neutrophils,
lymphocytes and fibroblasts. In some cases
(3) Abscess formation due to the presence of
necrosis occurs (necrotising granulomasi.
pyogenic organisms is a serious complication of
Granulomas may arise from the presence of
acute inflammation.
foreign bodies (foreign body granulomas) or be
(4) Chronic inflammation results from a long- associated with bacteria like Myco. tuberculosis,
standing (weeks or months) tissue injury and parasites, fungi, etc. (hypersensitivity
frequently follows the acute form or several granulomas). Examples are the 'grape' lesions of
acute occurrences. But it can also exist from the chronic bovine TB, the granulomata in the
outset. lungs and other tissues of coccidiodomycosis,
the skin granulomas on the limbs of horses,
bovine actinobacillosis, and strawberry footrot
Chronic inflammation of sheep.
Chronic inflammation is a sequel to acute forms Granulation tissue, which must not be
which are not resolved because of some confused with the term 'granuloma', consists
interference with the healing process, for mostly of macrophages and fibroblasts and
example in chronic bacterial infections such as occurs most often in large wounds in which
tuberculosis where the causal organism is of healing has been delayed, the affected area
lower virulence and evokes delayed assuming the appearance of numerous red
hypersensitivity; in certain fungal and helminth granules making the tissue bulge above the

I
428 Meat Hygiene
surrounding surface. The red 'granules' are fluid, while a pulmonary bleb contains air. A
actually small newly formed capillaries pneumatocele or tension cyst is a fairly large
(angiogenesis) which later develop into larger (several centimetres in diameter) air-filled sac
capillaries and arterioles. The surface tends to in the lungs.
be ulcerated and blood-stained under an Erosion is the superficial loss of an
overlying brownish scab. Deeper parts of epithelium due to ulceration and or bacterial
granulation tissues are whitish, tough and firm, action.
while the more superficial layers are more
oedematous.
Fissure
On occasions excessive amounts of
granulation tissue - exuberant granulation or A fissure is usually a tender crack or cleft in the
proud flesh - are formed which require surgical skin occurring at a point of skin mobility and
excision. The exact cause is unknown. often overlaid with a scab.

Factors influencing wound repair

Papilla
The complex and orderly processes involved in
A papilla is a normal small, nipple-shaped
inflammation (acute and chronic) can be greatly
projection, e.g. the papillae on the tongue.
influenced by local and systemic factors.
Local factors known to reduce healing efficiency
include bacterial infection; inadequate blood Papule
supply; excessive movement of the part;
A papule is a small, circumscribed, raised solid
increased abdominal pressure; foreign bodies
elevation on the skin.
(e.g. sutures, dust, glass, metal, bone);
abnormal tissue cells (e.g. necrotic cells);
location of inflammatory reaction (e.g. serous Ulcer
cavities and synovial cavities); and ionising
The localised necrotic destruction of an
radiation.
epithelial surface (skin or mucous membrane)
Systemic factors which interfere with efficient
with exposure of underlying tissue, forming an
wound repair include concurrent bacterial and
open sore whose surface lies below that of the
other diseases, especially diseases of the blood,
surrounding tissue. Ulcers may occur in most
inadequate nutrition, in particular hypo-
body tissues and organs and are due to
proteinaemia and deficiency of vitamin C and
bacterial or viral action, and are sometimes
zinc; certain hormones, especially cortico-
associated with chronic inflammation and
steroids; and neoplasia.
stress.

IMPORTANT PATHOLOGICAL LESIONS Vesicle

A vesicle is a small sac (usually less than 5 mm
Acne (folliculitis, pyoderma) in diameter) on the skin, containing liquid. In
Acne is a pustular (usually staphylococcal) pathology it represents a form of acute
infection of hair follicles and/or sebaceous inflammation caused by injury or
glands with a surrounding acute inflammation. microorganisms, usually viruses, e.g. vesicular
Furunculosis refers to abscess formation of a stomatitis, foot-and-mouth disease, swine
larger size in the dermis. A furuncle is vesicular disease.
sometimes referred to as a boil while a carbuncle
is a deep-seated skin abscess of which Staph.
aureus is a common cause. Cyst
A cyst is a sac or pouch in the tissues which
Bleb (bulla, blister) varies in size but is usually 1-5 cm in diameter.
It is lined by a grey, glistening epithelial
A bleb is a large vesicle, usually more than membrane and may contain clear fluid or solid
5 mm in diameter. On the skin it contains clear or semi-solid material of parasitic structures,
 Pathology 429
keratinous debris, sebaceous material, etc. Most CELL INJURY AND DEATH
are benign structures, but a few are neoplastic.
Others tend to become infected. In the healthy animal, cells and tissues possess
Congenital cysts are frequently encountered a homeosiasis - a state of physiological
in the kidneys of pigs and sheep. They may be equilibrium in which cell structure,
single or multiple (polycystic renal disease) and composition and function are maintained while
vary in size from being just visible to several adapting to conditions optimal for survival.
centimetres in diameter in cases of single cysts. The animal is in harmony within its body and
Dermoid cysts are neoplastic structures of with its external environment.
developmental origin which contain material Homeostasis is essential for life. The blood
such as sebaceous and sweat glands, hair vascular system maintains the internal
follicles, bone, teeth, etc., inside a fibrous cell environment and works in conjunction with the
wall lined with stratified epithelium. liver and kidney systems to maintain osmotic
Epidermal inclusion cysts are small round levels and remove the waste products of
nodules in the skin which gradually increase in metabolism along with hepatic activity.
size. They possess a simple cyst wall Hormones, oxygen, enzymes and carbon
surrounded by a fibrous capsule. dioxide are transported by the blood and
Embryonic cysts develop from portions of lymph. The response of the body to disease or
embryonic tissue or from organs which injury is a homeostatic activity.
normally disappear before birth. Should any injurious factor upset this
Exudation cysts are structures formed by the balance, local or generalised cell death may
slow collection of inflammatorv exudates in a ensue. If the injury is minor, the cell has the
closed cavity. - ability to adapt and recover by atrophy,
A haematoma (haematocyst) (Plate 2, Fig. 9) is a hypertrophy or hyperplasia. If the damage is
localised tumour-like collection of extravasated irreversible, cell death or necrosis takes place.
blood (usually clotted) in an organ, tissue or
space. Haematomas are normally caused by
injury, e.g. a blood blister, bruises which often Necrosis
accompany fractures and more severe injuries. Necrosis means the death of cells or tissues
while still part of the living body. Autolysis
Hydatid cysts are the larval stages of the (self-disintegration) of cell contents and
tapeworms Echinococcus granulosus and E. membrane takes place through the action of
multilocularis (Plate 3, Fig. 18). lytic enzymes from lysosomes (derived from
Luteal cysts arise from ovarian follicles which the dead cells themselves) to form a mass of
fail to rupture. The cyst wall is lined with a debris which is eventually phagocytosed by
layer of luteal cells. other cells or macrophages if the animal
Ovarian (jollicular) cysts feature in cystic survives.
ovarian disease in which thin-walled follicular Causes of necrosis include chemical poisons,
cysts develop. These represent ovarian follicles plant poisons, toxins, viruses, therapeutic
which do not ovulate and are associated with agents, physical damage, heat, burns,
abnormal oestrus behaviour and infertility. ultraviolet rays, ionising radiation, electrical
They are common in older cows and maps, but injury, hyperthermia, hypothermia including
less common in sows. They are associated with freezing, ischaemia, pressure, anoxia, hypoxia,
abnormalities of oestrus - nymphomania, nutritional deficiencies.
anoestrus and infertility. These injurious agents produce their adverse

I
Parasitic cysts are cysts formed round the effects in different ways: anoxia, hypoxia and
larvae of tapeworms, e.g. Cysticercus bovis, and ischaemia cause infarction, the most common
trichinae, e.g. Trichinella spiralis, Sarcocystis. cause being artery obstruction due to
Retention cysts are formed when the outlet of thrombosis or embolism; bacterial and viral
a secreting gland is obstructed owing to, for toxins produce lysis of the cell membrane;
example, scarring with retention of fluid. They chemical poisons, physical damage, heat, etc.,
may occur in the kidneys, salivary glands, cause denaturation of cell proteins or inhibition
sebaceous glands, mammary glands and of the cell cytochrome oxidase system; and
pancreas. radiation causes damage by inhibiting cell
430 Meat Hygiene
multiplication, an action utilised in the make provision for the escape of stomach and
treatment of cancer. intestinal gases and body heat.
The term /cloudy swelling' (proposed by Necrotic tissue is usually pale and firm and
Virchow in 1860) was used to describe the early may be surrounded by an area of hyperaemia,
degenerative changes in necrosis but is now perhaps best illustrated in the infarcis of the
obsolete because of confusion with other kidney or spleen. Necrotic areas which occur
pathological changes. Affected organs - liver, superficially, e.g. on the skin or the tails of pigs,
kidney, heart, muscular tissue etc. - are slightly may be sloughed off with the formation of an
enlarged, paler and softer than normal and, in ulcer, while necrosis of deep-seated structures
pronounced cases, have the semblance of may be followed by encapsulation and eventual
having been boiled. On section with a knife, the absorption of the necrotic tissue with the
dull, lustreless tissue bulges on the cut surface. formation of a scar. The centre of necrotic areas
Microscopical changes in necrosis reveal may soften and degenerate, e.g. in bacterial
abnormalities in cell nuclei - karyolysis necrosis in the bovine liver associated with
(autolysis), karyorrhexis (fragmentation) and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Should pyogenic
pyknosis (shrinkage with dark staining due to organisms be present, polymorphs accumulate
basophilia). The cytoplasm becomes acidophilic with subsequent liquefaction to form an
due to the loss of nucleoproteins, later less abscess.
dense with ultimate disappearance. Cell outline Necrotic or dead tissue is usually paler than
fades and finally vanishes along with loss of normal (unless filled with blood) and is easily
differential staining. torn. On subsequent infection with gas-
Macroscopic or gross changes of necrosis vary producing organisms, e.g. clostridia,
greatly in disposition and rapidity of onset in putrefactive odours become apparent. As a
the dead animal. Among the tissues which localised entity in a surviving animal, necrosis
undergo early autolysis are the intestinal and is disposed of by sloughing, liquefaction with
gall bladder mucosa because of bile action, formation of an abscess or cyst/ encapsulation
adrenal gland medulla, the proximal with caseation or fibrosis, calcification,
convoluted renal tubules and CNS neurons. gangrene or formation of new tissue.
Connective tissues, however, are fairly
resistant.
Gross changes at post-mortem are markedly Types of necrosis
affected by the following factors: cause of
Caseous necrosis (caseation) Affected tissues
death; species; body and environmental
temperature; length of time the animal has been lose their structure and become amorphous; cell
outline and contents are lost as is differential
dead; absence or presence of refrigeration;
staining. The area is converted into a soft
presence or absence of rigor mortis; type,
amount and fluidity of stomach and intestinal whitish, yellowish or greyish, cheesy mass
contents. Clostridial diseases in ruminants, in reminiscent of cottage cheese.
particular, bring about early autolytic and The causes are locally-acting toxins of
putrefactive changes in the carcase. Ruminants
bacteria such as Myco. tuberculosis,
develop early autolysis due to fermentation Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (oois) and of
and gas production in the large amount of certain bacteria in granulomas.
ingesta, while sheep suffer the most rapid post- Coagulative necrosis This takes place in
mortem changes because of the added tissues like the heart, spleen and kidney where
insulation from the fleece. Pigs also tend to denaturation of cellular protein and enzymes
show early changes, most evident as a greenish occurs but autolysis is prevented. Cell outline
discoloration in the flank area, because of the and nuclei are discernible but pyknotic. The
insulating layer of fat. High summer dead area is strongly eosinophilic. The affected
temperatures often make post-mortem part is white, grey or yellow, swollen and firm.
examination useless. It is sometimes depressed below the level of the
Care should be taken to avoid breakdowns surrounding tissue.
and delays during line slaughter as far as Causes are toxins of bacteria such as
possible. Should these occur it becomes Fusobacterium necrophorum, C. pyogenes, locally-
necessary to eviscerate as soon as possible or acting poisons like mercuric chloride, infarcts
 Pathology 431
and ischaemia, heat, X-rays, and Zenker's abscess formation, calcification, encapsulation
necrosis. and fibrosis, desquamation or sloughing
especially on epithelia and blood vessel
Fat necrosis This form of necrosis may be
endothelia, gangrene and atrophy.
seen in the back fat of pigs and in the mesentery,
brisket fat of cattle due to trauma and kidney fat Judgement of necrosis Partial or total
of cattle where it may occur near a liver abs~ess. condemnation, depending on the overall
It is also encountered in the subpleural, pathology, disease entity, condition of carcase,
subperitoneal and subcutaneous fat and is etc.
attributed to the action of pancreatic enzymes,
trypsin and steapsin, which have escaped from
the pancreas and liberated fatty acids from Gangrene
triglycerides in the fat cells and with calcium
This refers to the digestion of necrotic tissue by
salts form calcium 'soaps'. These appear as
bacterial (usually putrefactive) action. In
whitish, chalky areas in adipose tissue.
Necrosis of brisket fat in cattle, and
primary gangrene pathogenic bacteria kill
tissues by potent exotoxins and then digest the
occasionally sheep, is termed 'putty brisket', the
dead tissue. In secondary gangrene initial death
necrotic tissue being firm, dull white or
of tissue is due to some other cause, e.g.
yellowish in colour and tending to undergo
ischaemia, followed by digestion by
calcification. In New Zealand, fat necrosis is
saprophytic bacteria. The terms 'moist gangrene'
often seen in crutched sheep around the tail.
and 'dry gangrene' may be applied to the
Liquefaction (colliquative) necrosis This is primary and secondary forms, respectively.
more common in tissues with a high water Primary or moist gangrene includes gas
content, e.g. brain and lungs. It can also occur in gangrene and is caused by the Gram-positive
abscesses and in tuberculous pneumonia. While anaerobic, sporing clostridia (Cl. perjringens, Cl.
most necrotic processes are relatively slow, oedematiens (nooui), Cl. sepiicum) and similar
liquefaction necrosis rapidly forms amounts of microbes. These organisms are able to flourish
water by autolysis. Cavities which look like in tissues accessible to the air, e.g. limbs, ears,
cysts but are not true cysts are created tails, lungs, udder, intestine, and well supplied
containing cloudy liquid (pus in the case of with blood. The affected part is oedematous,
abscesses). This liquid is eventually drained initially very painful but later insensitive, soft,
away by the lymphatics, the pus in abscesses and greenish or blackish in colour with a foul
becoming inspissated. putrefactive odour. It is actually a combination
The causes are similar to those for necrosis in of coagulation and liquefaction necrosis causing
general. a breakdown of tissue protein, carbohydrates
and fat. The same changes occur in post-mortem
Zenker's necrosis is essentially a coagulation of
changes and in the putrefaction of meat.
striated muscle proteins causing the affected
In meat inspection it is most often observed
muscles to be swollen, whitish and shiny
in the udder of the cow as a sequel to septic
resembling hyaline cartilage. The causes are
mastitis, while it also occurs in the bovine lung
believed to be bacterial toxins. following septic pneumonia, the faulty
administration of drugs or penetration by a
foreign body from the reticulum. It may also be
Outcome of necrosis seen in the skin, ears and tails of pigs after an
Much depends on the type, extent and location attack of swine erysipelas. If gas-forming
of the necrosis and the general status of the organisms like Cl. perfringens are present the
animal. The prognosis is serious with cerebral tissue may contain gas bubbles, making it
and cardiac lesions where infarcts can cause crepitate or crackle owing to the production of
sudden death. Necrotic tissue may be restored H 2 and CO 2 from the fermentation of sugars
to normal but this is unusual. (gas gangrene). Gas gangrene can spread
The usual sequelae are liquefaction by through the bloodstream and is always
autolysis and drainage of fluid by the blood accompanied by severe systemic disturbance.
and/ or lymph, liquefaction and cavity Secondary or dry gangrene is found in tissues
formation with slow drainage, liquefaction and with a limited blood supply, e.g. due to
432 Meat Hygiene
ischaemia or where the necrosis has developed which can supply blood should occlusion occur
gradually. Diseased areas show coagulative in a distal vessel. They represent single blood
changes and are denatured, shrivelled, supplies and are numerous in the spleen,
discoloured and leather-like owing to protein kidney, brain, lungs and liver, making these
coagulation and sulphide production. organs especially prone to infarction). In the
All types of gangrene are separated from heart the coronary arteries are end-arteries.
adjoining living tissues by a line of demarcation The infarct is produced by the thrombotic or
seen as a reddish or bluish swollen zone of embolic occlusion of either the arterial supply
inflammation. of this artery or its venous drainage, mostly the
former. Other causes include the twisting of
Outcome of gangrene The decomposition of
blood vessels to an organ, producing ischaemia;
proteins combined with the toxic effects of
herniation of a portion of intestine; or the
putrefactive bacteria often result in absorption
entrapment of an organ or portion of organ
into the bloodstream with fatal results.
under a peritoneal adhesion.
Providing resistance is adequate, however, the
The necrotic area is conical with the point of
demarcation zone, and with cellular and
the cone (where the occlusion occurs) directed
humoral defences frequently arrange for an
towards the centre of the organ. Coagulative
extremity, udder or part of an udder, portion of
necrosis normally follows. The size of the infarct
bone, uterine or intestinal mucosa, etc., to drop
varies according to the amount of tissue
off with healing of the separated part.
rendered ischaemic, the degree of ischaemia
Judgement All forms of gangrene must be and the susceptibility of tissue cells. Recent
regarded as very serious manifestations of infarcts are swollen owing to the absorption of
disease. Most will have been detected by water, but later an acute inflammation occurs at
efficient ante-mortem examination. The the periphery. This soon subsides and is
judgement will be partial/ total condemnation replaced by a fibrous scar which reduces the
depending on total pm findings, carcase level of the infarct below the surrounding tissue
condition, etc., with, however, a definite and may distort the organ, e.g. infarcts in pig
tendency to favour the latter because of the kidney. The infarct is sharply demarcated from
possibility of toxaemia being present. the surrounding tissue.
Infarcts may be classified as haemorrhagu:
(red) or anaemic (pale). The former indicate the
Apoptosis
presence of unhaemolysed RBCs or
Whereas necrosis affects fairly large groups of alternatively represent an early stage of
cells, apoptosis is a form of cell death which development. Red infarcts tend to occur in loose
involves single cells or small clusters in the spongy organs such as the lungs and spleen but
normal process of renewal in certain organs, can also be seen rarely in the liver, brain and
e.g. the endometrium of the uterus in the ovary. Pale infarcts are most often found in solid
oestrous cycle and the thymus where T cells are organs like the kidney although very early
gradually depleted. Apoptosis, or programmed stages of these are haemorrhagic.
cell death, can also occur in disease conditions - Coronary thrombosis in man due to
certain virus infections, irradiation, atrophy atheroma of a major artery results in a pale
and tumour formation. The process is activated infarct following coagulative necrosis with
by an endonuclease which causes chromatin eventual fibrosis. Should the embolus causing
condensation, DNA fragmentation, shrinkage the obstruction be septic, the infarct becomes an
of cell volume and eventual cell disintegration abscess.
and phagocytosis by macrophages.
Judgement Partial/total condemnation.

Infarct (L. in + jarcire, to stuff in)

A localised area of necrosis caused by a
reduction or loss of blood supply. The part INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATIONS
involved is usually supplied by a single ' end-
artery'. (End-arteries are blood vessels which A large variety of substances may accumulate
have no collateral or adjacent anastomoses in tissues on a temporary or permanent basis
 Pathology 433
with innocuous or harmful effects. These turkeys. Damaged muscles affected with
infiltrations may assemble in the cell cytoplasm inflammation have a tendency to ossify.
or in the nucleus. In the cytoplasm the
substances settle in the lysoso71les (small
intracellular enzymic bodies involved in cell Pigmentation
metabolism and phagocytosis). The substances Pigments may emanate from outside the body
which accumulate may be either endogenous, i.e. (exogenous pigments) or from within the body
produced within the animal body, or exogenous, (endogenous pigments).
i.e emanating from outside the organism - Exogenous pigments are normally associated
carbon, dusts, carotenoids. with the grazing of livestock in proximity to
Endogenous entities may be produced in certain industries and with urban pollution.
excess or may amass because of defective The most common is carbon or coal dust which
metabolism, e.g. lack of a specific enzyme. In causes pneumoconiosis in coal miners and
some instances the enzyme deficiency is various dusts. Carbon appears as black
brought about by an innate error of metabolism particles in the lung tissue and associated
giving rise to so-called storage diseases (of fats, lymph nodes.
carbohydrates, proteins, glycogen, etc.). Other Carotenoid pigments, derived from carotene A
endogenous substances include the various and B (precursors of vitamin A) and xanthophyll
pigments - melanin, lipofuscin, haematin, fat, are of plant origin. These lipochrome pigments are
urates, calcium, etc. normal constituents of many different body
tissues - adrenal gland, Kupffer cells of the
liver, corpus luteum, testis and the adipose
Calcification tissue of Jersey and Guernsey cattle as well as
the yolk of eggs and butter fat. They are also
Pathological calcification denotes the
found in the so-called subcutaneous xanthomas
deposition in tissues of calcium salts together
of poultry. These are not true tumours but
with small amounts of iron, magnesium and
collections of connective-tissue cells and
other minerals. When it occurs in dead or dying
cholesterol-containing phagocytes.
tissues it is termed dystrophic calcification but in
Endogenous pigments in animals include
normal tissues it is called metastatic calcification
melanin, haematin, haemosiderin, bile
and is associated with hypercalcaemia,
pigments, porphyrin, lipofuscin and Cloisonne
hypervitaminosis D, secondary tumour
kidney pigment.
formation and renal failure.
Dystrophic calcification is an attempt by the
body to repair tissue damage and to enclose Melanin
and immobilise dead cells and other foreign
All healthy pigmented skin contains a
material. It is encountered in caseous,
brownish-black protein colouring substance,
coagulative and liquefactive necrosis, fat
melanin, produced in melanocytes by the
necrosis, infarcts, chronic tuberculous lesions,
oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine. It is
white muscle disease, metazoan parasitic
especially evident on the surface of the bovine
infestations like trichinosis and Cysticercus
palate, tongue and cheeks and in the hair, horns
ienuicollis, certain tumours and granulomas and
and eyes of dark-skinned cattle, black and grey
foci of inspissated pus.
horses and black and red pigs. The deposits are
Metastatic calcification is related to extensive black or brown in colour and usually of
deposition of calcium salts in normal tissues
irregular shape and size, most being about a
owing to high blood or tissue levels.
centimetre in diameter.
Judgement Partial/total condemnation. Abnormal deposits of melanin (melanosis) are
encountered chiefly in the bovine and less
commonly in sheep and pigs. In the ox
melanosis is commonly found in the lungs,
Pathological ossification liver and meninges, where it usually involves
On rare occasions bone may be found in the pia mater, more rarely the dura mater, and
extraosseous tissues, e.g. lungs of cattle, lateral is termed 'black pith'. The pigmentation may
cartilages of horses and leg tendons of old also be found on the pleura, peritoneum, in
434 Meat Hygiene
cartilages and bone and between muscles. The some schistosomes also produce haematin:"
black coloration of the kidneys of adult cattle, locally in the tissues.
especially the Red Danish breed, may be due to
Haemosiderin, an iron-containing pigment and
melanin or lipofuscin, an endogenous pigment
store of iron (the other important iron storage
closely allied to melanin. In calves, the liver and
pool is ferritin), occurs normally in hepatic cell:"
the cortex of the kidney are frequently affected
bone marrow and spleen (in macrophages). It
but this must be distinguished from the
appears in excess as yellowish granules in
blackish coloration of the kidneys of very
severe cases of RBC haemolysis as witl-
young calves due to bile pigments.
haematin, in cases of extensive haemorrhage
In sheep, melanosis is commonest in the liver
and chronic passive congestion.
but some black hepatic pigmentation is due to
Haemosiderosis (iron overload) in man is a
lipofuscin, especially in Australia (Plate I, chronic form of anaemia in which there is
Fig. 4). excessive deposition of iron in the tissues.
In the pig, the condition is most often seen in
Haemosiderin combined with ferritin is
the belly fat or in the udder of females, often
occasionally observed in Angora goats in which
being revealed as radiating lines or patches a brownish or blackish pigmentation in kidneys
distributed along the ducts of the mammary
has the appearance of enamelled jewellery -
glands. Cloisonne kidney.
Melanomas are malignant tumours which
arise from melanin-forming cells (melanocytes).
Judgement Partial or total condemnation Bile pigments
depending on the overall evidence. Melanin in
Biliverdin is a green bile pigment formed from
itself is not harmful but affected organs should
porphyrin by the breakdown of RBCs in the
be condemned. Where the condition is
liver and bone marrow. It is rapidly reduced,
generalised, total condemnation is warranted.
mainly in the spleen, to bilirubin, an orange-
The presence of a melanoma justifies a very
yellow pigment, and then, bound with
detailed examination; in metastatic cases total
albumin, transported to the liver via the
rejection is warranted.
reticulo-endothelial system. Most of the
bilirubin passes from the liver to the gall
Haematogenous pigments bladder and eventually to the small intestine
where it is reduced to meso-bilirubinogen and
Haemoglobin (Hb) is a compound protein in
urobilinogen by bacteria. The latter, in
red blood cells which consists of the iron-con-
association with stercobilin, colours the faeces
taining porphyrin pigment haem combined with
brown.
the protein globin. Oxygenated haemoglobin
(oxyhaemoglobin) is bright red in colour and
occurs in arterial blood, while haemoglobin Icterus
unbound with blood (deoxyhaemoglobin or
Icterus (jaundice, hyperbilirubinaemia) ansmg
reduced haemoglobin) is darker in colour and is
from haemolytic, obstructive hepatic or toxic
seen in venous blood which is less saturated
causes, occurs when the balance between
with oxygen.
bilirubin production and clearance is disturbed.
Certain pigments derived from haemoglobin
Bile pigments, mainly bilirubin, accumulate in
metabolism are encountered in some abnormal
the tissues, which are tinged yellow. The
conditions.
condition is caused by the reabsorption of bile
Haematin is a pigment formed by the oxidation pigment into the circulatory system and
of haem from the ferrous to the ferric state. It displays three main types.
occurs as a dark brown, black or yellow Obstructive jaundice may be due to
granular pigment in the parasitised RBCs and mechanical obstruction to the flow of bile by
reticuloendothelial cells in the spleen, liver, gallstones, parasites - liver flukes (especially
lymph nodes and bone marrow in diseases like Dicrocoelium dendriiicumi, ascarids or
babesiosis and malaria in which there is tapeworms like Thusanosoma actinioides) in the
Widespread destruction of red blood cells. bile ducts, biliary cirrhosis (especially in the pig
Several trematodes, e.g. Fascioloides magna, and but rarely in cattle or sheep), cholangitis
 Pathology 435
(inflammation of the gall bladder) and pressure perhaps owing to masking by erythema of the
from tumours, abscesses or granulomas. In pigs mucous membranes. In cases of doubt,
the most common parasite in temperate regions therefore, it is necessary to resort to tests for
to invade the bile ducts from the intestine is plasma bilirubin.
Ascaris suum. There is marked yellowish coloration of the
Haemolytic jaundice denotes the excessive superficial fatty tissues, the fat deposits within
destruction of red blood cells by infective the visceral cavities and the serous membranes.
organisms, e.g. in babesiosis, Closer inspection may reveal an abnormal
eperythrozoonosis, anaplasmosis, equine colour in connective tissue which varies from
infectious anaemia and leptospirosis in pigs. lemon to orange-yellow or greenish-yellow.
The yellow coloration is less marked in this These changes may also be seen in the kidney
form than in the obstructive and toxic types. cortex, calyces and renal pelvis. Yellow
Toxic jaundice is brought about by the action of pigmentation is often evident in large nerve
toxic substances on liver cells resulting in fatty trunks and in the endothelium of medium-
change, necrosis and the liberation of plasma sized arteries such as the internal and external
bilirubin. Poisonous plants incriminated are iliacs, brachial and femoral arteries, which are
members of the Senecio species (ragwort and coloured even in slightly icteric carcases. Icteric
groundsel) such as S. jacobaea (ragwort, Benweed), coloration may also be seen in the lungs, sclera
S. vulgaris (groundsel), S. burcelli and S. of the eye, tendons and the cartilaginous
cunninghamiiin North America and the latter with extremities of long bones.
S. quadridenia and S. latus in Australia. These In doubtful cases, e.g. the presence of slight
contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are potent icterus in a well-nourished carcase, it should be
hepatic toxins also found in certain Croialaria, detained for 24 hours and then re-examined
Gossypium (cotton plant) and Allium (garlic, since the action of normal muscle enzymes may
onion) species. The mycotoxins associated with remove the yellow colour. If the pigmentation is
some Lupin spp. also cause hepatocyte injury and only slightly evident after the 24-hour
icterus. Some inorganic poisons, especially copper detention, the carcase may be safely released for
and selenium, and organic compounds such as food. This is especially so in mild cases of
phenothiazine can also cause severe jaundice. obstructive jaundice, icterus associated with
Excess copper in the diet of calves in Denmark has fractures, torsion of the spleen. etc.
caused icterus due to toxic hepatitis, cirrhosis and Icterus in the pig associated with hepatic
fatty change resulting in carcase condemnations. cirrhosis may also be accompanied by an
A form of hyperbilirubinaemia which is not abnormal odour and taste; overnight cooling
obstructive, haemolytic or toxic occurs in tends to deepen the yellow colour and the skin
horses on starvation rations or from anorexia then appears freckled. Icteric pig carcases
secondary to other diseases, e.g. colic. Most should therefore be detained for a similar
cases are subclinical but some progress to frank period and then subjected to a bile acids and/ or
disease. boiling test, the latter to detect abnormal odours.
Rotor's syndrome and Gilbert's syndrome are In the absence of these changes the carcase may
forms of familial human hyperbilirubinaemia, be passed as fit.
the former being evident in some natives in the In all animals, a marked degree of icterus
Philipines as well as in Southdown sheep. In present after a 24 h detention of the carcase
these conditions there is an inherent inability warrants total condemnation. This is the
for man and animals to oxidise the situation in haemolytic, toxic and the more
xanthophylls in the food. severe cases of obstructive jaundice. Icteric
carcases should preferably be examined in
daylight since artificial light may distort
Diagnosis and judgement of icterus colours. If, under natural light, carcases show
In many cases diagnosis presents a problem. In any degree of icterus along with
both the live animal and carcases (especially of parenchymatous degeneration of organs (the
cattle and horses), yellow coloration occurs result of bacterial infection) or show an intense
even when serum bile acids /bilirubin levels are yellow or greenish discoloration without
normal. Conversely, hyperbilirubinaemia can evidence of infection, they should be totally
occur where jaundice is not very evident, condemned.
436 Meat Hygiene
Efficient ante-mortem examination combined A rare congenital form (pink tooth, congenital
with reliable veterinary certification should serve to porphyria) occurs in cattle, pigs, cats and man
reduce, even eliminate, cases of icterus at post- in which urine, bones and teeth are discoloured
mortem inspection. pink or reddish-brown owing to excess
Jaundice must be distinguished from the porphyrin along with typical skin lesions on
yellow colour of fat commonly seen in old exposure to sunlight in cattle but not in pigs
bovines and certain dairy breeds like Jerseys and cats. The lesions also occur in the lungs,
and Guernseys in which it is confined to the kidneys, liver and lymph nodes.
adipose tissues as the pigment carotene. This The cattle type (bovine congenital erythropoietic
yellow coloration is also occasionally met with protoporphyria, BCEP) affects herds in which
in pigs and sheep. inbreeding and close line breeding are
practised. First recorded in the USA in 1977,
BCEP has since occurred in Australia, France
Laboratory tests for icterus and the UK mainly in pure-bred Limousin
cattle (Buchanan and Crawshaw, 1995). These
Icterus index (depth of colour of serum
authors recorded symptoms of agitation, head
compared with standard solution) and serum
shaking and ear twitching in a two-year old
bile acids assay are used. Limousin heifer. Scaliness, oozing small scabs
A useful test is to boil 2 g of fat from the
and flaking debris affected the pinnae of the
suspect carcase in 5 ml of a 5% solution of
ears, which were very sensitive to the touch. A
NaOH for 1 min in a boiling tube. Cool under
BCEP gene probe has been developed in the
the tap and carefully add 3-5 ml of ether. Shake
USA for use in the eradication of the disease in
and allow to stand. Layers will separate.
Limousin stock. The protoporphyria genotype
Interpretation Greenish-yellow colour in the is recorded in the North American Limousin
upper layer indicates presence of carotenoid Foundation (NALF) Herd Book. All animals
pigments; if colour is in the lower layer, bile sold at NALF sales and all bulls used for AI
pigments are indicated. must have their genotype recorded.
Various plants contain photosensitising
substances, such as hypericin in Hypericum
perforatum (St John's Wort), fagopyrin in
Porphyrin Fagopyrum esculentum and F. sagittatum
Porphyrins are a group of reddish constituents (Buckwheat), furocoumarin in Ammi majus
of haem, the red iron-containing pigment of (Bishop's weed), Cymopterus spp. (spring
haemoglobin in animals, of green photosyn- parsley, wild carrot, various clovers, alfalfa and
thetic chlorophylls of higher plants, of brassicas), and perloline in Lolium perenne
cytochrome (a red enzyme found in most cells) (perennial ryegrass). Ingestion of these plants in
and of catalase, an enzyme responsible for the active growth can cause primary
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in mam- photosensitisation.
malian tissues. Secondary or hepatogenous photosensitisation
The porphyrias are a group of disorders in occurs when liver cells are damaged, for
which there is excessive production of example, in hepatitis or biliary duct
porphyrins or their precursors in the tissues obstruction. Phylloerythrin, an end-product of
due to enzymic deficiencies in haem chlorophyll metabolism normally excreted in
biosynthesis. Symptoms include skin fragility the bile, is then liberated into the blood stream
and blistering, abdominal pain, paralysis, and accumulates in the tissues to cause
anaemia, reddish-brown teeth and bones and photosensitisation. Plants responsible for
psychic changes with death in acute attacks. hepatoxic damage and secondary
In man and animals (cattle, sheep, horses, photosensitisation include bog asphodel
goats and pigs), the presence of photodynamic (Narthecium ossifragum), Lupin spp. (Lupinus),
porphyrins and other substances in the blood Lantana spp. (Lantanai, and panic grass spp.
(ingested, injected or present as a result of liver (Panicum). Various fungi can be responsible, e.g.
damage) causes them to be hypersensitive to Pithomyces chariarum, which contains
sunlight, resulting in dermatitis and oedema - sporidesmin, is found in perennial ryegrass
photosensitisation. (Lolium perenne) and is the cause of facial eczema
 Pathology 437
in New Zealand sheep (big head or geeldikop in Xanthosis (xanthomatosis, osteohaema-
South Africa). Certain chemicals such as tochromatosis, brown atrophy)
phenothiazine, carbon tetrachloride, and
Xanthosis affects the heart most often but also
corticosteroids may also induce
involves the diaphragm, masseters, tongue,
photosensitisation.
muscles of the forelimb and organs such as the
The lesions of photosensitisation are confined
adrenal gland, liver, kidney, thyroid,
to the white, unpigmented, less hairy and
parathyroids, ovary and testis. The actual cause
woolly areas of the skin which become
of pigment (lipofuscin) deposition is unknown
reddened and oedematous. Commonly affected
and there is doubt as to its significance.
parts are the face and ears, but teats, vulva and
Xanthosis is encountered especially in old
perineum may also be involved. Skin necrosis
animals but is not confined to them, being seen
and gangrene often ensue. General signs of
in otherwise healthy animals. It is being
weakness, fever, anaemia, posterior paralysis
and nervous symptoms with death are not recorded fairly frequently in Ayrshire cattle and
their crosses indicating a possible recessive
uncommon.
gene.
A survey of 1000 adult cattle slaughtered in
Differential diagnosis The condition must be
North London revealed 10 cases out of 40
distinguished from 'bighead' in sheep caused
Ayrshire cattle (25%) and none in 960 of the
by Cl. oedemaiiens (Cl. novyi).
other breeds (Hayward and Baker-Smith,
1978).
Judgement of photosensitisation When bony
Duffell and Edwardson (1978) in a survey of
structures are affected with pigmentation,
3444 cattle slaughtered in a West Midlands
consideration should be given to boning-out
(England) meat plant reported 26 cases among
with release of the unaffected muscular tissue
291 Ayrshires (8.94%). The ages of the Ayrshire
for food. In local affections, the affected part
cows ranged from 5 to 13 years with a mean of
only need be rejected.
9.3 years. Three of the latter were generalised
cases. Twelve (11 Friesian and 1 Devon) out of
3153 cattle of other breeds had xanthosis. All
the animals were healthy and in good
Lipofuscin ('wear and tear pigment', condition. Ante-mortem inspection of 9 suspect
pigment of brown atrophy, lipochrome, animals showed an abnormal pigmentation of
haemofuscin) the skin, the peripheral brown areas of the
Ayrshires being darker than normal while the
A yellowish-brown granular pigment which
white patches had a yellowish tinge. Suspect
accumulates in the cytoplasm of cells,
Friesian cows displayed a brownish tinge on
especially of the heart, liver, adrenal gland and
the black hairs and a yellowish tinge on the
brain and is associated with ageing, apoptosis
white ones. Macroscopic examination of
and chronic wasting diseases. It occurs in
affected carcases confirmed the heart to be
Devon cattle, Nubian goats and Hampshire
affected in all cases and the adrenal cortex to be
Down sheep, being sometimes described as
involved, except in one Friesian. Of the skeletal
ceroid iipoiuscinoeis, which is also seen in man.
muscles, the masseters were most severely
Affected animals show hindlimb ataxia and
pigmented but generally less than the heart, the
blindness, post-mortem findings including
diaphragm being the next in order of importance
cerebral and retinal atrophy, neuronal and
(Bradley and Duffell, 1982).
macrophage granulation and storage of ceroid
lipofuscin in nervous tissue especially the Dubin-johnson syndrome (chronic idiopathic
brain. jaundice) occurs in man, in whom most cases
Lipofuscins are derived from the oxidation are asymptomatic. It has also been described in
of tissue lipids and or lipoproteins. Granules of Corriedale sheep, the deposited pigment
the pigment can be seen in stained sections having properties similar to lipofuscin and
(Sudan Black and Fontana Silver) as clumps melanin. In man there is a high incidence in
near cell nuclei. They are resistant to fat related families, suggesting an autosomal
solvents, acid-fast in reaction and negative to recessive mode of inheritance, which probably
iron stains. also obtains in Corriedale sheep.
438 Meat Hygiene
Yellow fat disease Yellowish or brownish fat energy expenditure due to lack of physical
is sometimes seen in pigs fed on fish diets. The activity, reduced dietary metabolism, endocrine
staining is due to the deposition of ceroid, a abnormalities, or a combination of these factors.
waxy substance similar to lipofuscin. Ceroid is
resistant to fat solvents, is acid-fast and
stainable with fat stains. Causes offatty changes
Ochronosis (alkaptonuria) is a rare hereditary Causes are defects in lipid metabolism such as
disease of cattle, pigs, horses and man in which increased free fatty acid synthesis; decreased
homogentisic acid accumulates in tissues and is fatty acid oxidation; diminished triglyceride
excreted in the urine due to a deficiency of its utilisation and lipoprotein excretion; plant
acid oxidase. alkaloids (Senecio, Lupinus spp.); mineral
Homogentisic acid polymerises to form a poisonings (copper, phosphorus), carbon
brownish-black melanin-like pigment which is tetrachloride; metabolic conditions like
deposited mainly in fibrous tissue (tendon pregnancy toxaemia of cows (fat cow
sheaths, ligaments, cartilage), kidneys, syndrome) and of ewes and ketosis; diabetes
endocrine gland and lungs. (Homogentisic acid mellitus; and drugs like phenothiazine,
is an intermediate product in the breakdown of corticosteroids. Many of the extraneous causes
the amino acids, phenylalanine and tyrosine.) resemble those for necrosis (q.v.).
Microscopically, fat appears in the cytoplasm
Judgement of xanthosis, Dubin-Johnson
of liver epithelial cells as droplets of varying
syndrome, yellow fat disease, ochronosis
size but mostly tiny. The nucleus may be
Partial or total condemnation depending on
displaced but is undamaged. In the kidney, the
extent of pigmentation and general condition of
cells of the proximal convoluted tubules are
carcase.
those mainly involved, while the heart shows
fat droplets in the cardiac muscle cells. Lipids
Fatty change may also be deposited outside cells, e.g. in cases
of haemorrhage following fractures with
This denotes an abnormal accumulation of
laceration of fatty tissue and release of large
neutral fat or lipid within body cells, especially
amounts of fat into the circulation, resulting in
in the liver, heart and kidney. If moderate, there
emboli in capillaries with possible infarction.
may be no adverse effect on cell function, as in
Macroscopically, the liver is yellowish or
normal physiological limits, but if excessive,
yellowish-brown in colour, is larger and heavier
cellular activity may be impaired even to the
than normal and has rounded edges. It is soft in
extent of cell death. Cells can die, however, in
consistency, pits on pressure and is greasy to
the absence of fatty changes. Provided no other
the touch. On section with a knife, the tissue
adverse changes occur, fatty change by itself is
projects beyond the cut surface and possesses a
reversible; for example, the acute fatty liver of
glistening lustre.
pregnancy disappears some weeks after
All animals in prime condition tend to show
parturition. But cell rupture and death can
some fatty liver change, which also
occur.
accompanies advanced pregnancy in all
Obesity denotes the deposition of an
species, especially cows and ewes, and persists
excessive amount of fat, not only in the organs
for some time after parturition.
referred to above but also in the interstitial
Adverse factors such as fractures, severe
connective-tissue cells of fat storage depots. It
wounds and rough, prolonged transport
was once acclaimed in livestock grading circles,
frequently result in fatty liver changes. This
partly because the animals weighed heavier, as
an indication of the superior animal until it was
'stress liver' is also associated with the
deprivation of food during transport or lengthy
realised that fat was very expensive to produce
detention in lairages.
and that an undue intake in man tended to
cause ischaemic heart disease and myocardial Judgement of fatty change Partial/total
infarction as well as cholelithiasis (gall stones), condemnation depending on the overall
hypertension, etc. Obesity is caused by a evidence. Partial condemnation is justified
prolonged excessive intake of nutrients, where the liver alone is affected, e.g. in cases of
especially fats and carbohydrates, reduced 'stress liver', the organ being considered
 Pathology 439
unmarketable. Where generalised changes are Abnormal keratinisation (hyperkeratosis) is
evident, total condemnation is warranted. manifested in keratosis (a horny growth such as
a wart or callus caused by friction), bovine
hyperkeratosis due to poisoning by chlorinated
Glycogen storage disease
naphthalenes, parakeratosis in pigs due to zinc
This condition indicates an excessive deficiency, and inherited parakeratosis (thymic
deposition of glycogen of normal or abnormal hypoplasia, lethal trait A46, oedema disease) in
structure in tissues, mainly the liver, heart, calves, which responds to oral zinc therapy.
skeletal muscle, kidneys, brain as well as RBCs Excessive keratinisation of the ruminal
and leukocytes. papillae sometimes occurs in cattle fed pelleted
It affects Corriedale sheep, Shorthorn and feeds. In this condition the ruminal papillae are
Brahman cattle and man (Pompes disease) as enlarged, leathery and adhere in clumps.
an inherited autosomal recessive disease, the Ichthyosis is a congenital disease of cattle,
defect being in an enzyme involved in glycogen dogs and man in which horny scales are
metabolism. These animals display muscle produced all over the body with desquamation.
weakness, especially of the hindlimbs, and Cutaneous cysts, which are neoplastic
haemolytic anaemia. Hyperglycaemia is malformations of hair follicles, tend to become
evident. Only microscopic lesions are evident, keratinised. They are seen in horses, sheep and
taking the form of vacuolation of cells and goats but rare in cattle and pigs.
accumulation of granular glycogen in the
cytoplasm.
Amyloidosis
Amyloid is the term applied to several inert
Hydropic or vacuolar degeneration fibrillar glycoproteins (immunoglobulin,
This refers to an increase in fluid within cells as microglobulin, prealbumin, peptide,
distinct from oedema where fluid collects in the procalcitonin, insulin, etc.) which can be
intercellular spaces. It is caused by direct injury deposited in tissues to upset organ function.
to the cell membrane, resulting in increased Almost any tissue may be affected, but kidney,
permeability. Water is present in clear vacuoles spleen, liver, heart, gastrointestinal tract and
in the cell cytoplasm making the cells swell. The brain seem to be most commonly affected.
cell injury, which is usually a reversible one, Nodular deposits of amyloidosis can also be
attacks epithelial tissues, skin, liver and kidney. found in the lungs, larynx, bladder, skin and
tongue as well as the lymph nodes and the
suprarenal glands.
Hyalin degeneration Amyloidosis represents a number of
Hyalin is a dense, white, glassy (hyaline), disorders or ~-fibrilloses and is classified
translucent, homogeneous, albuminoid according to the composition of the fibrils
connective tissue found normally in cartilage. (immunoglobulin, microglobulin, prealbumin
Abnormally it is found in old scars, walls of (transthyretin), peptide, procalcitonin,
arterioles (hyaline arteriolosclerosis), corpora proinsulin, etc.). Amyloid is composed of non-
lutea and corpus albicans and other connective branching fibrils or rod-like structures arranged
tissues. In man it occurs in hyaline membrane in a characteristic intertwined fashion -
disease (respiratory distress syndrome) in '~-pleated sheet conformation'. In the rod-like
which excess hyalin is laid down in the aggregates amyloid P-protein (component P)
bronchiolar epithelium in the lungs, resulting in also present except in the CNS. It is synthesised
early infant death due to lack of oxygen. by the liver and circulates in the blood as serum
amyloid P (SAP). Amyloid is laid down within
or close to blood vessel walls and is stainable
Keratinisation dark brown with Lugol's iodine or apple-green
Keratinisation denotes the deposition of keratin, with Congo red or Sirius red stains.
a horny, colourless, translucent protein Clinically, amyloidosis assumes several
constituent of hair, nails, skin, horny tissues forms: primary, with no associated general
(claws, horns, antlers, hooves, etc.) where it is disease; secondary when occurring with other
synthesised by keratinocytes. disorders, e.g. chronic inflammatory diseases
440 Meat Hygiene
like tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, chronic with a knife, fragility and necrosis of the vessel
abscessation, plasma cell tumour, glanders, wall, atherosclerosis, rupture due to an
strangles, peritonitis, chronic parasitic aneurysm, action of toxins, chemicals, tumours,
infestations. Renal amyloidosis is the most parasites and their larvae, ulceration and
common form found in animals. A cutaneous increase in blood pressure.
type occurs in horses, which have numerous, Defective blood clotting mechanisms, e.g.
painless, hard plaques of amyloid on the head, deficiencies in blood clotting factors and platelet
neck, shoulders and nasal passages. The defects (impaired platelet adhesion or
deposit is also sometimes present in horses aggregation, platelet deficiency); and liver
used for the production of hyperimmune disease may cause haemorrhage. Various
serum. bacterial, viral, rickettsial and protozoal
A familial form appears to be most common infections are implicated in different forms of
in man - Mediterranean fever in Shepardic haemorrhage. Vascular disorders, especially of
Jews and amyloid polyneuropathy in the arterial system, are the most common causes
Scandinavia, Japan and Portugal. In addition to of morbidity and mortality in animals and man.
the chronic inflammatory diseases, TB, Haemorrhages which are pin-point in size are
rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease and termed petechiae. These are produced by nutritive
Hodgkin's disease, secondary amyloidosis in disturbance of the capillary wall and are
man also features in Alzheimer's disease and encountered in septicaemia and acute infective
several malignant tumours, notably multiple diseases, especially on serous and mucous
myeloma, renal and thyroid carcinoma and membranes, skin, subcutis, fascia, kidneys,
immunoblastic lymphoma. muscles and lymph nodes. Almost any organ may
be involved - the thymus in calves affected with
Judgement Partial or total condemnation
lead poisoning shows pin-point petechiae.
depending on localised or generalised
Petechiae are unaffected by the bleeding of the
amyloidosis, carcase condition, etc.
carcase at slaughter. Delayed sticking and some
forms of electrical stunning tend to cause petechial
Mucoid degeneration (mucolipidosis) haemorrhages and splashing in muscles.
Larger bruise-like haemorrhages are called
This occurs rarely in tissues containing some
ecchymoses. Extensive haemorrhage occurring
adipose tissue, e.g. heart, omentum, mesentery
over a wide area is an extravasation.
and skeletal muscle, the fat appearing
A haematoma (haematocyst) is a localised
translucent and watery.
tumour-like collection of extravasated blood
(usually clotted) in an organ, tissue or space
Gangliosidosis (Plate 2, Fig. 9).
Gangliosides are a group of glycolipids found
in the CNS. One form, GMl, accumulates in Anaemia
neurons in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia and
retina owing to defective lipid metabolism. It Anaemia is a condition in which there is a
has been recorded rarely in Friesian calves, reduction in the concentration of blood
haemoglobin with usually, but not always, a
which develop posterior ataxia, stiffness,
blindness and eventual prostration. The GM2 decrease in the number of RBCs. It occurs when
form affects pigs and man on occasions. Both the rate of RBC production in the marrow fails to
are caused by specific enzyme defects and are balance the rate of destruction or loss of red cells.
hereditary in origin. Excessive loss of RBCs may be due to
extensive haemorrhage and undue destruction
of RBCs from haemolysis. Haemolysis of red
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND blood cells is mostly due to the destruction of
BLOOD-FORMING ORGANS red cells by macrophages in the spleen, liver
and bone marrow - extravascular haemolysis.
Haemorrhage Intravascular haemolysis in which
haemoglobin escapes from the red cells is
Haemorrhage is the rapid escape of blood from occasioned by damage to the cell membrane by
ruptured blood vessels due to injury, section antibodies, complement, toxic chemicals or
 Pathology 441
physical trauma. Failure of red cell production A dissecting aneurysm is one in which a tear
results from either bone marrow hyperplasia or occurs in the intimal layer, through which
hypoplasia. blood enters to create a cavity within the vessel.
Anaemia often develops secondary to other It is better described as a haematoma.
conditions - chronic haemorrhage due to In the farm animals, aneurysms, although
bloodsucking parasites like hookworms; viral relatively rare, are most common in the horse
and bacterial toxaemias (Cl. perfringens, (aorta, pulmonary artery and cranial
Leptospira, etc.); haemolytic disease of the mesenteric artery in cases of verminous
newborn; deficiencies of iron, cobalt, copper arteritis) and in turkeys.
and certain vitamins (vitamin Bl " folic acid, Among the causes are injuries, vitamin and
pyridoxine, riboflavin): general nutritional trace element deficiencies, parasites (Strongylus
deficiency; chronic diseases such as spp.), fungi, necrosis, arteriosclerosis, infectious
tuberculosis and fascioliasis; action of X-rays emboli, lathyrism poisoning, hereditary factors,
and radioisotopes. aflatoxin poisoning in turkeys.
Heritable hypomyoglobinaemia has been The sequel to an aneurysm is usually
suggested as the possible cause of anaemic beef spontaneous rupture and sudden death due to
carcases. Three out of nine carcases from year-old increased intravascular pressure. Rupture in
Friesian bulls were condemned as 'anaemic'. horses can follow vigorous exercise or the
The animals had been reared intensively and presence of a thrombus undergoing temporary
were the progeny of one bull by AI. Except for resolution.
low vitamin E levels and hyperglycaemia, no
other abnormalities were detected in the
remaining live animals. (Bowie, 1993). Arteritis
The mucous membranes and body tissues Inflammation of arteries has many different
are pallid and the blood is pale and watery. The causes - bacterial (Erysipelothrix rhusiopaihiae,
carcase may be emaciated, e.g. in terminal Salmonella spp., Haemophilus spp.); viral
bovine TB, or in good condition, e.g. following (African horse sickness, equine infectious
massive haemorrhage from the liver in acute anaemia, equine viral arteritis, bovine virus
fascioliasis or rupture of an aortic aneurysm. diarrhoea, malignant catarrhal fever, blue
Hyperplasia of bone marrow shows an increase tongue, Border disease); Rickettsia spp.; fungi;
in the amount of red marrow and a decrease of protozoa; parasites (Stongylus spp., Schistosome
fatty marrow while the opposite situation spp., Onchocerca spp.; hypersensitivity,
obtains in hypoplasia. The main effect of polyarteritis nodosa, serum sickness).
anaemia is a reduced ability of the blood to
carry oxygen, leading to tissue hypoxia, cardiac
Endocarditis (Plate 1, Fig. 5)
enlargement and failure, fatty liver and heart,
with death in severe cases. Myocarditis and pericarditis denote
inflammatory changes of the endocardium,
Judgement of anaemia If associated with
myocardium and pericardium of the heart,
severe general disease and emaciation - total
respectively.
condemnation. In less serious cases
conditional approval provided bacteriological
and chemical examinations are negative. Heat Phlebitis and lymphangitis
treatment in areas where facilities exist. Even
These refer to inflammation of veins and
where carcase condition is good and free from
lymphatics, respectively, while vasculitis is a
other abnormalities, total condemnation may
general term for inflammation of blood vessels.
be indicated because of unmarketability of the
Varicose veins are veins which are dilated,
carcase.
elongated and tortuous.
Aneurysm
Arteriosclerosis
A localised dilatation (usually saccular or
fusiform) of the wall of an artery or, less The term literally means a hardening of the
commonly, a vein caused by stretching with arteries in which degenerative and proliferative
weakening or rupture of one or more layers. changes occur with loss of elasticity and
442 Meat Hygiene
narrowing of lumen. Where the changes are Tissue factor is first of all liberated from the
associated with degenerative fatty changes, the damaged tissue, the process ending with the
term atherosclerosis is used, but the two terms conversion of fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin to
are virtually synonymous. form a thrombus or clot and stem the leakage of
blood.
Thrombi consist mainly of fibrin and
Ischaemia
platelets and appear as greyish-red, dull,
Ischaemia represents a partial or complete laminated and roughened when attached to an
deficiency of blood in a part. It is usually due to artery with flowing blood. Where thrombi
arterial obstruction, venous occlusion being less occur in non-flowing blood, they are dark red in
common. Thrombosis and embolism (q.v.) are colour and gelatinous in consistency. Thrombi
the most common causes of ischaemia but may be large enough to occlude the vessel
atheroma (atherosclerosis - thickening of the partially or completely.
intima of arteries with fibrous tissue formation) Typical thrombi are seen in vegetative
and hyaline arteriosclerosis with the deposition (valvular) endocarditis in pigs due to chronic
of collagen are also implicated, although more swine erysipelas, in cattle caused by Str.
common in man than in animals. pyogenes and in sheep by Str.[aecalis.
Lack of blood supply often leads to necrosis
of the organ or a part of it. In the absence of a
collateral circulation, e.g. with end-arteries, an
Outcome of thrombosis
infarct (q.v.) is formed. If an alternative Spread of the thrombus along the arterial wall;
circulation is available, compensatory arrange- incorporation into the vessel wall; removal by
ments are possible. shrinkage and digestion by plasmin and
macrophage enzymes; ischaemia; infarction;
formation of an aneurysm; detachment to form
Hyperaemia (congestion, vasodilatation)
an embolus mav ensue.
The term refers to an excess of blood in an Depending on the location, type of thrombus
organ or tissue owing either to more blood and degree of vessel occlusion, if complete,
being conveyed to it by the arterial system death of the animal may ensue. If it is
(active hyperaemia) or too little blood being incomplete, reorganisation may occur with
drained away from the area by the venules and recovery. Invasion of the anterior mesenteric
veins (passive or venous congestion). artery in the horse by the larvae of Strongylus
Active hyperaemia is seen in the early stages vulgaris may result in arteritis (artery
of acute inflammation, in muscles during inflammation), formation of an aneurysm or
exercise and in the alimentary tract following colic with recovery when the larvae depart.
feeding. Passive congestion may be due to Ante-mortem thrombi must be distinguished
venous obstruction and cardiac failure, the from post-mortem clots (currant jelly clots) which
inevitable results being chronic pulmonary are dark red in colour, shiny and moulded, but
congestion and generalised oedema. unattached to the vessel intima. The latter are
easily removed except when entangled in heart
valves.
Thrombosis (clotting, coagulation)
In the healthy animal, blood is in a fluid state in
the blood vascular system. When, however, the
lining of a blood vessel is damaged, coagulation Embolism
changes occur in the blood to repair the Embolism is the transport in the bloodstream of
damage, ranging from a plug of platelets in abnormal material (embolus) to a distant part
minor injuries to a thrombus, clot or coagulum in from either the arterial (mainly) or the venous
more severe injury. system.
Under the influence of enzymes, some 13 The detached material is most commonly
coagulation factors (tissue factor, prothrombin, thrombi but it may be fat globules, air or
fibrinogen, calcium, proaccelerin, Christmas nitrogen bubbles, tissue cells, pieces of tumour,
factor, etc.) are involved in the production of a bone marrow, platelet aggregates, fibrin,
solid thrombus or clot at the site of injury. parasites (schistosoma or any other substance
 Pathology 443
gaining entrance to the bloodstream), or even a during life and includes acute and chronic
bullet. forms. In the acute form animals, especially
Septic emboli are those containing pyogenic cattle, sheep and horses, sometimes become
bacteria and arise from the fragmentation of recumbent and unable to rise. Oedema is
vegetations of infective endocarditis or evident, death being due to anoxia, possibly
infective thrombi in veins. In newborn animals, assisted by undue pressure on the heart. The
detachment of emboli from a septic thrombus in lungs may show evidence of hypostatic
the umbilical vein often leads to multiple congestion with the ventral and anterior
abscesses in the liver and other organs. If an aspects of the diaphragmatic lobe affected on
infarct becomes infected with a septic embolus, the side on which the animal is lying. This
it becomes an abscess. lesion can be differentiated from lobar
Metastasis is the transfer of disease (usually pneumonia by the friable nature of the lung
bacterial or neoplastic) from one organ to tissue.
another by the blood or lymph, metasiases being If such recumbent animals are given early
the subsequent growths formed. The organs assistance to rise, recovery is immediate.
most often affected with metastases are those Chronic passive congestion, on the other hand,
with generous blood supply and a fine capillary mostly due to cardiac failure, is associated with
network, i.e. lungs, liver, kidneys and brain. connective-tissue changes. The lungs are
Fat emboli often occur after fractures of long indurated owing to interlobular fibrosis (brown
bones, adipose tissue and fatty liver damage induration of the lung) with deposition of
with the passage of fat globules into the haemosiderin providing the colour. The liver is
circulation. Some of these may lodge in the enlarged, hyperaemic and mottled (nutmeg
lungs with fatal results, while some fine fat liver). The spleen is very enlarged and
emboli may pass through the lungs to impact in indurated and the kidneys are congested.
systemic capillaries, causing multiple petechial
haemorrhages in the skin and various tissues.
Air or gas emboli may originate from Oedema or dropsy
extensive wounds, air being sucked into large In the healthy animal there is osmotic
veins. During routine injections, air may equilibrium between intracellular and
inadvertently be injected into a vein or gain extracellular parts. Disturbances of water and
access during surgery. Small amounts are of no sodium homeostasis (sodium retention),
consequence. In man, air embolism sometimes hydrostatic pressure or decreased plasma
occurs in decompression sickness ('bends/) or pressure, hypoproteinaemia, heart or kidney
Caisson disease in deep sea divers. failure, lymphatic obstruction, etc., lead to the
The eventual site of lodgement of emboli accumulation of fluid in the intercellular spaces
depends on their source, size and type as well and cavities of the body.
as the nature of the blood supply of the organ Oedema fluid, with its low protein content,
involved. Those from the right side of the heart is termed a transudate as opposed to an exudate
and systemic veins are arrested in the of inflammation, which is rich in protein,
pulmonary arteries and branches (venous leukocytes and fibrin.
circulation), while emboli from the left side of When this fluid collects in the peritoneal
the heart end up in the systemic arteries cavity it is called ascites; in the pleural cavity,
(arterial circulation). hydrothorax; in the pericardial sac,
Embolism may result in resolution and hydropericardium; in the brain, hydrocephalus; in
recovery or in decreased blood flow, heart the subcutaneous and connective-tissue spaces,
failure and death. The metastatic, bacterial or anasarca. The term effusion is also used to denote
neoplastic forms are associated with a poor an escape of fluid into a part, e.g. pericardial
prognosis. effusion.
Oedema may be local, as in acute
inflammation, photosensitisation, cerebral and
Hypostasis (hypostatic or passive pulmonary oedema or generalised as in severe
congestion) malnutrition, parasitic gastroenteritis,
Hypostasis is the gravitation of blood to the fascioliasis, 'brisket disease' of cattle, and
lowermost parts of the body. It may occur inflammatory or non-inflammatory in origin.

...
444 Meat Hygiene
In oedema of the brain there is distension of food. However, in anasarca (oedema) involving
the perivascular spaces, often with reduction of the subcutaneous and connective tissues or any
brain size. In pulmonary oedema, fluid form of oedema accompanied by emaciation
accumulates in the lung alveoli. and non-setting, the carcase should be
In cases of malnutrition and starvation condemned. (In healthy cattle the bone marrow
where there is severe protein deficiency, contains not more than 25% of water, but in
oedema is evident in a generalised form - anasarca it holds more than 50%.)
nutritional oedema. Where regional conditions allow for
Oedema may also be produced by an conditional release of carcases, the meat may be
increased permeability of capillary walls as a passed for cooking or on to the Freibank
result of damage by toxins or to an increased system. Where no such provision exists, the
filtrability of the blood. Such changes are inspector's decision will be guided by
evident in allergic conditions like urticaria and correlating the result of the bone marrow water
purpura haemorrhagica and in bacterial content test with a visual assessment of the
diseases like bowel oedema, malignant degree and nature of the oedema, carcase
oedema, anthrax and mulberry heart disease. condition, whether inflammatory or non-
Obstruction to the lymphatic flow from a inflammatory in origin, microbiological test,
part, e.g. by tumours or granulomata, may etc.
result in oedema.
Test for estimation of water content of bone
A peculiar form of oedema ('bull oedema')
marrow This consists in floating pea-sized
occurs in young male cattle in Northern
pieces of fat from a long bone in alcohol of
Rhodesia and other parts of Africa and is
strengths 32%, 47% and 52%. Marrow
characterised by a well-fleshed carcase with
containing less than 25% of water will float in
normal musculature but with yellow gelatinous
each solution of alcohol, in which case the
fat in the kidneys and pelvic cavity.
carcase may be released providing there are no
The 'wet carcase syndrome' of sheep in South
other abnormalities; if the water content of the
Africa described by Brock (1983) is another
marrow is 50% or more, the marrow sinks in
form of generalised oedema of unknown origin.
two or three of the solutions and the carcase is
In this condition non-wool sheep and lambs of
judged unfit for food.
good quality are affected by layers of slimy,
An alternative test is to measure the water
translucent jelly-like, encapsulated fluid mainly
content of meat samples from the carcase.
over the buttocks and flanks, and in more
severe cases, the brisket area. While not
regarded as dangerous food-wise, the condition
has warranted extensive total condemnations.
In oedema the affected area is swollen (often
ABNORMALITIES OF DEVELOPMENT
several centimetres in depth and mostly well
defined), firm, painless and pits on pressure. Anaplasia (Greek, ana, back + plasis,
formation)
Section reveals a pale yellowish fluid or
gelatinous mass from drips which fluid, which Anaplasia is the term applied to the reversion
has a tendency to clot. of cells to a more primitive type and is a
precursor of neoplasia. The occurrence of many
Judgement of oedema Localised, minor different types of cells (pleomorphism) with
forms of oedema and ascites and hydrothorax abnormal constituents is a feature of anaplasia.
are of less serious import than anasarca and
much easier to judge. Oedema combined with
Aplasia (agenesis)
poorness is probably one of the most difficult
decisions to make in meat inspection. Detention Aplasia denotes an absence of an organ, e.g.
of the carcase for 12 hours is indicated in all kidney, or part of an organ, owing to failure of
generalised cases while tests are being development in the embryo. Unilateral renal
undertaken. aplasia, but not bilateral, is consistent with life,
If the serous cavities have dried out well and providing the single kidney has normal
the carcase has set properly with reasonable or function. The causes are generally genetic in
good condition, the carcase may be passed for origin but intrauterine infection, drugs like
 Pathology 445
thalidomide and other teratogens are capable of mJury are liable to develop bone. The exact
causing physical defects in animals. reason for metaplasia is unclear but may be an
attempt at protection.
Dysplasia
Dysplasia is a disorderly, but not neoplastic,
Atrophy
proliferation of cells and tissues and must be Atrophy is a shrinking and reduction in size of
distinguished from dystrophy, which is a a fully developed organ due to a decrease in the
retrogressive change in cells/tissues which size or number of its cells. Cell death is due to
have already reached maturity. It mainly affects necrosis and autolysis. The causes may be
epithelial cells but is seen in dyschondroplasia physiological, e.g. gradual disappearance of the
(osteochondrosis) in poultry, where there is an thymus gland with age, retrogression of uterus
increase in articular cartilage cells. following parturition and of mammary gland
The causes are similar to those of aplasia and after lactation, or pathological, e.g. in
hypoplasia and can include chronic irritation. malnutrition, inadequate blood or nerve supply
to a part, ageing, pressure from a tumour.
Pressure atrophy resulting in a diminished blood
Hyperplasia supply and inadequate nutrition is commonly
Hyperplasia indicates an increase in the overall encountered in meat inspection, e.g. in
number of cells in an organ or tissue and is hydronephrosis of the kidney as a result of back
closely related to hypertrophy, which refers to an pressure of urine. In atrophic rhinitis in pigs
increase in cell size and, consequently, organ (q.v.) there is atrophy of the nasal turbinate
size. Only cells capable of division are involved. bones.
The condition may be physiological, e.g. In some situations, e.g. ageing, atrophy is
enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy (in accompanied by the intracellular deposition of
which hypertrophy also occurs), or the granular pigment lipofuscin in tissues,
pathological, e.g. proliferation of connective- especially the heart, liver and brain - brown
tissue cells in wound healing and in hepatic atrophy (q.v.).
cirrhosis.
Hypertrophy
Hypoplasia Hypertrophy represents an enlargement of
Hypoplasia is the failure of an organ to develop parenchymal cells which have lost their ability
to its normal size because of a decrease in cell to divide (mainly cardiac and skeletal muscle
size or number. It has many of the same causes cells) with a consequent increase in organ size.
as aplasia but differs from atrophy which is the It is allied to hyperplasia (q.v.) which is an
reduction in size of an already fully developed increase in cell numbers but the opposite of
organ. atrophy. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia usually
coexist in the same organ.
Both hypertrophy and hyperplasia have
Metaplasia similar common causes - increased functional
Metaplasia denotes a change of one kind of demand by the organ (compensatory hypertrophy)
adult cells into another type and is occasionally and hormone stimulation. The former
encountered in meat inspection. Examples are condition is met with in the case of paired
the fibrous scar wounds of castrated pigs into organs when one fails to function or is
bone and the ossification of old ventral hernias removed, the remaining organ increasing in
in pigs. Ossification in pigs is also seen in the size to perform the extra work. In human
retroperitoneal fatty tissue and in the kidney donors, the surviving kidney becomes
mesenteric area, especially where the almost twice its natural size. Increased blood
mesentery of the small intestine meets that of flow in arteries causes a dilatation owing to
the caecum and rectum. In the bovine lung, increases in elastic fibres and smooth-muscle
bony spicules are sometimes found in the cells in the vessel walls - a situation which
alveolar septa while muscle, tendons and obtains in the uterine arteries in pregnancy.
cartilage which have been subject to chronic Pathological conditions which throw an extra
446 Meat Hygiene
burden on the heart, e.g. increased blood adjacent tissues. They remain localised
pressure and valvular defects, result in left and (although several may appear in an area) and
right ventricular hypertrophy of the are often spherical in shape with a fibrous
myocardium. capsule. They are thus capable of excision. There
is a tendency for benign tumours to resemble
Judgement of abnormalities of growth the original cells more than malignant tumours.
Malignant tumours (cancers) in contrast grow
Localised cases of these disturbances normally more rapidly by invasion and destruction of the
demand local seizure of the affected organ. tissues they invade. Although the resemblance
Where, however, hypertrophy and hyperlasia to original cells is usual some types differ in cell
are associated with general conditions, regard structure. Pleomorphism (wide variety in cell
must be had to the overall disease picture, morphology and staining) is more common
which may well warrant total condemnation. with malignant tumours which contain more
abnormal products of mitosis (cell division)
such as broken chromosomes, huge, dark
NEOPLASIA staining nucleoli and various protein and
polypeptide products. They have a great
Neoplasia is the process of tumour (neoplasm) tendency to metastasise, reaching distant sites
growth. Oncology is the study of neoplasms. in the body via the bloodstream, lymphatics
A tumour (L. iumere, to swell) or neoplasm is and across tissue spaces.
an abnormal growth of new cells which have Benign and malignant tumours occurring in
become insensitive to normal growth-control endocrine glands may elaborate hormones, e.g.
mechanisms and which (1) usually resemble the insulin in the pancreas and corticosteroids in
cells from which they have derived; (2) the adrenal gland.
proliferate in an unrestrained and disorderly
manner; (3) possess no organised structural
arrangement; (4) persist after cessation of the Causes of tumours
causal stimuli; (5) serve no useful purpose,
especially in malignancy; (6) result from one or Although the exact cause of many neoplasms is
more mutations of the cellular DNA, especially unknown, several specific factors,
malignant forms. (In some cases tumours need environmental and genetic, are involved:
not proliferate progressively and may even 1 Physical carcinogens, e.g. ionising and
regress spontaneously.) ultraviolet radiation, chronic irritation, etc.,
The word 'tumour' means a swelling, which cause DNA damage.
is an indication of the general gross appearance, 2 Chemical carcinogens such as benzene, vinyl
although this is not always the case. For chloride, arsenic, chromium, ~­
example, some malignant carcinomas are naphthylamine, etc., also lead to DNA
relatively small yet capable of causing early damage.
death and some mesotheliomas are flattened in
3 Viruses. Tumour-inducing (oncogenic) viruses
appearance. Much depends on the invasive which cause tumours in animals include the
properties (which vary in degree) and location, DNA viruses of the adenovirus, herpesvirus,
type of tissue involved, type of tumour, etc. papovavirus and poxvirus groups and the
Structure All forms of tumours (benign and RNA retroviruses (see Viral and Poultry
Diseases).
malignant) consist of a parenchyma of
neoplastic cells and a supporting stroma or 4 Hormones. Disordered hormone metabolism
matrix of connective tissue, blood vessels and (pituitary, ovary, thyroid, adrenal gland,
sometimes lymphatics. The parenchyma is parathyroid, pancreas) may produce
neoplasia (adenomas and carcinomas),
responsible for the functioning of the tumour especially in man.
and determines its classification.
S Heredity. Some strains of animals are prone to
develop tumours, being inherited in the germ
Classes of tumours line.
Benign tumours usually grow slowly by 6 Parasites, e.g. Gonglyo11Cma neoplasiicum, can
expansion and by compressing or displacing produce gastric carcinoma in the rat and
 Pathology 447
Cysticercus [ascioiarie (cystic stage of Taenia Benign tumours usually have the suffix -oma
taeniaeformis) sarcoma in rat livers. attached to the cell type from which they
7 Ageing. Tumours occur more commonly in originate, e.g. fibroma from fibrous tissue,
older animals. Some, however, like malignant osteoma from bone, adenoma (Greek, aden,
lymphoma, tend to affect young animals gland) from glandular tissue, chondroma from
more often. Since most food animals are cartilage, leiomyoma from smooth muscle, and
slaughtered at a young age, tumour so on. Polyp is a benign adenoma arising as a
formation is encountered relatively projection from a mucous surface. However, the
infrequently in them. The increased incidence
with age may be a reflection of the longer suffix -oma can be deceptive since lymphomas
period of exposure to carcinogens or to innate and sarcomas are malignant collections of
changes in metabolism or both. lymphocytes and melanomas, mesotheliomas
and seminomas are also malignant. Some
Gene mutation (genetic damage) is the basic gliomas (tumours of CNS astrocytes and
characteristic in all cases of neoplasia and is oligodendrocytes), myelomas (plasma cell
associated with the activity of protooncogenes and collections) and teratomas (tumours containing
oncogenes, theformer non-transforming genes being different cell types found in the ovary and
converted into transforming cellular oncogenes testis) are benign and some malignant.
under special circumstances to initiate the neoplastic Malignant tumours arising from mesenchymal
events. Fundamental to all tumour formation is the tissues (connective tissue, muscle, cartilage,
total lack of response to normal growth controls. bone, blood and blood vessels, lymphoid
tissues, kidneys and gonads) are termed
sarcomas, e.g. fibrosarcoma, chondrosarcoma,
Effect on host adenosarcoma. Those arising from epithelial
Cancers are more life-threatening than benign tissues are called carcinomas. The carcinomas
tumours. The latter can occur in animals can be further differentiated, e.g. squamous cell
without any untoward effects, e.g. papillomata. carcinoma which is a cancer with cells
In both types much depends on their location resembling stratified squamous (scaly or plate-
and proximity to vital structures: obstruction of like) epithelium.
blood vessels, intestine, trachea, oesophagus, Leukaemias are malignancies in which the
bile ducts etc., may result in addition to normal WBCs are replaced by large numbers of
ulceration of natural surfaces with lymphocytes, monocytes or myelocytes.
haemorrhage and secondary infection.
Tumours themselves, being well-vascularised,
can bleed profusely, even to causing anaemia.
Incidence of tumours in food animals
Hormone production can result in excess
insulin from the pancreas with hypoglycaemia In 1982 a total of 1535 suspected tumours from
and overproduction of corticosteroids from the cattle slaughtered in Canada revealed tumours
adrenal gland to cause sodium retention and in 1370 cases (89.3%), 165 being inflammatory
hypertension. lesions. Microscopic examination confirmed
The usual accompaniment of malignant lymphosarcoma (738), neurofibroma (123),
tumours with their metastatic effect is severe squamous cell carcinoma (101), uterine
loss of condition with anaemia, anorexia, carcinoma (53), adrenal tumours (38) and
weakness and prostration. In some cases, hepatic tumours (35). Undiagnosed metastatic
however, e.g. lymphosarcoma (Plate 2, Fig. 7), carcinomas were recorded in 153 animals.
malignancy does not appear to cause undue In Northern Ireland, where regular
loss of weight. examination of bovine tumours found on meat
inspection is carried out, 61 tumours (0.014%)
in 452000 cattle slaughtered in 1995 were found
Nomenclature of neoplasms (Table 16.1) as follows: adenocarcinoma (17),
In general the parenchyma (the essential lymphosarcoma (12), carcinoma (7), squamous
cellular elements) of the neoplasm determines cell carcinoma (4), biliary adenocarcinoma (3),
its behaviour and its name. However, there are phaeochromocytoma (adrenal gland) (3),
serious inconsistencies in the nomenclature of fibrosarcoma (2), osteosarcoma (1),
tumours. haemangiosarcoma (1), papilloma (1). The 12
448 Meat Hygiene
Table 16.1 Origin and character of neoplasms.

Cell or tissue type Benign Malignant

1. Connective tissue
Adipose Lipoma Liposarcoma
Bone Osteoma Osteosarcoma
Cartilage Chondroma Chondrosarcoma
Fibrous (adult) Fibroma Fibrosarcoma
Fibrous (embryonic) Myxoma Myxosarcoma
*Mesothelioma
Histiocytes Histiocytoma Malignant histiocytoma
Mast cells Mast cell tumour Malignant mast cell tumour
Muscle (smooth) Leiomyoma Leiomyosarcoma
Muscle (striped) Rhabdomyoma Rhabdomyosarcoma

2. Endothelium
Blood vessels Haemangioma Haemangioendothelioma
(Haemangiosarcoma)
Lymphatics Lymphangioma Lymphangiomasarcoma

3. Epithelium
Skin Papilloma Carcinoma
Skin Papilloma Transitional cell carcinoma
Glandular Adenoma Adenocarcinoma

4. Haemopoietic and lymphoreticular "Leukaemia, lymphoma

5. Germinal and embryonal Benign teratoma Malignant teratoma

Dysgerminoma
Seminoma

6. Neuroectodermal
Glial cells *Glioma
Melanocytes *Malignant melanoma
Neurons Ganglioneuroma Neuroblastoma
Medulloblastoma
Meninges Meningioma Malignant meningioma
Retinal cells *Retinoblastoma
Schwann cell Neurofibroma Neurofibrosarcoma

7. Placenta *Choriocarcinoma

* All benign and malignant neoplasms do not possess counterparts.

cases of lymphosarcoma were all negative for world. Some tumours were observed by
enzootic bovine leukosis virus. practising veterinary surgeons but others were
In Edinburgh, Head (1990) recorded a large only detected at carcase inspection.
variety of tumours in sheep, mostly old ewes, The anatomical distribution of 891 tumours
over a period of 35 years. The pattern was was as follows (Table 16.2). Papillomas of the
found to be similar to that in several parts of the rumen and adenocarcinomas of the small
 Pathology 449
intestine were the most common tumours of the Judgement of neoplasia
divestioe system. Generalised and localised
Careful examination of the lesions as to shape,
ly~phosarcomas accounted for almost all the size, colour, consistency, location, number,
neoplasms of the lvmphohaemopoietic system, ~he
distribution, etc., along with general carcase
former disease having a worldwide
signs, may give some idea as to ide~tificatiOl:,
distribution in sheep with lesions commonly
whether benign or malignant, to provide a basis
found in lymph nodes, spleen, hea~t, liver,
kidney, intestine, bone marrow,. skin and, for provisional judgement. ...
However, it is difficult visually to distmgu~sh
occasionally, the thymus. In the respiraioru tract,
many tumours, e.g. between fibromas/equme
adenomas represented 96% of the respiratory
sarcoids, fibropapillomas / fibrosarcomas and
tumours, while hepatocellular tumours were
between the latter and myxosarcomas and
the most common liver neoplasms. (Tumours of
undifferentiated carcinomas. Judgement is
cartilage and fibrous tissue are fairly common
usually simpler in poultry, in. which poor
in sheep but bone tumours are rare.
condition is a common accompamment.
Lymphosarcoma has been transmit~ed
An accurate diagnosis can only be made by
experimentally to shee:!? and goa~s usmg
detailed histopathological examination of samples of
enzootic bovine Ieukosis (EBL) VirUS but
suspect lesions, a procedure which should always be
horizontal spread of the BVL virus from cattle
resorted to when suspect neoplasiic lesions are
does not occur.)
encountered.
Bremner (1994) in a survey of poultry plant
Enzootic bovine leukosis is a notifiable disease in
records in England Wales in 1992-93 found t~at
the UK and all suspect cases, including those in
the majority of condemna~ions in ~ll specH;s meat plants, must be notified to the Ministry of
were caused by disease, With leukosistIvurrek s,
Agriculture. ..
disease tumours second in importance to A single or a few localised bemgn tumours
ascites / peritonitis. require condemnation of the affected part or o:gan,
Yogaratnam (1995) in 1992 recorded an
provided there are no ot~er ~dverse Signs.
overall carcase rejection rate of 3% in broilers in
Numerous benign tumours m different organs
a poultry processing plant, with tu~ours
and multiple malignant growths warrant. ~otal
accounting for 0.01% of total disease
condemnation. While poor carcase condition,
conditions. oedema, etc., may exist to assist in th~s
judgement, it should be remembered that this
support is not always present.
Table 16.2 Incidence of tumours in sheep (Head,
1990).

System Number Percentage US FSIS Regulations

of total An individual organ or part of a carcase affecte.d
with a neoplasm shall be condemned. If there is
Alimentary 325 (36.5) evidence of metastasis or that the general
Lymphohaemopoietic 118 (13.2) condition of the animals has been adversely

I Respiratory
Liver
Skeletal
107
102
88
(12.0)
(11.4)
(9.9)
affected by the size, position or nature of the
neoplasm, the entire carcase shall be condemne~.
US regulations allow for total condemnation
in cases where certain conditions are detected
Integument 33 (3.7)
on ante-mortem inspection. Severe epithelioma of
Urinary system 23 (2.6) the eye (squamous cell carcinoma) in cattle,
Cardiovascular 22 (2.5) represents one such condition. Squamous ~ell
Genital 15 (1.7) carcinoma is the main reason for total bovine
Endocrine 13 (1.5) carcase condemnation in the USA. Where
epithelioma of the eye occurs at post-mortem
Nervous 5 (0.6)
inspection, the following decisions are taken:
Miscellaneous 40 (4.5)
(a) Carcases of animals affected with epithelioma
891 of the eye or the orbital region shall be
450 Meat Hygiene
condemned in their entirety if one of the arteriosus (cattle); ventricular septal defects
following three conditions exists: (cattle, sheep, horses).
(1) the affection has involved the osseous
structures of the head with extensive Digestive system Atresia ani (pigs, calves,
infection, suppuration and necrosis; sheep); atresia of small intestine and colon
(calves, sheep); cleft lip and palate (all species);
(2) there is metastasis from the eye or the
orbital region to any lymph node, including teeth irregularities (all species); scrotal and
the parotid lymph node, internal organs, umbilical hernias (pigs and cattle); missing
muscles, skeleton or other structures, diaphragm (calves); double spleen (calves);
regardless of the extent of the primary herniation of liver through diaphragm (calves);
tumour; or rectovaginal constriction (calves).
(3) the affection, regardless of extent, is Nervous system Cerebral, cerebellar and
associated with cachexia or evidence of brain stem defects - agenesis, aplasia,
absorption or secondary changes. hypoplasia and atrophy (all species);
(b) Carcases of animals affected with epithelioma hydrocephalus (calves); progressive ataxia
of the eye or the orbital region to a lesser (calves).
extent than as described in paragraph (a)
may be passed for human food after removal Reproductive system Segmental uterine
and condemnation of the head, including the aplasia (white heifer disease); double cervix
tongue, provided the carcase is otherwise (cattle); imperforate hymen (cattle);
normal. hermaphroditism (all species); freemartinism
(cattle); testicular agenesis and hypoplasia
(cattle); prolapse of prepuce (cattle); penis
CONGENITAL AND HEREDITARY defects (cattle); cryptorchidism - failure of
MALFORMATIONS testes to descend into scrotum (pigs, horses).
Skin Alopecia (cattle); epidermal dysplasia
Malformations, which can affect all body
(baldy calves); photosensitisation (Southdown
systems and all species, are sometimes seen on
sheep); parakeratosis - adema disease (cattle);
meat inspection. They are mainly encountered
hypotrichosis - hairlessness (cattle); ichthyosis
in fetuses but some may be presented as
- fish scale disease (cattle).
casualty animals. Apparently normal animals
and fetuses may show defects.
The system 'most obviously and frequently Judgement of malformations
involved is the musculoskeletal, which
Action will vary from the disposal of dead
occasionally shows various abnormalities of the
fetuses to partial condemnation or release of
limbs, head and body. Legs may be absent,
affected older animals depending on the nature
twisted, deviated, elongated or affected with
and severity of the abnormality.
osteoarthritis, while the head may display
parrot mouth, overshot or absent lower jaw,
inherited dwarfism (snorter dwarfs and Dexter
bulldog calves), etc. Double muscling as a form GENERALISED SYSTEMIC INFECTIONS
of muscular hypertrophy is occasionally met
with in calves and lambs. Stress-susceptible Mode of spread of infection
Pietrain pigs are often affected with muscular
Microorganisms present as droplets in the air,
stiffness (Pietrain creeper pigs).
in dust particles and in food and water may
Musculoskeletal deformities are specially
gain entrance to the animal body by a variety of
common in poultry in the form of crooked toes,
routes - by the mucous membranes of the
an extra limb, rotated tibia, spondylolisthesis
respiratory, alimentary and genital tracts or by
(kinky back), joint deformities, tibial
penetration through the intact skin or via
dyschondroplasia.
wounds and contusions. Some microbes are
Cardiovascular system Aneurysms (horses, able to survive, even multiply, in these mucous
cattle); aortic stenosis (pigs); persistent R. aortic membranes while others are repelled.
arch (cattle, horses); ectopic heart (cattle); Whether microbes will spread further
patent foramen ovale (cattle); patent ductus depends on their invasiveness, ability to adhere
 Pathology 451
to mucosal epithelial cells, toxigenicity, the in man by the strange actions of Streptococcus
resistance of the body's defensive mechanisms pneumoniae and Neisseria meningiiidis, which
and the type of tissue invaded. exist as potential pathogens in the
Microorganisms are specialised in their nasopharynx. On becoming pathogenic under
nutritional demands and are most likely to suitable conditions, the former invades the
establish themselves in the animal body if "they respiratory system while the latter causes
arrive at a site which best satisfies their meningitis.
biological requirements, although it has to be The reasons for the selective invasion of
said that some of the factors that determine tissues by microorganisms and the existence of
microbial colonisation are unknown. predilection sites by them and by metazoan
Staphylococci are very capable of multiplying parasites are largely unknown.
in the skin to produce pustules and abscesses
but unlikely to establish themselves in the
stomach and intestine if swallowed. The Bacteraemia/viraemia (literally, 'bacterial
reverse is true of, for example, Clostridium viruses in the blood')
perfringene. The actual site of infection depends Some types of bacteria, e.g. Listeria
largely on the type of the infective monocytogenes, E. coli, and various protozoa can
microorganism - bacterium or virus - and their be demonstrated in tissue smears from healthy
respective capacities for pathogenicity and animals and are also capable of being cultured
invasiveness. Viruses, because of their minute from the blood. Lesions produced by bacteria in
size, have a greater capacity for rapid spread distant body tissues reach these parts via the
within the animal body. bloodstream. So bacteria can be present in the
Every infection, of whatever nature, is blood but persist as a state of bacteraemia for
initially a local one, and its importance in meat only short periods. Their failure to multiply is
inspection is whether it is acute or chronic, due to the presence of antibody, complement
localised or widespread and febrile or non-febrile. and phagocytes in the blood which effectively
The site of the original infection is of prime deal with them.
importance in determining whether infection Viraemia means the presence of a
will spread or remain localised. While some virus/viruses in the blood. Both bacteraemia
microorganisms are extremely selective in their and viraemia (which by themselves cause no
tissue preference and predilection sites; others such systemic disturbance and are of no consequence
as the streptococci, are less demanding and can in meat inspection) may progress to generalised
produce infection in almost any tissue they infections, i.e. septicaemia/toxaemia with
invade. Pyogenic cocci like Staphylococcus severe clinical symptoms, when body defences
aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes produce local are inadequate.
acute inflammation at the point of entry, while
others such as the spirochaetes spread widely
Septicaemia
through the animal body before the primary
lesion at the site of entry is apparent. An Septicaemia is the very serious condition in
incubation period is thus created, which is the which highly pathogenic microorganisms, e.g.
time that elapses from the entry of the pathogen B. anihracis, pasteurellae, E. coli (invasive
until clinical signs appear. Salmonellae, for strains), iridovirus of African swine fever,
example, after ingestion, penetrate the small pestivirus of classic swine fever, phlebovirus of
intestinal mucosa to reach and multiply in the Rift Valley fever, are rapidly multiplying in the
mesenteric lymph nodes before invading the blood with toxin production and
bloodstream via the thoracic duct. They then overwhelming the defence mechanisms of the
arrive at and multiply in the monocytes of the host. The microorganisms are widely
liver, spleen and bone marrow and after a distributed and cause extensive tissue damage.
second septicaemia produce frank disease with Primary morbid changes may be observed in
fever. the original tissue of entry, e.g. metritis,
On occasion, potential pathogens can exist arthritis, enteritis, gangrene of the udder, skin
side by side in a part of the body and yet, when or tail of pigs.
they assume full pathogenicity, take different The infective microorganisms of animal
paths to affect other tissues. This is exemplified septicaemias are numerous - Gram-positive
452 Meat Hygiene
cocci (Staph. aureus and Strep. pyogenes, the main days the organ becomes smaller and the cut
pyogenic cocci), pasteurellae, salmonellae, surface presents dark red portions alternating
leptospirae, erysipelothrix, Actinomyces with those of a yellow colour. Alternatively,
pyogenes, C. pseudotuberculosis, etc., in addition the liver may be uniformly clay-coloured.
to many viruses and protozoa. It will be noted The heart muscle is unevenly affected with
fatty change, some parts being normal and
that many of the septicaemias are zoonoses, e.g. others greyish-white in colour.
anthrax, salmonellosis, tularaemia. The kidneys are enlarged, pale and soft in
In addition to microorganisms, septicaemia consistency and its capsule is easily stripped
can also be caused by radiation injury and by off.
immune system defects occasioned by heredity, The spleen is usually enlarged and soft in
infections, plant toxins, etc. texture with rounded borders, especially in
Morbid changes in septicaemia in the form of the septicaemias of bovine anthrax (in which
extensive endothelial damage and multiple it is very enlarged), acute swine erysipelas
small haemorrhages with high fever are and Salmonella enteritidis infection in calves. In
chronic bovine salmonellosis a valuable
brought about by the action of toxins, except in
diagnostic lesion is a marked thickening of
the case of viruses where the changes are due to the gall bladder wall.
the products of damaged tissue cells. Damage
to the intima of blood vessels also results in 5 Blood-stained serous exudates may be seen in
the thoracic and abdominal cavities and the
initial clotting and platelet thrombosis but clots rapid disintegration of red blood cells may
and thrombi disappear in the later stages of frequently give rise to blood-staining of the
septicaemia. intima of the large blood vessels.
6 The meat retains a permanent alkalinity and
is soft, dark in colour and at times possesses a
sweetish, repugnant odour associated with
Clinical signs and lesions the presence of acetone. This odour can be
These are essentially those of multiple small accentuated by the use of the boiling test.
haemorrhages and high fever. These changes may not be observed in
animals which have undergone early
1 High fever is always present in the living slaughter.
animal with a temperature up to 41QC or 42°C.
As a result the carcase is very congested and
bleeds badly, and rigor mortis is reduced or
absent. Septicaemic carcases often show signs Diagnosis
of icterus as a lemon-white discoloration, Diagnosis of septicaemia is based on the
especially on the fat and serous membranes.
clinical/post-mortem findings along with the
2 Petechial haemorrhages and ecchymoses are isolation of the causative agent.
generally present on the myocardium, kidney
cortex, liver and serous membranes,
particularly those of the heart, lungs,
omentum and mesentery. They are also Judgement of septicaemia
present as petechiae under the skin, in the Septicaemic carcases are unfit for the food of
conjunctiva and buccal and vulvar mucosae, man for two main reasons: the condition may
being due to endothelial damage or be associated with the entry of food-poisoning
representing minute metastatic bacterial foci.
Embolic foci of infection mav be evident in microorganisms into the systemic circulation,
virtually any organ. 0
making consumption dangerous; the
congestion of the carcase as a result of
3 Lymphadenitis (enlargement and oedema) of
the lymph nodes, which may exhibit discrete hyperthermia, imperfect bleeding and
haemorrhages. In anthrax septicaemia in the alkalinity impairs its keeping quality and along
pig there may be marked peritoneal effusion with its aesthetic quality renders such carcases
and haemorrhagic infiltration around the unmarketable.
mesenteric lymph nodes. In doubtful cases it is wise to detain the
4 The liver, heart and kidneys show evidence of carcase for 24 hours and to estimate the degree
fatty change. In the early stages of septicaemia of congestion and setting at the end of that
the liver is enlarged, its edges are rounded period. The same procedure can be adopted for
and its capsule is tense, but after two or three the less serious cases of mild fever. Fixation or
 Pathology 453
looseness of the forearm and shoulder in cattle Pyaemia may usually be recognised in the
is a useful guide for the degree of setting. live animal by high fever, constitutional
An estimation of the pH value of the meat is disturbance and the presence of an area of local
also of value, while imperfect bleeding may be suppuration. Joints like the fetlock, hock and
demonstrated by the haemoglobin stifle are swollen, hot and painful. In young
pseudoperoxidase or the haemoglobin animals the primary septic focus may be the
extraction tests. Accurate judgement of umbilical vein, while in older animals the
borderline cases, however, can only be made by uterus, udder and feet may be the source. In the
bacteriological examination for the presence of cow pyaemia may take place after parturition,
salmonellae. listeriae or other harmful usually arising from thrombosis of the uterine
organisms. veins secondary to a septic metritis. In pigs
The benefit of the doubt in all suspect cases tail/ ear infections and shoulder wounds
(whether septicaemic, fevered or otherwise) resulting from fighting are common causes of
must be given to the consumer. pyaemia.
As with many other serious conditions, effective Post-mortem findings reveal local suppuration
and responsible ante-mortem inspection should and distant haemorrhagic infarcts, e.g in the
ensure that cases of septicaemia/pyaemia/toxaemia liver, lungs, mediastinum, pleural cavity,
do not reach post-mortem inspection. spleen, kidneys and joints. The area of
infarction rapidly becomes purulent. General
signs associated with fever mayor may not be
present.
Pyaemia (literally, 'pus in the blood')
In a localised septic focus, thrombus formation
may occur owing to endothelial damage to the
Judgement of pyaemia
wall of a vein. Invasion and multiplication of In most countries authority is available for
the thrombus by pyogenic bacteria (see carcases to be split in cases where abscesses are
Septicaemia) can then take place. Should present or suspected.
digestive enzymes cause portions of the septic Acute cases of pyaemia warrant total
thrombus to break off, these will be carried in condemnation.
the blood to create metastatic pyaemic abscesses Care must be taken to distinguish between
in distant tissues by being impacted in the acute condition and a longstanding chronic
arterioles or capillaries. If the impaction occurs affection where abscesses are encapsulated with
in an artery, larger areas of necrosis and pus no evidence of general systemic changes - it is
formation result - septic infarcts. not unknown for some cases of pyaemia to
Pyaemic abscesses in the lungs usually, but recover. In such instances and with negative
not always, result from septic thrombi in the bacteriological/residue results, a more
systemic veins while those in areas supplied by favourable judgement may be given.
the arterial circulation stem from septic
thrombosis in the pulmonary veins.
Abscesses in livestock (see also pp. 499, 500)
Like septicaemia, pyaemia can occur with
organisms of normally low virulence in In many countries abscess formation and
immunocompromised animals. pyaemia have become major problems at post-
Pyaemia may result in cattle if sharp foreign mortem inspection, accounting for considerable
bodies like pieces of wire, nails, etc., penetrate losses of carcase meat in all species of food
the myocardium (traumatic pericarditis) and animals. Where records are available, these
introduce infection into a heart cavity. Infection conditions are the main causes of
of the newborn animal, especially calves by condemnation, at least in pig carcases.
way of the umbilicus, may lead to multiple Abscesses occur with great frequency in the
abscess formation. Pyaemia and ulcerative carcases of meat animals and may be associated
endocarditis are often associated with a with a general condition or exist as isolated
haemorrhagic or purulent osteomyelitis in lesions. Virtually any body organ can be
calves in which the bone marrow becomes affected. Especially where they are large in size,
vellow or chocolate-coloured and later fluid great care must be taken to avoid
and purulent. contamination of the carcase.
454 Meat Hygiene
Cervical or 'jowl' abscess of pigs (streptococcal present in 20 goats. The bacterium most
lymphadenitis) is a common cause of partial frequently isolated was Actinomyces pyogenes,
rejection in many parts of the world, notably in with Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and
the United States where annual losses are said Staphylococci less prominent (Cezon, 1991).
to exceed $8 million. These abscesses, caused by In cattle, pyaemia and abscess formation
Group E streptococci and less commonly are not major reasons for condemnation, being
Corynebacterium pyogenes, E. coli and Pasteurella supplanted by bruising and emaciation.
muliocida, are found in the lymph nodes of the However, hepatic abscesses are not uncommon
head and neck, especially the mandibular in cattle, in which they have various causes -
nodes. They are usually small but can measure rumenitis and bacteraemia from the
up to 8 cm in diameter and can completely consumption of a carbohydrate diet; systemic
destroy the lymph tissue, with a greenish bacteraemia with infection reaching the liver
exudate which may eventually rupture through via the hepatic artery; cholecystitis
the skin. On occasions the abscesses are (inflammation of the gall bladder); foreign
encountered in the tissues surrounding the body reticulitis in cattle and from the
lymph nodes. Such lymph node abscesses may digestive tract in pigs with puncture of the
be responsible for about 7% of all head liver capsule; omphalophlebitis in calves with
condemnations in the USA. infection reaching the liver by the umbilical
Injection abscesses in sheep showed an vein. The occlusion of veins from pressure of
incidence of 1.36% of all sheep slaughtered in liver abscesses can lead to circulatory
England and Wales in 1984. disturbances and sudden death may
In 1988 in the USA pyaemia and abscesses occasionally occur as a result of the release of
were the most common cause of total (13.7%) large amounts of pus from a ruptured abscess
and of partial (20.8%) condemnations of pig into the bloodstream.
carcases. The highest incidence was found in Liver abscesses are more common under
hams, followed by bellies, backs and shoulders. intensive systems of feeding, e.g. barley beef
Of all pigs slaughtered (79 million) in the USA and feedlot systems. The highly concentrated
in 1988, septic lesions were detected in 2%. grain diet has a low pH, which disposes to
Of 354342 pigs slaughtered in Norway in inflammatory changes in the rumen and the
1980 total and partial carcase condemnations passage of the causal organism into the portal
were related to pyaemia, followed by blood system. Such diets are often responsible
pneumonia, polyarthritis and claw and tail for the blackening and clumping of the rumenal
lesions. These four affections, which occurred villi and this and an avitaminosis A may be
most frequently in the younger pigs, were predisposing factors. The incidence of the
found to be closely connected with other hepatic abscesses is reduced when a broad-
conditions such as pericarditis, pleurisy and spectrum antibiotics or more roughage are
peritonitis (Flesja and Ulvesaeter, 1980). introduced into the feed.
In an analysis of condemnation data for In about 85% of cases Sphaerophorus
cattle, pigs and sheep from 1969 to 1975, Evans necrophorus has been isolated, the early lesion
and Pratt (1978) found the commonest causes of being a coagulative necrosis with eventual
whole carcase condemnation in pigs were replacement by purulent material.
pyaemia and septicaemic conditions/fever, and Necrosis of the kidneys and the
of partial condemnation in the same species myocardium, manifested by an abnormal
were abscess, arthritis and bruising. paleness of the organs, may accompany liver
In the USA an investigation into an epizootic abscesses in animals kept under intensive
of abscesses in a commercial goat herd over a conditions.
16-year period revealed 518 external and In addition to the high carbohydrate and low
internal abscesses of which 238 were primary pH diet for cattle, there is no doubt that modern
and 280 secondary in the same or other intensive systems of husbandry in pigs can lead
anatomic areas. Jaw abscesses (141) were the to fighting and septic infections from wounds.
most common, followed by sternal abscesses Careless, unhygienic subcutaneous injection
(72) with an associated osteomyelitis in a few methods also contribute to this huge loss, as
cases. Cervical lymph nodes and facial areas does the reckless use of guns for the oral
were frequently involved. Lung abscesses were administration of anthelmintics. mineral
 Pathology 455
bullets, etc., pharyngeal abscesses being a out from the living organisms; heat-labile;
common sequel. produce a specific effect on certain target
tissues. They can be neutralised by antitoxin.
Endotoxins are produced mainly by Gram-
Judgement of abscesses negative organisms. They are less potent; are
Total condemnation is indicated in cases of released after death of the bacteria; are heat-
multiple septic foci; gross accumulation of pus; stable; and produce a variety of non-specific
active pyaemic foci; chronic Widespread septic effects. Antitoxin neutralisation is difficult but
foci; toxaemia; anaemia and emaciation with capable of stimulating B cells to produce
chronic lesions; Widespread septic or antibodies.
gangrenous wounds. Toxic or septic shock is a condition in which
Gross accumulation of pus is often large amounts of endotoxin, especially from
associated with scrotal abscesses. Scirrhous cord bacteria such as E. coli, Proteus spp. and
or funiculitis a necrotic, purulent, Klebsiella spp. gain access to the bloodstream to
granulomatous affection of the spermatic cord cause vascular damage and tissue oedema,
following open castration (of pigs, cattle, hypotension due to vasodilatation and reduced
horses) is invariably associated with systemic blood volume. The mucous membranes are
changes with toxaemia in the pig, in which it is pale, skin is cold, breathing is rapid, heart rate
usually acute but chronic in horses and cattle. is increased and there is hypothermia (low body
The condition is most often caused by Staph. temperature).
aureus and merits total seizure. Post-mortem changes in toxic shock include
Where abscesses are single, encapsulated, congestion of the lungs, liver and intestine with
few in number and there is no evidence of haemorrhage into the gut lumen. Pulmonary
systemic change, the carcase may be passed and intestinal oedema may be present along
following removal of the lesions, providing with hydropericardium, hydrothorax and
carcase condition is adequate. Where portions hydroperitoneum.
of lung remain adherent to the parietal pleura Causes of non-septic shock include severe
and contain a small, chronic focus of pus, trauma, internal bleeding, lightning stroke,
removal of affected pleura is all that is severe dehydration, extensive burns, uterine
necessary. prolapse, extensive surgery, anaphylaxis,
Borderline cases inevitably occur, for congestive heart failure and frostbite.
example, where there is primarytail necrosis in All cases of septic and non-septic shock are
the pig along with haemorrhagic infarcts in the associated with hypothermia, which is also
lungs. These infarcts appear as red, circular seen in moribund states.
areas with a typical conical-shaped form on
incision of the lung tissue, which may contain a
small abscess. Such cases should be subjected to
Judgement of toxaemia and toxic shock
bacteriological and residue examinations before
a final judgement is made. Judgement is as for septicaemia. Where the
situation is reversible, however, as in
electrocution or lightning stroke, and the signs
Toxaemia and toxic shock less severe, delayed slaughter may be resorted
Toxaemia (literally, 'toxins in the blood') is the to with re-inspection and, if necessary,
inevitable accompaniment of septicaemia laboratory examination. Such cases may justify
where bacteria are actively multiplying in the conditional approval after negative
blood. But it may also occur with some bacteria, bacteriological and chemical tests.
e.g. Cl. tetani, Cl. perfringens, Cl. botulinum that The possibility of anthrax in the live animal
have little tendency to spread from their must be borne in mind and, if suspected, a
original site but produce exotoxins which blood smear must be made. Not all cases of
diffuse into the blood and lymphatic systems to anthrax in the live animal result in sudden
produce severe vascular endothelial and tissue death. Such animals must be segregated and
damage. treated with antibiotics and serum and only
Exotoxins are produced mainly by Gram- slaughtered when a further blood smear is
positive bacteria. They are very potent; diffuse negative.
456 Meat Hygiene
IMPORTANT PATHOLOGICAL neutrophils is an indication of bacterial
CONDITIONS infection, while an eosinophilia denotes
parasitic or allergic reaction.
Hyperthermia (high body temperature) The animal shows anorexia, thirst, sweating,
muscle tremors, increased heart and respiration
Elevation of body temperature unassociated with rates (respiration is usually shallow), reduced
acute infection and pyrexia, can occur in
urine and bile excretion, constipation (or
animals, the main conditions being malignant diarrhoea) and depression. Saliva may be
hyperthermia in pigs (porcine stress syndrome, reduced in amount or increased in quantity, e.g.
PSS)/ high environmental temperature and in foot-and-mouth disease and vesicular
humidity causing heat stroke, dehydration,
stomatitis.
excitement, excessive muscular exercise, close
confinement with inadequate ventilation and
various poisons (strychnine, levamisole) and Lesions in fever
mycotoxins (Claviceps purpurea, etc.). The The carcase of a pyrexic animal is uniformly
condition is more common in young, fat congested, giving the carcase a pinkish or
animals with hairy coats. reddish hue. Closer examination clearly reveals
Elevated temperatures may occur in animals the fine subcutaneous blood vessels, not
in overcrowded railway trucks and lorries normally apparent in the normal carcase. The
especially when the environmental liver, kidneys and heart display fatty
temperature is high. degeneration which varies in degree according
Lesions include congestion of the whole to the severity and duration of the fever. There
respiratory tract including the lungs. The may be marked wasting of muscular and fatty
kidneys, heart, muscles and meninges also
tissues.
show hyperaemia while the skin is cyanosed. Blood vessel congestion in pyrexia is a
manifestation of active hyperaemia
Judgement (vasodilatation) and is accompanied by an
increased alkalinity of the muscular tissues and
Animals affected with hyperthermia must be
a consequent loss" of durability of the carcase.
given adequate rest before slaughter.
Rigor mortis is absent in fevered carcases.
If they are slaughtered in a hyperthermic
state, total condemnation is called for because
of imperfect bleeding - or conditional approval Judgement offever
after heat treatment.
Total condemnation. In some countries where
heat treatment facilities are available,
conditional approval is given after negative
Fever or pyrexia bacteriological and chemical tests.
Acute inflammation, especially of a general
type, is associated with systemic effects known
as the acute phase response, one important aspect
Imperfect bleeding
of which is the phenomenon of fever - an This condition may be associated with febrile
abnormally high body temperature. It is a diseases in which there are severe systemic
response to bacterial, viral, protozoal, parasitic, changes in the parenchymatous organs or with
fungal or chemical pyrogens (agents causing physical causes such as poor sticking methods,
fever) and is mediated by cytokines (soluble lightning stroke, electrocution, suffocation,
messenger proteins controlling macrophages moribund states, conditions promoting stress,
and lymphocytes). It is exhibited initially by females in oestrus, severe indigestion or
peripheral vasoconstriction to prevent heat loss afebrile affections of the heart and lungs.
and later by vasodilatation, increased metabolic In both instances the left ventricle usually
activity in the liver and elevated temperature. contains blood, the subcutaneous blood vessels
The blood shows a marked leukocytosis - are injected, the flesh is dark-coloured and the
increase in the number of white blood cells, organs are congested and oedematous. The
mainly neutrophils - and a lymphocytosis. An high blood content of the viscera is most
increase in the number of circulating apparent in the lungs, while the lymph nodes,
 Pathology 457
especially the prescapular, are suffused with human health, nevertheless it would be
blood but not enlarged. generally regarded as aesthetically repugnant
A useful feature in imperfect bleeding is the besides having a low food value with a high
easily discernible veins. Incision of the masseter water content. The fact that abortion is often
muscle also reveals blood exuding from the cut associated with many bacterial, viral and
surface. protozoal diseases - brucellosis, leptospirosis,
salmonellosis, toxoplasmosis, infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis, mycosis, etc., gives further
Judgement support for the non-utilisation of fetuses as
Where pyrexia and systemic changes are food.
evident, and in advanced cases of afebrile Most countries today stipulate that dead,
hyperaemia, total condemnation is warranted unborn and stillborn animals be condemned, the
since badly bled-carcases rapidly undergo US Meat Inspection Regulation further
decomposition. Less severe afebrile cases may specifying that 'the hide or skin thereof must
justify a more favourable judgement, e.g. where not be removed from the carcase within a room
a sticking procedure has not been fully efficient. in which edible products are handled'.
Casualty animals and carcases from animals An undressed fetal or stillborn calf possesses
slaughtered on the farm and subsequent the following features:
consignment with certification to a meat plant 1 The skin presents a sodden appearance, the
must receive careful veterinary examination since claws are soft and the soles of the hooves are
such cases may represent febrile conditions, convex ('golden slipper').
including those of food-poisoning origin. 2 Remains of the umbilical cord can be seen
attached to the open umbilical ring.
Stress 3 Stomach and intestines are free of coagulated
milk and the lungs are collapsed (atalectasis)
Stress brought about by factors unassociated and sink in water. Although the throat may
with disease is often encountered on ante- have been cut to simulate bleeding, the edges
mortem inspection and can be responsible for of the wound are not infiltrated with blood.
poor carcase bleeding if immediate slaughter is
performed. The dressed carcase will have the hooves
The stressors involved are many and varied detached and the intestines and lungs removed,
and include fear, severe pain, excitement, rough but the points of origin of the umbilical arteries
handling, overcrowding, mixing of different from the internal iliac arteries will be apparent
social groups/ high and low environmental and the ductus arteriosus and urachus will be
temperatures, marked physical effort, strange wide open. The entire carcase has a sodden
noises and surroundings, females in oestrus appearance and the muscles are loose and
and inadequate transport standards. flabby.
Slaughter in these cases must be delayed, Occasionally, a newborn calf which has lived
adequate rest must be provided and ante- for a few days after birth will show some
mortem inspection must be repeated to ensure pulmonary alveoli inflated with air and some
physiological normality. In some cases, collapsed due to blocking of bronchioles with
however, e.g. young bulls, immediate slaughter amniotic fluid and phlegm aspirated at birth.
may be indicated in order to avoid a potential Such findings indicate that the lungs have not
stressful situation, provided the animals are fully functioned after birth.
unstressed on entry.
Irnma turity
Fetuses and immaturity The only food animal likely to be slaughtered
At one time it was not an uncommon practice and presented for sale at a very young age is the
for unscrupulous butchers to include the flesh calf ('bobby calf'), although in the past carcases
of unborn or stillborn calves in minced meat or in of lambs, kids and piglets were occasionally
sausages. encountered.
While it is doubtful whether such meat, In many countries, including Great Britain, it
provided it is disease-free, would be prejudicial to has been customary to seize very young and
458 Meat Hygiene
'immature' carcases, in addition to unborn and human consumption, with distribution
stillborn animals. The reasons for the rejection restricted to limited areas.
of 'immature' carcases are given as follows: A recent study was undertaken in New
1 Consumption of the flesh of newborn animals Zealand (Biss et al., 1993) to assess the scientific
and very young animals, though not validity of minimum slaughter ages as arbitrary
prejudicial to health, is thought to be measures of the 'immaturity' of meat and offals.
repugnant to the majority of consumers. Meat The data was derived from 65 Jersey bobby
is usually regarded as unwholesome until the calves in 1-, 2-, 14- and 21-day groups. (Most
muscle and fat has reached a stage of calves slaughtered in New Zealand for bobby
development which brings it within the veal in New Zealand are Jerseys.)
definition of meat in the generally accepted The findings of these workers were as
meaning of the word. follows.
2 Grounds for seizure may also be based on the
fact that immature veal contains little or no • None of the characteristics commonly
fat, has a high proportion of water (usually ascribed to live calf 'immaturity' were
over 76%) and a high bone ratio. Its value as present in the carcases of calves of 5 or more
food is therefore low. days of age and were inconsistent in the
day-old group.
• None of the features commonly regarded as
Arbitrary age limits, without real scientific indicative of high water content were
foundation, have been applied to define present in any of the groups.
'immaturity' in calves in many countries - 14 • There was a linear relationship between
days (Canada), 15 days (Sweden), 28 days carcase weight and the weights of livers,
(Austria and Italy) - and minimum offal kidneys and hearts.
weights in France. • The use of a minimum liver weight as an
The US Meat and Poultry Inspection indirect measure of 'immaturity' had no
Regulations 1989 stipulate that the carcases of scientific foundation up to 21 days of age.
young calves, pigs, kids, lambs and foals are to • Muscle chemistry: water-holding capacity
be condemned if: '(a) the meat has the did not increase significantly with age and
appearance of being water-soaked, is loose, this quality along with pH was comparable
flabby, tears easily and can be perforated with with that of adult steers.
the fingers; or (b) its color is grayish-red; or (c) • Apart from some colour parameters, the
good muscular development as a whole is quality of the veal remained constant in the
lacking, especially noticeable on the upper age groups despite small changes in muscle
shank of the leg where small amounts of serous chemistry.
infiltrates or small edematous patches are
sometimes present between the muscles; or (d) This work showed conclusively that the age
the tissue which later develops as the fat of slaughtered calves as an arbitrary measure of
capsule of the kidney is edematous, dirty so-called 'immaturity' had no scientific validity
yellow or grayish-red, tough and intermixed and contradicted previous observations, many
with islands of fat'. of which were probably based on visual
Council Directive 91 1497 IEEC describes assessments only.
'immature' animals as those 'slaughtered too
young and the meat of which is oedematous'
and stipulates condemnation.
The GB Fresh Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Judgement of unborn and stillborn animals
Regulations 1995 declare as unfit for human Total condemnation.
consumption any 'stillborn or unborn carcase
and any immature carcase which is oedematous
or in poor physical condition, together with any
offal or blood removed or collected therefrom'. Judgement of 'immature' animals
The Codex Alimentarius Commission Category I (Meat showing minor deviations
(Alinorm 93/16A) recommends that 'fetuses from normal but fit for human consumption,
and underdeveloped neonatal animals' be provided bacteriological and chemical tests are
totally condemned or approved as fit for negative).
 Pathology 459
Estimation of age of very young calves deficiencv in ruminants, nutritional
deficiencies (thiamin in pigs, protein, energy,
An examination of the umbilicus, feet and
copper, phosphorus, salt, iron, zinc,
eruption of the incisor teeth will provide a
manganese, iodine, etc.) thirst, severe pain,
rough idea of the age of very young animals.
stress, and inadequate level of feeding.
The umbilical cord becomes dry and black in
Poor condition in sheep arriving for
4-5 days and becomes detached from the
slaughter is currently being seen in parts of
umbilicus in 8-16 days to leave a sensitive
Britain and is believed to be due to poor
surface which is soon covered bv a scab. In 2-3
autumn and winter grazings.
weeks the umbilicus forms a ~icatrix or scar
Pica or depraved appetite (alloiriophagia)
which disappears at about 4 weeks.
involves the eating, licking or drinking of
The soles of the feet are conical in shape.
foreign materials. The materials consumed on
Deciduous or temporary teeth in the bovine
occasions are hair, wool, wood, faeces, litter (by
(also sheep and goats) have the following
all species including poultry), soil, bark, bones,
dental formula:
cloth, poisons such as lead and foreign bodies
o 0 3 (especially by cattle), cannibalism (fetuses, tails
2 (Oi - Dc Op -) = 20 and ears of pigs, etc.). The drinking of urine
3 1 3 occasionally observed in dairy cattle is a form
of pica but can also be seen in cows deprived of
(0 = deciduous, i = incisors, c = canine, and p =
adequate drinking facilities.
premolars.)
Malnutrition (inanition) is the state in which
There are usually eight incisor teeth present, the diet contains all the essential nutrients but
although the corner (canine) incisors can erupt in reduced amounts - a stage on the way to
at 2-6 days of age. The gum is at first highly complete starvation. It is more common than
reddened and almost covers the incisors but in starvation and is associated with some loss of
7-10 days it retracts and assumes a more body weight, ketosis, reduced metabolic
rounded form; a calf in which the gum tissue respiratory and heart rates, hypothermia and
still shows traces of blue coloration is not more sexual activity. Malnutrition commonly occurs
than 5 davs old. The central incisors and lateral during inclement weather in horses, cattle and
central in'cisors are free and shovel-shaped at sheep, in particular where supplementary
14 days and the corner incisors at 20 days. By feeding is absent.
one month all the incisor teeth have emerged Starvation involves complete cessation of
from the gums, which are then pale pink in food intake (proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
colour. vitamins, minerals and trace elements) and
quickly leads to a great loss of weight with
exhaustion of glycogen stores; breakdown of
muscle protein to amino acids and increase in
Poor condition/emaciation urinary urea; increased fat catabolism with
The difference between leanness and emaciation release of fatty acids and formation of ketones;
is one of degree but both may possess the same and hypoglycaemia and decrease in insulin
basic causes. Thinness may be an expression of production. Starvation does not commonly
physiological normality, but the more serious occur today in developed countries, only being
emaciation is usually associated with other observed in cruelty cases.
signs of disease. In pica, malnutrition and starvation there is
Both conditions may involve aphagia an increased susceptibility to infection with
(decreased food intake) in the form of higher morbidity and mortality rates.
inappetence (reduced appetite), anorexia Emaciation is a wasted condition of the
(complete absence of appetite), pica (depraved animal body that may be pathological,
appetite) or complete starvation. occurring during the course of a disease such as
Decreased food intake (aphagia) has a variety tuberculosis and Johne's disease in cattle,
of different causes; many, however, are parasitic gastroenteritis, chronic fascioliasis and
unknown. They include all the febrile diseases, caseous lymphadenitis in sheep. In old ewes the
stomatitis, pharyngitis, metabolic toxaemia, teeth may be lost and the animal unable to eat.
gastrointestinal parasitism and cobalt Erysipelas, swine fever, paratyphoid in pigs can
460 Meat Hygiene
produce great loss of condition in pigs. It may oedematous. The marrow of long bones is red,
also be the result of prolonged starvation. watery and poor in fat content, the fat in some
The live animal, especially equines and cases being replaced by wet, slimy material
ruminants, shows a great loss of skin turgor and (serous atrophy offat).
an increase in skin extensibility owing to the An emaciated carcase does not set in the
huge loss of subcutaneous fat. The skin teniing normal manner and has a moist appearance on
test (picking up of a fold of skin and noting the its surface and in the body cavities. Changes in
time for the fold to disappear) in an emaciated the consistency of the fat are best seen around
animal usually takes some 45 seconds or more. the base of the heart, in the mediastinum, the
The eyes are sunken in their orbits because of kidney region or between the spinous processes
the reduction of orbital fat, giving the eyes a of the vertebrae.
gaunt, sunken appearance. All the bony
prominences - spinous processes of vertebrae,
hip bones, ischial tubers, stifle, elbow, shoulder
Judgement of poomess/e11laciation
joint, etc. - are conspicuous while the ribs stand Judgement is based on the degree of loss of
out clearly. Weakness is very evident, the heart condition, efficiency of setting, presence of
rate is reduced, the pulse is full and blood concurrent disease, and results of laboratory
pressure is raised. Body weight loss may be as examinations.
great as 50-60%. Recumbency eventually Both conditions, especially where
ensues with death due to circulatory failure. unassociated with concurrent disease, are
The blood chemistry changes follow those among the most difficult to assess on meat
of starvation. There is abnormal regression of inspection. This is particularly the case in
body condition with diminution in size of the regions where conditional approval for
organs, especially the muscles, liver and manufacturing purposes and/ or heat treatment
spleen. The outstanding feature, however, is is not authorised. Regard has to be given to the
the loss of body fat and an alteration in its extent of emaciation, presence/absence of
consistency. The locations that normally carry oedema and concurrent disease.
adipose tissue mesentery, omentum, Tuberculosis with emaciation warrants total
perirenal fat, mediastinum, subcutaneous fat, condemnation.
inter- and intramuscular fat, are shrunken and In borderline cases it is advisable to detain
the remaining fat has an abnormal the carcase for 12 hours. If after this time there
appearance, being oedematous and jelly-like is considerable drying of the body cavities with
in consistency and of a sickly yellowish absence of serous infiltration of muscles
colour. The loss of intermuscular fat gives a combined with negative laboratory tests, the
loose, flabby appearance to the muscles which carcase may receive a more favourable
may be pale in colour if accompanied by judgement.
anaemia. There is also an increase in muscle Emaciation and oedema frequently coexist
connective tissue associated with atrophy of and are suggestive of pathological emaciation.
the actual muscles. In the absence of disease, confirmed by
Chemical analysis of the meat reveals an bacteriological and residue tests, conditional
increase in water content compared with the approval may be given with heat treatment.
normal and a decrease of protein, fat and The Codex Alimentarius Commission
inorganic salts. In extremely emaciated animals, Alinorm 93/16A Recommended Final Judgement
the water content is about 80% and protein for 'General chronic conditions such as
about 19%, giving a ratio of water to protein of anaemia, cachexia, emaciation, loathsome
over 4 to 1. In lean but healthy animals, the appearance, degeneration of organs' is total
percentage of water is rarely above 76.5% and condemnation.
the protein content about 22%, making the Depending upon the extent of the condition
water-protein ratio less than 4 to 1. The ratio also:
between water and protein may be of value in
distinguishing between carcases that are very 1 approved as fit for human consumption, with
thin and those that are emaciated. distribution restricted to limited areas; or
The lymph nodes, especially in young 2 meat showing minor deviations from normal
emaciated animals, are enlarged and but fit for human consumption; or
 Pathology 461
3 conditionally-approved for human cor:- consumption, partial condemnation or
sumption after heat treatment, If conditional approval subject to heat treatment
economically justified. where feasible.
Total condemnation is always warranted if the
condition is caused by chronic infection and Oestrus
laboraioru examination has established presence of
infection: recent use of antimicrobial substances or Females of all species in heat undergo
drug residues. considerable stress in lairages. They should be
isolated and given adequate rest before
slaughter. Heifers in oestrus may have carcases
Advanced pregnancy/recent parturition/ in which imperfect bleeding is evident.
It is sometimes contended that sows and
abortion
gilts in heat tend to produce bacon of poor
Animals, especially bovines, in late pregnancy keeping quality and liable to taint.
should not be consigned for slaughter since it
may involve the loss of a valuable fetus besides
subjecting the dam to unnece~sary stress. . Livestock used for research
The hindquarters of a bovme slaughtered m Large farm animals which have been used in
late pregnancy and those that have recently toxicology evaluation, production and
given birth are usually more m~ist than non~al, maintenance of infectious agents/neoplasms/
the genital tract is hyperaemic and the hver monoclonal antibodies, breeding of harmful
shows some fatty change. mutants, exposure to ionising radiation,
Extra-uterine pregnancy is a rare condition in surgical procedures, etc., under the UKAr:in:als
which the fertilised ovum develops outside the (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 and similar
uterus. Implantation may occur in the fallopian legislation in other countries present
tube which becomes distended and eventually considerable difficulty when presented for
bursts, leaving the mummified fetus embedded slaughter for the food of man.
in the abdominal wall. Provided no other While some, e.g. bovines and sheep with
adverse changes are present, such carcases may rumenal fistulae used for feeding experiments
be released after removal of the fetus. in farm animals, are suitable candidates for
Recent parturition cases in bovines along with meat inspection, others are unacceptable and
those of advanced pregnancy cases are rarely should not be consigned to meat plants.
met with today because of the potential value of Guidance is provided in some countries as to
the calf. the eventual disposal of such research animals.
The United States Meat Inspection
Judgement Regulations stipulate that no livestock used in
any research investigation involving an
Cases of advanced pregnancy and recent experimental biological product, drug or
parturition, especially in cattle, should not be chemical shall be eligible for slaughter at an
sent for slaughter until 10-14 days after official establishment unless the following
parturition or abortion. requirements are met:
If encountered in the meat plant, late
pregnancy cases should be withheld from 1 The operator of the establishment, the
slaughter until parturition occurs. Cases of sponsor of the in~estigati0r: or .the
investigator or the Vetermary Services UTIlt of
abortion must be treated with due care and full
Food Safety and Inspection Servic~ has
laboratory examinations performed. The po~sibility submitted data or a summary evaluation of
of brucellosis, listeriosis, toxopla~mosls and the data which demonstrates that the use of
campulobacteriosis in cases of abortion :nust be such biological product, drug or chemical will
considered and fetuses, placentae and dischargee not result in the products of such livestock
hygienicallyhandledand disposed of being adulterated and a Program employee
Poor condition with evidence of general has approved such slaughter.
disease and positive bacteriological and residue 2 Written approval by the Deputy
results justify total condemnation. Otherwise Administrator FSIS is given to the Area
judgement involves approval as fit for human Supervisor prior to the time of slaughter.
462 Meat Hygiene
3 All investigational drugs, experimental genetic defects, fungi, neoplasms, nutritional
economic poisons, food additives and deficiencies, physical defects (injuries, contact
pesticide chemicals administered to animals dermatitis, bites, etc.), parasites, poisons/toxins
must comply with all and viruses.
preparation/ distribution standards and with
all tolerance limitations under relevant Bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and
legislation. Streptococcus spp. (infectious pyoderma),
4 The Inspector in charge may deny or Dermatophilus congolensis (lumpy wool),
withdraw the approval for slaughter of any Dermatophilus pedis (strawberry foot rot),
livestock when he deems it necessary to Actinomyces pyogenes (hygromas on knees and
assure that all products prepared at the hocks) and Actinobacillus spp. (hygromas and
official establishment are free from granulomas), Mycoplasma kansassii ('skin
adulteration. tuberculosis').
Fungi Ringworm.
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF Genetic defects Epitheliogenesis imperjecia
LESIONS (absence/ deformity of skin of ears, muzzle,
mouth, tongue, palate, oesophagus, lower
(Cross-reference should be made to Chapters limbs, claws, atresia ani) in Aberdeen-Angus,
15-18,20 and 21 and to the Index.) Ayrshire, Holstein, Jersey, Shorthorn calves;
In general the judgement of a suspect carcase is ichthyosis (fish scale disease and keratinisation)
favourable if the condition is localised, carcase in Holstein, Norwegian Red Poll and Brown
condition is satisfactory and laboratory tests are Swiss calves; hypotrichosis (partial or complete
negative. If, however, the affected area absence of hair in calves and lambs; epidermal
represents part of a general acute condition with dysplasia (baldy calves - alopecia and scaly,
evidence of systemic disturbance, total thickened, folded skin); parakeratosis (Adema
condemnation is justified. disease) - exanthema, loss of hair, scaliness
round mouth, eyes, jaw, legs; dermatosis
vegetans (thickened, oedematous skin of
SKIN coronets, bellies, inner thighs of piglets;
inherited photosensitisation.
Skin is the largest organ in the body, Neoplasms Cutaneous lymphosarcoma;
constituting up to 11% of the total body weight fibroma; squamous cell carcinoma.
and forming the first line of defence against
disease and injury. It plays a significant role in Nutritional deficiencies These range from
homeostasis and its condition is influenced by marginal deficiencies of vitamins (especially A
both internal and external factors and is thus a and C) and of trace elements (copper, zinc,
reflection of the animal's general health. The selenium) to inadequate intake of all nutrients
presence of jaundice provides direct diagnostic and starvation.
evidence of specific disease, while many
Parasites Chorioptic, demodectic, psoroptic
diseases, especially debilitating conditions,
and sarcoptic mange mites; lice, keds; blow flies
result in skin deterioration with loss of bloom,
(Lucilia sericata, Phorma terra-novae); warble flies
scaliness, reduction of sebaceous and sweat
(H. boois, H. lineaium, H. diana); ticks (Ixodes
secretions and of flexibility.
ricinus, Dermacentor spp., Haemaphysalis spp.,
Examination of the skin should determine
Boophilus spp., Rhipicephalus spp., Hyalomma
whether the skin alone is affected with disease
spp., Amblyomma spp., Ornithodorus spp.);
or whether the observed lesions are part of a
screw worms (Callitroga spp., Chrysomyia spp.)
general condition. Many skin diseases per se can
(see Chapter 18).
lead to severe pruritus and great loss of body
weight. Physical causes Injuries, cuts, abrasions, lack
The causes of skin disease are many and varied of bedding, dirty, dungy conditions, chronic
and may be primary (local), secondary as a diarrhoea causing scald, eczematous dermatitis
manifestation of systemic disease or a in cow with pendulous udders, transit
combination of both. They include bacteria, erythema, photosensitisation, urticaria (may
 Pathology 463

also be toxic and viral), lzypotriclzosis cystica meat inspection affected areas may be
('shottyeruption'). trimmed off, but severe extravasations of
blood into the subcutaneous fat may require
Poisons/toxins Excess selenium, molvbde-
extensive removal of all discoloured adipose
num, arsenic, iodine, ergot, silage additives
tissue. Very severe cases may show
causing pyrexia-pruritus-haemorrhagic (PPH)
lymphadenitis and fever sufficient to justify
syndrome, snake bites. (Certain biting flies are
total condemnation.
capable of injecting toxins.)
Viruses Bovine viral papillomatosis, cow pox,
Diagnosis of skin diseases
swine pox, sheep pox, pseudo-cow pox, bovine
herpesvirus, foot-and-mouth disease, swine A skin scraping is necessary to diagnose the
vesicular disease, mucosal disease, malignant various forms of mange. It is treated with 10%
catarrh. NaOH or KOH and examined under a low
power (x40) microscope in a drop of mineral oil.
Primary skin lesions (directly associated with The larger parasites (lice, keds, ticks, etc.) can
skin diseases) include abscesses, bites, wounds, be examined by direct microscopy.
cuts, abrasions, bullae, cysts, haematomas, For bacterial culture, swabs are taken to
macules (flattened nodules of colour change, make smears and culture on blood agar.
usually less than 1 cm in size), nodules, papules, The diagnosis of ringworm is achieved by
plaques (circumscribed, elevated, firm, flat- special culture (dermatophyte test medium) of
topped areas generally over 1 cm in diameter), hair and scale scrapings for one week or more,
pustules, tumours, wheals (localised areas of the dermatophyte colonies appearing white to
oedema) and vesicles. off-white in the medium, which is changed in
Secondary skin lesions (associated with colour from yellow to red. Wood's lamp may be
systemic disease): Alopecia, crust (scab), used to detect the green fluorescence of hairs
erosion, excoriation, fissure, keratosis infected with ringworm spores.
(overgrowth of horny epithelium), loss or A skin biopsy fixed in 10% buffered formalin
excess of pigment, ulcer (circumscribed erosion is necessary for the differential diagnosis of
of superficial layers of dermis with depression suspect tumours (Jackson, 1993).
of eroded area below surrounding tissue), scale,
scar.
Judgement of skin lesions
Hypothrichosis cystica ('shotty eruption') in
pigs consists of numerous hard, circular Judgement is based on all the evidence
papules in which curled-up bristles are found. obtained at ante-mortem and post-mortem
It is not an infection but a disturbance of growth inspection along with a detailed history. It is
of the hair follicle, the hair being retained in the important to distinguish between local skin
hair follicle which is dilated by a dark diseases and lesions representing systemic
sebaceous gland liquid and desquamated disease and to note whether pain or pruritus is
epithelial cells. present. Providing carcase condition is
satisfactory, cases of skin disease per se may
Equine sarcoid is the most common cutaneous justify approval or at most local condemnation,
tumour in horses. Caused by a but cases of systemic disease showing
papillomaviruslretrovirus, it appears as septicaemia, fever, jaundice, etc. warrant total
nodules or warts of varying size on any part of condemnation.
the body but most often on the lower limbs,
lips, eyelids, base of ears, prepuce and
perineum. Diseases of the subcutis
Transit erythema usually affects pigs on long Oedema may occur as an inflammatory oedema
journeys and those transported in winter after - anthrax in horses and pigs, oedema caused by
removal from a heated sty. Red patches Clostridia spp., and bites and stings. A non-
appear on the skin of the belly and hams in inflammatory condition - anasarca - in which
contact with the floor and are attributed to the oedema fluid is Widespread throughout the
irritant effects of disinfectant and urine. At subcutaneous tissues occurs as a sequel to

..
464 Meat Hygiene
hypoproteinaemia due to intestinal parasitism, Genetic Teeth - malocclusion, defect.'
starvation, congestive heart failure, etc. enamel formation, brownish staining .:
Myxoedema is a subcutaneous oedema mainly of porphyrinuria, supernumerary (cattle); c~c=
the neck along with thickening of the skin palate, Dexter bulldog calves, parrot mouth ::-.
occurring as a sequel to congenital horses, over- and underdevelopment o:
hypothyroidism in pigs. Angioedema is a mandible, absence of mandible, snorter dwarfs
subcutaneous oedema, mainly of cattle and (calves).
horses, due to the ingestion of plant allergens.
Lymphangitis is an inflammation of the Fungal Ringworm lesions. Bovine
lymphatic vessels. It occurs in horses in rhinosporidiosis. Mucormycosis.
strangles, glanders, epizootic lymphangitis, Neoplastic Cutaneous lymphosarcoma,
sporadic lymphangitis and ulcerative squamous cell carcinoma (epithelioma of eye),
lymphangitis caused by C. pseudotuberculosis, in papilloma, fibroma, odontoma, osteoma,
cattle in skin farcy (Nocardia [arcinicai, 'skin TB' osteosarcoma, histiocvtoma, mast cell tumours,
(Myco. kansaesiis and granulomatous angiomatosis (cattle), congenital
lymphangitis due to Pasteurella granulomatis. neurofibromatosis (cattle).
Haemorrhage in the subcutaneous tissues may
be present as an extravasation or a haematoma Nutritional Periodontal disease in sheep
due to trauma or as petechiae, ecchymoses, etc. (broken mouth, premature wear of teeth).
due to injuries or general conditions such as Oesophagogastric erosion and ulcers in pigs
purpura haemorrhagica in horses, bracken and has been found to be due to the use of very fine
dicoumarol poisoning in cattle, inherited commercial diet (ground through a 3 mm or
haemophilia and haemangiosarcoma. 6 mm screen) (Elbers et al., 1995). (Xanthosis is
Abscesses caused by C. pseudotuberculosis, C. occasionally seen in the bovine tongue.)
equi and C. pyogenes, Staph. aureus and Parasitic C. bonis cysts (masseter muscles,
Streptococcus spp. are encountered in all species, tongue, heart, oesophagus, diaphragm), eye
arising from local skin penetration or as worms (Thelazia spp.), cutaneous
metastases from general conditions. habronemiasis (Habronema spp., Draschia spp.),
Cysts (dermoid, sebaceous, apocrine) may be larvae causing granuloma in skin, conjunctiva),
found in the skin and subcutis. bites of face flies (Musca autumnalisi, head flies
(Hydrotaea irritans) and horn flies (Haematobia
irritans) in cattle, horse flies (Tabanidae spp.,
Hybomitra spp.), stable flies (Stomoxys calciirans.
ALIMENTARY SYSTEM Warble fly larvae (Hypoderma bonis, H. lineaium,
H. diana), Sarcosporidia (oesophagus).
Head/buccal cavity/pharynx!larynx! Nematodes of the genus Congulonema are
oesophagus sometimes found in the oesophageal mucosa of
Bacterial!protozoal!protozoal, fungal, genetic, sheep and cattle as small, spiral, filiform worms
neoplastic, nutritional, parasitic, physical, lying parallel to the long axis of the
poisonous and viral! chlamydial causes of oesophagus. In pigs Gongylonema pulchrum,
disease are evident as they are in virtually all 13-38 mm in length, is found in the mucosa of
body regions. the tongue, pharynx and oesophagus in the
(This classification of causes will befollowed for southern USA, where all pig tongues used in
all body systems.) meat products or shipped from the
establishment as 'pig tongues' must be scalded
Bacterial, etc. Lesions of actinobacillosis,
and have the mucosa removed.
actinomycosis, oral necrobacillosis (F.
necrophorus), infectious pyoderma (Staph. Physical Cuts, wounds, abrasions due to
aureus I streptococci), big head in rams foreign bodies (pieces of wire, nails, etc.),
(Cl. oedematienslnovyi), infectious kerato- drenching or balling guns, probang, stomach
conjunctivitis (Moraxella bovis), haemorrhagic tube, etc., spines and awns of plants causing
septicaemia (Pasteurella spp.), tuberculosis, traumatic pharyngitis and oesophagitis
atrophic rhinitis (Past. multocida). Anthrax. (lymphoid hyperplasia, erosions and
Strangles. diph theresis).
 Pathology 465
Choking w it h pa rt ial or co m p lete cryptococc i, Isospora s pp., Hyostrongylus sp p-
ob struction an d p haryngea l/oesophagea l Oesophagostom/llll sp p., Strongyloides spp ..
injury and ebscessatlon . ma y occur in cattle fed Toxocara oitulorum, Chabertia ooina.
on potatoes, turn ips or sugar beet.
Ph ysical In ges tion of sand, so il, fo reign
Po isons/ toxin s Ac u te infl amm ation and ma terial.
ulcers p rod uced by irr ita nt chemicals such as
acids, alkalis, mercurv, etc. and alkaloids of Poi son s/t oxins Arsenic, copper, n it rat es,
plan ts. Fluoros is causes erosion of teet h enamel molvbdcn um, fluo rine, sod ium ch loride,
wi th yellowish, brownish or blackish mo uling po isonous pl an ts, drugs,
of teeth, Swea ting sickness (tick toxicosis) Viru ses/rick ete tts iae Mucosa l d isease, bo vine
causing moist derma titis at the base of ears malignant ca ta rrh, rinderpest, winter
from epttheltotroplc toxin produced from the dvsenterv, TGE, rotavirus, co ro na virus,
salivary gland of the tic k Hyalolllma trzmcntlllll. rickettsia-e (ehrl ichiosis), bluetongue, classic
Vira Uchlamyd ial Lesions of foot-and-mouth swine feve r, African swine feve r;
disease (u lcers), swine vesicular d ise ase Physical abnormalities en countered in the
(vesicles), co n tagious pustula r dermatitis s tomachs and intestine comprise
(' or£'), vesicula r s tomatitis, papular stomatitis, diaphragmatic herni a, L & R displacement of
bovine viral diarrhoea, bovine papillomatosis, the abomasum, impaction o f abomasu m,
mycotic stomatitis, mucosa l disease, rinderpest, in tu ss uscep tion, obstr uction, cnterolt ths,
bovine malignant ca tarrh, in fectio us bovine torsion, volvulus (in testine and mesentery) and
rhinotracheitis, bluetongue, sheep pox, rupture.
u lcera tin dermatosis (s hee p), vesicular Cattle, in particula r, are notorious for
exanthema (p igs), encephalitis, Aujeszky's ingesting foreign bodies - pieces o f w ire, nails.
disease, rabies, botulism. umbrella ribs , cloth, rope, p ieces of rubbe r,
plastic, coins (which presumably have been
present in fee d) and even scissors, are
Rumenlreticu lumlomasu mlab omasum and constantly being recovered (Fig. 16.1), The
intesti nes smalle r pointed bodies are found mainl y in the
ventral sac of the ru me n. so me times in the
Bacterial d iseases are numerous and usuallv
reticu lum, and occas iona lly in a tract through
ca use en teritis or inflammation of the in testimll
the d iaphragm to the hea rt (t ra u matic
m ucosa with d ia rrhoea a nd so metimes
d ysentery - signs that are accompanimen ts of
m any sys tem ic d iseases - actinob acill osis,
anth rax , cam py lobac te rtosis, sa lmo nellosis,
Johne's di sease, cohbaclllosis , sw ine d ysentery,
en tcr toxaemia, gia rd iasis,
Protozoa: Eimeria s pp .
Non-dia rrhoeic d isease: gu t oe dem a.
Fllllga! causes incl u de Candida albicans,
Absidia sp p., Aspergillus jlllJ1igatus, Hisf0l'll1sl11l1,
Phycomycetes. Penicillium i'll /m Ull, Mucor sp p.
Mycotic infections must be su spected in cases
of hacmorrhagic inflamm ation and thicken ing

_,,- ----
of the wa ll of the forest omachs and int estine.
Neopl asm s Lymp hosarcoma.
N utri tio na l defici encies Copper, cobalt, iron,
........ .•..-. ....
molybd enu m, ina dequate int ak e of nutrien ts,
unsu itable d iets. Fig. 16,1 Foreign bodies recovered from bovine
stomachs at Belfast Meat Plant. Included are
Paras itesParasitic gastroenteritis he lminths , enteroliths, dressing scissors, nails. a needle,
coccidia, cryptosporidia , St rollgyh/$ spp., washers, a metal car tag. and Egyptian and
Tnchonema spp" Ascaris s pp., Trichuris sp p" Nigerian coins.
466 Meat Hygiene
reticulopericarditis). Incidences of 70% of dairy pathognomic of infection with S. enteritidis or S.
cows in Denmark, 52% of cattle over 18 months tuphimurium, Less acute cases of salmonellosis
of age in Czechoslovakia and 49% of cattle in may show only a mild enteritis with few, if any,
Germany have been recorded. Poulson (1976) general signs, making such cases easily
estimated that the overall annual loss of cattle overlooked.
and condemnations of meat in Denmark due to
Regional ileitis (porcine intestinal
traumatic reticulopericarditis was in excess of
adenomatosis) of pigs is due to Heiicobacter
DKr21 million. Both the rumen and reticulum
spuiorum var. mucosalis in which there is
may be inflamed owing to trauma, frequently
thickening of the mucous and muscular coats of
resulting in peritonitis and adhesion of these
the ileum. The same organism is responsible for
organs to the posterior aspect of the diaphragm
haemorrhagic bowel syndrome in pigs and often
with often a large pyogenic tract between the
associated with the feeding of whey. This is
stomach, liver and diaphragm.
characterised by extensive haemorrhage into
Inflammatory changes of varying degrees may the lumen and may include the entire large
affect all regions of the alimentary tract - intestine. Haemorrhage into the intestine in
enteritis, gastritis, rumenitis, reticulitis, pigs may also be caused by shock, stress of
abomasitis etc. Gastritis and ulcers involving various forms, anticoagulants, chemicals and
mainly the non-glandular mucosa of the mycotoxins.
stomach are very common in the pig. Round or
Terminal ileitis in lambs associated with
oval, sharply defined ulcers are often found in
Eimeria crandalis and E. ouinoidalis and
the abomasum and rumen of cattle.
Campulobacter coli exhibits a gross thickening of
Multiple haemorrhages in the stomach and the terminal ileum with corrugation of the
intestine of cattle, sheep and pigs are usually mucosa and vascular proliferation on the
associated with the act of stunning and often serosal surface. The terminal mesenteric lymph
co-exist with muscle splashing. They also occur node is enlarged (Green et al., 1992).
in swine fever.
Hairballs (trichobezoars) and round masses of
Abomasal ulcer disease regularly occurs in hair and vegetable fibre produced by animals
calves and adult cattle. A survey of 304 licking themselves are common in the small
commercially-reared veal calves at slaughter colon of all animals, especially horses.
revealed ulceration in 264 (86.8%). Loose- Enterolitlzs (jaecaliths) are smooth, rounded,
housed calves with access to straw and fed milk lamellated intestinal calculi composed mainly
substitute ad libitum were most often affected of ammonium magnesium phosphate and
but growth rates were apparently not adversely mainly found in the large intestine of horses.
affected. Most of the ulcers were located in the Both hairballs and faecaliths may be
distal pylorus. The consumption of large responsible for intestinal obstruction.
amounts of milk substitute and straw was Rectal prolapse and stricture and atresia of the
incriminated (Welchman and Baust, 1987). colon, large intestine and anus are congenital
Acute enteritis in salmonellosis in cattle shows
deformities occurring mainly in pigs and calves.
bloody diarrhoea with high fever, septicaemia
and marked constitutional disturbance. The
fluid faeces are foul-smelling, intermixed with Liver
blood, fibrin and mucous. Post-mortem Affections of the liver in the food animals are
examination reveals intense congestion of the usually secondary to systemic disease or spread
small intestine, occasionally the abomasum, from an adjoining organ. Primary diseases of
with petechiae on the mucosae which may the liver are relatively uncommon except as a
show diphtheresis. The mesenteric lymph result of certain poisonings and fatty
nodes are enlarged, oedematous and degeneration as a result of fat cow syndrome.
haemorrhagic and there may be enlargement of The liver's vital role in intermediary
the spleen and effusion of blood beneath the metabolism, synthesis of albumin and
visceral and parietal pleurae. In more chronic fibrinogen, production of enzymes,
cases necrotic foci may be seen in the liver and detoxification of waste products, production
kidneys (miliary organ necrosis) and are and excretion of bile and storage of glycogen,
 Pathology 467
proteins, vitamins and minerals as well as its appear as small brownish or yellowish
portal venous circulation (from the swellings or larger lobate or pedunculated
gastrointestinal tract and spleen) and arterial masses.
blood flow make it an important organ for
Nutritional Deficiencies of cobalt, selenium,
careful examination in meat inspection. It is the
vitamin E, methionine and cystine have been
first organ to undergo fatty degeneration in
cited as causes of nutritional hepatitis. Hepatic
infectious disease and the last to regain
lipidosis secondary to ketosis.
normality should the animal survive, making it
a valuable guide in determining toxic changes, Parasitic Fascioliasis, ascariasis, hydatid
e.g. fatty degeneration. cysts, C. tenuicollis, C. bovis (rare), C. cellulosae,
Hepatic disorders stem from compromised Linguatula larvae, Schistosoma spp., Stephanurus
cellular dysfunction, fatty changes, necrosis, dentatus, Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati, Eimeria
atrophy, intrahepatic or extrahepatic cholestasis siiedae, Histomonas meleagridis.
(partial or complete reduction of bile flow), Hydatid cysts are fairly common in the liver
fibrosis, cirrhosis, reduced blood flow, of sheep and cattle and less commonly in the
congenital lesions, neoplasms and reduced pig and horse. They must not be confused with
reticuloendothelial function. cystic hyperplasia of the larger bile ducts and
gall bladder wall which are sessile or polypoid
in shape, contain mucin and may be the result
Causes of liver disease of chronic inflammation.
Bacterial diseases Actinobacillosis, bacterial Physical Pressure necrosis from tumours.
necrosis (F. necrophorum), BWD, campylobacte- Cholelithiasis (gall stones).
riosis, clostridiosis (Black disease - Cl. novyi),
Toxic/poisonous Inorganic poisons
colibacillosis, hepatic abscesses (F. necrophorum,
arsenicals, copper, phosphorus, selenium, zinc;
C. pyogenes), bacillary haemoglobinuria (Cl.
Organic poisons - carbon tetrachloride, dioxin,
haemolyticum, Cl. novyi), listeriosis, nocardiosis,
hexachlorethane, aflatoxins, blue-green algae
Haemophilus infection, Pasteurella infection, sal-
(Microcystis aeruginosa); plants and shrubs -
monellosis, tuberculosis, Tyzzer's disease (B.
ragwort, crotalaria, lupins, Alsike clover, ngaio
pilifonnis), yersiniosis.
tree, Yellow wood, Tribulus, Pithomyces
Inherited Hepatic insufficiency in chartarum.
Southdown and Corriedale sheep; congenital
Viral/chlamydial Equine viral arteritis,
bile duct cysts; multiple small serous cysts are
equine infectious anaemia, equine influenza,
sometimes found on the diaphragmatic surface
equine viral rhinopneumonitis, equine
in calves, lambs and foals; inherited
herpesvirus, bovine malignant catarrh, Rift
photosensitisation; congenital porphyria;
Valley fever, Wesselsbron disease (flavivirus
Dubin-Iohnson syndrome (chronic idiopathic
spread by mosquitoes and causing abortion and
jaundice).
perinatal mortality in sheep with enlarged
Fungal Periconia spp., Pithomyces chariarum, orange-coloured, friable, patchily congested
Phomopsis spp., Fusarium spp. As for diseases of liver).
the stomach and intestines. Histoplasmosis.
Telangiectasis (cavernous haemangioma,
Neoplastic Hepatic tumours are the most 'plum pudding liver') is very common in old
common of the visceral tumours in the food cows. Affected livers present circumscribed,
animals. Except for lymphosarcomas, primary bluish-black areas, irregular in shape and
tumours are more common than secondary varying in size from pinpoint to several
ones. Lymphosarcomas, arising as metastatic centimetres scattered throughout the liver
lesions from other areas, are probably the most parenchyma. The lesions consist of dilated
common tumours in cattle. Adenomas, sinusoids filled with blood and lined with
carcinomas, adenosarcomas and epithelium. They are depressed beneath the
haemangiomas also occur in bovines and surrounding liver tissue and, on section, appear
melanomas are sometimes encountered in as cavities with a network of residual stroma.
cattle, sheep and pigs, although more Livers containing a few lesions may be seen in
commonly in the skin. Adenomas (hepatomas) heifers and bullocks. The condition is not
468 Meat Hygiene
uncommon in the horse and has been observed Rupture of the liver occurs as as result of
in sheep and poultry. trauma, neoplasms, cysts and acute fascioliasis
The aetiology is obscure but a feeding factor (q.v.). Torsion of lobes, especially the left lateral, is
combined with Fusarium necrophorus has been sometimes seen in sows and may result in
suggested. Another theory is that the lesions strangulation, haemorrhage, atrophy or
represent a cell-mediated immune reaction. The necrosis and death. Displacement (acquired or
condition is more likely to be a benign vascular congenital) of the liver may be caudal or
tumour or a hamartoma - a local malformation anterior through the diaphragm into the thorax.
in which cells normal to the affected part are
present in abnormal numbers. The condition
Gall bladder
occurs in man on the skin (naevus or birthmark,
'port wine stains') lips, tongue, liver, pancreas Cholecystitis (inflammation of the gall bladder)
and brain. Slightly affected livers may be and cholangitis (inflammation of the bile ducts)
passed for food after trimming but severely may be part of a general disease or local
affected ones must be condemned. infections. The main infection is salmonellosis,
The changes associated with fatty liver (q.v.) which causes fibrinous cholecystitis (thickening
are due to the mobilisation of lipids from of the gall bladder wall) in cattle, especially
extrahepatic sources and from increased calves. Local infections are usually due to E. coli
synthesis of lipids in the liver itself. There is and streptococci of enteric origin: (gall bladder
also a significant increase in the activity of liver empyema). In cholangiohepatitis the liver is
enzymes (malic enzyme, dehydrogenases - enlarged, normal or abnormal in shape due to
malic, glucose-6-phosphate and isocitric) which hyperplasia, with a smooth or granular capsule
generate NADP (nicotinamide-adenine which may bear fibrinous villi. The onset of
dinucleotide phosphate). While increases in the icterus gives the liver a yellowish, pigmented
enzymes glutamic dehydrogenase and sorbitol colour. In long-standing cases chronic fibrosis
dehydrogenase serve as markers for replaces the liver parenchyma and produces
generalised liver damage, these NADP- huge enlargement of the organ, which becomes
generating enzymes appear to be specific for grey and gristly. Alternatively, the fibrosis may
fatty liver change and may serve as a test for the occur as wedge-shaped infarcts.
condition (Bogin et al., 1988). Cholelithiasis (choleliths, biliary calculi,
gallstones) are fairly common in cattle, less so
White liver disease in sheep, in which the liver
in sheep and pigs. (If this organ were examined
is enlarged, pale in colour and shows fatty
more frequently the incidence would
change with ceroid/lipofuscin deposition, is
undoubtedly rise.) They occur as tiny grains or
believed to be associated with a cobalt/vitamin
large single stones and are usually yellow or
B12 deficiency. Ceroid is an acid-fast lipopigment
dark brown in colour depending on their
found in the liver, muscle and nervous system.
composition (mixtures of cholesterol, salts of
Hyperplasia of the liver is usually associated bile acids, calcium salts and a protein matrix).
with proliferation of the bile ducts and is Gall stones have been recorded in poultry.
normally caused by the action of parasites, Although equidae have no gall bladders, gall
especially Fasciola and toxins (phomopsin, stones may be found in the common bile duct.
pyrrolizidine alkaloids and aflatoxin). Acute Adult ascarids, abscesses and, occasionally,
hepatitis, tumour formation, fatty changes, tumours may cause biliary obstruction.
abscesses and cirrhosis also bring about Gall bladder tumours are rare as primary
enlargement of the liver. It also occurs in equine entities and are usually secondary to adenomas
serum hepatitis in horses passively and actively and adenocarcinomasoriginating elsewhere.
immunised against various diseases, e.g
anthrax, tetanus, Cl. perjringene and in ovine
white liver disease, a form of hepatic lipidosis Pancreas
in which the pigment ceroid is deposited. Acute pancreatitis (inflammation of the
Atrophy of the liver as a result of starvation, poor pancreas) with abscess formation occurs on rare
dentition, etc. leads to hypoplasia and a small, occasions and probably represents an extension
dark liver with wrinkled capsule due to of infection from a peritonitis. The pancreas is
reduction in size of hepatocytes. slightly swollen and oedematous. Chronic
 Pathology 469
interstitial pancreatitis is more common in the haemoperitoneum as can veterinary extirpation
food animals and is usually due to the of a corpus luteum and the ingestion of antico-
introduction of infection by parasites such as agulant rodenticides and sweet clover hay.
Strongylus equinus, Stepluinurus deniatus, Ascites or hydroperitoneum is the
Dicrocoelium dendriiicum, Opistorchis sinensis accumulation of excess fluid in the peritoneal
and Euruirema pancreaiicum (small, red flukes) cavity. This is usually a transudate and is clear
making the pancreas increased or decreased in or straw-coloured and due to obstruction of
size. efferent lymphatics or increased production of
Nodular hyperplasia of the pancreas may be peritoneal fluid, biliary cirrhosis, congestive
mistaken for tumour formation. heart failure or generalised oedema, etc. But the
Fat necrosis (lipomatosis) appears as chalky excess fluid may represent an exudate of serous
deposits with hyperaemic zones around the peritonitis following urinary obstruction or
pancreas, in the mesentery and omentum and bladder rupture.
sometimes in the subperitoneal fat and the Bacteria involved include Actinomyces
ventral mediastinum. The pancreas may be pyogenes, Actinobacillus lignieresi, E. coli,
enlarged and oedematous overall or the Mycoplasma spp., Myco. tuberculosis and
oedema limited to certain areas. Yellowish or Clostridia spp. in ruminants; Act. pyogenes, E.
haemorrhagic adhesions may occur with the coli, Haemophilus euis, Str. suis type 2 in pigs.
omentum and the visceral surface of the liver. Bovine TB is an example of a peritonitis
Calcareous concretions in the pancreas of the ox occurring secondary to TB pleurisy and
and pig represent final stages of fat necrosis and appears as numbers of shiny, grey nodules
may progress to complete destruction of the ('pearl disease') similar to those on the pleurae
organ. but less nodular and more diffuse. The
Calculi in the form of tiny, hard, whitish congenital form of TB peritonitis in the calf is
stones (carbonates and phosphates of calcium associated with tuberculosis of the hepatic
and magnesium) are sometimes found in the lymph node and may be either lymphatic or
pancreatic ducts. haematogenous in origin. TB peritonitis may
Tumour formation is uncommon and consists spread to the uterus and vice versa.
mainly of adenomas and adenocarcinomas. Traumatic reiiculoperiionitis (hardware
disease) is caused by a penetration of the
reticulum by sharp foreign bodies, probably
Peritoneum and retroperitoneum aided by the increased abdominal pressure of
Peritonitis may be primary or secondary, the pregnancy and parturition. The tissue damage
latter being more common and associated with may remain as an acute localised peritonitis,
an extension of infection from a lacerated, but the foreign body may slowly advance
ruptured or ulcerated abdominal organ forwards through the diaphragm to set up
(stomach, reticulum, rumen, intestine) or traumatic pericarditis, creating a septic
urogenital organ (bladder, uterus, vagina) or fibrinous tract in the process.
through skin perforations and surgical Parasitic diseases of the peritoneum are
procedures. In some cases infection may arise usually the result of larval migration and
as an extension from an intact diseased organ, include C. ienuicollis, Fasciola hepaiica,
e.g. rumenitis in cattle. Difficult calving, non- Gasterophilus spp., Habronema spp., Stephanurus
sterile surgery and injections into the dentaius, Strongylus edeniaius, S. equinus, S.
peritoneum are also incriminated. vulgaris and Setaria spp. (all of which are found
Ingesta in the peritoneal cavity in cattle and as adult worms in the peritoneal cavity and the
horses indicates a ruptured stomach (possibly larvae as microfilariae in the bloodstream -
due to a perforated ulcer) or intestine and the horses (5. equina), ruminants (5. digitaia, S. ceroi,
presence of urine to a ruptured bladder. The S. labiaio-papillosa, S. tundrea).
presence of blood in the peritoneal cavity Immature Fasciola larvae (O.317-3mm in size)
(haemoperitoneum) usually arises from a rup- may occasionally be found under the parietal
tured liver, spleen or kidney because of trauma, peritoneum. Hydatid cysts (Echinococcus
acute fascioliasis in sheep and certain to X'- granulosus) may develop on the peritoneum
aemias. Laceration of the uterus and rupture of following rupture of a mature cyst from the
a uterine artery at parturition can result in liver.
470 Meat Hygiene
Peritonitis E, e.g. fish meal), steatitis is seen in pigs and
May be acute or chronic, purulent or non- horses, but not ruminants, the yellowish colour
purulent, haemorrhagic, granulomatous and being due to the deposited pigment.
local or widespread. Acute cases may result in Mesenteric emphysema is occasionally met
toxaemia and rapid death, e.g. in the clostridial with in the pig, sheep and poultry. It is
diseases, while septicaemia is the frequent characterised by single or multiple clusters of
sequel in pyogenic infection. thin, colourless cysts, sometimes blood-filled,
In acute peritonitis there is a straw-coloured resembling a bunch of grapes. The condition is
inflammatory exudate with fibrinous deposits usually seen at the junction of the ileum or
in the peritoneal cavity with feeble adhesions. jejunum and the mesentery and in severe cases
Early organisation of the acute state results in may involve the mesenteric lymph nodes. The
fibrinolysis, collagen deposition and healing clusters are lymphatic vessels dilated by gas
with some scar formation. from sugar fermentation by coliform
Chronic peritonitis cases, however, show a yel- organisms. Small serous cysts (q.v.) are
lowish cheese-like covering of the abdominal occasionally found attached to the peritoneum
organs and a foul smell. These may develop to and liver capsule.
fat necrosis in the omentum and mesenterv Neoplasms of the peritoneum and retroperi-
with marked hydroperitoneum. Long-standing toneum include the primary mesothelioma arising
cases exhibit connective granulation tissue with from the serosa and appearing as numerous,
firm adhesions between structures in close appo- firm, sessile or pedunculated nodules varying
sition. Chronic localised peritonitis is often seen in size from 1 to 10 cm or greater in diameter in
in sheep in the form of adhesion of the liver to cattle, sheep and pigs. Some forms may be
the posterior surface of the diaphragm due to fibrous in nature. Other primary tumours are
extensive chronic fascioliasis and perforation of the benign lipomas (which arise in the mesen-
gastric ulcers in equidae by the larvae of tery, mainly of horses, and may be very large
Gasterophilus spp. In the bovine adhesions may with necrotic centres) and the very rare myxo-
be seen between the reticulum and the mas, fibromas, neurofibromas and ganglioneuromas
diaphragm as a result of trauma or a hepatic occurring mostly in cattle. Secondary tumours
abscess. Widespread lesions of actinobacillosis include carcinomas (often a cause of ascites in
and tuberculosis are occasionally observed on cattle) and melanomas which occur most often in
the bovine peritoneum. horses.
An increase in the number of cows exhibiting
peritoneal adhesions following caesarian
section has been observed in recent years. This Judgement of peritonitis
would appear to reflect an increase in dystokia Except for tumour involvement (which itself
cases occasioned by the use of large continental may be generalised), peritonitis must be
breeds, especially Belgian Blue, as sires and the regarded as bacterial in origin. If localised in
development of the practice of embryo transfer. form, rejection of affected parts may suffice, but
Peritonitis may also follow the research if extensive and combined with systemic
operations of rumen and duodenal fistulae. changes, total condemnation is indicated.
Areas of fat necrosis are sometimes present in
the omental, mesenteric, retroperitoneal and
kidney fat of sheep and cattle in very good RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
condition and, less commonly, in pigs and
horses. It appears in the form of small whitish Injurious agents in the form of bacteria, viruses
or yellowish dry, solid, gritty nodules or large and parasites reach the respiratory system by
solid masses enclosed in fibrous tissue, the both airborne and haematogenous routes, while
latter being the case in cattle, especially Jerseys. noxious substances (gases, particulates) in the
Steatitis ('yellow fat disease', nutritional air are inhaled.
panniculitis) is an inflammation of
subcutaneous adipose tissue with the
deposition of ceroid-lipofuscin pigment. Of Nasal passages and paranasal sinuses
nutritional origin (feeding of diets high in Various bacteria, viruses, allergens, dust and
unsaturated fatty acids and/or low in vitamin other irritants are responsible for rhinitis
 Pathology 471
(inflammation of the nasal passages) which the skin, may be found in the anterior nares
may be localised or part of a specific disease causing granulomas in horses. Larvae of the
and serous, catarrhal, haernorrhagic, fibrinous, nematode Syngamus nasicola cause rhinitis in the
purulent, ulcerative, necrotic, granulomatous nasal passage of ruminants in tropical countries
and sometimes gangrenous in type. and the microfilaria of Elaeophora schneideri in
Both rhinitis and sinusitis are often present the USA. S. trachea is found in poultry (qv).
in specific bacterial diseases such as atrophic
Congenital defects of the nasal passages and
rhinitis (Pasteurella multocida) of pigs and, less
sinuses may be part of a more extensive
commonly, goats; C. pyogenes infection in sheep;
deformitv of the whole skull but can be limited
tuberculosis, especially in cattle; strangles in
to the cl~ft palate or deformities of the nasal
horses (Str. equi, Sir. equisimilis, Sir.
and turbinate bones. A familial allergic rhinitis
zooepidemicus); glanders in horses (Pseudomonas
in cattle has been reported.
mallei) and melioidosis or pseudoglanders
(Pseudomonas pseudomallei) of sheep, goats and Nutritional deficiencies Nasal amyloidosis
pigs and necrotic rhinitis (F. necrophorumi of in which firm, chronic deposits of amyloid are
young pigs. Melioidosis primarily affects laid down in the nasal passages and sinuses as
rodents but can cause abscessation in a wide part of a generalised condition usually
variety of tissues - upper respiratory tract, associated with a chronic purulent body
lung, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, joints, process.
placenta and eNS in other species. In goats the
Neoplasms Most tumours are secondary, the
disease is similar to caseous lymphadenitis (c.
most important being the malignant carcinomas
pseudotuberculosis), and in horses the
(squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma,
microabscesses in the nasal mucosa resemble
transitional carcinoma), neuroblastoma and the
those of glanders.
benign adenoma and papilloma.
Necrotic rhinitis of pigs appears as a necrotic
cellulitis of the nose, mouth and face which Viral diseases may be localised in the nasal and
spreads to the nasal passages causing erosive paranasal regions but the more serious
ulcerative lesions with nasal discharge. conditions are generally associated with the
whole respiratory system - bovine malignant
Fungal diseases Granulomatous rhinitis
catarrh, rinderpest, mucosal disease, sheep pox,
(Aspergillus [umigatus, Cryptococcus neojormans,
contagious ecthyma (orf), equine virus rhino-
Penicillium spp.) and Conidiobolus spp.;
pneumonitis, Aujeszkys disease, infectious
rhinosporidiosis (Rhinosporidium seeberi) and
bovine rhinotracheitis, bluetongue, equine viral
epizootic lymphangitis (Histoplasma arteritis, inclusion body rhinitis, swine
farciminosum). Rhinosporidiosisis is a disease of influenza, classic swine fever, African swine
cattle and horses in which large polyps are
fever, equine influenza, bovine herpesvirus,
formed in the nasal passages.
porcine respiratory coronavirus, calf
Parasitic diseases The larvae of Oestrus ovis pneumonia (parainfluenza 3 virus, reovirus,
(sheep nasal fly) after two moults attach syncitial virus).
themselves to the nasal mucosa and that of the
sinuses causing catarrhal inflammation, head
Larynx/trachea/bronchi/bronchioles
shaking and sneezing. Erosion of bone and
meningitis (rarely) may occur. Linguatula serrata Laryngitis, tracheitis, bronchitis and bronchiolitis
(tongue worm) is found in the nasal passages are involved in much the same disease
and paranasal sinuses of the horse, sheep, goat processes, apart from parasitisms, as rhinitis
and rabbit causing a mucoid inflammation and and sinusitis as participants in upper or lower
sneezing. Larvae may also be found in the bacterial and viral respiratory disease.
mesenteric lymph nodes. Larvae of the Inflammation of all three organs may assume
nematode Schistosoma nasalis develop in the the same inflammatory changes as those
veins of the nasal passages and cause dilatation affecting the nasal passages and paranasal
and thrombosis of the veins with catarrhal sinuses. There may be evidence of ulcers or
rhinitis, fibrosis, granulomas and small healed ulcers on the laryngeal cartilages and in
abscesses in all the food animals. Larvae of the the trachea. Necrobacillosis can occur as part of
nematode Habronema, after burrowing through the oral form.
472 Meat Hygiene
A useful diagnostic sign in acute classic interstitial pneumonia. This classification is
swine fever is fine petechiation of the laryngeal arbitrary, often making differentiation difficult.
mucosa which may progress to ulceration in
Causes Bacteria, mineral dusts, irritant gases.
later stages. Deposits of a diphtheritic nature are
fungi (Candida albicans, Mucor), parasites (see
encountered in calf diphtheria and in
verminous pneumonia), viruses, allergens,
laryngotracheitis in pigs.
plant toxins and the aspiration of fluids
Fungal and neoplastic diseases are relatively following vomiting, passage of stomach tube
rare (see nasal passages and sinuses). into trachea, dipping operations; rupture of
Congenital malformations are included with pharyngeal abscess, paralysis or obstruction of
those of the lungs. the oesophagus, etc.; penetration by foreign
Flat or pedunculated lesions of body from outside the chest or from the
actinobacillosis may be seen in the larynx of the reticulum. Ingesta may be accidentally inhaled
ox. Laryngeal abecessction may occur due to under stressful conditions.
trauma or to congenital cavitation of the In cattle and sheep, ingesta are often
arytenoid cartilage. Laryngeal oedema may be regurgitated from the rumen during slaughter
traumatic or inflammatory in origin or and may be inhaled, especially during Jewish
associated with pneumonia in cattle, gut and Halal slaughter and if pressure is applied
oedema in pigs or purpura haemorrhagica in to the flank to facilitate bleeding. Where
horses. rodding is not practised, the main bronchi
should be incised if contamination is suspected.
Parasitic diseases (see under Pneumonia)
The trachea may be severed when the neck
vessels are cut, ~especially during religious
Exposure of the tracheal mucosa by a
slaughter, blood being aspirated into the
longitudinal incision through the tracheal
bronchi and lungs. The condition may be
cartilages is general practice in some countries,
detected by the red colour of certain lung
being of value in the detection of aspirated
lobules on incision, intermixed with normal
stomach contents, parasitic infections and the
tissue to differentiate the condition from
ulcers of glanders. Localised infections of the
bronchopneumonia. If blood is aspirated as a
upper respiratory tract per se, however, are not
fine spray, the lung is studded with fine
generally of importance in meat inspection.
haemorrhages (petechial blood aspiration).
Lungs containing blood and water aspirated
Lungs and pleurae during the scalding process should be
condemned. In the latter case the lungs are
The bacterial and viral diseases listed for the
heavy and bulky and the bronchi contain a
nasal passages and paranasal sinuses have the
frothy liquid and blood, skin debris and hair.
lungs and pleurae as their main areas of assault.

I
To these can be added contagious bovine
pleuropneumonia (CBPP) (Plate 1, Fig. 6) and
enzootic virus pneumonia of pigs and calves. Types of pneumonia
As with the upper respiratory tract,
Bronchopneumonia Infection first affects the
inflammatory changes may be serous, catarrhal,
terminal bronchi, then extends into the
haemorrhagic, fibrinous, purulent, ulcerative,
surrounding pulmonary alveoli creating a
necrotic or granulomatous in type. Since
patchy appearance with numerous discrete foci
alveolar cells of the lungs may be involved, a
of consolidation (solidification) of lung tissue.
further form - proliferative - can be added.
The cranio-ventral areas of the lungs are most
often affected. The foci are dark red or grey
Pneumonia areas about 1-2 cm in diameter and firmer than
the adjacent lung tissue. Progression makes
Pneumonia (pneumonitis) is an inflammation of
these areas of consolidation larger to produce
the lungs in which exudate in the alveolar
lobular pneumonia. Further extension
spaces produces consolidation of the lung
resembles lobar pneumonia.
tissue. It may be acute, subacute or chronic and
occur as a bronchopneumonia (lobular Lobar pneumonia Infection first attacks the
pneumonia), lobar pneumonia or as an alveoli, then the associated bronchioles, alveoli
 Pathology 473
and lobules. the consolidation being sharply Parasitic infestations of the respiratory tract
delineated from the normal lung tissue. A
Common lungworms responsible for varying
whole lobe or part of a lobe is uniformly
dezrees of inflammation are listed in Table 16.3.
affected. At the outset the part is congested and
The most common parasite affecting the
firm and the alveolar spaces filled with oedema.
lungs of sheep in Britain and ~urope is
Later, the affected lobe becomes dark red and
Muellerius capillaris, which causes little local
solid with greyish strands of fibrin on its
reaction.
surface. Section shows a firm, dry, granular
M. capillaris causes small greyish-brown
tissue resembling liver which sinks in water -
fibrous nodules about 5 mm in diameter raised
red hepatisation. The surface even~ual~y~[Link] above the lung parenchyma in which the
greyish in colour and granular wIth. fibrin m the
worms can be found. Some of the nodules may
alveoli and a fibrinous pleunsy - grey
be calcified. Dictyocaulusfilaria and D. oiuiparus
hepatisation. Should healing oc~ur, fibrin is
cause irritation and blockage with exudate,
liquefied and coug~ed up' with even~ual
coughing and loss of weight. Pig [Link]
aeration of the alveoli and fibrous adhesions
are responsible for bronchopneumonia ~nd
between lung and pleura.
emphysema with coughing and loss of weight
Lobar pneumonia is usually the result of
in the more chronic cases.
infection with the more virulent types of the
Immature forms of F. hepaiica are sometimes
same bacteria responsible for broncho-
seen in the lungs of cattle and less often in
pneumonia.
sheep.
Interstitial pneumonia Diffuse and widely
distributed thickening of the alveolar Pulmonary abscesses
interstitial septa following an early exudative
These usually arise from a local septic
phase. Infection is ~sually bloo~-borne
pneumonia or from infected emboli transfer.r~d
(bacteria, parasites, chemicals, pla~t toxu:s and
by the blood from other septic organs - I?astIhs,
viruses), but can be caused by inhalation of
metritis, septic thrombosis of the postenor vena
dusts, injury and shock.
cava in cattle, omphalophlebitis, etc. Haemato-
zenous spread will usually result in multiple
Microorganisms involved Bacte~'ia are the
main causes of bronchopneumonia, perhaps
~bscesses. Penetration of the lung tissue by
foreign bodies which may also be aspirated is a
following an initial insult from a virus, dust,
further cause. Posterior penetration of the lung
etc.. and include Pasteurella spp. and
from the reticulum will show evidence of a
Actinomyces pyogenes in cattle and sheep, necrotic fibrous tract in the ventral border of the
Pasteurella muliocida, A. pyogenes, Haemophilus
lung in longstanding cases.
spp., Actinobacillus pleuropnezl11:oniae, Salmonella In the pig, small, encapsulated abscesses
cholerae suis, Toxoplasma gondn and Bordetella containing pale green pus are sometimes seen
bronchiseptica. .. on the pleurae in the region of lung abscesses
Viruses are also major activators of caused by Corynebacterium pyogenes.
pneumonia (see Nasal passages and Sinuses).
Specific diseases ~n . the form .of
Both lobar and bronchopneumonia may be
actinobacillosis, aspergillosis. tuberculosis,
associated with sharply defined necrotic foci
moniliasis, coccidoidomycosis, melioidosis ar:d
which vary in size from a pinhead to a fis~,
caseous lymphadenitis may be involved m
become rapidly purulent and produce a septzc
pulmonary abscessation.
pneumonia. Septic pneumonia du~ to Bacterium Granulomatous pneumonia may be ca~sed
purifaciens is often encountered m. sheep,. the by Actinobacillus, Actinomyces,. Mycobact~rIum,
lungs containing several abscesses filled wIth.a
Nocardia spp. as well as fungi and aspirated
thick, yellowish-green pus. Loba~ pneumo~Ia
foreign bodies. .
tends to become septic very rapidly, makmg
Pneumomycosis may be due to Aspergzllus and
early slaughter and salvage of affected cas~s
Mucor (see Poultry diseases).
advisable. Canzrene
b
may develop ..
If
putrefactive organisms are. present - I~ IS a Pigmentation. Melanosis, congeni~al and
common sequel to septic pneumonia or acquired, is probably most [Link] Ir: sheep
penetration of the bovine lung. but also occurs in cattle and pIgS. Deposits vary
474 Meat Hygiene
Table 16.3 Parasites causing inflammation in the respiratory system.

Animal Parasite Site

Sheep and goats. Muellerius capillnris Lung tissue and alveoli

Bicaulus spp. Small bronchioles
Cvetocculus nigrescens Lung and subpleural tissue
Cystocaulus ocreatue Lung and subpleural tissue
Dictyocaulusfilaria Small bronchioles
Neostrongylus linearis Small bronchioles
Protostrongylus nifescens Small bronchioles
Spirocaulus spp. Small bronchioles

Cattle, deer, reindeer, buffalo Dictyocaulus uioiparus Bronchi, trachea

(Metastrongylus elongatus) Bronchi, trachea

Pigs. Metastrongylus elongatus Bronchi, bronchioles

M. pudendoiecius, M. salmi Bronchi, bronchioles
M. madagascariensie Bronchi, bronchioles

Equidae Dictyocaulus arnfeldi Bronchi

Deer Elaphostrongylus spp. Intermuscular tissues of thorax, CNS

Parelaphostrongylus spp. Venous sinuses and sub-dural spaces of CNS

Fowls, turkeys, geese Syngamus trachea Trachea

Geese, ducks Cyathostoma bronchialis Bronchi, trachea

in size from tiny flecks to sharply defined, infective agents can reach it via the
bluish-black foci which are lobular in outline bloodstream, lymphatic system and foreign
and distributed over the lung surface. body penetration (from reticulum or
oesophagus). Pleurisy may occur as part of a
Pulmonary tumours Secondary tumours
specific disease, Haemophilus infection in pigs
arising by metastasis from other organs are
and chlamydiosis in cattle being common
much more common than primary neoplasms
causes in addition to those noted for nasal
in the lungs. They involve the pulmonary
passages and sinuses above.
epithelium and include adenoma,
The acute stage has a red, velvety
adenocarcinoma, lipoma, squamous cell
appearance. It tends to assume a chronic form
carcinoma, papilloma and undifferentiated
with the production of fibrinous adhesions
carcinomas. These tumours often extend to the
between the parietal pleurae and the lung
regional lymph nodes. Pulmonary
surface.
adenomatosis (jaagsiekte) of sheep is an
Pleural adhesions are common in pigs, on
infectious form of adenoma caused bv a
occasions reaching 100% of pigs slaughtered
retrovirus which acts like a low-grade
from certain producers. In an investigation of
carcinoma.
the prevalence of pleurisy in slaughter pigs,
Hartley et al. (1988) found the mean batch
incidence of pleural stripping in four abattoirs
Pleurisy (pleuritis) in the east of England to be 0.15 ± 0.04 and the
Inflammation of the pleurae is a common meat average batch proportion of lungs condemned
inspection lesion and is usually secondary to to be 0.23 ± 0.05. There was a significant
pneumonia or a pulmonary abscess although positive correlation between the number of
 Pathology 475
carcases requiring lung condemnation and the thoracic wall or rupture of a lung.
number those requiring pleural stripping. Pulmonary emphysema (enlarged terminal
Acute pleurisy in cattle may be confused bronchioles and alveoli) may be involved
with 'back bleeding', which occurs when the because of rupture of the distended bullae).
pleura at the entrance to the chest is punctured Pulmonary tuberculosis may be an
underlying cause.
during sticking, resulting blood being aspirated
into the thoracic cavity where it solidifies on the • Pyothorax or empyema: Purulent exudate or
parietal pleurae, especially along the posterior pus in a pleural cavity.
edges of the ribs.
Small haemorrhages beneath the parietal or Pleural tumours
visceral pleurae may be associated with poor
stunning operations. They can also occur in Both primary and secondary tumours of the
many septicaernias, including classic swine fever pleura are uncommon, mesothelioma, affecting
and acute swine erysipelas. Tuberculous the bovine, horse and goat, being most often
pleurisy in the form of irregularly-shaped encountered (see Mesothelioma of peritoneum).
tubercles Cgrape lesions', 'pearl disease') frequently
accompanies other forms of bovine TB. Judgement of respiratory conditions
Pleural effusions are collections of various
types of fluid in the thoracic cavity. They may Total condemnation Conditions forming part
be inflammatory or non-inflammatory in type. of an acute systemic disease; acute septic,
Inflammatory exudates (high in plasma protein) necrotic or gangrenous pneumonia; multiple
are due to increased capillary permeability and pulmonary abscesses; diffuse fibrinous or
are associated with pneumonia, pleurisy, serofibrinous pleurisy; purulent and
diaphragmatic abscess and diseases like gangrenous pleurisy; widespread tumour
tuberculosis. As with oedema, inflammatory formation.
exudates are rich in plasma proteins and may Approval as fit for human consumption with
be haernorrhagic, purulent, serous, seizure of affected organs, subject to results of
serofibrinous or purulent in nature. laboratory examinations (microbiological and
Non-inflammatory transudates (low in plasma chemical) and satisfactory carcase condition:
protein) are connected with conditions causing Localised tumour formation; sinusitis; rhinitis;
increased intravascular pressure - emaciation, bronchitis; tracheitis; pleural adhesions;
hepatic cirrhosis, nephritis, neoplasms, catarrhal pneumonia; pleuropneumonia; atalec-
obstruction of lymphatic flow. tasis; emphysema; pigmentation; aspiration of
blood, fluid and ingesta.
Conditional approval for human consumption
Types of n-i iransudaies following heat treatment and satisfactory
.• Chylothorax: The collection of lymph which laboratory results, carcase condition, etc.
is creamy in colour due to obstruction of, or Subacute cases of pneumonia and broncho-
injury to, the thoracic or right lymphatic pneumonia.
duct, e.g. by tumours.
• Haemothorax: Blood in the pleural cavities
follows rupture of blood vessels or
haemangiomas from trauma, erosion of a
blood vessel wall or haemorrhagic CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
inflammation.
Heart
• Hydrothorax: Collection of oedema fluid due
to malnutrition, nephritis, cirrhosis of the Pericardium
liver, obstruction of flow of lymph,
extensive tumour formation on pleurae. Most diseases of the pericardium are secondary
Hydrothorax is also seen in specific diseases to specific diseases caused by microorganisms
like African horse sickness, black disease in (CBPP, pasteurellosis, clostridial
sheep, mulberry heart disease. haemoglobinuria, porcine enzootic pneumonia,
• Pneumothorax: The presence of air or gas is black disease, blackleg, sporadic bovine
usually due to trauma - perforation of the encephalomyelitis, tuberculosis, salmonellosis,
476 Meat Hygiene
ornithosis, staphylococcosis in rabbits, and the heart. These organs are about 5 cm
Mycoplasma spp., Haemophilus spp., etc.) or exist apart during expiration and 2.5 cm during
as extensions from adjacent thoracic or anterior inspiration. The regular movement of the
abdominal organs, e.g. reticulum in traumatic diaphragm during respiration facilitates the
reticulopericarditis in cattle. forward movement of sharp objects through
Pericarditis (inflammation of the the anteroventral border of the reticulum and
pericardium) may be serous (early stages), the diaphragm to penetrate the pericardial sac
fibrinous or septic. Early stages show at the apex of the heart. Occasionally, sharp
hyperaemia with a thin, clear exudate. objects may penetrate the myocardium, lung,
pleura, liver or spleen.
Fibrinous pericarditis: In later stages greyish-
white fibrin strands are formed, sometimes Tuberculosis of the bovine pericardium is
flecked with blood, and the exudate is reduced usually an extension from the lungs but can be
in amount. In chronic fibrinous pericarditis, the the result of haematogenous spread. It takes the
fibrinous exudate appears as villous strands form of small, greyish tubercles, at first
when the epicardium and pericardium are translucent but soon becoming caseous.
separated - 'bread-and-butter' pericarditis. In pigs, a [ibrinous pericarditis, often
accompanied by adhesions of the parietal or
Septic or purulent pericarditis: The presence
visceral pleura, may result from swine
of pyogenic bacteria is indicated by the
erysipelas and pasteurellosis. Pericarditis
appearance of pus which varies in consistency
associated with salmonellosis in pigs is a
and colour according to the types of organisms
fibrinohaemorrhagic type with epicardial
involved - thin, whitish pus or thick creamy,
haemorrhages.
yellowish, yellowish-green or greenish pus.
Putrefactive bacteria produce a foul smelling Hydropericardium An excess of clear, serous,
pus. slightly yellowish transudate in the pericardial
Septic pericarditis is the form occurring in sac is often due to neoplasia (causing venous
traumatic reticulopericarditis in cattle. (Traumatic and lymphatic obstruction), emaciation,
pericarditis can also occur in the horse and generalised oedema and congestive heart
sheep.) Early forms show the above septic failure. Exudates of bacterial or viral origin are
changes but more chronic cases reveal varying seen in African horse sickness, heartwater,
deposits of fibrin which fuse the epicardium oedema disease and mulberry heart disease of
and pericardium together. The pericardial sac pigs.
itself is thickened and there is usually a
Haemopericardium is an effusion of blood into
fistulous cord-like fibrous tract (which may
the pericardial cavity caused by spontaneous
contain some pus) connecting the reticulum
rupture of aneurysms of the aorta, coronary
and pericardium. Corynebacterium pyogenes is
the most common organism in a mixed flora artery or an atrium and leads to sudden death.
Inherited defects and nutritional deficiencies,
which may contain anaerobic gas-forming
bacteria. A local chronic peritonitis is frequently e.g. copper-containing enzyme lysyl oxidase
can also lead to haemopericardium.
associated with the fistulous tract and may give
rise to adhesions between the diaphragm,
pericardial sac and anterior aspect of the Epicardium
reticulum. Pleural and pneumonic changes are
frequent associates. Bacteria may pass from the The serous layer of the heart is a common site
infected pericardial sac into the bloodstream, for petechial haemorrhages and ecchymoses
producing septicaemia, but more commonly (q.v.) in all species occurring in septicaemias
the infective material remains encapsulated and toxaemias, mulberry heart disease of swine
with toxins being released to cause cachexia. and in improper stunning, especially electrical
Traumatic reticulpericarditis occurs most often stunning.
in cows over 4 years of age, often shortly after
parturition (Poulson, 1976). Its frequency is
Endocardium
related to the bovine habit of licking and
swallowing various foreign bodies (see Fig. Subendocardial haemorrhages, especially in the
16.1) and the close relationship of the reticulum left ventricle, are found in septicaemias and
 Pathology 477
toxaemias but are less common than the Bacteria causing myocarditis include
epicardial types. They may be of agonal origin Actinobacillus equuli, Clostridium chauooei,
at slaughter and are often apparent on the Haemophilus SOmJ111S, Listeria, Salmonella pullo-
mitral valve of young calves. Subendocardial rum (see Poultry Diseases) and Myco. tuberculo-
fibrosis (congenital or acquired) in the form of sis (rarely). The pyogenic organisms (A. equuli,
strong whitish strands may be evident in the H. somnus, Listeria) produce abscesses while
atria, the acquired form occurring in chronic Clostridium chauooei causes lesions similar to
wasting diseases. Whitish grains or plaques of those in muscle. Protozoa responsible include
calcium and phosphorus may be present under Necspora, Sarcocystis and Toxoplasma (q.v.).
the endocardium in cachectic conditions. Fatty changes appear as irregular light grey or
Endocarditis (inflammation of the endothelial yellow streaks and foci while hydropic
lining of the heart) is bacterial, parasitic or degeneration assumes a uniformly greyish
mycotic in origin, most often affecting the appearance and a softening of the cardiac
valves (Plate 1/ Fig. 5). The most common lesion muscle.
is verrucose or vegetative endocarditis of pigs, a Mljocardial necrosis is seen in the febrile
valuable diagnostic lesion of chronic swine diseases, especially foot-and-mouth disease,
erysipelas. The mitral valve is the main part necrobacillosis due to Haemophilus somnus as
involved, varying degrees of rough yellowish well as porcine stress syndrome. Deficiencies of
or greyish-yellow adhering to the valve, vitamin E, selenium and copper and certain
sometimes large enough to occlude the atrio- plants, e.g. bracken fern and those containing
ventricular orifice. The chordae tendineae may gossypol (a toxic polyphenolic pigment) and
also show vegetations. Streptococci, especially glycosides, can cause cardiac necrosis when
Sir. suis type 2/ are common causes of acute ingested. Coronary embolism or thrombosis
endocarditis in pigs (Lamont et al., 1984). causing obstruction of one or more arteries
Ulcerative valvular endocarditis due to leads to infarction and necrosis. Affected areas
streptococci or C. (Actinomyces) pyogenes is are greyish-brown in colour but some may be
occasionally met with in the bovine, appearing so small as to be invisible.
as rough valvular plaques. Abscesses may be present in the myocardium
In sheep, verrucose endocarditis, when of cattle as a result of foreign body penetration
caused by Streptococcus faecalis, is usually seen or resulting from metastases in cases of
on the bicuspid valve. pyaemia, septic metritis, listeriosis,
Valve cysts and haematomata of congenital toxoplasmosis, Chagas' disease (T. cruzi) and
origin, are frequent lesions in the hearts of some clostridial infections.
young calves. In a survey in England of 1000 Atrophy of the heart is seen in cachectic
sows and 500 6-month-old pigs at slaughter,
conditions and may be associated with
[ones (1980) found abnormalities of the valves
xanthosis (q.v.).
(9.8%) and mural endocardium (1.2%). These
consisted mainly of atrial ridges and plaques, Parasites All the parasites which have an
thickened valves and non-vegetative affinity for muscle may be found in the
endocarditis confined mostly to the left side. myocardium, especially the cysticerci of T.
saginata (c. boois) in cattle, of T. solium (c.
cellulosae) in pigs and of T. ovis (c. ovis) in sheep.
Larvae of Linguatula have been found beneath
Myocardium the epicardium in cattle, appearing as hard,
The main lesions encountered are myocarditis, elastic nodules with greenish-yellow necrotic
fatty and hydropic degeneration, haemorrhages centres. Trichinella spiralis cysts are occasionally
(see Endocardium), necrosis/ abscessation, encountered.
atrophy and pigmentation. Lesions which may be confused with C. bovis
Myocarditis is an inflammation of the heart but are due to the nematode Cardophilus sagittus
wall, myocardosis being a degenerative non- are sometimes found in the hearts of cattle,
inflammatorv disease of the myocardium. It is buffalo and wild ruminants in various parts of
always secondary to pericarditis and Africa. The lesions are granulomatous in
endocarditis as part of systemic disease and is nature, usually sited in a coronary groove, and
bacterial! toxaemic, viral or parasitic in origin. contain one or more coiled worms.

....
478 Meat Hygiene
Congenital conditions of the heart are the aorta or atria and may be associated with
relatively few in the food animals. They include atherosclerosis due to copper deficiency, high
ectopia cordis (displaced heart), patent ductus dietary protein or aflatoxin poisoning.
arteriosus (pulmonary artery and aorta Arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries with
connected), atrial septal defect (failure of loss of elasticity) and atherosclerosis
interventricular septum to develop), patent (arteriosclerosis with fa tty changes) are
foramen ovale (failure of the fetal opening common in man but rare in animals.
between the atria to close) and congenital In old cows the aortic wall may be thickened
haematomas (haemocysts). Most are unlikely to with calcareous deposits, while miliary TB of
be encountered on meat inspection. the bovine lungs is sometimes associated with
an endarteritis of the aorta, the intima at the
Tumours Most neoplasms occur as metastases
level of the aortic arch presenting roughened,
from other organs, the most common being
ulcerated areas having a ridged appearance.
lymphosarcoma, mostly as a component of
Polyarteritis nodosa is a rare condition in all
enzootic bovine leukosis. This takes the form of
the food animals in which the entire walls of
smooth pale yellowish areas which can be
medium-sized arteries and arterioles (hepatic,
nodular or diffuse in form and from which a
gastrointestinal, renal, coronary, skeletal) show
whitish milky fluid exudes on section.
focal points of necrotising inflammation
Mesothelioma, leiomyoma, haemangio-
usually with occlusive thrombosis. Chronic
sarcoma, myxoma, neurofibroma and
inflammation ensues to replace the necrotic
rhabdomyoma may also be present.
with fibrous tissue. The weakened wall may
develop into an aneurysm.
Parasitic or verminous arteritis is mainly
Blood vessels
caused by the parasites of the genera Ascaris
While diseases of blood vessels (vasculitis or (pigs), Onchocerca (ruminants) and Strongylus
angiitis, comprising arteritis and phlebitis (horses) in the food animals.
(inflammation of arteries and veins, In their migration, the infective larvae of
respectively) are of little consequence per se in Ascaris suum reach the liver via the portal vein
meat inspection, they are important entities in a after release from the adult worms in the small
host of infectious bacterial, viral, rickettsial, intestine. By breaking through the fine
chlamydial, protozoal and parasitic diseases capillaries they cause haemorrhagic tracts in the
(see Nasal Passages and Paranasal Sinuses). liver substance which later heal and are
Several non-infectious diseases - mulberry replaced by fibrosis causing scars ('milk spots')
heart disease, mercury poisoning, serum which may become confluent. Extensive
sickness, staphylococcal hypersensitivity, condemnations are often necessary. (A. euum
purpura haemorrhagica (as a sequel to earlier may also cause similar lesions in lambs.) Larvae
Sir. equi respiratory infection) and polyarteritis reaching the lungs via the systemic circulation
nodosa - also include vasculitis in their produce focal haemorrhages in the
pathology. parenchyma.
Aneurysms (abnormal localised dilatations of Onchocerca armillaia causes lesions in the
blood vessels and the heart) are occasionally aorta (thoracic and abdominal), brachiocephalic
encountered, especially in thoroughbred horses trunk, brachial arteries and costocervical
and fast-growing male turkeys. The shape may arteries of ruminants in Africa and Asia in
be saccular, fusiform or dissecting. A dissecting which there are nodules and tracts in the walls.
aneurysm (more properly named arterial Strongylus vulgaris fourth-stage larvae create
dissection) is a tear of the intima (inner necrotic/fibrinous inflammatory tracts in the
endothelial layer) allowing blood to enter walls of the cranial mesenteric and sometimes
between the inner and outer layers and the renal, coeliac, spermatic arteries and the
eventually burst through the thinner outer aorta.
layer. The aorta, pulmonary and uterine arteries Agents of parasitic thrombophlebitis include
and atria of the heart are most often affected. members of the family Schistsomatidae
Aneurysms are liable to rupture, often after especially Schistosoma bovis and S. maiihei and S.
strenuous exercise and parturition in the mare. japonicum. They cause damage to the veins and
The type in turkeys are dissecting aneurysms of venules of the liver, lungs, intestine and
 Pathology 479

urogenital tracts by forming granulomatous rape, turnips, onions, castor beans. Physical
nodules and fibrosis which may lead to agents - burns, exposure to cold, ingestion of
occlusion. cold water.
(b) External or internal haemorrhage
(wounds, lacerations, uterine prolapse,
Blood dehorning, castration, tumours, abscesses,
Anaemia ulceration) and parasitism. External parasitism
- ticks, mosquitoes, black flies, keds, lice,
Anaemia mav be defined as a reduction in the mites, etc. Internal parasitism (gastrointestinal
concentratio~ of circulating haemoglobin (Hb) parasitism) - Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Cooperia,
below the normal range for the particular etc.
animal. It is occasioned by either the decreased
production, increased destruction or loss of red Lesions of anaemia vary according to the basic
blood cells (RBCs). cause and include pallor of the mucous
The immediate effect of anaemia is a membranes, occasional jaundice, pulmonary
reduction of the oxygen-carrying capacity of oedema with tracheal foam, hydroperitoneum,
the blood, tissue hypoxia with pallor of the hydropericardium, hydrothorax, anasarca with
mucous membranes, slight fever, dyspnoea, oedema of the throat, pale musculature, cardiac
weakness, weight loss, sometimes icterus and dilation, fatty changes in the heart, kidney and
subcutaneous oedema, fatty changes in organs, liver, distended gall bladder (which may be
compensatory heart dilation, etc., depending on empty), periacinar degeneration and necrosis of
the type of anaemia involved and its cause. the liver, enlarged or atrophied spleen.

Leukaemia and leukoses

Classification and causes of anaemias Leukaemia is a primary malignancy of the blood-
1 Failure of RBC production - bone marrow forming organs in which the leukocytes are
hypofunction. replaced by large numbers of WBCs of a single
(a) Decreased RBC production: occurs in type, e.g. lymphocytes, monocytes. There are
nutritional anaemia (protein, carbohydrate, two forms: acute which involves immature
cobalt, vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiencies) white cells; and chronic which involves mature
and haematopoietic neoplasia. or maturing cells, the most common type in the
(b) Decreased haemoglobin synthesis: food animals.
occurs in iron and vitamins E and B6 defi- Leukosis is the neoplastic proliferation of
ciencies. leukocyte-forming tissues and is sometimes
(c) Viral infections causing marrow dys- used synonymously with leukaemia,
function - enzootic bovine leukosis, avian lymphosarcoma, lymphomatosis and
leukosis, equine infectious anaemia, retro- malignant lymphoma (see Enzootic Bovine
viruses, etc. Leukosis, Lymphoid Leukosis of Poultry).
2 Loss of abnormal RBCs Acute leukaemia is fairly rare in the food
(a) Enzyme-deficient RBCs, hereditary animals and is manifested by anaemia, pallor of
anaemia. mucous membranes, oedematous lymph nodes
(b) Immune-mediated anaemia, e.g. haemo- normal in size, enlarged spleen, pale marrow fat
lytic disease of the newborn. with haemorrhagic infarction, atrophy of
thymus, condition good or slight loss, mild fever.
(c) Haemolytic anaemia causing vasculitis
and coagulation.
Chronicleukaemia is typified by enzootic bovine
leukosis (EBL) which affects all ages of cattle
3 Loss of normal RBCs (less than 3% are clinical cases) and exhibits
(a) Haemolysis of normal red cells - anaemia, leukaemia, enlargement (often
bacterial, chemical, plant and physical agents. symmetrical) of the lymph nodes (which may
Bacterial haemolysis - anaplasmosis, babesiosis, occur throughout the body, especially behind
bacillary haemoglobinuria, ehrlichiosis,
eperythrozoonosis, leishmaniasis, lepto- the eye) and enlargement of the intestinal
spirosis, trypanosomiasis, etc. Chemical lymphoid tissue. The lymph node enlargement
haemolysis - benzene, toluene, lead, arsenicals, is not inflammatory in type but a generalised
copper, molybdenum. Plant haemolysis - kale, lymphoid hypertrophy.
480 Meat Hygiene
The whitish, greyish or greyish-red tumours from RBCs haemolysed in the blood and is
resemble bacon fat and are often interspersed commonly seen in diseases such as babesiosis,
with blood spots or larger haemorrhagic areas. bacillary "haemoglobinuria (Cl. haemolyticum),
In very enlarged lymph nodes, necrotic tissue is anaplasmosis and post-parturient haemo-
often apparent, being dry and orange-yellow in globinuria in dairy cows.
colour and sharply defined, especially in the
marginal areas of the node. Although enlarged,
these areas retain their shape and do not Judgement of diseases of the cardio-vascular
coalesce. On incision the surface bulges and a system
milk-like fluid exudes on pressure. The
In general, those conditions forming part of a
tumours may affect any body organ and may be systemic disease with marked circulatory
found even in the spinal canal. In this invasive disturbance merit total condemnation. More
action the haemolymph nodes may be affected. localised entities may warrant partial
The spleen may be normal in size or greatly condemnation, conditional approval following
enlarged. When enlarged it is firm to the touch heat treatment or approval with restricted
and there may be subcapsular haemorrhage distribution. All judgements must be based on
which can result in death if the capsule bursts. the overall evidence and carcase condition
The kidney lesions are nodules in the cortex supported, where necessary, with laboratory
which vary in size and project above the surface
tests (microbiological and chemical).
of the organ. The liver is usually affected with
the spleen and is enlarged and friable, Total condemnation (T) Acute septic and
possessing rounded edges. There is usually a bovine traumatic pericarditis with fever and
great tendency for the heart to be involved, the circulatory disturbance (systemic disease).
tumour assuming a nodular or diffuse form. Acute verrucose endocarditis with associated
In young cattle of 1-2 years of age the lung and liver lesions (systemic disease).
thymus and the regional lymph nodes are Widespread lymphosarcoma. Anaemia - part of
grossly enlarged with tumours in the bone a systemic disease. Haemoglobinaemia.
marrow.
Conditional approval following heat
In the skin form of EBL there are round,
treatment (Kh) Subacute pericarditis with no
raised lesions, often with ulcerated surfaces, on
complications. Ulcerative and verrucose
the head, face and perineum.
endocarditis without complications.
Sporadic forms of bovine lymphoma occur
unassociated with EBL virus infection. Approval as fit for human consumption (A)
Sheep and goats may be infected with Chronic bovine traumatic pericarditis. Chronic
lymphoma, especially the former, the disease pericarditis without complications. Chronic
being due to a retrovirus. Unlike EBL, ulcerative endocarditis without complications.
leukaemia is absent, but pale yellow tumours All non-infectious heart conditions. Anaemia
are found in the liver, heart, spleen (which is due to haemorrhage from trauma (possible
enlarged) and kidneys. partial condemnation). Localised abscesses,
In pigs, external and internal lymph nodes arteritis, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis,
are enlarged with lymphocytosis, anasarca, aneurysms and tumours without
eyeball protrusion and loss of condition. complications.
In horses, lymphoma occurs in two forms:
Tumours of the haematopoietic (bloodform-
leukaemia with reduced blood RBC, WBC and
ing) system Haemangioma, haemangioen-
platelets, anaemia, subcutaneous oedema and
dothelioma, haemangiosarcoma, lymphan-
fever; and lymphoid tumour formation
giosarcoma, telangiectasis, leukaemia, lym-
affecting virtually all parts of the body.
phoma.
Haemoglobinaemia Excess haemoglobin in
the blood plasma is manifested in the live
animal by a haemoglobinuria, the presence of LYMPHORETICULAR SYSTEM
free haemoglobin in the urine, which appears
dark red or blackish in colour. In the true form This system is composed of the thymus gland
of the condition the haemoglobin has emanated and bone marrow (primary lymphoid organs),
 Pathology 481
and the lymph nodes, spleen and lymphoid When the changes are due to pyogenic bacteria,
tissues (secondary lymphoid organs) both of abscess formation is likely.
which are involved in important body defence Chronic lymphadenitis is manifested by
mechanisms. development of fibrous connective tissue of the
node, which becomes enlarged and indurated.
Some oedema and congestion may be present,
but not regularly, and the nodes may be
Lymph nodes
adherent to adjacent tissues. Such changes are
Besides acting as a filter for various foreign observed in caseous lymphadenitis, bovine
agents, the lymph nodes are involved in the actinobacillosis and tuberculosis, and in the
immune response (q.v.), supplying B cells from supernumerary lymph node in bovine chronic
their outer cortex and T cells from their deeper mastitis and brucellosis. Granulomatous
tissues. Although in the normal state they are cervical lymphadenitis is encountered in the
small and hardly palpable, when affected by submaxillary lymph node of pigs caused by
disease they become enlarged, sometimes Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi and is
oedematous and haemorrhagic, and react in sometimes mistaken for TB. The same organism
specific ways to invading microorganisms and also occurs in cases of bovine lymphadenitis.
other invaders.
Hyperplasia of the lymph node indicates an
An examination of the lymph nodes is a
increase in its size due to the formation and
valuable guide to the nature and gravity of
growth of new cells. It may be follicular or
many diseases, including tuberculosis,
diffuse in type but is more a reflection of
although the form of examination in the bovine
histopathology, being difficult to distinguish
and pig warrants modification in many
from chronic lymphadenitis and, especially,
countries today where TB is no longer a major
lymphosarcoma.
problem. Multiple incisions often create more
Lymph node atrophy is seen in old animals,
contamination, often with Salmonella,
especially those in poor condition. The nodes
Canuntlobacier, etc., revealing little of
are very small and show dark brown
pathological value to assist in judgement of the
pigmentation.
carcase and its viscera.
A survey of lymph node lesions in 171 000 Pigmentary changes in the lymph nodes,
cattle slaughtered in Ontario, Canada in 1987 especially of the bronchial group, are seen as a
showed 0.4% to be affected, the principal result of inhalation of coal dust (anthracosis)
diagnoses being abscesses (51% of all lesions), in cattle and sheep grazing in urban areas and
actinobacillary granulomas (36%) with smaller near collieries. Xanthosis (q.v.) occurs in
percentages of mycotic and parasitic bovine lymph nodes and melanosis in those of
lymphadenitis and tuberculosis (Herenda and sheep.
[ukes, 1988). Parasitic infections are not uncommon in
Lymphadenitis Inflammation of the lymph lymph nodes, occurring during migration and
nodes may be either acute or chronic. It is a lodging accidentally. Larvae involved include
sequel in various infections and must be those of Linguatula serrata (common in the
distinguished from hyperplasia of the lymph mesenteric nodes of cattle and sheep); Muellerius
node which is not associated with infection. spp. and Protostrongylus spp. (bronchial nodes
of sheep and goats causing a granulomatous
Acute lymphadenitis occurs in the pyogenic lymphadenitis); Oesophagostomum columbianum
infections, e.g. streptococcal lymphadenitis of
(mesenteric nodes of sheep) and F. hepaiica
pigs (cervical or jowl abscesses), and many
(mesenteric nodes of cattle and sheep);
acute and peracute bacterial and viral diseases,
Strongylus vulgaris (abdominal nodes of equidae
e.g. anthrax, acute swine fever, pasteurellosis of
causing a haemorrhagic lymphadenitis).
lambs (P. multocidai, rinderpest, salmonellosis,
strangles, tularaemia. It is manifested by
swelling, congestion, mobility and oedema of
Lymphatic vessels
the node which is painful and softer than
normal as shown by the so-called 'strawberry' Lymphangitis (inflammation of the lymphatic
lymph nodes of acute swine fever and anthrax. vessels) is prominent in many of the specific
482 Meat Hygiene
diseases affecting the lymph nodes as well as Abscesses in the spleen may be associated with
epizootic lymphangitis of equidae (Histoplasma melioidosis (Pseudomonas (Malleomyces) pseudo-
jarciminosusi (Plate 2, Fig. 8), ulcerative mallei) in all the food animals, especially pigs. The
lymphangitis of horses (Corynebacterium encapsulated abscesses vary in size but are usu-
pseudotuberculosis (ovis)), glanders, cutaneous ally less than 1 cm in diameter and project above
dermatophilosis of cattle, sheep, goats and the spleen surface. They contain thick, creamy or
horses, Johne's disease, bovine intestinal TB, yellowish-green pus which later becomes inspis-
mycotic lymphangitis (bovine farcy) due to sated. Clinically normal animals may have
Mycobacterium [arcinogenes, sporadic splenic abscesses. Caseous lymphadenitis may
lymphangitis (Monday-morning disease in also show one or two splenic abscesses, goats and
horses). The normally indistinct lymphatic sheep being mainly affected.
vessels appear as swollen, firm cords under the In addition to these specific diseases,
skin which may rupture, ulcerate and exude pyogenic abscesses in the spleen may result
pus (cf. epizootic lymphangitis). from foreign body trauma - sharp metal objects
Lymphoedema is an abnormal collection of from the reticulum of cattle and stomach of
lymph due either to a congenital lymphatic horses being responsible. In horses the
defect (absence of lymphatics) or to lymphatic perforation of stomach ulcers by the worms
obstruction, injury, inflammation or tumours. Gasterophilus spp. and extensions of
There is extensive subcutaneous oedema seen granulomata due to Habronema spp. larvae can
especially in the limbs, head and neck with establish splenic abscesses.
hydroperitoneum and hydrothorax. The Congenital defects are rare. The spleen may be
condition is sometimes seen in Ayrshire calves. absent or duplicated in pigs, calves and lambs.
Haemorrhages and haemorrhagic infarcts are
Tumours of the lymphoreticular system See
valuable diagnostic lesions in classic swine
tumours of the haematopoietic system and
fever. Haemorrhages of traumatic or agonal
enzootic bovine leukosis above.
origin associated with slaughter are sometimes
seen beneath the splenic capsule in healthy
cattle. Haemorrhage and rupture of the spleen
Spleen may be occasioned by severe injuries, e.g.
Enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly) with during transportation.
hyperaemia occurs in the acute specific diseases Splenic congestion and enlargement may
(vide RBC haemolysis under anaemia and EBL occur in cattle from the use of an inordinately
above). The most important disease in relation to long pithing rod ('slaughter spleen'). Enlargement
splenomegaly is bovine septicaemic anthrax in of the spleen has also been noted in pigs
which the spleen is very large, soft and liable to stunned by certain forms of captive bolt pistols
rupture, exuding very thick, dark-red or blackish and sometimes by electrical methods. The
blood which brightens on exposure to the air. placing of pigs in scalding tanks while still
(Suspect anthrax cases must always be cleared first conscious has been known to produce
of all by negative blood smear examination before splenomegaly.
decomposition takes place.) An enlargement of the Torsion of the spleen leads to enlargement
spleen is not so marked in the pig. and is brought about by the loose attachment of
Splenomegaly is a constant finding in bovine the organ to the stomach, the whole spleen or
salmonellosis, in which the spleen is congested its lower portion rotating on its long axis to
and contains tiny foci or nodules of necrosis cause passive congestion and acute swelling.
('board spleen'). Similar changes are seen in Passive congestion with enlargement of the
sheep, pigs and horses. Chronic enlargement of spleen, which assumes a dark bluish colour, can
the spleen may also be seen in liver stasis also occur in some haemolytic anaemias and in
resulting from swine erysipelas, traumatic defects of the systemic and portal circulation.
pericarditis, leukaemia ('burst spleen'), Chronic congestion may result in complete
lymphoma and virtually all cases of anaemia. necrosis - not uncommon in healthy pigs which
Tuberculosis of the spleen arising from are unaffected clinically.
haematogenous spread produces tubercles and Parasites occasionally found in the spleen -
an enlarged spleen and is common in pigs, less echinococci, encvsted liver flukes, C. tenuicollis
so in cattle. and Linguatula l~rvae.
 Pathology 483
Cysts, other than parasitic, are rare in the URINARY SYSTEM
spleen. They are either neoplastic in type
(haemangioma, haemangiosarcoma) or
degenerated haematomas.
Kidney
lnfarcts caused by occlusion of end-arteries The functions of the kidneys in metabolism,
are not uncommon and may be associated with fluid balance and excretion make it, along with
ulcerative endocarditis in the pig. They are urine assessment, an important system for close
initially haemorrhagic in type, conical in shape inspection, especially in the haemolytic
and raised above the spleen surface, but later anaernias, toxaemias and uraemia. Regard has
become pale and cause considerable shrinkage to be given to their shape, size, colour,
and distortion of the organ. consistency, and presence of abnormalities.
Amyloidosis may be present as part of a Renal disease is not uncommon in the food
generalised condition without splenomegaly. animals, especially in cattle. A survey of the
Tumours are relatively rare, haemangiomata prevalence and type of kidney lesions in cattle
being the most common primary neoplasm. was carried out in a Dublin abattoir during
Lymphosarcoma, EBL, haemangiosarcoma, 1979-80 (Monaghan and Hannan, 1983). Of
squamous carcinoma, leukaemia and 4166 animals examined, 173 (4.2%) had
melanoma are occasionally found. abnormal kidneys, the rejection rate in cows,
bullocks, heifers and bulls being 7.7%, 1.7%,
2.2% and 28%, respectively. The most common
reason for rejection was focal interstitial
Thymus nephritis (60.1%), followed by cysts (26.0%),
The regression of the thymus with age, pigmentation (6.4%), pyelonephritis (3.5%),
although it never completely disappears, makes amyloidosis (2.9%), glomerulonephritis (0.6%),
the organ relatively unimportant in meat renal atrophy (0.6%) and agonal haemorrhage.
inspection except in young animals. Nephritis is an inflammation of the kidneys
The thymus, like other organs, may be and, depending on the part involved, may be
absent (aplasia) in neonatal deaths, or show broadly divided into glomerulonephritis
inflammation, necrosis, atrophy, hyperplasia, (glomeruli), interstitial nephritis (interstitial
hypoplasia and neoplasia. Inflammatory tissues), acute tubular necrosis (tubules) and
changes are present in classic swine fever (with pyelonephritis (pelvis and calyces), although
atrophy in the chronic form), bovine overlapping occurs. The term nephrosis refers to
immunodeficiency virus infection and EBL. any kidney disease in which degenerative
Numerous fine petechial haemorrhages are changes occur in the tubules, although it is
evident in cases of lead poisoning. sometimes used to denote tubular degenerative
Tumours, most often seen in cattle and goats, and inflammatory changes.
include benign thymoma (consisting of Glomerulonephritis usually occurs as a part of
epithelial and lymphoid cells and associated bacterial and viral systemic disease, e.g. chronic
with hyperplasia of the thymus) occurring swine fever, bovine virus diarrhoea,
mainly in year-old cattle, lymphoma campylobacteriosis, trypanosomiasis etc., but it
(unassociated with EBL), lymphoid thymoma, can develop as a primary disease in the ' thin
. lymphosarcoma (EBL). sow syndrome' (a combination of malnutrition,
internal parasitism, too frequent mating and
early weaning, etc.) and following the
Judgement of bmiphoreticular lesions consumption of certain poisons. In the acute
form the kidneys are enlarged, pale in colour,
Total condemnation (T) All situations
oedematous and may show fatty changes and
involved with systemic disease and marked
petechial haemorrhages. In chronic
circulatory disturbance. glomerulonephritis the kidneys are shrunken
A, Kh, I or L All other localised and chronic owing to fibrous tissue formation and the
lesions. (I = meat showing minor deviations surface has a granular uneven appearance.
from normal but fit for human consumption; L A hereditary deficiency of the complement-
= approved fit for human consumption, with inhibitory protein factor H has been shown to
distribution restricted to limited areas.) lead to the development of lethal mernbrano-
484 Meat Hygiene
proliferative glomerulonephritis in weaner pigs The condition is probably a mixed bacterial
of the Norwegian Yorkshire breed but not in the one but a prominent organism appears to be
Norwegian Landrace breed. The disease is Eubacterium suis. In 23 cases of porcine
controlled by identifying carriers using an pyelonephritis and cystitis examined in 1993,
enzyme immunoassay for porcine factor Hand Carr and Walton (1993) isolated E. suis in 21,
preventing them from breeding. other organisms present being E. coli,
Interstitial nephritis may be acute or chronic, Enterococcus [aecalis and a streptococcus.
septic or non-septic, and focal or generalised. Pyelonephritis may be unilateral or bilateral
The acute type is seen in leptospirosis in cattle and is manifested by catarrh and dilatation of
and pigs, malignant catarrhal fever, lumpy skin the renal pelvis which is filled with a slimy,
disease, sheep pox and theileriosis and where detritus which may contain fibrinous clot or
irritant substances (similar to those causing pus and possesses a strong ammoniacal odour.
toxic hepatitis) have been ingested. Kidney The acute form begins with inflammation and
enlargement with fatty changes and necrosis necrosis of the renal crest (projection of the
result, the colour being very pale, even whitish renal medulla into the pelvis containing the
in colour. In acute leptospirosis in cattle and openings of the tubules). At this stage the
pigs, the kidneys are enlarged and diffusely parenchyma is swollen, dark red and firm.
dark in colour but later assume a lobular Haemorrhages may also be present in the acute
haemorrhagic coloration which finally becomes stage. If infection extends along the uriniferous
greyish owing to fibrosis. tubules, it may give rise to abscesses in the
Numerous fine foci (initially fine abscesses), cortex and irregular grey areas on the kidney
which later become nodules, may be found in surface. Occasionally, the infection causes
the kidneys of calves ('white spotted kidney' / complete obliteration of the kidney
nephritis fibroplastica) owing to E. coli, parenchyma, making the organ a purulent sac.
salmonella or Brucella abortus represent infection As the disease progresses in more typical
in the chronic form. In this case the kidneys are situations, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
atrophied due to fibrosis. They affect some 1% supervenes with progressive fibrosis. Scarring
of calves in the UK but disappear during the with contraction of the fibrous tissue and loss of
first year of life, usually before 6 months of age. kidney tissue produce marked contraction and
Septic interstitial nephritis is manifested by the distortion of the organ even to virtual
presence of abscesses in the cortex, either as a obliteration of some lobes. In very severe cases,
few large foci or as numerous microabscesses the kidney assumes a greyish, nodular
(the number is inversely proportional to their appearance, becoming very small in size.
size). It may arise from within the kidney Cysts of congenital origin are common in the
(urogenous) or by haematogenous spread by kidneys, especially in pigs and sheep, less often
septic emboli from a pyaemia or pyogenic in cattle. They may be single or multiple, single
ulcerative endocarditis, the septic emboli lodg- cysts being quite large - up to several
ing in the renal artery or its branches (glomeru- centimetres in size - while multiple forms vary
lar or tubular capillaries) to produce septic from tiny translucent specks to about a
infarcts and embolic septic nephritis. If the renal centimetre in diameter. Clear fluid is contained
artery is affected, the entire kidney becomes within their transparent walls which usually
necrotic, while smaller vessels produce the typ- protrude from the surface. Cysts, however, may
ical conical-shaped infarct. Hyperaemic and red occur deep in the parenchyma. While most
at first, the infarct soon becomes pale, then cysts are the result of dysplasia some may be
necrotic and finally fibrosed. A common cause caused by obstructive lesions, e.g. retention
in horses is Actinobacillus equuli. cysts in chronic nephritis/pyelonephritis.
Pyelonephritis is a fairly common disease in Aplasia (complete absence of kidney) and
cows, generally occurring as a sequel to hypoplasia (incomplete development) of one or
parturition, but it also affects sows (mainly the both kidneys are also hereditary in origin. A
acute form). It is rare in calves, horses, sheep survey in England (Wells et al., 1980) showed an
and goats. It attacks the kidney pelvis and incidence of 47.5% in pigs from one producer,
parenchyma and results from ascending all being the progeny of one Landrace boar.
infection. As with other kidney infections, it Renal dysplasia (abnormality of
may be acute, chronic, septic or non-septic. development) may also take the form of
 Pathology 485
persistence of fetal lobulation (pig), horseshoe amyloid being present in the medulla and
kidney and other abnormal shapes. glomeruli (Monaghan, 1982; Monaghan and
Nephrosis (acute tubular necrosis) is a term Hannan, 1983).
used to denote any kidney condition in which
Pigmentations Accumulations of various
there are degenerative changes. Hydronephrosis,
pigments are often seen in the course of major
caused by mechanical obstruction to the flow of
diseases, mainly in cattle, e.g. haemosiderin
urine along the ureters, is seen in all the food
(brown colour), following haemolytic anaemia
animals, but is especially common in pigs. The
and haemoglobinuria: lipofuscin (brown) in
obstruction, complete or incomplete, originates
xanthosis / haematochromatosis (q.v.);
in the bladder, urethra or ureter, urinary calculi
haemoglobin (dark brown to black) in acute
being a common cause. The pelvis and ureters
haemolytic diseases such as babesiosis (the
are dilated, often with such pressure as to
black coloration may be seen in animals long
obliterate the kidney tissue with the formation
recovered from babesiosis); cloisonne kidney
of a large cyst filled with urine (pressure
(black); bile pigments in icterus and
atrophy). Unilateral hydronephrosis is most
methaemoglobin in chronic copper poisoning
commonly caused by twisting and occlusion of
(greenish-yellow) and porphyrin (brown) (q.v.).
a ureter, which results in extensive destruction
of parenchyma. Bilateral hydronephrosis may Parasites: Parasites are not common in the
be due to a chronic cystitis or to obstruction of kidneys of the food animals.
the urethral lumen by calculi and is a more Stephanurus dentatus, the kidney worm of
serious condition. pigs, is a serious affection of swine in tropical
and subtropical countries. Infection occurs by
Urinary calculi (uroliths) Kidney stones are the ingestion of infective larvae, which can also
mainly concretions of carbonate, oxalate, silica, gain entrance via the skin. After a long
struvite (a combination of magnesium migration, the larvae reach the liver by the
ammonium phosphate hexahydrate), urate and portal circulation and pierce the capsule to
xanthine resulting from metabolic sources - arrive in the perirenal tissues, from which they
high content of minerals, etc., in feed, pasture penetrate the ureters (which become thickened
and water, deficiency of vitamin A, presence of and sometimes occluded) and produce cysts in
mineral-precipitating substances such as the ureters, kidney pelvis and sometimes the
mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides. They kidney tissue. Cysts may also occur in the
are fairly common in feedlot cattle in the USA. adjacent perirenal tissues, pancreas, liver,
Uroliths are more common in males because spleen and psoas muscles. Eggs are laid in the
of their anatomy, urinary calculi being most ureters and kidney pelvis and passed out in the
liable to form in the sigmoid flexure of the ure- urine.
thra of male cattle and sheep. Early castration Dioctophyma renale, the giant kidney worm,
prevents full development of the genital organs occurs in the pig, ox and horse worldwide.
and may contribute to urolithiasis. Uroliths are Intermediate hosts include mud-worms, fish
not uncommon in horses. and frogs. After ingestion, the infective larvae
Calculi may form in any part of the urinary penetrate the gut wall to reach the peritoneal
system, even in the collecting tubules of the cavity and finally the kidney where they encyst
kidney. The most common sites are the sigmoid in the pelvis, producing a haemorrhagic and
flexure of the penis of steers and bulls and the septic pyelitis. Kidney parenchyma is gradually
vermiform appendix of rams and the bladder of destroyed in severe cases, only exudate and the
horses, all of which sites may be involved in capsule being left. Aberrant forms may also
mucosal ulceration with urinary stasis, create cysts in the bladder, uterus and udder.
urethritis, cystitis and clinical signs. The blood fluke, Schistosoma mattheei, is
Uroliths vary in size and shape from small, sometimes responsible for causing granulomas
hard, granular material to large, spherical, in the kidney pelvis, having escaped from the
ovoid, irregularly-shaped lamellated stones. portal and mesenteric veins.
Their colour may be white, yellow, grey, dark Setaria spp. filarioid worms of the family
brown or brownish-red. Onchocercidae, are usually found in the
Renal amyloidosis in cattle occurs as an peritoneal cavity of ungulates. The larval forms
enlarged, pale, firm left kidney, deposits of of Setaria digitate, however, are occasionally
486 Meat Hygiene
responsible for granulomata in the bladder of urolithiasis (see Kidney), neoplasia, the
cattle and buffalo. ingestion of irritant substances and infection
The thorny-headed worm, Macracanthorhyncus from the urethra.
hirudinaceus, occurs worldwide, except in Acute cystitis produces a mild catarrh with
western Europe. It normally inhabits the small hyperaemia and submucosal oedema or a more
intestine of the pig (where it causes an ulcerative severe haemorrhagic, fibrinous or diphtheritic
enteritis). Aberrant forms may occasionally be type. The urine is cloudy and contains mucous.
found in the kidney pelvis. Chronic cystitis shows as irregular
In severe infestations, hydatid and C. thickening and folding of the mucosa, which
ienuicollis cysts may be present in the kidneys of may also show polyps, and is often associated
sheep and cattle. with tumour formation.
Rupture of the bladder may follow
Tumours Primary neoplasms are rare but
urolithiasis of the urethra, difficult parturition,
metastatic forms are fairly common and tend to
injury or tumour erosion.
involve both kidneys. In metastatic
lymphosarcoma the kidneys are enlarged and
mottled yellowish-white, the projecting Urine
growths being either diffuse or nodular. In
Haematuria (blood in the urine) is present in
avian lymphoid leukosis the kidneys are
cases of trauma, septicaemia, purpura
enlarged with diffuse miliary or nodular
haemorrhagica, acute glomerulonephritis,
tumours, while avian myeloid leukosis is
certain poisonings, tumour formation,
diffuse in form, the kidneys being mottled with
ulceration of the bladder and urethra mucosa.
a granular surface.
The blood may be present as clots (red colour)
Embryonal nephroma (nephroblastoma) is a
or as a faint reddish or brownish turbidity.
congenital primary tumour not infrequently
Haemoglobinuria (presence of free
seen in pigs at the anterior end of the bovine
haemoglobin in the urine, which is coloured
kidney in contact with the adrenal gland; it is
brown or deep red) occurs when red cells are
usually localised and well encapsulated. It is
lysed in the course of specific diseases such as
normally unilateral and can attain a huge size,
the parasitic diseases of the blood
but is usually about the size of an orange.
(anaplasmosis, babesiosis, theileriasis, etc.),
Section reveals large areas of haemorrhagic
haemolytic anaemias, bacillary
greyish-white necrosis interspersed with
haemoglobinuria (Cl. haemolyticll111/novyi) and
yellowish connective tissue resembling the
post-parturient haemoglobinuria in cows.
adrenal cortex. In the USA embrvonal
nephroma is regarded as the most common
Myoglobinuria follows severe muscle
damage, e.g. in azoturia in horses in which the
tumour of swine. Adenomas occur rarely and
urine is coloured dark brown.
mainly affect cattle and horses.
Renal carcinomas occur in cattle and sheep
Uraemia (azotaemia) denotes an excess of
nitrogenous end-products (urea, creatinine,
and appear as discrete round or oval grey or
etc.) of protein and amino acid metabolism in
yellowish growths, often haemorrhagic and
necrotic, which can become larger than the the urine. It is associated with chronic renal
actual kidney. failure, e.g. in urinary tract obstruction by a
calculus or tumour, glomerulonephritis,
pyelonephritis, interstitial nephritis,
hydronephrosis and rupture of the bladder.
Urinary bladder, ureters and urethra
Azotaemia occurs during the course of several
The bladder may be involved in specific bacterial diseases, e.g. equine haemoglobinuria
and viral disease in the same way as the (azoturia, Monday morning disease), visceral
kidneys and other organs, showing cystitis with gout in poultry, amyloidosis, pericarditis and
congestion and haemorrhages in classic and congestive heart failure.
African swine fever, salmonellosis in pigs, Uraemic carcases usually emit a strong
purpura haemorrhagica in equidae. Cystitis/ urinous odour which may persist for a
often combined with pyelonephritis (see considerable period depending on the degree of
kidney), ureteritis and urethritis, may also uraemia. Suspect carcases should be detained
occur as a localised infection following trauma, for 24 hours and then subjected to a boiling test.
 Pathology 487
Tumours of the bladder, ureters and urethra (1.52%), muscular hypertrophy of the uterus in
follow the same general pattern as for the 16 (1.16%), cervicitis in 7 (0.51%), mucometra in
kidney except for papillomata which occur 7 (0.51%), hypoplasia of the vulva in 6 (0.43%),
fairly often in the bladder and lymphomatosis bilateral follicular ovarian cysts in 6 (0.43%),
which is of rare occurrence. with smaller numbers of unilateral aplasia of
the ovary and fallopian tubes, cervical
hyperplasia and stenosis of the vulva.
Judgement of diseases of the urinary system
Assessment of carcases follows the same lines
as for the cardiovascular system, viz. the total Ovary and Fallopian Tubes
evidence is gleaned, including the results of
microbiological and chemical tests, carcase One or both ovaries may be absent (agenesis) or
condition, etc. If the case is associated with an underdeveloped (hypoplasia) which occurs in
acute systemic disease with marked circulatory the freemartin in cattle.
disturbance, total condemnation is warranted. Haemorrhage of the bovine ovary may arise
Chronic and localised conditions may merit during ovulation or from enucleation of
more lenient treatment. corpora lutea. Pyometra - an accumulation of
pus in the uterus may result in adhesions
Total condemnation Nephritis associated between the ovary and the oviduct, in which
with uraemia. Septic and embolic nephritis. case the oviduct may show septic inflammation
Pyelonephritis (bovine) with uraemia. Cystitis (pyosalpinx).
with uraemia. Rupture of the bladder with The ovary appears to be resistant to most
uraemia. infections but may show granulomatous lesions
Approved as fit for human food Cystitis, of bovine TB and be affected in some viral
chronic cystitis, chronic nephritis, renal calculi, diseases, e.g. herpesvirus.
renal cysts, pigmentation, pyelonephritis, Various forms of cysts are probably the most
localised tumours. All without systemic effects. common lesions found in cows and sows and
include serous inclusion cysts, follicular cysts
and dermoid cysts. Inclusion cysts are small
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM epithelium-lined structures not unlike follicular
cysts occurring on the surface or deep in the
The reproductive system, apart from the uterus ovarian tissue. Follicular cysts (cystic follicles) are
and udder, is generally not given extensive the most common forms in cows and sows.
attention in the course of meat inspection. It is, They develop from graafian follicles which fail
nevertheless, liable to many defects and to ovulate or undergo regression and may be
diseases, some of which can influence a final difficult to distinguish from normal follicles,
judgement, apart from providing useful except when they reach a large size. They may
feedback information. be single or multiple, unilateral or bilateral, and
Abnormalities of genetic development include usually possess a thick wall with some
hermaphrodites (in which ovaries and testes adherent lutein tissue but no ovum. Lutein cysts
are present in varying degrees in the same (cystic corpora lutea) have partially or
individual), freemartins (sterile females born completely luteinised walls and appear as
eo-twins with males), agenesis and hypoplasia single or multiple smooth, spherical bodies.
of the ovaries, imperforate hymen (with
distension of the vagina, cervix and uterus with
fluid), double cervix, double vagina, absence of Ovarian tumours
uterine cornu. Most of these abnormalities are • Primary: Granulosa-theca cell tumour (cow,
noted at birth, mainly in calves and piglets, mare, ewe), a benign tumour arising in the
many of which succumb at an early age. granulosa cells surrounding the ovum;
In a survey of 1380 porcine genital tracts in luteoma, haemangioma, dysgerminoma,
Zimbabwe, Obwolo and Lawson (1992) found teratoma and leiomyoma.
abnormalities in 27.1% as follows: hydrometra in • Secondary: Lymphosarcoma (probably the
314 (22.75%), muscular hypertrophy of the most common metastatic tumour);
cervix in 97 (7.03%), bilateral hydrosalpinx in 21 carcinoma.
488 Meat Hygiene
Hydrosalpinx is a collection of fluid in the Chronic endometritis, on the other hand, is a
fallopian tube caused by an obstruction of the fairly common localised affection in cows and is
lumen resulting in distension of the tube. characterised by a mucopurulent vaginal
Pyosalpinx is a collection of pus in the discharge but without general disturbance.
oviduct following septic metritis. Pyometra (pus in the uterus) due to
Salpingitis, inflammation of the fallopian Actinomyces pyogenes also often occurs without
tubes, is usually associated with serous, systemic change, though longstanding cases
catarrhal or septic inflammation of the uterus. may result in emaciation. Pyometra is
sometimes seen in maiden heifers suffering
from white heifer disease which usually affects
Uterus white Shorthorn heifers and is a partial aplasia
Like other organs, the uterus may be involved of the uterus with retention of uterine
in atrophy, hypoplasia or hyperplasia of the endometrial secretions.
endometrium. Uterine abscesses are fairly common in cattle
Metritis, or inflammation of the uterus, is and may follow metritis or injury (sometimes
bacterial in origin and usually occurs as a result associated with obstetrical manipulations).
of a retained placenta, injury or rupture of the They are often found on the dorsal wall of the
uterine mucosa during parturition; less uterine body and may be small and numerous
commonly it may arise from decomposition of or single and large.
the fetus in utero. Contagious equine metritis (CEM) is a highly
Serous, catarrhal and septic forms may occur. contagious disease of mares caused by the
The very serious septic metritis is manifested in coccobacillus Taylorella equigeniialis, which can
cows by high fever, very fast pulse, muscular be present subclinically in the prepuce of
weakness, severe depression and, in many stallions, infection being transmitted during
cases, recumbency and inability to rise. The coitus. A thick, mucopurulent discharge
vulva is very swollen and a discharge, at first accompanies the endometritis.
serous, then yellowish, red or chocolate in Prolapse of the uterus commonly occurs in
colour with a foul odour, is evident. Tympanitis cattle and sheep and is associated with
usually occurs if peritonitis is present, and dystocia, retained placenta and forced traction
when the temperature reaches 41.5-42°C death at parturition. There would appear to be an
often follows in 3-4 days from inherited disposition in some ewes.
septicaemia/toxaemia. Rupture of the uterus may involve the whole
Post-mortem examination shows the uterus uterine wall or only the mucosa. It is usually
to be two or three times larger than normal and due to obstetrical operations but can follow
containing a large amount (sometimes several torsion and is accompanied by haemorrhage,
gallons) of chocolate or greyish-coloured fluid which is fatal if extensive.
composed of effused blood and the remains of Torsion, or twist of the uterus, sometimes
fetal membranes. The mucous membrane of the occurs in cows and is responsible for dystocia.
affected uterine horn is thickened, dirty brown It may be complete or incomplete. If the former
or dark green in colour, softened and covered occurs in a gravid uterus, the uterus become
with diphtheritic exudates and blood clots oedematous and congested and any fetus
found mainly at the base of the maternal cotyle- present becomes mummified. Rupture may
dons, which are greyish in colour, pulpy and also be a sequel.
almost detached from the uterine mucosa. The In brucellosis there is a placentitis with a fetid
walls of the uterus are thickened owing to seropurulent exudate between the uterine
inflammatory oedema, while the peritoneum, lining and the chorion and in some cases a
especially over the uterus, may be highly con- leathery appearance of the placenta with
gested and covered with pseudomembranous necrosis of the cotyledons. To minimise human
layers of fibrin. Toxic infection of the carcase is infection and prevent possible contamination of
manifested by gross enlargement of the iliac, the meat in Brucella reactor and other suspect
lumbar, sacral and ischial lymph nodes. There Brucella cases, uteri and udders should not be
is generalised congestion of the carcase with incised or handled with bare hands. The uterine
degenerative changes in the parenchymatous lesions in campylobacteriosis resemble those of
organs. brucellosis but are not so marked. The areas
 Pathology 489

between the cotyledons are oedematous and to Mycoplasma agalactiae var. bonis, infectious
opaque (and so~etimes leathery), while the pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV) caused by bovine
cotyledons are pulpy and yellowish in colour. herpesvirus-I, infectious bovine
Tuberculosis may affect the uterus, occurring cervicovaginitis (cytomegalovirus), granular
usually as numerous small granulomatous vaginitis (Ureaplasma infection), necrotic
tubercles in the endometrium in the miliary vaginitis and vulvitis in cows and ewes, and
form or as a caseous type with gross thickening dourine (Trypanosoma equiperdum) in equidae.
of the mucosa. Large amounts of yellow pus- Trauma of the vagina and vulva occurs
like curdled milk are discharged. frequently in connection with difficult
Mummification of the fetus occurs without parturition in all species and is generally less
bacteria being involved, in which case there is serious than uterine injuries. Laceration of the
no constitutional disturbance or adverse effect vagina and vulva may also follow vaginal
on the carcase. It occurs most often in the sow prolapse, robust service from a large bull or
which is a multiparous species. The fetus even a malicious act by a human being. It may,
becomes black or brown in colour and leathery however, be followed by sepsis, gangrene and
in appearance and with further dehydration peritonitis.
finally becomes a hard shrunken mass of skin
Tumours of the uterus, vagina and vulva
and bones. This mass may be expelled from the
Squamous cell carcinoma of uterus (cows and
uterus in multiparous animals (producing
mares); adenocarcinoma of the endometrium
several offspring at a time) or retained
and cervix (cows, mares, rabbits);
indefinitely in uniparous animals (producing
fibropapilloma of the vulva (cows) and a
one offspring at a time).
transmissible form in the prepuce of boars;
The presence of bacterial infection such as
diffuse and nodular forms of lymphosarcoma
Campylobacter or Clostridium chauooei results in
of uterus and vagina (all species, especially
fetal maceration and emphysema, the fetal tissues
cows); leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma of
appearing as a soft, grey mass with gas
uterus (cattle and sheep).
formation.
Polyps may occasionally occur in the
Abortion is the premature expulsion of a dead
endometrium of cattle as sessile, spherical non-
fetus from the uterus and occurs during the
neoplastic structures.
course of many infectious diseases
brucellosis, bovine virus diarrhoea, classic
swine fever, enzootic abortion of ewes,
epizootic bovine abortion, campylobacteriosis,
equine herpesvirus, equine viral arteritis,
Mammary glands
mycotic abortion, listeriosis, leptospirosis, Q Mastitis, or inflammation of the udder, is a
fever, salmonellosis, toxoplasmosis, yersiniosis, common condition in all species, especially
etc. Mycotic abortion may be caused by cows, and is caused by a wide variety of
Aspergillus, Mucor, Absidia, Rhizopus fungi. bacteria (streptococci, staphylococci, E. coli,
Stillbirth is the delivery of a dead, fully- Corynebacterium, Pseudomonas, Mycoplasma,
formed neonate. Klebsiella, Cryptococcus, Proteus, Citrobacter,
Hydrops amnii (hydramnios fetalis) indicates an Actinomyces (Corynebacterium) pyogenes,
excess of fluid in the amniotic sac and is often Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, Myco. tuberculosis),
associated with fetal deformity in cows and Pasteurella haemolvtica (ewes), Corynebacterium
ewes. pseudotuberculosis (ewes), etc.; fungi (Aspergillus,
Hydrops allantois (hudrallcntois) is an excess of Trichosporon); and yeasts (Candida, Neoformans).
fluid in the allantoic sac and is usually In the cow the commonest form of mastitis is
connected with uterine placental disease in caused by Str. agalactiae and is essentially a
cows. catarrh of the milk ducts which is mostly
chronic in nature and unaccompanied by
systemic disturbance but can sometimes be
acute. Lesions include interstitial oedema,
Vagina and vulva fibrosis (diffuse or nodular) causing induration
Both these organs show inflammation in of one or more quarters, swollen glandular
several infectious diseases: vulvovaginitis due tissue and stringy clots in the reduced milk
490 Meat Hygiene
secretion. Resolution may occur but progressive situ and should be removed. Enlargement witr
fibrosis leads to atrophy of the quarter(s). oedema of these nodes is present in acute forms
Staphylococcal mastitis is more severe, even along with oedematous infiltration of the
peracute, and may eventually result in moist external abdominal wall.
gangrene with the teat or quarter assuming a Abnormalities of the udder of the ewe are c.
bluish or blackish colour. Adjacent lymphatics common cause for culling. A survey of the
are dilated, the supramammary, iliac and mammary glands of 1650 culled ewes in
lumbar lymph nodes are enlarged and oedema southern England revealed gross lesions in 2L
is evident in the vicinity of the udder. Secretion (12.8%), of which 77% were abscesses (Madel
is reduced and is brownish in colour or blood- 1981). Earlier surveys confirmed this high
stained. incidence of abscesses in the substance and on
Bovine mastitis due to A. pyogenes (summer the surface of the udder, obviously the sequelae
mastitis) is associated with a severe toxaemia, of mastitis.
which may be fatal. It is essentially a severe Mastitis in the sow may be caused by Staplz.
suppurative mastitis which progresses to aureus or Actinomyces bovis and is
necrosis. granulomatous in type and chronic affecting
Tuberculosis of the cow's udder is one or more glands; the type due to E. coli is
haematogenous in origin and second in oedematous with a scanty serous or blood-
prevalence to pulmonary TB. Usually chronic in stained secretion containing clots of fibrin.
form, it may affect one or more quarters, most 'Seedy belly', a form of melanosis in the udders
often hind quarters. It occurs in three main of sows, takes the form of round, black spots in
forms - chronic organ tuberculosis (most the mammary tissue.
common), caseous TB mastitis and
Tumours of the mammary glands Adenoma
disseminated miliary tuberculosis. In chronic
and adenocarcinoma are relatively rare.
organ TB the mammary tissue is indurated,
lobulated, reddish-white in colour and when
cut, projects above the organ surface. Caseation
Testes
usually occurs with collection of exudate in the
sinuses but the supramammary lymph node is One or both testes may be absent (agenesis),
unaffected. The caseous form shows as large reduced in size (hypoplasia), undescended
yellowish, cheese-like areas surrounded by (cryptorchidism) or associated with female
hyperaemic zones. MilianJ TB mastitis takes the organs, e.g. ovaries (hermaphroditism) in all
form of numerous typical caseous or calcified species. Incomplete descent of the testes
nodules, about 1 cm in size, which project (cryptorchidism, rig, ridgling) is most common in
above the surface when the glandular tissue is the horse and is usually unilateral, the
cut. undescended small, indurated testicle being
Mastitis in sheep can occur in a peracute, found in the peritoneal cavity at any point
gangrenous form due to Staph. aureus with less during its descent from near the kidney to the
severe cases being associated with the same internal inguinal ring.
organism and other staphylococci, streptococci, Testicular inflammation (orchitis) and
E. coli, C. pyogenes and Past. haemolijtic«. degeneration can occur during the course of
Contagious agalactia (CA) in the ewe and goat several toxaemic diseases, e.g. brucellosis,
due to Mycoplasma agalactiae is not unlike trypanosomiasis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis,
bovine summer mastitis; the udder is swollen ionising radia tions, noxious metals and
and hot, milk secretion thick and yellowish and plants, deficiency diseases, hormonal factors,
sometimes contains pus and/ or blood. One or etc. In the early stages of orchitis the testes
both glands are indurated with fibrosis, are enlarged and oedematous but later
brownish-black in colour and later atrophied. become smaller owing to degenerative
Abortion, arthritis and conjunctivitis may changes in the parenchyma. Fibrosis and
complicate the disease. Other forms of mastitis calcinosis may be final results of
(catarrhal, suppurative and gangrenous) are degeneration.
common in the ewe. Although the udder is Epididymitis (inflammation of the
removed in dressing, portions of the epididymis) in the bull is probably more
supramammary lymph nodes usually remain in common than orchitis, infection usually
 Pathology 491
resulting by extension from the upper (horse, bull) and squamous papilloma,
genitourinary tract. Various microorganisms lymphosarcoma, haemangioma (all species).
are involved - Brucella, Actinobacillus seminis,
Actinomyces pyogenes, E. coli, Streptococcus spp.
Mycoplasma, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, Judgement of conditions of the reproductive
etc. The organ becomes enlarged and may system
assume a nodular appearance, with abscess Total condemnation Acute septic, necrotic or
formation a frequent occurrence. Epididymitis diphtheritic metritis with circulatory
is not uncommon in rams, in which the disturbance. Presence of putrefied fetus with
epididymis is swollen irregularly, the causal systemic effects. Septic, necrotic or gangrenous
organism often being Actinobacillus seminis. mastitis with sytemic effects. Retained placenta
The spermatic cord may be acutely or with systemic changes. Dystocia with acute
chronically-inflamed and is most common in metritis and vaginitis. Prolapse, torsion and
horses, pigs and cattle, being caused by rupture of uterus with peritonitis and fever.
staphylococci. The chronic form (schirrhous cord Septic and gangrenous mastitis with general
or botryomycosis) appears as a granulation signs Malignant neoplasms with extensive
mass with numerous tiny abscesses, fistulae metastases.
and foul-smelling exudate. The condition is not
Approved as fit for food with disposal of
uncommon in castrated pigs. Granulomata of
affected part: All chronic and localised
the spermatic cord may be caused by aberrant
conditions without systemic effects and
larvae of Strongylus spp.
satisfactory carcase condition, subject, where
necessary, to results of laboratory examination.
N.B. (1) Because of the prevalence of subclinical
mastitis in the bovine, it is recommended that all
Penis and prepuce'
udders be rejected for food. (2) In cases of Brucella
Developmental abnormalities include reactors and suspects, uteri, vaginas, vulvas and
hypoplasia and aplasia of associated structures. udders should not be incised or handled with bare
Balanitis (inflammation of the penis) and hands. Appropriate instruments should be used in
posthitis (inflammation of the prepuce) occur in dressing operations alongwith suitable arm andface
most species as a result of specific diseases protection for careful disposal.
such as dourine due to Trypanosoma equiperdum
and equine coital exanthema (equine herpesvirus-
3) in the stallion, bovine herpesvirus-I in the
bull, and in male goats. The abundance of SKELETAL SYSTEM
commensal microorganisms in the prepuce
(Corynebacterium renale, A. pyogenes, Bone
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycoplasma spp., E. coli, Terms
streptococci, Proteus, chlamydia, protozoa and
fungi) is often responsible for local
• Diaphysis - shaft of long bone containing
medullary cavity.
inflammatory changes which include
hyperaemia, sepsis, necrosis and ulceration • Epiphysis - wide end of long bone.
with varying forms of exudates (serous, • Epiphyseal cartilage (physis), plate, disc - thin
catarrhal and purulent). Ulcerative balanitis growth area between epiphysis and
and posthitis are often seen in rams and diaphysis which later ossifies.
wethers, one venereal form being associated • Metaphysis - part of shaft beside epiphyseal
with vulvovaginitis in ewes. disc containing growth zone and new bone.
The penis and prepuce are liable to injury • Articular cartilage - layer of hyaline cartilage
and rupture. Injury may be the cause of covering epiphyses and forming articular
paraphimosis - inability to retract the penis in the surface of joint.
stallion due to its swollen condition or a
Genetic and developmental defects, systemic
constriction of the preputial orifice.
and metabolic disease, malnutrition, and
Tumours of the penis and prepuce Fibro- endocrine imbalances may lead to bone defor-
papilloma (bull), squamous cell carcinoma mities such as angular distortions in limbs, rick-
492 Meat Hygiene
ets, osteomalacia, osteopetrosis, osteoporosis, affected and crave phosphorus-rich substances.
chondrodysplasia, osteodystrophia fibrosa etc. even bones. Long bones, ribs and pelvis become
Some deformities are unlikely to be encoun- liable to fracture and distortions of the skeleton
tered at meat inspection since they occur in are evident. A deficiency of vitamin D in grass
fetuses dying at or soon after birth. and fodder can also lead to osteomalacia,
Bone is also liable to injury (fractures being a especially in sheep, in the same regions and even
common reason for casualty slaughter) and in the UK. In the early stages the animal may be
infection (osteitis, osteomyelitis, spondylitis, well-nourished, but progression involves
arthritis). muscular atrophy with serous infiltration of the
Variations of length, shape and thickness intermuscular connective tissue.
occur in the physis (part of bone involved in the Osteoarthritis is one of several degenerative,
lengthening of long bones), in the shape and non-inflammatory diseases which are more
density of the epiphysis (end of bone adjacent to common in horses (spavin, ri 'gbone, navicular
articular cartilage) and in the articular cartilage disease, curb) than in the other food animals.
itself. Limb deformities affect all species, These have various causes - nutritional,
especially horses and cattle. In foals the lower hereditary, developmental, traumatic, possibly
limbs (carpus, tarsus and fetlocks) are most autoimmune - with some unknown. Pigs, cattle
commonly involved. Changes related to the and sheep are less prone to osteoarthritis,
cartilages may be associated with which mainly affects the hip and stifle joints.
osteochondrosis. The articular cartilage becomes degenerated,
Rickets is a disease of young animals in which bone is transformed into an enlarged ivory-like
there is defective mineralisation of growing mass and the joint capsule becomes fibrosed
bones (Plate 2, Fig. 12). The corresponding and calcified. Osteophytes (bony outgrowths)
condition in adult animals is osteomalacia. The are common in the affected joint.
main function of vitamin D (which also acts as Osteitis and osteomyelitis (inflammation
a hormone) is to maintain adequate plasma involving the medullary cavity) are not
levels of calcium and phosphate in conjunction uncommon in cattle. These terms are often used
with parathyroid hormone. Both diseases are synonymously. Some cases are traumatic in
associated with a deficiency, impaired origin, e.g. a contaminated fracture, and some
metabolism or malabsorption of vitamin D and haematogenous from a pyogenic focus. All are
phosphorus leading to failure of mineralisation caused by bacteria (staphylococci, streptococci,
(calcification) of bones, which become Fusobacterium necrophorum, E. coli, A. pyogenes,
abnormally soft. Rickets is characterised by salmonella spp., Brucella suis, etc.). Examples
softening, swelling and curvature of the are atrophic rhinitis (q.v.), poll evil and fistulous
weight-bearing bones and widening of the withers in horses, and bacterial polyarthritis.
epiphyseal plates at joints. The costochondral There is cloudy exudate, dilated vascular
junctions are swollen forming the so-called sinusoids in marrow spaces and later pus
'rickety rosary' and advanced cases may show formation and bone necrosis. A sequestrum of
deformity of the spine, pelvis and skull. It is dead bone may form with new bone round it.
characteristic of rickets and osteomalacia that Pus eventually tracks to the surface via a sinus.
the ends of affected bones are easily cut by a Osteochondrosis (dyschondroplasia) is an
knife. Rachitic young pigs may exhibit little abnormality of growth of cartilage of unknown
more than swelling of the joints and button-like origin which occurs in pigs, horses, turkeys,
rib enlargements, but the condition is usually fowls and young bulls. The bones most
associated with emaciation. commonly affected are the humerus, ulna,
Rickets in chicks is often caused by dietary scapula and thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. The
deficiencies (vitamin D, phosphate, calcium) lesions may appear as an incomplete or
and toxicities (hypervitaminosis A, complete separation of articular cartilage from
mycotoxins). the underlying bone (osteochondritis
Osteomalacia (softening of bones) due to dissecans), or conical cores of articular cartilage
phosphorus deficiency develops in grazing may project inwards into the metaphysis. Loose
animals in areas devoid of this mineral in the plaques of cartilage may break into small
soil, e.g. South Africa and northern Australia. granules and disappear or larger plaques ossify.
Cattle, and less commonly, sheep and pigs, are Fibrocartilage eventually fills the defect.
 Pathology 493

Osteodystrophia fibrosa occurs in all the food Xanthosis occasionally occurs as a

animals and is caused by oversecretion of pigmentation of bone in young cattle and pigs.
parathyroid hormone leading to a deficiency of Skeletal disorders are fairly common in all
calcium and/or vitamin D with excess classes of poultry and include
phosphate. Bone is replaced by fibrous tissue, rickets/osteomalacia, twisted leg, crooked toes,
resulting in thickening and distortion of bones splay legs, ruptured achilles tendons, scoliosis
of the head and in advanced cases those of the (lateral deviation of the vertebral column), and
body with liability to injury and fracture. tibial dyschondroplasia (q.v.), spondylolisthesis
Osteogenesis imperfecta (paperbone disease) is a (subluxation of a deformed 4th thoracic
rare inherited condition seen mostly in vertebra with compression of the spinal cord).
Charolais and Holstein calves and lambs. The Fractures are a frequent cause of emergency
neonates are stunted and their bones very thin slaughter in all classes of food animals. Recent
and brittle and liable to fracture. cases display considerable blood clotting and
Osteopetrosis or marble bone disease occurs in gelatinous infiltration around the fracture with
the rabbit, horse, sheep, ox and pig. The disease congestion of the adjacent lymph node. Old
is inherited and is sometimes seen in Hereford, fractures which have healed by callus
Holstein, Simmental and Aberdeen-Angus formation are common in the ribs of cattle,
calves. Affected neonates are stunted and sheep and pigs.
possess overshot jaws, protruding tongue and
Tumours of bone and cartilage Bone tumours
sloping forehead. Long bones are shorter than
may be primary or secondary arising as
normal and, like those of the head, vertebrae
malignant metastases from other sites such as
and others, are compact, dense and fragile.
the lung, mammary gland and skin. Benign
Osteoporosis is a lesion in which there is a
tumours include osteoma, chondroma, fibroma,
resorption of bone tissue in part or all of the
the equivalent malignant forms being
skeleton giving bones a cancellated appearance
osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma and
and making them light and fragile. It may be
fibrosarcoma. All are relatively uncommon in
due to malnutrition, deficiency of calcium,
the food animals.
phosphorus or vitamin A, endocrine
dysfunction, senility or disuse. It occurs on rare
occasions as a complication in avian leukosis
complex. Joints
The most common specific infection of bone Arthritis, or inflammation of the joint, synovial
occurs in actinomycosis in cattle (q.v.). Other membrane and articular surfaces, usually
infections of bone include tuberculosis, involves periarticular tissues. It may be
brucellosis, coccidiodomycosis and abscesses infectious (from a penetrating wound,
associated with pyaemia (q.v.). In brucellosis, extension of infection from a nearby focus or
abscess formation takes placet especially in blood-borne) or non-infectious. One form of the
calves and pigs, in which exostoses may latter is typified by gout in which sodium urate
develop. The lesions of coccidiodomycosis crystals are deposited in the synovial fluid and
resemble those of bovine TB and appear as tendon sheaths, which occurs in articular gout
greyish granulomatous nodules in bone in poultry.
marrow with or without pus. The condition may be acute or chronic, septic
Presternal calcification or putty brisket is or non-septic and fibrinous and may affect one
occasionally encountered in the cushion of the or several joints (polyarthritis) (q.v.). Bacteria
bovine brisket and less frequently in sheep. involved include streptococci (all species),
Repeated trauma is usually the cause. The Actinomyces pyogenes (cattle, pigs) E.
lesion is essentially a fat necrosis and is rhusiopaihiae (pigs, sheep), Actinobacillus suis
manifested by irregular putty-like masses in the (pigs), E. coli (pigs, cattle, sheep), Chlamydia
presternal fat, the necrotic tissue eventually spp. (sheep), Haemophiius spp. (sheep, pigs), C.
becoming calcareous. pseudotuberculosis (sheep), Salmonella spp. (pigs,
Parasitic infections of bone are rare, although horses), B. abortus (cattle), and Mycoplasma spp.
hydatid cysts may occur/ distinguished from (cattle/ sheep).
tuberculosis by the absence of involvement of Arthritis is a very common cause of partial
the associated lymph nodes. and total condemnation, especially in pigs. A
494 Meat Hygiene
survey of 51843 pig carcases in Australia in places is filled with blood clot which is
examined in an abattoir revealed arthritis in 554 partially or completely transformed into a dirty
(1.07%). Total rejection was necessary in 147 red, foul-smelling mass. If the inflammation has
(0.28%) and partial rejection in 407 (0.79%). The extended to the peritoneum, adhesions may be
joints most frequently involved were the stifle, found between the intestine, omentum and
tarsus, carpus and elbow. Partial condemnation liver.
was higher in the 16-55 kg dressed weight A common cause of emergency slaughter in
range than in the heavier carcases. It was the cow is luxation of the hip joint which, if
suggested that undetected arthritic lesions, accompanied by rupture of the round ligament,
possibly containing E. rhusiopathiae, were can result in severe bruising in the surrounding
finding their way to the consumer (Cross and tissues. This deep bruising may require a
Edwards, 1981). special incision to detect it. A less severe
In non-septic arthritis (other than gout) the condition in the heavy bovine may occur
synovial fluid is opaque, sometimes blood- during hoisting to an overhead rail.
tinged, and there is a proliferation of synovial Bursitis, or inflammation of a bursa (a small
villi which gives the synovial membrane an sac containing clear fluid inserted under
appearance of being covered with a red pile. ligaments and tendons near joints to avoid
Some forms of polyarthritis may be non-septic. friction) occurs mostly at the elbow ('capped
Fibrinous arthritis of bacterial origin is elbow'), knee ('capped knee'), hock ('capped
hyperaemic and oedematous in type. The hock'), shoulder or hip mainly in horses and
synovial fluid is increased in amount and cattle.
turbid. In later stages the villi are greatly A hygroma is an undue accumulation of fluid
enlarged and show granulation tissue. Healing in a bursa, sac or cyst. Poll evil and fistulous
may occur by cessation of the inflammatory withers in horses are forms of bacterial
process or by fibrosis. infection (B. abortus, Streptococcus zooepidemicus,
Septic arthritis in a single joint may be due to Actinomyces bovis, etc.) and parasitic (Onchocerca
a penetrating wound or part of a specific cervicalis) involvement of the supra-atlantal
septicaemic disease, e.g. tick pyaemia, joint ill, bursa.
melioidosis and polyarthritis. The disease also Most cases of bursitis are initially caused by
occurs in calves as a complication of trauma. There is an increase in clear serous
omphalophlebitis and in cows as a sequel to fluid, which in infected cases becomes
septic metritis. Affected joints are swollen and purulent, this occurring especially in poll evil
the synovial membrane is oedematous and and fistulous withers with the formation of
thickened. The synovial fluid is increased in granulation tissue and a tendency to fistulate to
amount, turbid and, in later stages, purulent. the exterior.
Ulceration of the synovial lining takes place
Tumours of joints Sarcoma and synovioma of
and the adjacent tendon sheaths are infiltrated
the synovial membrane are rare.
with serum. Longer-standing cases show
erosion of articular cartilage which may become
completely detached from the epiphysis. Judgement of diseases of bone and joints
Further progression may lead to purulent
Total condemnation Fractures, with infection
osteomyelitis with complete destruction of the
epiphysis. and general effects. Gangrenous / suppurative
osteomyelitis. Arthritis - acute infectious,
Septic omphalophlebitis or navel ill, especially
purulent or fibrinous. Generalised tumours.
in calves and piglets, is most frequently caused
Septic omphalophlebitis.
by pyogenic organisms, although at times by
Salmonella spp. and F. necrophorum. The Approval as fit with seizure of affected part
infection is acquired after birth, usually by the Fracture, uncomplicated. Localised
umbilicus which is hard and swollen with osteomyelitis. Pigmentation. Chronic non-
borders infiltrated with a serosanguineous or infectious arthritis. Presternal calcification.
purulent fluid. A large abscess may sometimes Osteofluorosis. Bursitis. Hygroma. Osteo-
be found in the abdominal wall near the porosis. Localised xanthosis. Actinomycosis.
umbilicus. Alternatively, abscesses may occur Localised parasitic infestations. Localised
in the substance of the liver. The umbilical vein tumours.
 Pathology 495
MUSCULAR SYSTEM affected. Individual muscles or groups of
muscles are affected with well-defined
Various congenital deformities of muscle and greenish, brown-green or grey-green focal
tendons occur in all species, some being stripes or patches which become whitish on
associated with defects in the spinal cord and exposure to air. The greenish colour is due to
motor nerves. They include one or more the presence of eosinophils which accumulate
crooked joints (arthrogryposis), contracture and in and between the muscle fibres, causing them
rigidity of joints, splayleg, diaphragmatic clefts, to necrotise. Lesions may also be present in the
muscular hypoplasia and hyperplasia, myocardium and even throughout the whole
muscular dystrophy and muscular steatosis. musculature. In chronic cases there is excess
Atrophy of muscle may be due to severe connective tissue formation which replaces
malnutrition, senility, disuse, denervation, degenerated muscle fibres. There is now good
ischaemia, injury to motor nerves and pressure, reason to associate this form of myositis with
e.g. from tumours. Wasting of the shoulder and degenerating Sarcocystis spp. since remnants of
foreleg muscles of cattle and sheep is often due these sporozoan parasites are found in the
to radial nerve paralysis. centre of the lesions.
Hypertrophy of individual muscle fibres Sarcocystis spp. have dogs, foxes, wolves and
occurs in overactivity and, with hyperplasia other carnivores as definitive hosts from which
(increase in the total number of fibres), involves sporocysts are liberated in the faeces.
an increase in muscle size. The latter is seen in Sporocysts ingested by the intermediate hosts
the quest for increased productivity of meat in release sporozoites in the intestine to invade
all the food animals. In cattle the so-called, but many forms of tissues. The sporozoites develop
erroneous, 'double muscle' effect occurs in in the endothelium of blood vessels into
many breeds, the Belgian Blue being a typical schizonts, the second or third generation of
distortion, as is the increase in breast muscle in which encyst in striated muscle fibres and
some turkey breeds. produce bradyzoites some three months after
(Atrophy, hypertrophy and hyperplasia are infection. The cycle is completed when the
forms of myopathy which are diseases of infested flesh is consumed by a definitive host.
skeletal muscle excluding those of Sarcocysts in cattle: S. cruzi, S. bovifelis, S.
inflammatory and neural origin.) hominis.
Sarcocysts in sheep: S. tenella, S. ovicanis.
Sarcocysts in pigs: S. porcifelis, S.
Myositis miescheriana, S. porcifelis.
Inflammation of muscle may be part of a Sarcocysts in horses: S. berirami, S. fayeri.
specific disease, e.g. eosinophilic myositis, Toxoplasma gondii (q.v.) and Neospora spp.
bluetongue, toxoplasmosis, foot-and-mouth (q.v.) may occasionally be seen in muscle.
disease, clostridial infections (blackleg, braxy, Onchocerca gobsoni, O. gutturosa and O.
malignant oedema) (q.v.). It may also occur as a lienalis (q.v.) are common in Australia and
local lesion in which abscesses are formed in the North America in the tendons, e.g. ligamentum
muscle due to Haemophilus spp., Actinobacillus nuchae (0. gutturosa) and connective tissues of
spp., Actinomyces pyogenes, C. pseudotuberculosis, cattle.
streptococci and staphylococci. These abscesses Cysticercosis is due to C. bovis (T. saginaia), C.
are normally due to non-sterile inoculations cellulosae (T. solium) (q.v.).
and penetrating wounds. Trichinellosis is due to Trichinella spiralis (q.v.)
Actinobacillosis commonly affects the In severe infestations, hydatid cysts and cysts
masseter and tongue muscles with normal of Multiceps multiceps may be found in muscles.
tissue being replaced by varying amounts of All parasitic infestations of muscle show a
fibrous tissue interspersed with the typical marked tendency to degenerate and become
nodular lesions (q.v.). calcified; greenish foci or calcareous nodules
are almost certainly of parasitic origin.
Interstitial myositis or muscular fibrosis, is
Parasitic diseases of muscle usually seen in imported hindquarters of beef
Eosinophilic myositis is a relatively rare condition but may also occur in home-bred stock. The
occurring mainly in cattle, with sheep less often normal muscular tissue is replaced by bands of
496 Meat Hygiene
white fibrous connective tissue, the lesion being 'Yellow fat' disease (nutritional sieaiiti-
usually localised in the round of beef but nutritional panniculitis) is a form 0:
sometimes occurring in the shoulder and myodegeneration which occurs in piglets ano
lumbar muscles. The probable cause is trauma. foals. It is associated with an excess 0:
Roeckl's granuloma (nodular necrosis) is unsaturated fatty acids and deficiency or
occasionally found in cattle of various ages. It is vitamin E and other antioxidants in the diet as
characterised by greyish-yellow nodules represented by the feeding of fish and fish offa.
(walnut to golf ball in size) of a firm elastic which has become rancid. Ceroid pigment is
consistency, encased in fibrous tissue in the deposited in the adipose tissue which is
muscles and under the skin of the tail, neck, coloured greyish, the fat itself being soft and
shoulder, back, croup and limbs. They are possessing a fishy odour. The muscle
usually fairly superficial - not deeper than degeneration is accompanied by gastric
2.5 cm - but can also be found in the viscera, the ulceration and degenerative changes in the
liver, lungs, testes and lymph nodes in liver.
particular. No specific cause has been found. Muscle injuries are extremely common, most
often occurring from external trauma and
probably constituting the most common reason
for casualty slaughter. In addition to a
Myodegeneration degenerative cause, muscle, especially the
Muscles may undergo degeneration, being seen diaphragm, can rupture during energetic
in severe toxaemic cases, while hyaline exercise or following myositis, the muscle
degeneration occurs in haemoglobinaemia in bulging at the end opposite to the rupture.
horses and in milk fever in cows. Hyaline Hernias occur when the muscle protrudes
changes appear as pale muscle somewhat through the overlying fascia.
resembling the flesh of fish. The condition may
also affect the diaphragm, abdominal and
intercostal muscles in pigs, the affected muscles
Muscular haemorrhages or splashing
being so watery in nature that they can be easily
penetrated. Haemorrhages associated with slaughter may
Nutritional myodegeneration involving the be seen in various locations, e.g. large intestine
ventral serratus muscles has been recorded in of sheep, endocardium of calves and beneath
young Friesian cattle turned out to pasture in the splenic capsule of cattle, but those of most
the spring. These muscles, the main attachment interest to the meat inspector occur in skeletal
of the scapula to the thoracic wall, ruptured as muscles. Here they appear as dark-coloured
a result of degeneration, causing the chest to streaks somewhat resembling brush marks or
drop and the scapulas to protrude above the as a collection of dark red spots varying in size
thoracic spine, the so-called 'flying scapulas' from being scarcely visible to as large as
(Gunning and WaIters, 1994). 30mm.
White muscle disease (WMD), nutritional The muscular portion of the diaphragm is
myopathy, stiff lamb disease, enzootic muscular probably the area most frequently affected.
dystrophy of calves and lambs is an important Splashing may also be evident on the inner
myodegeneration associated with an aspect of the thoracic or abdominal wall and, in
inadequate intake of selenium (q.v.). It may also cattle, on the neck and the longissimus dorsi
occur in goats, foals, deer, rabbits and poultry. muscle. In the pig it may be found in any
A form of myopathy, similar to WMD, has muscle but most often in the hip, thigh, loin,
been noted in cattle and horses which have diaphragm and shoulder. At times the lymph
undergone moderate physical stress during nodes draining tissues affected with splashing
transport, the animals showing acute stiffness, are suffused 'with blood. The frequency of blood
the lesions at post-mortem resembling those of splash in pigs is sometimes related to their close
WMD. confinement in sties with little exercise. Such a
See also porcine stress syndrome and dark, situation also results in muscles heavily
firm dry (DFD) muscle. infiltrated with fat and disposed to rupture.
Calcification, and even ossification, may follow Much research has been carried out on the
degenerative changes and various injuries. cause of blood splashing and its prevention.
 Pathology 497
The main factors involved are thought to be Downer syndrome
undue delay between stunning and bleeding
This is a neuromuscular-skeletal paralysis with
and the increased blood pressure arising from
recumbency and inability to rise which occurs
violent muscle contractions at stunning. Blood
most often in the cow but can affect all other
pressure is likely to be raised by a long journey
or pro-slaughter stress and it is noteworthy that species. It develops as a result of various factors
- injury to bone, muscles, joints, nerves,
the incidence of splashing is lower in animals
fractures, dislocations, etc., or as a sequel to a
that have been rested. Hot weather and
metabolic disorder such as milk fever or gross
excitement before slaughter may also be
tetany in the cow, in which it is most common.
implicated.
It may also follow acute mastitis and dystocia
The rise in arterial blood pressure following
stunning is immediately caused by vaso- but the term is usually applied to parturient
paresis cases.
constriction but this effect does not occur in the
capillaries, which are virtually passive tubes, The condition occurs in heavy animals when
a limb is flexed under the body, the weight of
their diameter being controlled by the state of
tone of the blood vessels supplying them. When the animal creating ischaemia in certain
muscles after prolonged recumbency. Although
the arterioles are constricted the capillaries
the syndrome is seen most often in hindlimbs,
contain relatively little blood, but when the
forelimbs may be involved.
stimulus which causes vasoconstriction ceases,
Downer syndrome is a very common reason
e.g. when the tongs are removed from the head
for casualty slaughter and one which presents
in electrical stunning, the arterioles immediately
great difficulty in judgement for reasons of
dilate and blood rushes into the capillaries. The
condition, oedema, injuries, presence/absence
capillaries, their walls already weakened by
of antibiotic residues etc.
anoxia, permit the passage of blood into the
surrounding tissues, possibly by rupture or Lesions Pressure on the affected limb leads to
diapedesis. muscle ischaemia due to the collapse of veins
The higher the blood pressure the more and arteries. The affected muscles are swollen
severe will be the impingement of blood on the and oedematous and the area in contact with
capillary wall when vasodilatation occurs. Any the floor shows superficial sores and muscle
factor, such as excitement, that elevates the blanching. Continued pressure causes
blood pressure prior to slaughter predisposes to infarction of the muscles, which become dark in
splashing. Conversely, any procedure which colour and haemorrhagic, these changes being
rapidly reduces the blood pressure following more severe in the depths of the muscles. In
stunning, e.g. immediate bleeding, will reduce very prolonged cases scar tissue may be evident
the occurrence of splashing. as irregular patches in the muscle tissue.
The UK Meat Research Institute at
Bristol has assessed the overall incidence of
Bruising
blood splash in sheep at 10%. Its
occurrence has increased with the A bruise is caused by the release of blood from
introduction of electrical stunning. A study ruptured vessels into surrounding tissue.
of 2700 lambs showed that electrical Bruises may occur on or in any part of the
stunning (either at 90 V and 50 Hz or 130 V animal body but the vast majority in cattle
and 1500 Hz) produced a much higher involve the hip area (loin damage), in pigs the
frequency of muscular haemorrhages than ham area, and in sheep the hindleg. Bruising
captive bolt stunning. may be slight, causing little or no trimming, or
In addition to stunning techniques, it is so extensive that the whole carcase must be
likely that other factors such as diet may be condemned.
involved. Anticoagulant compounds such as In the USA an estimated $61 million is lost
coumarins in certain pastures may be each year due to bruising and it appears to be
responsible for prolonging the blood-dotting increasing. A considerable proportion of the
time as well as making the capillaries more huge loss is attributable to poor transportation,
fragile and liable to rupture (Winstanley, especially by contractors. The rough handling
1981). that causes bruising can also reduce carcase
For rigor mortis see Chapter 2. weight, tenderness, colour and flavour.
498 Meat Hygiene
In Australia the relative susceptibility of of the meat plant. A very serious animal welfare
cattle of different sexes was assessed in five situation is also involved.
trials (Yeh et al., 1978). It was found that In addition to muscle and fat damage, the act
bruising was more serious in cows than in of bruising can also damage hides, fleeces and
steers based on the amount of meat trimmed skins, the problem being all too common in
from carcases. The extent of bruising in cows, horned and mixed stock.
but not in steers, increased with longer Defects in flooring (rough surfaces, jagged
transportation. edges, uneven slats, etc.) in vehicles, byres and
Two recent surveys in the UK (McNally and even meat plant lairages are responsible for many
Harris, 1992) showed that of a total of over injuries, especially to limbs but also to other parts
16000 carcases, animals from live auctions had of the body. Pigs in particular are affected, some
more bruising and more meat rejected for even developing shoulder abscesses.
bruising than animals from dealers and farms. A troublesome condition in hams, incorrectly
The proportion of carcases with stick markings termed ham bruise, is a haemorrhagic area seen
was higher in market cattle (2.5%) than in cattle at the inner aspect of the ham anterior to the
from farms (0.9%). The amount of bruising was head of the femur. It is caused by escaped
much higher in animals which were stick- blood-stained fluid from the hip joint as a result
marked (35%) than in the whole population of tearing of the round ligament and rupture of
surveyed (6.5%). Young bulls had the lowest the joint capsule, and is brought about largely
percentage of bruising and the least amount of during shackling and hoisting of the pig to the
meat rejected of all the categories of animals overhead rail for bleeding. A similar condition
surveyed. There was less 'important' bruising in occurs in cattle.
animals travelling less than 50 miles from
markets, but over 50 miles the amount of Age of bruises
important bruising did not increase. However, This can with some accuracy be gauged
the incidence of all bruising increased with the
visually; for the first few hours bruises are red
distance travelled and with the time the animal and haemorrhagic; at 24 h they are dark
spent in the lairage. More than half the carcases
coloured, becoming watery up to 38 h; after 3
surveyed (59%) had some degree of bruising
days bruises have a rusty appearance and are
caused by pre-slaughter handling. The areas
soapy to the touch.
most frequently bruised were the butt and hip,
The bilirubin test for bruise age has not
loin, shoulder / foreleg and neck, hindleg and
justified initial claims. The test depends on a
flank/brisket. The number of carcases with an
colour reaction between Fouchet's reagent and
ultimate pH (pHu) of over 5.8 and the average
bilirubin, the breakdown product of
pHu of the muscle increased with the amount of
haemoglobin from the haemorrhage. There is no
carcase bruising. The average weight of meat
useful colour change with early bruises; older
rejected from each carcase was 0.308kg from the
ones can be seen visually without a test.
most valuable parts of the carcases. At a
Another test for bruise age is available in kit
wholesale value of £2 per kg this loss due to
form. It measures the circulating blood levels of
bruising was estimated at £616 per 1000 cattle
two enzymes (glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase)
slaughtered. If the survey at this particular plant
(GOT) and creatine phosphokinase (CPK), which
were representative of the whole UK meat
are released from damaged muscle tissue.
industry, the total losses from the 2.8 million
The most accurate method of dating bruises
cattle slaughtered annually would amount to
comes from forensic medicine. This depends on
approximately £1.7 million.
the recognition of haemosiderin, a breakdown
However, it was found that the loss from
product of haemoglobin and particular cell
down-grading was 1.75 times greater than the
types. It is, however, unsuitable for large
loss due to trimmed bruised tissue (Crandin,
numbers of samples and requires experienced
1980). If this figure were to apply to the British
personnel.
meat industry, the overall annual loss would be
£4.5 million.
Besides the actual loss of meat, the act of Injection abscesses
trimming is time-consuming, adds to meat Necrosis, abscesses or localised areas of oedema
inspectors' duties and interrupts the operation may be observed as a result of subcutaneous,
 Pathology 499
intramuscular or intravenous injections of mixing of different social groups of pigs may
drugs, antibiotics and hormones. If injection also predispose to PSS. The condition is also
sites are evident at post-mortem inspection, it is recognised in man and dogs.
advisable to obtain samples of muscle, body Susceptible live pigs can be recognised by
fluids or blood for the presence of illegal brief exposure to the anaesthetic halothane, the
substances. Common sites for injection damage animals developing rigidity of limbs which can
are the prescapular region of the neck, the be reversed by stopping the anaesthesia and by
shoulder and gluteal muscle groups. In cattle, cooling with cold water or ice. The exact action
hormone implants may be found in the of the halothane in not known.
subcutaneous muscle, especially on the mid-
Lesions PSE describes accurately the
line of the back between the shoulders, at the
appearance of affected skeletal muscle, which
root of the tail and in the region of the triceps of
are pale, soft and exudative. Rigor mortis
the foreleg. In fact, almost anywhere but the ear.
develops very rapidly with a pH of 5.8 or lower.
The muscles most often involved are those of
'Wet carcase syndrome' the loin, back, shoulder and thigh and these
may show haemorrhages. The myocardium
This condition has been observed in lambs in
may be very pale in colour. Usually there is
South Africa and is responsible for significant
pulmonary oedema, hydropericardium,
condemnations (Brock, 1983). Affected animals
hydrothorax and congestion of the liver.
are of the non-wool type and come from regions
where supplementary feeding with
concentrates is necessary. Lesions in the form of Tumours of muscle
layers of slimy translucent jelly-like
These are relatively rare, although neoplasms of
encapsulated material occur over the buttocks,
supporting tissues, e.g. fibromas, are fairly
briskets and flanks. Unlike oedematous
common. The most common tumour of muscle
carcases, however, the renal, sternal and
is metastatic lymphosarcoma (malignant
mesenteric fat is normal. A similar condition is
lymphoma). Rhabdomyoma and rhabdo-
said to exist in the Sudan and France.
myosarcoma are respectively benign and
malignant tumours which may occasionally be
Porcine stress syndrome (PSS, malignant seen.
hyperthermia, back muscle necrosis,
transport death, enzootische herztod) (see
Judgement of diseases of the muscular system
also Chapter 2)
Total condemnation Generalised bruising.
Malignant hyperthermia occurs worldwide,
Malignant tumours. Multiple tumours.
being most common in those breeds of pigs
Generalised wet carcase syndrome. Generalised
(Pietrain, Poland China, Hampshire, Landrace
sarcocystosis. Trichinellosis.
and crosses) selected for heavy muscling and
leanness with short legs. PSS results from a Approved as fit with seizure of affected part
hereditable defect in which there is an inability Localised bruising. Calcareous deposits.
to maintain homeostasis (the maintenance of Localised tumour formation. PSS. DFD.
the body's internal equilibrium in response to Localised wet carcase syndrome. Injection and
external and internal changes), stress causing other abscesses. Muscular haemorrhages.
an excessive stimulation of ~-adrenergic Yellow fat disease. Myodegeneration. Localised
receptors with rapid depletion of ATP, sarcocystosis. Roeckel's granuloma. Localised
glycolysis of muscle and the production of parasitic cysts. Interstitial myositis. Muscle
localised or generalised amounts of lactic acid atrophy. Actinobacillosis. Localised congenital
in muscle. deformities.
Any factors calculated to induce stress in
susceptible pigs may bring on acute dyspnoea,
tachycardia, hyperthermia and, possibly, rapid NERVOUS SYSTEM
onset of death. These stressors include adverse
transport conditions, fighting, overcrowding, Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain;
fatigue, high temperatures and humidity. The meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges
500 Meat Hygiene
(pachymeningitis when dura mater is inflamed and sows - the so-called 'production diseases' -
leptomeningitis when the pia arachnoid is come into this category. Apart from a fatty liver
involved). Myelitis is an inflammation of the in ketosis and pregnancy toxaemia, bruising
spinal cord and choroiditis when the choroid and subcutaneous extravasations of blood
plexus (which secretes the cerebrospinal fluid) is there are few significant lesions. '
affected. Various combinations of these terms
occur depending on the parts of the CNS Congenital defects These are relatively
involved, e.g. encephalomyelitis (brain and spinal common in all the food animals because of the
cord), meningoencephalitis (meninges and brain). susceptibility of the CNS to teratogens and
Brain and spinal cord abscesses: Infection of because of its fundamental position in
the brain may occur via the blood, peripheral embryogenesis. Some of the abnormalities
nerves, from adjacent infected structures in the recorded have been shown to be due to the
skull/ sinuses / vertebral column or directly by action of certain viruses, e.g. Rift Valley fever,
trauma. Infection includes the various pyogenic Bluetongue, Border disease, and classic swine
organisms (Actinomyces pyogenes, Str. fever. Abnormalities in the size, shape and
pneumoniae, Past. haemolytica, P. muliocida. structure of the brain as well as aplasia and
Listeria monocytogenes, Haemophilus somnus, E. hypoplasia of the brain and spinal cord occur.
rhusiopaihiae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), all of Hydrocephalus is an excess of fluid in the
which can produce abscesses. cranial cavity, either in the ventricles or the
They occur mostly in pigs (usually as a result arachnoid space or both and may be associated
of tail biting) and in sheep (often from careless with an enlargement of the cranium.
docking methods) and are usually small in size, The so-called Dandy-Walker syndrome affects
faintly yellowish in colour and placed between sheep, calves and dogs and comprises
the dura mater and the bone. Pressure is often hydrocephalus, cystic enlargement of the roof
exerted on the CNS and spinal cord, resulting in of the posterior aspect of the 4th ventricle and
nervous symptoms and paralysis. agenesis or hypoplasia of the cerebellar vermis.
Listeriosis causes an encephalitis in adult This rare congenital brain and skull
ruminants, pigs and sometimes in calves and malformation was recorded in a total of 34
lambs. Although responsible for abscessation in lambs from 222 ewes in three apparently
the liver, heart and other organs, there are no unrelated flocks of Suffolk sheep in England
gross lesions in the brain but on occasions and Scotland in 1992 (Pritchard et al., 1992).
meninges may show microabscess formation. Syringomyelia is a rare inherited condition of
Leptomeningitis is nearly always purulent in the spinal cord in which the central canal is
type and like cerebral abscesses is usuallv distended with fluid, with necrosis of the
haematogenous in origin. - adjoining nerve tissue.
Tuberculous meningitis in the bovine is an
example of haematogenous infection of Degenerative changes The brain and spinal
congenital origin and is usually encountered in cord are susceptible to various poisons
young cattle up to 1;1;; years old. Tuberculous acquired in the feed or via metabolic
abscesses may be found in the lumbar vertebrae disturbances. Examples of poisons are lead,
of pigs. nitrate/nitrite, fluoroacetate and sodium
Specific diseases which may affect the CNS chloride, while ketosis in cows and pregnancy
include listeriosis, Aujeszky's disease, rabies, toxaemia in ewes can result in convulsions and
bovine malignant catarrh, infectious bovine neuronal degeneration.
meningoencephalitis, classic swine fever, Necrosis of brain tissue is termed
African swine fever, enzootic ataxia, border encephalomalacia and myelomalacia when the
disease, louping ill, scrapie, bovine spongiform spinal cord is affected, the term malacia
encephalopathy (BSE). meaning softening. Such changes are seen in
Certain metabolic affections of the live enterotoxaemia in lambs and mulberry heart
animal are associated with symptoms of disease in pigs and in various forms of injury.
nervous derangement, necessitating casualty Tumours Most neoplasms of the CNS in the
slaughter. Hypomagnesaemic tetany, parturient food animals are secondary and are of a wide
paresis (milk fever) and ketosis in cows, variety, some being congenital in origin. They
pregnancy toxaemia in ewes and eclampsia in can arise from nerve tissue (glioma,
 Pathology 501
meningioma, astrocytoma, sarcoma, encephalitis, meningitis without fever, etc.
neurofibroma, Schwann cell tumour, Abnormal behaviour without fever, etc.
medulloblastoma, ganglioneuroma) or vascular
tissue (haemangioma, meningioma).
Pigmentation Blue-black deposits of melanin
are frequently evident on the spinal cord and ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE
meninges of calves and older cattle and are
normal if localised. While it is unlikely that most lesions of the eye
and ear per se will be of consequence in the
Parasitic diseases Various cysticerci (C bovis
judgement of carcases, some relating to the eye
(cattle), C cellulosae (pig), C tenuicoilis (sheep))
are of importance in making an overall
may be found occasionally in the brain, but
diagnosis besides being of value to the livestock
whether this is a normal predilection site or
producer in the feedback of disease
not is difficult to say. However, Coenurus
information.
cerebralis is quite common in the brains of
sheep, and less commonly in cattle, suggesting
that this is a site to the parasite's liking.
Immature worms of Setaria spp. may occur in Eye
the CNS of horses, sheep and goats, while The state of the conjunctiva, cornea, lens and
Stephanurus dentaius (q.v.) is often found eyelids is important in the diagnosis of certain
encysted in the meninges of pigs. The first specific diseases. It is important to note
stage larvae of Hypoderma bovis use the spinal evidence of a discharge from the eyes,
canal and its epidural fat as a resting stage and inflammation/pigmentation/pallor of the
can regularly be found there. Because of their conjunctivae and membrana nictitans, oedema
proximity to the brain in the frontal sinuses, and abnormal movements of the eyelids,
the young larvae of Oestrus ovis are frequently corneal opacity and ulceration and cataract of
found in the CNS of sheep. the lens, since these may denote certain
systemic disease particularly those associated
Injuries Fractures of the vertebral column
with anaemia and icterus, keratoconjunctivitis
may nip or sever the spinal cord, causing
(cattle, sheep and goats), mycoplasmosis (M.
paralysis, a condition which may be
bovoculi), photosensitisation and neoplasia,
encountered in bulls. Lesser forms of injury
especially squamous cell carcinoma while
may result in localised necrosis of the spinal
eyelid and eyeball movement can sometimes
cord due to vascular damage. The brain and
detect lesions of the CNS.
spinal cord may suffer injury from various
Emaciation is associated with a retraction of
forms of trauma, some of which may result in
the eyeballs in their sockets.
concussion or even immediate death. All forms
The condition and position of the membrana
of injury are liable to secondary infection.
nictitans (third eyelid) is important since it may
Cows may suffer mechanical damage to
indicate tetanus and encephalitis if prominent
spinal nerves from accidents, parturition or and inflamed.
mating sufficient to produce posterior
Oedema of the eyelids is usually diagnostic
paralysis. of oedema disease in pigs and of
photosensitisation in sheep and other species in
Judgement of diseases of the nervous system which it is usually accompanied by oedema of
the ears, muzzle and face.
Total condemnation Brain abscesses
Anaemia is shown by pallor of the conjuncti-
associated with pyaemia. Acute encephalitis
vae and other mucosae and may be caused by
and meningitis. CNS lesions associated with
extensive haemorrhage (haemorrhagic
specific infective disease. Malignant tumours.
anaemia) or by extensive destruction of RBCs
Multiple tumours. Abnormal behaviour and
(haemolytic anaemia). Petechial haemorrhages
signs of infection. (Downer syndrome with
in the conjunctivae may also occur in cases of
signs of acute disease.)
haemolytic anaemia.
Approved as fit with seizure of affected part: Jaundice or icterus is indicated by a yellow
Localised brain or spinal cord abscess. Chronic discoloration of the conjunctivae and may
502 Meat Hygiene
signal obstructive jaundice, hepatocellular parasites such as sarcoptic mites
jaundice or haemolytic jaundice (d. haemolytic cannibalism in pigs. It may also be a sequel ::
anaemia). photosensitisation, both primary ar.c
Blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelids) may secondary. The use of some types of ear tags 15
be a local infection, part of a generalised currently causing severe infection, especially I:-.
dermatitis, or the result of irritants. cattle and sheep.
Conjunctivitis (inflammation of the The most common tumours are squamo.i,
conjunctivae) may be a local infection or part of cell carcinoma, adenoma, chondroma in catt.,
a serious disease, e.g. chlamydial conjunctivitis and sarcoid in horses.
in sheep and goats (Chlamydia psittaci).
Keratitis is an inflammation of the cornea and Judgement of diseases of the eyes and ears
may be a local infection, part of a systemic
disease, or due to parasitic infection, e.g. Total condemnation Eye and ear lesions as
infectious keratoconjunctivitis (contagious part of specific infective disease with fever, etc.
ophthalmia) (q.v.). Malignant tumours with metastases. Multiple
Ophthalmia is a term applied to severe benign tumours. Blue ear disease. Ergo:
inflammatory changes in the eye which may be poisoning. Secondary photosensitisation wit.:
localised or part of a general disease, e.g. icterus, etc.
contagious ophthalmia. Periodic ophthalmia Partial condemnation/seizure of head less
(equine uveitis, moon blindness) is a disease of tongue Localised eye and ear conditions.
uncertain origin (leptospirae, Onchocerca Primary photosensitisation.
cervicalis) in which there is blindness due to
major changes in the eyes.
Parasitic infections include infectious
keratoconjunctivitis (q.v.), periodic ophthalmia REFERENCES
and thelaziasis, a common condition in all
species of food animals, especially in North Biss, M. E., Hathaway S. C, Purchase, R. W. and
America, caused by various genera of Thelazia Wilkinson, B. H. P. (1993) Vet. Rec. 132,548.
Bogin, E., Avidar, Y., Merom, M., Soback, S. and
spp. eye worms. Dirofilaria immiiis, Toxocara
Brenner, G. (1988) J. Camp. Pathal. 98,337.
spp., Onchocerca cervicalis, Setaria spp. and Bowie, J. (1993) Vet. Rec. 131,255.
cysticerci (pigs) may also cause severe Bradley, R. and Duffell, S. J. (1982) J. Camp. Pathal. 92,
ophthalmia. 85-97.
Tumours of the eyes include squamous cell Bradley, R. and Duffell, S. J. (1982) Vet. Rec. 102,
carcinoma, the most important bovine tumour 269-270.
in North America (occurring mostly in Bremner, A. S. (1994) Vet. Rec. 136, 622.
Herefords) and responsible for significant Brock, R. M. (1983) Vet. Rec. 20,118.
condemnation rates in meat plants. Horses may Brock, R. M. (1983) Vet. Rec. 118,56.
also be affected, the tumour occurring in the Buchanan and Crawshaw (1995) Vet. Rec. 136, 640.
eyelids, membrana nictitans and limbus (edge Carr, J. and WaIton, J. R. (1993) Vet. Rec. 132, 575-577.
Codex Alimentarius Commission. Alinorm 93/16A.
of the cornea).
Cross, G. M. and Edwards, M. J. (1981) Aust. Vet. J.
Eye neoplasms may be either primary or 57,153.
secondary, occurring as metastases from other Doxey, D. L. and Scott, P. R. (1983) Vet. Rec. 113, 112.
sites. Less common forms include melanoma Duffell, S. J. and Edwardson, R. (1978) Vet. Rec. 102,
and adenoma. 269-270.
Elbers, A. R. W. et al. (1995) Vet. Rec. 137, 290-293.
Evans, D. G. and Pratt, J. H. (1978) Br. Vet. J. 134,476.
Ear Flesja, K. 1. and Ulvesaeter, H. O. (1980) Acta Vet.
Like the eye, the ear may be affected with Scand. 74, Supp. 74.
primary conditions such as parasitic diseases, Gezon, H. M. et al. (1991) J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assac. 198,
257-263,
e.g. mange mites, ticks, ringworm, or be
Grandin, T. (1980) lni. J. Study Anim. Prob. 1, 121.
associated with generalised disease. Green, L. E., Wyatt, J. M. and Morgan, K. L. (1992)
Necrosis of the pinna may be due to various Vet. Rec. 130, 121-122.
bacteria involved in septicaemia, e.g. blue ear Gunning, R. F. and WaIters, R. J. W. (1994) Vet. Rec.
disease. Borrelia spp. infection, ergot poisoning, 135,433-434.
 Pathology 503
Har tley, P. E., Wilesmith, J. W. a nd Bradley, R. (1988) Monaghan, M. L. M . and Ha nn a n, J. (1983) Vet . Ree.
Vet. Rec. 123, 173-175. 113, 55.
H aywa rd , A. H. S. and Baker-Smith, J. (1978) Vet. Monaghan, M. L. M. (1982) Irish Vrt. J. 36, 88.
Rec. 102, 96-97. Obwolo, M. ]. and Lawson, G. (1992) Vet. Krc. 130,
Head, K. W. (1990) In Practice (Ma rch), 68-76. 122-123.
He ren da, D. and Dukes, T. W. (1988) Caned. Vd . J. 29, Poulson, J. S. D. (1976) Vet. R« . 98, 149.
730. Pritchard, J. et al. (1992) Vet. Rt'(. 135, 163-164.
Iackso n, P. G. G. (1993) III Practict (Mav) 119-127; Welchman, D. de B. and Baust , G. N. (1987) Vd. R«.
(Jul\') 193-196. . 121, 586-590.
lanes, j. E. 1. (1980) RLs. Vet. Sa. 28, 281. Wells, G. H., Hebert, C. N . and Rob ins, B. C. (1980)
Lamont, M . H., Hunt, B. and Mercer, R. (19tH) Vet. Vet. &c. 106, 532
Rt'C. 115, 22. WmstanJey, M. (981) Mt'tlt M aga=illt· (~ay ) 12-13.
Made!, A. j . (1981) Vd. Rn:. 109, 362-363. Yeh, E., Anderson, B., lanes, r. N. and Shaw, F. D.
McNally, P. W. a nd Hams, P. D. (1992) Vet. kc. 138, (1978) Vet. Rtc . 103, 117.
126-128. Yogaratna m, V. (1995) Vet. Rt'C. 138, 215.
 Chapter 17
Infectious Diseases

Infection is an invasion of body tissues with Pathology (lesions, necropsy findings) will be
microorganisms which multiply and cause cell treated in some detail in order to assist the meat
damage with the production of toxins, and, inspector in diagnosis.
usually, a high temperature and an
antigen-antibody response.
Infectious diseases (bacterial, viral, fungal, Judgement
protozoal and parasitic) are responsible for Authority is given in some countries, e.g. the
most losses in the food animals throughout the USA and Canada, to condemn on ante-mortem
world and are, therefore, of great economic examination. These cases include those dead on
importance. Viral diseases, in particular, are arrival and moribund animals and all
capable of affecting large numbers of animals conditions requiring total carcase condemnation
and spreading very rapidly. Along with certain at post-mortem inspection. In the USA all cases
bacterial disease they are endemic (present at of CNS disorders, rabies, various poisonings
all times) in some countries. (metal, fluorine, pesticide, etc.) and diseases and
Control measures include accurate conditions requiring further observation or
diagnosis, detailed epidemiological and treatment are totally condemned.
laboratory investigations, quarantine and Eventual judgement of carcase meat and offal
movement control, treatment or slaughter of is based on all the accumulated evidence - the
affected stock, burial/burning of affected history of the animal, clinical signs, post-mortem
carcases, cleansing and disinfection of lesions and any laboratory results. Decisions on
premises, proper disposal of contaminated post-mortem inspection, like systems of
materials, including feed, water, wildlife, etc., inspection, vary in different countries. For
vaccination of susceptible animals and sound example, while only three categories of decisions
husbandry measures, including the breeding of are allowed in the United Kingdom - (a) fit for
resistant livestock. human consumption, (b) totally unfit for human
Emphasis will be placed on those conditions most consumption and (c) partially condemned - other
likely to be encountered at meat inspection. These countries adopt extra categories: utilisation ofheat
are most likely to be chronic in nature, although treatment andfreezing for infected and contaminated
acute cases, even dead and moribund animals, meat, the use of inferior meat fit for human
are sometimes presented. So the inspectors consumption, and the approval of meat as fit for
responsible for ante-mortem examination must human consumption but restricted in distribution, all
be on the alert for untoward conditions, even three categories being under official supervision.
notifiable diseases, delivered as casualty The following judgement symbols (Disposition
animals, especially in those countries where Codes) are used, with modifications, according to
veterinary certification is lax. Indeed, the the Codex Alimentarius Commission Report on
abattoir has often been the place where Meat Hygiene, Rome. 1993:
notifiable disease was first recognised.
Each disease will bedescribed under the headings: Ante-mortem:
identification (I), occurrence (0), infectious agent
(lA), reservoir (R), mode of transmission (MT), T Totally condemn.
clinical findings (CF), pathology (P), diagnosis (D) R Retain for rest and treatment.
and judgement (J). S Treat as suspect.

505
506 Meat Hygiene
Post-mortem: • Actinomycesaciinoides - Secondary invade-
in enzootic pneumonia (calves) and semir.s,
A Approve as fit for human consumption. vesiculitis (bulls).
T Totally unfit for human consumption. • Actinobacillus equuli - Peritonitis (horses I.
D Partially condemn. diarrhoea (calves).
K Conditionally approve as fit for human • Actinobacillus suis - Septicaemia and arth:-::.:5
consumption (Kh, heat treatment. Kt, freezing (young pigs).
or heat treatment). • Actinobacillus seminis- Epididymitis (rams
I Meat showing minor deviations from normal septicaemia, synovitis and abscessation
but fit for human consumption. (young lambs).
L Approved as fit for human consumption with
distribution restricted to limited areas. Human actinomycosis is usually caused by
Not applicable, e.g. in total condemnation the A. israelii, A naeslundii, A. meyeri and .-\.
columns referring to D are not applicable. propionicus.
All Actinomyces and Actinobacillus spp. ~c
In some countries approval for human Gram-positive, non-acid-fast, anaerobic
consumption may be given subject to restriction microaerophilic organisms which are branched
of distribution to limited areas, e.g. meat from rods with a tendency to mycelial growth (mass
animals derived from an area under quarantine of thread-like process or hyphae) in young
because of an outbreak of contagious disease cultures.
provided there is no risk to human health. Nocardia spp., especially Nocardia madurae,
can also cause granulomatous and suppurative
lesions in man (madura foot) and animals.
Staph. aureus has been incriminated in causing
cases of udder actinomycosis in the cow and
BACTERIAL DISEASE sow.

ACTINOMYCOSIS ('LUMPY JAW') R. (Reservoir) A. bovis and A. lignieresi are

ACTINOBACILLOSIS ('WOODEN normal inhabitants of the mouth, the latter also
TONGUE') occurring in the bovine rumen.

I. (Identification) Both diseases are chronic, MT. (Mode of transmission) The bacteria
suppurative conditions in which gain entrance through wounds caused either by
granulomatous lesions are formed in bone teeth defects or sharp objects like barley awns
(actinomycosis) or soft tissues (actinobacillosis). or foreign bodies.
They occur infrequently and sporadically,
usually being encountered as single cases CF. (Clinical findings) Actinomycosis
though several animals may be involved at any enlargement of mandible or maxilla, at first
one time. Cattle, pigs and sheep are most painless but later painful, with presence of
commonly affected with horses and man less lesions described below. Salivation, chronic
so. indigestion, bloat, diarrhoea, depraved appetite
O. (Occurrence) Worldwide in distribution. and loss of condition are found in both
conditions.
lA. (Infectious agents) Different species of
Actinomyces and Actinobacillus are involved in P. (Pathology) Actinomycosis - in cattle the
the production of these granulomas (probably lesion confined to the mandible or maxilla,
in association with pyogenic and other bacteria) especially the former, which becomes inflamed
and have been isolated from various other (osteomyelitis), rarefied and thickened ('lumpy
conditions. jaw'). The bone assumes a honeycombed
• Actinomyces botns- Actinomycosis (cattle), appearance on section. In later stages the
udder actinomycosis (sows) and fistulous thickened bone is evident from the exterior. The
withers and poll evil (horses). swellings eventually break through the skin
• Actinobacillus lignieresi - Actinobacillosis and discharge a sticky, honey-like fluid
(cattle and sheep) containing fine, firm yellowish-white granules.
 Infectious Diseases 507
Extension to nearby tissues may occur, e.g. In cattle, sessile fibrous tumours may occur
muscles of the throat, although this is often on the skin.
difficult to differentiate from actinobacillosis. In sheep, lesions up to 8cm in diameter occur
The two conditions may co-exist. Rarely, there on the nose, face and lower jaw but the tongue
may be extension via the bloodstream to other is not usually affected. There is an associated
organs, the most common lesions involving the lymphadenitis, the cranial and cervical lymph
oesophagus and the reticulum. Interference nodes being enlarged. These fibrous nodules
with prehension and mastication with digestive rupture and discharge through several
upset and diarrhoea in the extensive form occur openings a thick yellowish-green pus
with eventual loss of condition. containing fine yellowish granules. As in cattle,
In pigs extensive granulomatous nodules extension may occur to stomachs and
may occur on the skin and udder. Wounds due peritoneum.
to fighting and the teeth of sucking piglets are
D. (Diagnosis) A yellowish sulphur granule
the probable means of entry. In the sow's udder
should be crushed between two microscope
a more common lesion takes the form of a firm
slides and fixed. Stain one slide with Gram's
fibrous tumour containing several abscesses
stain and another with modified Ziehl-Neelsen
affecting part or all of the udder. Less
stain. With Gram the organisms appear as a
commonly, indurated ulcers form on the skin
Gram-positive central filamentous mass
surface.
surrounded by a Gram-negative zone of
In man actinomycosis may occur in the jaw,
radiating clubs which represent deposited
thorax or abdomen (liver), the lesions taking
lipoid material. With Z-N stain the clubs are
the form of indurated fibrous areas containing
acid-fast and the mycelial mass non-acid-fast
pus. These may form sinuses which reach the
(also Culture, serology).
surface. There is no evidence that
actinomycosis in man is acquired from animals, J. (Judgement)
the species of organisms being specific for man.
Carcase: Lesions confined, e.g., to head, A.
A. israelii has been isolated from carried teeth,
Extensive lesions, T.
tonsils and vaginal secretions.
Viscera: Lesions confined, e.g., to head, A.
Actinobacillosis - in cattle the tongue is Extensive lesions, T.
swollen and firm especially at its base. Ulcers
Diseased or affected parts / organs: D.
and granulomas appear at the side of the
Approval (A) is subject to satisfactory
tongue along with lymphadenitis of the
condition of carcase with no evidence of
submaxillary, parotid, retropharyngeal and
anaemia or degenerative changes.
occasionally, mediastinal lymph nodes. If head is condemned, tongue is also
Nodules may rupture to the surface and
condemned.
discharge a yellowish-green pus containing
granular' sulphur bodies'.
In the bovine rumen and reticulum lesions
take the form of raised plaques on the mucosa
ANTHRAX
with fibrous thickening of the stomach wall.
These plaques may ulcerate with extension of
(Malignant pustule, Splenic fever, Malignant
the process to the liver, oesophagus, oedema, Woolsorters' disease, Ragpickers'
diaphragm, peritoneum and lungs. On the disease, Milzbrand, Charbon.)
peritoneum, usually the left side, cauliflower-
like fibrous nodules containing minute I. A usually acute or peracute, septicaemic
yellowish foci appear, while in the liver the infective zoonosis which may occur in a chronic
lesions are circular and may be as large as 5 cm form, especially in the pig. Although normally
in diameter. In the lungs, where the lesion can fatal, recovery sometimes occurs, particularly
reach a huge size, the smaller ones are irregular in the pig. While usually sporadic in temperate
in shape without pus while the older and larger countries, anthrax can occur as serious
lesions contain a yellowish-green pus. Incision outbreaks in tropical and subtropical countries
of these older lesions reveals a marbled with high rainfall, e.g. an outbreak in Western
appearance due to the presence of a greenish- Province in Zambia in 1947 in which 156 cattle
black pigment. and about 100 wildebeest died (Tuchili et al.,
508 Meat Hygiene
1993). The disease also affects other wildlife e.g. vultures and various other predators, may
such as elephant, hippopotami, buffalo, lechwe, act as carriers of infection. .
impala and zebra. All domestic animals are
susceptible, although goats and horses are less CF. Peracute form: cattle and sheep - animal is
commonly affected. usually found dead without any premonitory
Notifiable disease (UK). symptoms. Rigor mortis is absent or
incomplete. Dark, tarry-like blood which does
o. Worldwide in distribution but probably not clot is evident at mouth, anus, nostrils and
more common in African, Asian and European vulva.
countries. The organism is often restricted to Acute form: Usually lasts about 48 h. Fever.
certain soils - 'anthrax belts' where it is depression, very high temperature (ca. 107°CI.
enzootic (present constantly in a location). A rapid respiration, anorexia, congested mucosae.
serious outbreak occurred in Victoria, Australia diarrhoea or dysentery and possible abortion.
in January 1997 with over 140 deaths in cattle In pigs and horses there is fever, anorexia.
and three in sheep on 59 properties. Vaccination listlessness with oedema of throat, face, neck
of cattle and sheep in the affected areas was and abdomen with petechial haemorrhages on
carried out. the skin. Dysentery may be present with bloody
froth at the nostrils.
lA. Bacillus anihracis, a Gram-positive It must always be remembered that antibiotic
encapsulated, spore-forming, non-motile rod therapy may mask the symptoms of anthrax and
4-8 pm x 1-1.5 pm. A facultative anaerobe, it is other diseases.
one of the largest of the pathogenic bacteria and
very resistant in its spore form. Spores, which P. The possibility of anthrax in all cases of
are formed in the presence of sufficient oxygen, sudden or rapid onset of death should be excluded
can resist heat for long periods (dry heat at by the examination of a blood smear before any
140°C for 1-3 h and moist heat at lOOoe for attempt at post-mortem is made. If there is reason
5-10 min). Spores never occur in tissues, only to suspect anthrax the carcase must not be opened.
when the bacteria are shed, e.g. from nose, The opening of a carcase with discharge of blood
mouth and anus of affected animal and when creates widespread sporulation with disinfection
grown on artificial media. problems.
A new variant of the anthrax toxin which is Ecchymoses throughout the body tissues.
totally resistant to antibiotics has been Engorgement of superficial veins of skin and
developed in Russia, a sinister production in muscle giving the carcase a fiery red colour.
the field of biological warfare. Blood-stained fluid in body cavities. Very
enlarged soft spleen (may be absent in sheep).
R. Animals, as listed above. The spores of Dark tarry non-clotting blood. Haemorrhagic
anthrax can survive for as long as 3 years or enteritis. Cloudy swelling of heart, liver and
more. There is evidence that B. anihracis can kidneys. Rapid decomposition. Bloat. In horses
multiply in the soil under favourable and pigs gelatinous material in subcutaneous
conditions of temperature, pH and nutrients swellings with enlargement of local lymph
and thus be responsible for serious outbreaks in nodes. In pigs a local intestinal form has been
both domestic and wild animals, especially in recognised in which the lymph nodes of the
tropical and subtropical countries. head and mesentery undergo necrosis, the
degenerated material becoming surrounded
MT. Infection occurs through ingestion,
with fibrous material, enlargement and
inhalation or via the skin. Ingestion of
engorgement of some lymph nodes with a dark
contaminated water and food, e.g. meat, bone
grey appearance and necrotic foci evident in
meal or other foods and soil, is a common mode
others.
of transmission. Inhalation anthrax is due to the
inhalation of spores. Skin infection is due to D. Diagnosis is confirmed by the examination
contact with the tissues of affected animals, of a smear of peripheral blood, oedematous fluid
contaminated materials (hair, wool, hides, or lymph node where the organisms are difficult
skins, etc., and products made from them). to demonstrate in the circulating blood, e.g. in
Biting flies which have fed on anthrax carcases horses and pigs. Blood is best carefully collected
have been incriminated. Some forms of wildlife, from an ear vein to avoid unnecessary
 Infectious Diseases 509
contamination and sporulation. In cases of is surrounded by extensive oedema. Anthrax
malignant pustule in man, a swab is taken from sores may be acquired by scratching an itchy
one of the vesicles or alternatively fluid is part with infected fingers.
collected in a capillary tube which is then sealed. Symptoms in man include high temperature,
Smears stained by McFadyean's methylene rigors, headache, lack of appetite and nausea.
blue show the anthrax bacilli as large blue Untreated cases may die in 2-3 days. Rapid
organisms surrounded by purple capsular diagnosis and treatment (penicillin,
material- McFadyean's reaction. tetracyclines, erythromycin, chloramphenicol)
Fluorescent and monoclonal antibody are effective in most cases.
techniques as well as animal passage (mice, Human cases are notified to the Local Health
guinea pigs or rabbits) and culture may be Authority in most countries. The patient is
necessary to identify B. anthracis, especially in isolated with disinfectant precautions
difficult cases, e.g. where antibiotic treatment regarding discharges from lesions and articles
has been used in the live animal. soiled by them. Source of infection and in-
contacts, exposure to animals, etc., is
J. investigated.
Carcase: T.
Viscera: T.
(Included are affected and in-contact animals
Procedure when anthrax is detected
and all contaminated meat and offal.) In Britain, as in most countries, anthrax is a
The meat from anthrax carcases is notifiable disease under the Anthrax Order 1991,
dangerous to man and other animals. Carcases which requires notification by the owner or
must not be opened. The complete carcase veterinary surgeon to the local Divisional
must be destroyed along with all contaminated Veterinary Officer or local police of the
material. existence or suspected existence of the disease.
In Britain confirmation of the existence of
anthrax may only be made by the Ministry of
Anthrax in man Agriculture.
The disease occurs most commonly in Steps must then be taken to dispose of the
fellmongers, woolsorters, knackermen, carcase by burning or deep burial along with
personnel involved in the preparation of meat disinfection. Opening or moving of carcases is
and bone products, veterinarians, abattoir and prohibited.
farm workers. Natural orifices should be packed with tow
Infection normally occurs through the skin or cotton wool and the animal's head covered
which comes directly or indirectly in contact with sacking. Discharged blood should be
with infected tissues, blood and contaminated absorbed with sawdust, earth or peat, all being
materials such as hair, wool, hides or products eventually destroyed by burning.
such as brushes, drums, etc., contaminated The detection of anthrax during dressing
bone meal and soil. Biting flies may also represents a very serious situation - all further
transmit the disease. dressing and slaughter should be stopped and
Inhalation of spores is also a mode of the affected and contiguous carcases, offal and
infection leading to fulminating pneumonia. blood condemned.
Intestinal and otopharyngeal anthrax are due to All equipment, e.g. knives, steels, saws,
the ingestion of infected material, e.g. meat but shovels, etc., involved in the handling of
not milk, resulting in acute gastroenteritis and infected material must either be destroyed by
dysentery. burning or thoroughly disinfected (e.g. hot 5%
Cutaneous anthrax takes the form of a sodium hydroxide, 10% formaldehyde).
localised pimple which develops rapidly in 2-3
days into a dry, black adherent scab surrounded
by a circle of purplish vesicles. This is the ATROPHIC RHINITIS (turbinate atrophy
typical anthrax sore - malignant pustule - which of pigs)
is neither malignant or pustular. It is usually
about 2-3 cm in diameter but may be as large as 1. A disease usually of young pigs charac-
6-7 cm or only pinhead in size, in which case it terised by inflammatory changes of the nasal
510 Meat Hygiene
mucosa and sneezing followed by atrophy of
the turbinate bones and deformity of the face.
O. The disease occurs mainly in intensive pig
sterility in the female and infection of ti:te.
accessory sex glands with infertility in the
Notifiable disease (UK). • •
:1.'.'
rearing areas and is especially common in mid- O. Brucellosis is a zoonosis of ma«
western USA. importance in most countries of the world.
lA. Bordetella bronchiseptica, a small ovoid to lA. Brucella abortus, a very small alm~'
rod-shaped Gram-negative bacillus along with coccal-like Gram-negative bacillus which ..
toxigenic strains of Pasteurella multocida, a small aerobic (but can only grow in the presence of •
Gram-negative, capsulated non-motile bacillus 5-10% CO 2) / non-motile, non-capsulated .. _
which exhibits bipolar staining when stained non-sporing.
with methylene blue. It is possible that genetic, Cattle: B. abortus and less commonly B.
nutritional and other husbandry factors are also melitensis and B. suis.
involved.
Pigs: B. suis.
R. Both organisms are commonly found in Sheep: B. melitensis. B. ovis causes orchitis ar.;
commercial herds of pigs and at least B. epididymitis.
bronchiseptica may be harboured by dogs, cats, Goats: B. melitensis and less commonly B.
rodents and other forms of wildlife. abortus.
MT. By direct and indirect contact, especially Horses: B. abortus and B. suis.
through droplet infection.
O. Worldwide, especially in Mediterranean
CF. Sneezing, coughing, lachrymation, countries, North and East Africa, India, Asia,
mucopurulent discharge from nostrils. Mexico and Central and South America. Many
Respiratory distress in later stages with
countries have made great progress towards
difficulty in prehension and mastication. Loss
eradication.
of condition. Distortion of face.
P. Varying degrees of softening/atrophy of R. Animals listed above, except the dog,
turbinate bones with deviation of nasal septum. which not considered to be a natural reservoir.
D. Diagnosis is confirmed by examining a MT. Direct and indirect contact with infected
cross-section of the skull at the level of the uterine discharges, blood, fetuses and fetal
second premolar teeth where typical lesions are membranes. Mechanical vectors probably play
best seen. a part in the transmission of infection. Large
numbers of bacteria are present in infected
J. cattle during abortion. Water, milk and
Carcase and viscera: feedingstuffs are often contaminated.
No nasal discharge, condition good, A. Infection takes place by ingestion,
Nasal discharge, local lesions, D. inhalation and through the skin and mucous
Systemic effects, e.g. abscessation, T. membranes. Venereal transmission from
Affected parts: head, D. infected bulls is said to be rare but infection
has occurred in cows through the use of
infected semen by AI.
CF. Brucella organisms have an affinity for the
BRUCELLOSIS (undulant fever, contagious pregnant uterus, udder and the accessory male
abortion, Bang's disease, Malta fever, sex glands, lymph nodes and joints. Clinical
Mediterranean fever) findings include late abortions (after fifth
month of pregnancy in cattle) with stillborn
I. A specific contagious disease of major calves, kids and lambs, retained placentas and
importance of cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, and lowered milk yield. Orchitis and epididymitis
occasionally horses and man. The disease has occur in males.
also been recorded in bison, deer, elk, moose,
other wild animals and dogs. The disease is P. Lesions are rarely diagnostic. The placenta is
associated with abortion, retained placenta and usually oedematous with cotyledons dull and
 Infectious Diseases 511
granular in early stages. Later stages appear as depression, nausea, body, joint and muscle
yellowish granular necrotic plaques on the fetal pains and polyuria. The condition may last for
cotyledons with the remainder opaque and some days or as long as a year or more.
leathery in appearance. A sticky, brownish, Enlargement of various lymph nodes,
odourless exudate like soft caramel is present especially the cervical and axillary, may be
on the surface of the placenta. evident with an enlarged spleen and liver.
The fetus is oedematous with blood-stained Complications such as osteoarthritis,
fluid in the body cavities, focal necrosis and osteomyelitis, meningitis, orchitis and
granuloma in various organs, broncho- epididymitis may occur. Recovery is usual but
pneumonia and sometimes meningitis. various disabilities may ensue.
The mammary gland and supramammary
lymph nodes usually harbour the bacilli and
may be indurated and diffusely inflamed.
In males the scrotum is enlarged and Action to be taken in meat plant
indurated. A thickened tunica vaginalis due to While attention to personal hygiene,
fibrous tissue formation may compress or sterilisation of equipment, etc., is of paramount
replace the testes. importance for all abattoir staff, it is essential
There may be necrosis of the contents with where brucellosis cases and brucella reactors
rupture to the surface. Epididymitis, especially are handled.
involving the tail, with oedema and fibrosis, are In Britain brucellosis is now prescribed as an
evident. industrial disease. Most cases in the UK are
In sows, firm yellowish-white nodules, associated with bovine infection.
sometimes possessing a caseous centre, appear It is essential that staff are adequately alerted
on the uterine mucosa, lymph nodes, liver, about the entry of infected and reactor stock.
spleen and kidneys. Large abscesses are Great care has to be taken when handling and
sometimes present in the same organs and in dressing known brucella cases. Hooks should be
the testes and epididymis. used to handle uteri and udders, which must not
be incised. All uteri and udders from affected
D. While symptoms and lesions may indicate and reactor animals must be condemned.
the possibility of brucellosis, they are not Face masks to cover nose and mouth,
diagnostic. goggles to protect the eyes, use of barrier cream
B. abortus can be recovered most easily from and arm-length gloves are advocated, although
the aborted fetus (stomach and lungs) a~d also this protection may render dressing difficult
from the placenta, blood, milk, vaginal mucus. and prolonged.
Serology tests (agglutination, complement It is advisable that reactor animals are not
fixation, ELISA, Rose Bengal, milk ring) are crowded into a single plant but dispersed over
used for antibody detection. several premises.

J. Brucellosis in man (undulant fever) J. Cattle:

Human infection with B. abortus or B. melitensis is Carcase, A.
an occupational disease affecting people Viscera, A.
working with livestock - farm workers, Diseased organs, e.g. udder, uteri, lymph
veterinarians and abattoir personnel. (In the nodes, testes, seminal vesicles, etc., D.
USA some 50% of cases of human brucellosis - If B. melitensis is suspected, T or Kh,
due to B. suis - occur in abattoir workers.) depending on prevalence and as economically
It may be acquired by drinking infected milk feasible, is advocated.
from cows, goats and sheep. There is, however,
no evidence that eating infected meat can cause Pigs
the disease in man. Isolated cases have been
associated with dog carriers of the bacillus. Carcase: T.
It is an acute or chronic condition Viscera: T.
characterised by continuous or intermittent If T is not economically feasible Kh, but with
fever and various symptoms such as headache, mammary glands, genital organs and
sweating, weakness, anorexia, chills, associated lymph nodes: D.
512 Meat Hygiene
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS (see also which are motile, microaerophilic and possess Cl
Chapters 14 and 17) terminal flagellum.
R. See I and O. As with many intestinal
The microorganisms Campylobacter and
pathogens, e.g. Salmonella spp./ asymptomatic
Mycoplasma have since 1977 assumed
carrier animals are often responsible for causing
importance as causes of disease, although their
outbreaks of the disease.
exact significance is doubtful in some instances
where they are associated with other bacteria MT. Infection is acquired through the
and/ or viruses. In these cases it is difficult to ingestion of contaminated food and water. The
ascertain the true pathogen. consumption of raw and undercooked poultry
Some Campylobacter spp. were formerly and other meat products is a common mode or
classified in the genus Vibrio. They are Gram- infection for man and animals such as mink and
negative, facultatively anaerobic, motile, ferrets.
thermophilic, oxidase-positive small rods
CF. Watery diarrhoea which may contain
resembling vibrios in morphology and motility.
mucus and/or blood. Anorexia. Depression.
Vibrios are typically comma-shaped and
Loss of condition when disease is prolonged.
possess polar flagella.
Late abortion has been recorded in cattle and
Campylobacter spp. are zoonotic organisms
goats. Recovery is spontaneous in most cases.
since they can cause gastroenteritis in man
(q.v.), this being the most common form of food P. Varying degrees of enteritis, sometimes
poisoning in man, although not as severe as haemorrhagic, especially in the jejunum, ileum
salmonellosis. and colon. The associated mesenteric lymph
They are widely distributed in nature and nodes are enlarged and oedematous and the
can be found in the intestines of healthy intestinal mucosa thickened.
livestock, poultry and wild animals.
D. The disease is confirmed by
Among the diseases associated with
microaerophilic (10% COJ culture of faeces
Campylobacter infection are the following:
when distinctive colonies are formed. Dark
• Gastrointestinal campylobacteriosis (calves, field or phase-contrast microscopy. Serological
sheep, mink/ ferrets, dogs, cats) - C. jejuni or techniques to determine antibody titres.
C. coli.
• Bovine genital campylobacteriosis - C. fetus J. Carcase and viscera, T.
subsp. venerealis.
• Ovine genital campylobacteriosis - C. fetus
subsp. fetus or jejuni. CASEOUS LYMPHADENITIS (CLA) (Figs
• Abortions and infertility in cattle - C. fetus 17.1 and 17.2)
subsp. venerealis.
• Avian infectious hepatitis - C. fetus var. I. A chronic contagious disease of sheep and
jejuni (q.v.). goats, and less commonly horses, cattle, pigs,
poultry, water buffalo and other wild
ruminants in which abscesses are formed in
lymph nodes and sometimes in internal organs.
Gastrointestinal campylobacteriosis Human beings, particularly shearers, are
I. An acute bacterial zoonotic gastroenteritis of occasionally affected.
variable severity occurring in a wide variety of O. Worldwide, especially where there are
hosts - calves, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry, mink, large populations of sheep and goats -
man (in which it is the commonest form of food Australia, New Zealand, North and South
poisoning), dogs, cats and wild animals and America, Middle East, Europe (Spain, France,
birds. Netherlands, Italy, Romania, Norway,
O. Worldwide. The organisms can be isolated Switzerland, Germany), and South Africa.
from the intestines of normal animals and man. Britain was free until cases were discovered in
imported goats in the late 1980s.
lA. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli are thin According to veterinary staff at the Scottish
Gram-negative, curved rods resembling vibrios Agricultural College, St Boswells, caseous
 Infectious Diseases 513

Fig. 17.1 Caseous lymp had enit is in

the head of a sheep. (By cour tesy of Or
B. E. C. Shreu der)

l A. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (avis), a

small pleomorphic, Gra m-positive, no n-motile,
ae robic/facultative anaerobic, non-sporing and
non-capsula te rod found in so il and materi als
contaminated with p us. The organis ms , w hich
appear like Chinese lettering in su itable s mears,
show a characteristic ba rred appearance w ith
certain stains, darker-s taining metachromatic
(volutin) gra nu les being vis ib le in the
protoplasm o f the ba cteria . It is capable of
surviving in ha y for mo nths. Th is organism also
ca uses con tagious acn e and chronic pectora l
and m id line abscesses in ho rses .
Fig.17.2 Caseous lymphaden itis abscess showing R. Infected animals, soils an d con tam inated
laminations. (By courtesy of Or B. E C. Shre ud er] mat erials.
M T. Via s kin w ounds, inclu d ing shea ring,
dockin g and cas t ra tio n wound s, th ro ugh
cont am ina tion wi th p urule nt ma teria l from
lymp had en itis is spreading rapid ly a mo ng ruptu red ab scesses in in fected anima ls. The
sheep in No rth umberland and the Scottish orga nism is capa ble of gain ing entry through
Borde rs. Shearing time poses the high es t risk unbroken skin. Carri er anima ls arc responsible
for spread, cuts be coming infected wi th the for in troducing infection in to herds. Infec tion is
ca usal organisms to p roduce skin abscesses and spread th rough co ntami na ted. equ ip men t
internal infection. Slaugh ter of affected ani ma ls (di pping ba ths and di ps, handling and feed ing
is bei ng advised. appliances, hay, soil , etc.).
Th e d isease is of considerable eco nomic
importance, being responsible for er. Little evidence of clinical disease except
condemnations - as high as 10/0 at meat some loss of cond ition in the more commo n
inspection. Hides an d fleeces are also reduced lymph node fonn apart from visib le abscesses.
in va lue. Infertility is often p resent. The mo re severe
514 Meat Hygiene
visceral type in which abscesses occur, for saprophytes (living on dead and decomposing
example, in lungs, liver, kidney, brain and plant and animal matter) in soil and the
spinal cord can lead to emaciation and death. intestines of animals and man.
The spores of clostridia are spherical or oval
P. Enlargement of one or more of the
and may occupy a central, subterminal or
superficial lymph nodes, especially of the head
terminal position in the bacterial cells.
or neck. These abscesses, which may also occur
Clostridial diseases are among the most
at the point of entry, are painless and slow to
serious occurring in animals and man,
develop. Some loss of condition occurs in the
producing potent exotoxins (q.v.) which may (1)
superficial form but emaciation ('thin ewe
be elaborated in the intestine, e.g.
syndrome') is evident where internal abscesses enterto toxaemia, (2) preformed in the food and
develop. Caseous bronchopneumonia,
then ingested, e.g. botulism, or (3) formed in the
abortion, arthritis, neurological signs (when
tissues, e.g. blackleg, malignant oedema.
CNS abscesses occur), paraplegia, orchitis and
Fortunately, clostridial diseases occur
mastitis may be manifested.
sporadically, often being confined to certain
The typical abscess in CLA is discrete and
districts, even particular fields.
contains a greenish-yellow or white thick, dry
Except for mild cases and tetanus, it is
pus. In sheep the abscess often assumes a
unlikely that many clostridial diseases will be
laminated or 'onion-ring' form in cross-section,
encountered at meat inspection since in most
with caseous exudate or pus surrounded by
there is a rapid onset of death. Apparently
layers of fibrous tissue. The nature of the
healthy animals presented for slaughterfollowing an
abscess depends on its age. In early stages only
outbreak of botulism, however, must be regarded
pin-point foci are apparent. In goats the
with great suspicion since it is likely there is
exudate in the abscess is usually paste-like.
circulating botulinum toxin in theseanimals.
D. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and the
isolation of C. pseudotuberculosis from pus. The
condition must be differentiated from other
Bacillary haemoglobinuria
conditions caused by pyogenic organisms.
I. An acute highly fatal toxaemia of cattle, and
J. Carcase: A, T or D depending on extent of
less commonly, sheep, pigs and dogs in which
infection and carcase condition.
there is high fever, jaundice, haemoglobinuria
Viscera: A, T or D.
and necrotic infarcts in the liver.
Some countries, notably Canada, resort to
total condemnation of carcase and viscera where O. North America, especially on the west
there is: coast, Canada, Mexico, Chile, Venezuela,
1 Systemic generalisation and/or associated Turkey, Australia and New Zealand. Cases have
systemic effects irrespective of the size and also been recorded in Britain and Ireland.
number of lesions.
2 Poor condition with marked involvement of lA. Clostridium haemolviicum (Cl. novyi Type
either the body and visceral lymph nodes. D). This organism can persist in contaminated
3 Good carcase condition with marked soil and carcases for long periods, besides being
involvement of the body and visceral lymph a normal commensal of the gut.
nodes.
4 Carcases affected to a lesser extent may be R. See lA.
approved subject to removal and
condemnation of all affected parts. MT. Via ingestion of contaminated material.

CF. Disease is of short duration and animals

may be found dead. If found alive - fever,
CLOSTRIDIAL DISEASES depression, abdominal pain, suspension of
rumination, dysentery, shallow respirations,
These are usually acute or peracute toxaemias jaundice and urine dark red.
caused by members of the genus Clostridium,
which are large, Gram-positive, spore-bearing P. Rapid onset of rigor mortis. Anaemia. Often
rod-shaped bacilli. The organisms are normal oedema of subcutaneous tissues with blood-
 Infectious Diseases 515
stained fluid in body cavities. Haemorrhagic musculature. Usually animals in good
enteritis with bloody contents. Raised anaemic condition are affected.
infarcts in liver. Kidneys pale and friable and
showing petechial haemorrhages. O. Worldwide. The disease tends to occur in
particular areas, even fields, and has been
D. Presence of haemoglobin in urine and associated with soil disturbance, e.g. after
especially anaemic infarct in liver are excavations and flooding. The presence of the
diagnostic. spores is indicative of previous blackleg cases.
Diagnosis is confirmed by culture (although
lA. Clostridium chauooei.
the organism is difficult to culture) and
agglutination test. R. The organism is a normal inhabitant of soil
J. Carcase and viscera: T. where it can exist for years in a sporing form.
MT. In sheep Cl. chauooei usually gains
entrance to the tissues through wounds
including those caused by shearing, docking,
Bighead in rams
castration, fighting and barbed wire, etc. The
I. An acute infectious disease of young rams disease in sheep can occur after lambing. In
in which there is oedema of the head and neck. cattle there is often no history of wounds and it
probably enters the body via the alimentary
O. Worldwide where sheep are kept.
tract after being ingested.
lA. Clostridium novyi, and on occasions Cl.
CF. The affected animal is often found dead. If
sordelli and Cl. chauooei.
alive, there is depression, anorexia, high
R. As for clostridia in general. temperature and oedema with crepitation of the
affected part, which is painful and hot to the
MT. The organisms gain entrance to the
touch at first but later becomes cold and
subcutaneous tissues through wounds in the
insensitive. There is lameness if a leg is
skin usually caused by fighting.
involved. Almost any muscular part of the
CF. There is a non-haemorrhagic, non- body can show lesions - brisket, shoulder,
gaseous swelling of the head, face and neck. chest, back, neck, etc. - but in some cases the
heart, tongue and diaphragm alone show the
P and D. As for CF.
typical lesions.
Diagnosis is confirmed by isolation of Cl.
novtjl. P. The affected parts show dark red, spongy
It is important to distinguish the disease tissue with bubbles of gas, blood-stained fluid
from a similar 'Bighead' condition in sheep - and a rancid odour. The lesion varies greatly in
photosensitisation caused by the ingestion of size and may be so small as to be overlooked.
certain plants containing photodynamic Blood-stained fluid and fibrin are present in the
substances, e.g. St John's wort, buckwheat, bog body cavities.
asphodel. D. The acuteness of the condition and the
J. Carcase and viscera: Depends on the extent typical lesions are suggestive of blackleg.
of the lesions, T or D. Diagnosis can be confirmed by the culture of
Infection localised to head and neck, and the organism and serology. Fluorescent-
condition good, D. antibody technique in which the organism is
Since the disease responds to antibiotics, e.g. stained with a dye, e.g. fluorescein
penicillin, it may be advisable in some cases to isothiocyanate, which fluoresces when exposed
delay slaughter and hold for treatment at ante- to UV light.
mortem inspection.
J. Carcase and viscera: T.

Blackleg Braxy (bradsot)

I. An acute, highly fatal, toxaemic disease of I. An acute, infectious disease of sheep
sheep and cattle characterised by oedematous characterised by toxaemia, ab omasitis and a
swellings, especially in the skeletal and cardiac high death rate.
516 Meat Hygiene
o. The condition appears to be restricted to haemorrhagic enteritis in cattle, sheep and
the British Isles (especially Scotland, Wales and horses.
Ireland), Denmark, Norway, Iceland and
1. An acute or peracute infective disease in
Australia.
which there is toxaemia, fever, enteritis and
LA. Clostridium septicum, the cause of high mortality.
malignant oedema. As with all clostridial diseases, potent
exotoxins are elaborated which act both locally
R. The organism is a normal inhabitant of the
in the tissues and centrally on the CNS and
sheep's intestinal tract and is also found in the
cardiovascular system.
soil.
MT. The disease occurs most commonly in o. The various entertoxaemias are worldwide
mid-winter when snow, ice and frost abound. in distribution.
The organism is believed to gain entrance lA. Clostridium perfringens, a normal
through the ingestion of frosted grass or other commensal of the alimentary tract found also in
feed which predisposes the abomasal mucosa soil.
to infection.
R. See lA. Spores are capable of survival for
CF. Anorexia, depression, fever and
years in soils. The exact predisposing factors are
recumbency in animals found alive.
not known, although enterotoxaemia occurs
P. Inflammation, oedema, necrosis and most commonly in well-nourished animals.
ulceration of the abomasal wall with some
enteritis and subepithelial haemorrhages in the MT. By ingestion of contaminated feed and
intestinal wall. soil. The spores germinate and proliferate in the
wall of the intestine, liberating various
D. Diagnosis is based on the necropsy exotoxins to produce haemorrhage,
findings. Cl. sepiicum can be detected in smears inflammation, necrosis, etc., in different organs.
from the abomasal wall and cultured from
blood. CF. Dullness, depression, toxaemia and
Because of the rapid onset of decomposition in diarrhoea. As with most cases of acute illness,
sheep carcases post-mortem examinations of sheep the animal separates from the rest of the flock.
must becarried out shortlyafter death if an accurate Acute cases may show convulsions with
diagnosis is to be made. opisthotonus (spasm of head and neck, which
are bent backwards). Muscle tremors and
staggering gait.
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
P. Pulpy kidney: A characteristic lesion is the
presence of soft pulpy kidneys. A small stream
Enterotoxaemia of water on a kidney dissolves the soft
parenchymatous tissue leaving only the fibrous
Included under this heading are several forms
matrix.
of enterotoxaemia caused by different types of
Increased pericardial fluid. Petechiae in epi-
Clostridium perfringens:
and endocardium. Pulmonary oedema.
Cl. perjringens Enteritis, which may be haemorrhagic and
Lamb dysentery: Type B ulcerative. Brain lesions oedema,
Struck in sheep: TypeC haemorrhages and liquefaction.
Pulpy kidney of ruminants: TypeD
Struck, lamb dysentery, haemorrhagic necrotic
enteritis: Apart from the pulpy kidney lesions,
Necrotic haemorrhagic enteritis these conditions are very similar to Type D in
(calves): Type E relation to lesions.
Focal symmetrical
encephalomalacia TypeD D. This is based on the type and distribution
of the lesions. Smears from intestinal contents
Enterotoxaemia due to Cl. perJringens Type C show large numbers of Cl. perJringens. Culture
also occurs in calves, goats, pigs and foals. Cl. of organism. Serology (neutralisation of toxin
perJringens Type A has been isolated in cases of with specific antiserum).
 Infectious Diseases 517
J. Carcase and viscera: T. lA. Clostridium perfringens Type D.
R. As for other clostridia.
MT. By ingestion of contaminated grass and
Infectious necrotic hepatitis (black disease)
feed.
I. An acute infectious disease of sheep and
CF. Many cases are found dead. If alive, there
less commonly cattle, pigs and horses.
are nervous symptoms somewhat resembling
O. Worldwide, especially in Australia, New those of listeriosis but without circling
Zealand, British Isles, USA and Europe. movements - incoordination, head pressing,
blindness, convulsions, episthotonus.
lA. Clostridium novyi Type B. (Not all strains
are pathogenic). P. Lesions occur solely in the brain - softening
R. Intestines of animals and soil. Normal with haemorrhage in the thalamus and
cerebellum.
animals act as carriers.
D. Based mainly on clinical findings and
MT. Ingestion of contaminated feed, grass
and soil. lesions. The toxin of Cl. perfringens can be
detected by a toxin neutralisation test.
CF. Clinical findings in sheep resemble those
in Types B, C and D infections without,
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
however, the intestinal complications.
P. Black disease is due to a combination of Cl. Malignant oedema
novyi infection and liver damage caused by I. An acute toxaemic disease of animals
immature fluke infestation. On occasions liver including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and
damage caused by Cysticercus tenuicollis may be reindeer. The condition also occurs in man.
responsible.
O. Worldwide.
Black disease gets its name from the very
dark appearance of the inside of the skin due to lA. Various organisms of the genus
engorgement of blood vessels. Subcutaneous Clostridium - Cl. septicum, Cl. chauvoei, Cl.
oedema is present. The liver is congested and perfringens, Cl. novyi, Cl. sordelli, [Link].
presents typical lesions of yellowish-grey
R. All of these organisms are found in the soil
necrosis about 1-5 cm in diameter surrounded
and in intestinal contents.
by a red hyperaemic zone. Excess straw-
coloured fluid is present in the pericardial sac MT. Infection occurs through wounds with
and peritoneal and thoracic cavities. contaminated material, soil, etc. Wounds in
Haemorrhages show on the epicardium and animals have many causes - accidents, fighting,
endocardium. castration, docking, aseptic injection
techniques, especially intramuscular injection.
D. A firm diagnosis can only be made by
The disease may also arise at parturition.
laboratory examination although the liver
lesions and the presence of immature liver CF. Toxaemia, anorexia, fever, depression,
flukes (no adult flukes are present) should be a muscle tremors, lameness with rapid onset of
strong indication of black disease. death. Soft painful swellings are evident in the
subcutaneous tissues.
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
P. Infection with the various clostridia show
differences of pathological change. Affected
Focal symmetrical encephalomalacia areas (subcutis and interconnective tissues of
muscle) show a blood-stained oedema which
I. An atypical form of enterotoxaemia of
varies in consistency from being thin and
sheep and less often calves in which
yellowish to a thick gelatinous material with a
neurological signs are exhibited.
sweetish odour. The affected muscles are dark
O. Sporadic occurrence throughout the in colour. Crepitation due to gas formation is
world, especially New Zealand and South usually absent in spite of the name. The
Africa. overlying skin becomes stretched and dark in
518 Meat Hygiene
colour. Blood-stained serous fluid is normally R. The source of infection is inver.r :
present in the body cavities with haemorrhages decomposed carcases or decaying ve~c:'
evident under serous membranes. material (grass, silage, grain). Chicken rr..
used as feed or fertiliser, poultry litter use :
D. The typical lesions point to malignant
bedding or ensiled as feed and poultry was:",
oedema. It is differentiated from blackleg
imperfectly dried as a feed supplement are
because of absence of muscle involvement and
important causes of botulism in livestock.
from anthrax in pigs by restriction of oedema to
the throat region. MT. The neurotoxin elaborated in the feed is
Diagnosis is confirmed by laboratory ingested.
methods - fluorescent antibody staining, etc.
CF. Peracute cases in cattle and sheep die
J. Carcase and viscera: T. without premonitory symptoms. In less acute
forms there is muscular paralysis, disturbed
vision, difficulty in chewing and swallowing,
salivation and general weakness. Death occurs
Botulism (lamziekte, limberneck, western in 1-4 days. Milder cases are occasionally
duck disease) (see also Chapter 14) encountered in which there is restlessness,
1. A rapidly fatal intoxication in which anorexia, lack of thirst, incoordination, difficult
preformed toxin in the feed is ingested to respiration, roaring and recumbency.
produce motor paralysis mainly in cattle,
P. Lesions are non-specific. There may be
sheep, horses, mink, poultry, various wild
endocardial and epicardial haemorrhages in the
animals, wildfowl and human beings.
heart and similar haemorrhages in the
o. Sporadic outbreaks of botulism occur cerebrum and cerebellum.
worldwide. Bovine botulism appears to be most
D. The presence of foreign material in the
common in South Africa where it is associated
stomach, abomasum or rumen may be
with a phosphorus-deficient diet. In the
suggestive of botulism, as is the characteristic
western United States of America the disease
motor paralysis. It is often difficult, however, to
has caused enormous losses in poultry, up to
distinguish botulism from other conditions in
one million or more yearly.
which nervous symptoms are displayed, e.g.
A major outbreak (McLoughlin et al., 1988)
rabies, encephalomyelitis of equines, parturient
has been recorded in Northern Ireland in which
paresis in cattle, hypocalcaemia, scrapie and
80 animals in a beef herd of 150 were affected
louping ill in sheep.
with 68 deaths. In England botulism occurred
The toxin can be demonstrated in filtrates
in grazing cattle on three adjacent farms. Two
from stomach contents and suspect feed by
heifers in a group of 10 died following feeding
mouse inoculation.
with ensiled poultry litter (Hogg et al., 1990). In
England in 1994 botulism was suspected when J. Carcase and viscera: T.
150 of 550 fattening cattle (1-2 years old) died
or were euthanased. Laboratory examinations Tetanus (lockjaw)
could not confirm the diagnosis, this being
I. A usually fatal toxaemia of virtually all
based on clinical evidence.
mammals in which tetany (tonic spasm of
lA. Some eight strains of Clostridium muscles), hyperaesthesia (increased sensitivity
botulinum exist, differentiated according to the to stimuli) and convulsions are present. Horses
serological specificity of its neurotoxin: A, B, are the most sensitive animals while birds and
Ca, C, D, E, F and G. These toxins are among the cats appear to be resistant.
most potent poisons known.
O. The disease occurs sporadically
Type Ca is most common in poultry,
worldwide, especially in intensively cultivated
pheasants and wildfowl; Type C in cattle,
areas.
sheep, horses and mink; Type D in cattle; Types
A, Band E are most common in man, in whom lA. Clostridium ieiani. Found in soils and
Types F and G occur on rare occasions. Type E intestinal tracts of animals. The organism forms
is usually associated with outbreaks in fish, spherical spores which appear terminally in the
seafoods and meat from marine animals. organisms. Under specific anaerobic conditions
 Infectious Diseases 519
with necrosis at the point of entry, a very potent plants. They represent one of many conditions
neurotoxin travels along motor nerves to the where total condemnation on ante-mortem
CNS, the organisms remaining at the initial site, inspection is fully warranted.
where they multiply. Ante-mortem: T.
R. See lA. Post-mortem: Carcase and viscera: T.
MT. Via deep puncture wounds, e.g. those
caused by nails in the feet of horses or caused
by careless shearing, castration, docking or
COLIBACILLOSIS (DIARRHOEA,
injection operations. Infection may also enter
SCOURS, GASTROENTERITIS,
through wounds in the buccal mucosa.
SEPTICAEMIA NEONATORUM)
CF. The incubation period varies from one
week to several months, the longer incubation The causes of diarrhoea in the newly-born animal
period usually being associated with milder are many and varied and include
symptoms. enterotoxigenic strains of E. coli, Salmonella
Symptoms in the horse include muscular spp., Chlamydia spp., Cl. perjringens,
stiffness, muscle tremors and spasm, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Shigella, Crypto-
incoordination, sweating, increased heart and sporidium and Protndeniia acting alone or in
respiratory rates and congested mucous combination. Various viruses are also
membranes. Muscle spasm affecting the incriminated, e.g. rotavirus, coronavirus,
masseter muscles cause difficulty in enterovirus, adenovirus and herpesvirus,
prehension, mastication and swallowing (the which also act in unison with different bacteria.
so-called 'lockjaw'), while spasm of the back and Initial errors in husbandry are important
neck muscles produce extension of the head predisposing factors in the causation of
and neck - opisthotonus and the so-called diarrhoea in young stock.
'sawhorse' posture. The nictitating membrane
of the eye is prolapsed. The tail is stiff and I. An extremely common infectious disease of
extended, the ears are pricked and the animal calves, piglets, lambs, kids, foals and probably
becomes very excitable, responding to even all young mammals, characterised by diarrhoea
minor stimuli. Bloat is apparent in cattle with and dehydration with rapid onset of death (1-4
rumenal contractions. days) in the septicaemic form and a longer
Severe cases end fatally with marked tetanic period of illness in the more common
spasm (prolonged muscular spasm without enterotoxigenic type.
intervening relaxation), respiratory and cardiac O. Worldwide, causing great economic losses.
arrest.
lA. Various strains of Escherichia coli which
P. There are usually no significant post-
vary in virulence, and antigenic structure (0, H,
mortem lesions, although necrosis of the
K, L, A and B), some being extremely virulent,
spermatic cord may be evident where castration
e.g. K99, F17, 0157.H7 (a verotoxigenic bacillus
has been involved. Often in cases of long
which has recently been responsible for food
incubation periods the initial wounds have
poisoning in man) and those producing the
healed on the surface.
EDP (edema disease principle).
D. Distinctive clinical signs especially spasm E. coli is a Gram-negative, motile, non-
of the jaw muscles and the prolapsed third sporing bacillus.
eyelid are usually adequate for an accurate
diagnosis. However, the differential diagnosis R. E. coli is widely distributed in the
may be difficult as tetanus can be confused with environment and in the intestines of animals
conditions such as lactation tetany, enzootic (domestic and wild) and man.
muscular dystrophy, various forms of
MT. By the ingestion of food and water
meningitis, BSE, strychnine poisoning, etc.
contaminated with the faeces of affected
The organism may be cultured from the
animals.
causal wound, if detected.
Factors predisposing to infection include
J. Cases of tetanus, especially in lambs, have lack of colostrum and its immunoglobulins
in the past been presented as casualties at meat (responsible for septicaemic colibacillosis but
520 Meat Hygiene
not the enterotoxigenic type), excessive feeding changes in diet, especially at weaning, -
of milk, use of inadequate milk replacers, and to new pens, transportation, immunisation
poor standards of housing, hygiene and chilling. Genetic factors may be inv: ~ - -:-.::
stockmanship. although there is no correlation with bree :
CF. Septicaemic colibacillosis: Acute illness with CF. Sudden death may occur without ::
depression, weakness, anorexia, initial high premonitory symptoms. Incoordination,
fever, dehydration, diarrhoea and death in 1--4 anorexia, ataxia, knucklng of fetlocks, oedema
days. of eyelids and face, altered squeal, constipation,
Enierotoxigenic colibaciilosis: Profuse watery paralysis and recumbency with death usually
to pasty white, foul-smelling diarrhoea which within 24 h.
may contain mucus and/or blood clots,
P. Oedema with serogelatinous fluid in
depression, temperature normal and later
various sites - subcutaneous especially of
subnormal, cold clammy skin and recumbency.
eyelids and face, stomach wall (cardiac gland
Death may occur in 12-24 h.
region), mesocolon and sometimes larynx.
P. Gastroenteritis which varies in extent and Stomach is usually full of feed. Pleural,
severity. Subserous and submucosal peritoneal and pericardial cavities may contain
haemorrhages may be present along with excess serous amber-coloured fluid with
pneumonia, arthritis, omphalophlebitis, strands of fibrin. Focal malacia (softening) of
peritonitis and meningitis. brainstem may be present.
D. Differentiation of the various causal D. Based on epidemiology, sudden onset of
organisms is difficult in the enteric type of symptoms in susceptible animals and typical
colibacillosis in which mixed infections may lesions. Diagnosis is confirmed by culture from
occur. Laboratory diagnosis is based on the use small intestine and colon.
of specialised techniques to detect E. coli as well
as viruses, cryptosporodia, etc., in faecal J.
samples. Carcase: A, provided condition is good and
other abnormalities absent.
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
Viscera: T (stomach and intestines).

Bowel oedema (E. coli enterotoxaemia,

oedema disease, bowel oedema, gut
Coliform gastroenteritis (enteric
oedema)
colibacillosis, post-weaning diarrhoea)
I. An acute, highly fatal enterotoxaemia of
I. An acute infectious toxaemic disease of
weaner and growing pigs characterised by
toeaner pigs associated with gastroenteritis, lack
oedema of the subcutaneous and subserosal
of growth, dehydration, diarrhoea and much
tissues.
economic loss.
O. Worldwide, where modern pig husbandry
is practised. O. Worldwide.

lA. Haemolytic E. coli which produce the lA. Certain pathogenic strains of E. coli which
oedema disease principle (EDP) - mainly produce enterotoxins and also have the ability
0138.K81, 0139.K82, 0141.K85 strains. to adhere to the mucosal cells of the small
(Hemolysis refers to rupture of red blood cells intestine - K88, 987P, K99, F41 and certain 0
with release of haemoglobin.) groups.
R. Intestines of pigs and soil. R. Intestines of pigs.
MT. By ingestion of contaminated food and MT. By ingestion of contaminated food and
water. Special environmental conditions are water. The disease is precipitated by errors in
necessary for oedema disease to appear. The husbandry - dietary changes, poor housing
condition mainly affects pigs in good condition conditions, poor sanitation standards, low
subjected to various stressors, e.g. rapid temperatures, etc.
 Infectious Diseases 521
CF. Watery diarrhoea, unthriftiness in later Infection in cattle usually arises from an
stages of Jdisease, dehydration, pink skin affected or an asymptomatic carrier animal. The
discoloration, normal temperature. Deaths organisms can remain infective for long periods
usually occur in 7-10 days. in urine and other discharges.
P. Cutaneous erythema, dehydration, gastritis MT. Inhalation of infective droplets.
with dilated small intestine containing
CF. The disease may be either acute or
yellowish mucoid fluid, sometimes
chronic. Acute forms show high fever, rapid
haemorrhagic, oedema in the spiral coils of the
respiration, anorexia, depression, coughing
colon.
with arched back and extended head, with
D. Depends on consideration of husbandry death from fibrinous pneumonia/pleurisy in
methods, age incidence, lesions, etc. Isolation of several days to 3-4 weeks. Chronic cases show
E. coli of above strains confirms diagnosis. symptoms of less intensity with apparent
Disease must be distinguished from recovery after weeks or months.
salmonellosis, coccidiosis and viral conditions.
P. The post-mortem lesions, apart from
J. varying loss of condition, are typical, diagnostic
and confined to the thoracic cavity. They take
Carcase: A. Provided condition is good with
the form of fibrous thickening with serous
no evidence of fever, etc.
effusion of the pleura and interlobular lung
T, if carcase is fevered and/ or emaciated. septa - the classical 'marbled lung'. Pulmonary
Viscera: T (stomach and intestines). lobules show either the red or grey hepatisation
of pneumonia. Pleural adhesions are commonly
present and there may be clear yellowish fluid
CONTAGIOUS BOVINE AND CAPRINE in the pleural cavity.
PLEUROPNEUMONIA (CBPP AND D. Based on clinical findings and especially
CCPP) (Plate I, Fig. 6) the typical lung lesions. Diagnosis can be con-
firmed by dark field microscopy of smears from
1. A very contagious pneumonia and pleurisy
the lungs or pleural effusion, complement fixa-
of cattle and goats in which typical lesions in
tion, immunofluorescence and histopathology.
the lungs are displayed.
Notifiable disease (UK). J.
O. These diseases are endemic in Africa, Asia, Carcase: A, provided condition is
Middle East, Italy, Russia, Poland, Spain and satisfactory.
Portugal, especially NW Portugal, where 270 Viscera (lungs and pleurae): D.
outbreaks of CBPP occurred in the first quarter
Carcase and viscera: T, where emaciation is
of 1993. In Italy there were 34 outbreaks of
present.
CBPP in 1992 and 10 during 1993. The disease
(CBPP) was eradicated from Great Britain in Mycoplasmas, on occasions with different
1898, from the USA in 1892 and South Africa in forms of viruses, Pasteurellae, etc., can also be
1916. involved in the causation of bovine respiratory
lA. Mycoplasma mycoides var. mycoides se disease (BRD) (q.v.). They also are implicated in
causes CBPP and mycoplasma strain 38 is contagious agalactia of goats and sheep,
responsible for CCPP. These are tiny, mutant, mycoplasmal arthritis in cattle and pigs,
pleomorphic bacteria which do not form enzootic pneumonia in pigs, vulvovaginitis and
normal cell walls. As L-forms they are delicate keratoconjunctivitis (pink eye) in cattle, sheep
and friable but can multiply in suitable and goats, although the main cause of the latter
environments, unlike protoplasts which also is Moraxella bovis (q.v.).
have no cell walls.
R. Saprophytic types of mycoplasmas can be
Mycoplasmal arthritis in cattle
isolated from soil, sewage, etc., and parasitic
forms from plants and animals, mainly cattle 1. A benign to severe infectious disease of
and goats. young cattle (6-8 months).
522 Meat Hygiene
O. USA and Canada (in feedlots), Europe and O. Most areas of the world, especially in
British Isles. intensive units.
lA. Mycoplasma agalaciiae var. bovis. lA. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, a host-specific
organism. The term 'virus pneumonia' was
R. Mycoplasmas can be isolated from the
applied to this disease before the actual cause
respiratory and genital tracts of normal,
was known.
affected and recovered animals.
MT. The organisms probably gain entrance to R. As for Myco. agnuictiae.
the bloodstream (bacteraemia) from the MT. Direct and indirect contact between pigs
respiratory and genital sites during periods of via respiratory tract. Airborne infection is
stress and are conveyed to the joints. known to occur. Certain stressors can
CF. Lameness, inappetence, fever in more precipitate the disease, e.g. poor housing
acute cases and loss of condition. Enlargement conditions, substandard hygiene, mixing of
of leg joints. Mortality rates vary from 5% to pigs, and climatic conditions, especially at
50%. weaning.

P. Affected joints show varying degrees of CF. Such is the infectious nature of the disease
change from an increase in synovial fluid with that all pigs in a herd may be affected. The
some inflammation of cartilage to a severe disease is most typical when it first appears. A
purulent synovitis with erosion of cartilage and dry, hacking cough is the most common sign,
granulation tissue formation. There is usually noticeable when pigs are aroused and at
an associated tenosynovitis. feeding time. There is usually no fever. Loss of
condition is evident in later stages.
D. Based on lesions, history of outbreak, etc.,
and confirmed by culture of Myco. agalactiae. P. The lesions of mycoplasmal pneumonia are
the most common encountered on meat
J. Carcase: D. If evidence of fever is present, T. inspection in pigs and may account for 75% or
more of a herd, especially during the winter
months in northern climates. They take the
Mycoplasmal arthritis in pigs form of pneumonia and pleurisy - greyish or
I. A fairly benign syndrome in piglets and purplish areas of consolidation affecting mainly
growing pigs with usually low morbidity and the apical and cardiac lobes of the lungs. The
mortality. bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes are
enlarged. There may be a fibrinous pericarditis
lA. Mycoplasma hyorhinis and M. hyosynoviae. and pleurisy and catarrhal exudate in the
Occurrence, reservoir, mode of transmission bronchi and bronchioles.
and diagnosis resemble those in cattle.
D. The clinical findings along with the typical
CF. Similar to symptoms in cattle except that
lesions are adequate for a diagnosis which is
there are usually respiratory symptoms in the
confirmed by fluorescent antibody staining of
older pigs.
lung smears and complement fixation tests.
P. Joint lesions as in cattle. Evidence of
pleurisy, pericarditis and peritonitis with J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition
fibrous adhesions in the chest cavity. is satisfactory and fever absent. Condition poor
and/ or fever: T.
J. Carcase: A. If fever present, T. Trimming of thoracic cavity may be
necessary.
Mycoplasmal (enzootic) pneumonia in pigs
(EP)
I. A chronic, usually mild infectious disease of Contagious agalactia of sheep and goats
weaning and growing pigs in which I. A subacute or chronic disease of sheep and
pneumonia, lack of growth and feed conversion goats associated with mastitis, arthritis and
feature. The disease is associated with huge ophthalmia and fairly high mortality (10-20 per
economic loss. cent).
 Infectious Diseases 523
O. Worldwide, but occurring most commonly P. See CF.
in Mediterranean countries.
D. Based on type of lesions and isolation of
lA. Mycoplasma agalactia, Myco. mycoides, Myco. agauiciiae alone or in combination with
Myco. puirejaciens Myco. capricolum, M. other bacteria.
putrefaciens and M. capricolum are the causes of
mastitis in small ruminants, especially goats. J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition
is good with no general signs.
R. As for CBPP and CGPP. Affected organs: D (vagina and vulva).
MT. Probably the intramammary route from
infected milk, contaminated equipment,
milkers' hands, etc. Carrier animals are BOVINE FARCY (BOVINE
common, the organisms being found in the NOCARDIOSIS, MYCOTIC
milk and in ears. LYMPHANGITIS)
CF. The condition occurs at or shortly after
I. A chronic infection of cattle characterised
parturition. Fever. Inappetence. Acute ~astitis
by purulent, granular and nodular lesions in
with thick yellowish milk. Enlarged
the superficial lymphatics and lymph nodes.
supramammary glands. Milk secretion may
The disease also occurs in horses, sheep, goats,
cease. Atrophy of udder tissue may occur.
dogs, cats and birds.
Polyarthritis is common but
keratoconjunctivitis less so. Abortion on O. The disease appears to be mainly confined
occasions. to tropical and subtropical countries, especially
the West Indies and East and Central Africa.
P. See CF.
lA. The main bacterium involved is Nocardia
D. Isolation of organisms from milk and
[arcinicus which is related to Actinomyces (q.v.).
blood. Culture of organisms. Serology -
Unlike the genus Actinomyces, the Nocardia are
complement fixation, indirect haemagglutin-
aerobic organisms and some are acid-fast.
ation and ELISA tests.
Other bacteria incriminated are Mycobacterium
J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition [arcmogenee and Myco. senegalese.
satisfactory and no general signs. A few species are pathogenic to man, e.g. N.
Diseased organs: D (udder and associated asteroides, which causes chronic granular lesions
lymph nodes). in the lungs similar to TB, and N. madurae, one
of the causative agents of Madura foot or
mycetoma, a chronic granulomatous disease of
the human foot encountered in south India and
Contagious vulvo-vaginitis of cattle, sheep Africa.
and goats
R. The Nocardia are soil saprophytes and are
I. An acute or chronic infectious disease in
found in infective discharges.
which there is granular vulvovaginitis and
infertility. MT. Via skin wounds.
O. Worldwide. CF. Firm nodular lesions along lymphatic
tracts and in associated lymph nodes. These
lA. Mycoplasma agalactiae is said to be
rupture and discharge thick greyish or
involved but its exact importance is uncertain.
yellowish pus through sinuses or ulcers. The
Other organisms may act in unison with M.
lesions resemble those of farcy in horses and
agalactiae.
actinobacillosis but are entirely distinct. The
R. Affected and carrier animals, organism lymphatic tracts are enlarged and surrounded
being found in the external genital tract. by cellulitis. The most typical lesions are found
in the lower limbs, neck and shoulder but may
MT. Via vulva/vagina.
involve any part of the body. The lungs,
CF. Granular and nodular inflammation of however, may be affected in complicated cases
the external genital tract. Similar lesions may and mastitis may occur. In severe mastitis cases
occur on the penis of the bull. the udder may rupture.
524 Meat Hygiene
Unless the disease is complicated there are P. Very thickened ureters with haemorrhagic
generally no symptoms. But fever, inappetence, and ulcerated mucosae; enlarged haemorrhagic
lameness, loss of condition and respiratory kidneys with evidence of pus and blood in
distress may be present. calyces; bladder wall oedematous and
P. See CF. The lesions take the form of firm sometimes ulcerated with necrotic debris in the
granulomatous nodules resembling those of bladder.
actinobacillosis but sulphur granules are D. The lesions are fairly conclusive. Sporadic
absent. nature of disease assists in diagnosis. Important
D. Smears of pus, sputum, milk or tissue to differentiate from leptospirosis, bacillary
stained by Gram's stain show the typical haemoglobinuria, etc.
branching filaments and bacillary forms of Stained smears of urine sediment will show
Nocardia. the characteristic bacilli.
J. J.
Carcase and viscera: A, where lesions are Carcase and viscera: T, in cases of poor
localised and general signs absent. condition and systemic changes.
Affected parts: D. Carcase and viscera: A, no systemic effect
Carcase and viscera: T. Fever and other and condition good.
complications present and/ or poor condition. Affected parts: D.

CONTAGIOUS BOVINE CYSTITIS AND PYELONEPHRITIS

PYELONEPHRITIS
I. A sporadic inflammatory infection of the I. An infective disease of the urinary tract of
bovine urinary tract (kidneys, ureters and sows, and sometimes boars, 'which is similar to
bladder). The condition sometimes occurs in the bovine condition but on occasions is
sheep. peracute and can lead to sudden death.
O. Worldwide, but appears to be more lA. Corynebacterium (Eubacterium) suis. The
common in Europe, N. America, Israel and occurrence, reservoir, mode of transmission and
Australia. clinical findings are similar to the bovine
lA. Corynebacterium renale, alone or in mixed disease.
infections with other organisms. E. coli, Cl. P. The bladder wall is oedematous and
pyogenes and various streptococci and congested and may show ulceration in places,
staphylococci may cause similar lesions. The while interstitial nephritis is present in the
bacterium is also responsible for enzootic kidneys.
posthitis in sheep (q.v.).
The bacterium is a Gram-positive, aerobic, D. Based on fairly typical clinical signs and
non-sporing rod which forms palisades or post-mortem lesions. Culture of the offending
'Chinese characters' in culture, resembling organism confirms the diagnosis.
Erysipelothrix and Listeria. The genus Differential diagnosis: the condition must be
Corynebacterium gets its name from the club- differentiated from kidnev worm infestation
shaped appearance of the ends of the bacilli. (Stephanurus dentatus) and other causes of
haemoglobinuria.
R. The bacilli appear to be normal
commensals on skin and in genital and J. As far contagious bovine pyelonephritis.
respiratory tracts. Carrier animals are a
common source of infection.
MT. Direct and indirect contact with DERMATOPHILOSIS (CUTANEOUS
contaminated materials such as bedding, STREPTOTRICHOSIS, LUMPY WOOL,
cloths, brushes, etc. STRAWBERRY FOOT ROT)
CF. Restlessness, colic, tail switching, possible
fever, straining to urinate, frequent passage of I. An infectious dermatitis of the epidermis
blood-stained urine, gradual loss of condition. characterised by exudation and scab formation
 Infectious Diseases 525
in cattle (cutaneous streptotrichosis), sheep Differential diagnoses include ulcerative
(lumpy wool, 'mycotic dermatitis', strawberry dermatosis in sheep, contagious ecthyma (/orf/)
foot rot), goats, horses and less commonly pigs in sheep and goats, ringworm and lumpy skin
and man. disease in cattle.
o. The disease is encountered worldwide but J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition
is more common in tropical and subtropical is satisfactory.
countries.
lA. Dermaiophilus congolensis, a Gram-
positive, facultative anaerobe, non-acid-fast
bacillus which appears as filamentous, ENZOOTIC BALANOPOSTHITIS
branching hyphae like Actinomyces and (SHEATH ROT, PIZZLE ROT)
flagellated, containing motile zoospores.
I. A contagious infection of sheep and goats,
R. The organism exists as a saprophyte in the and sometimes cattle, in which ulcers appear on
soil and in carrier and affected animals in the the prepuce and less commonly on the vulva.
epidermis of the skin.
o. Australia, South America and USA mainly,
MT. Via skin wounds and abrasions. Certain where Merino sheep and Angora goats are
factors are most important in predisposing to affected. The outbreaks are often severe with
the disease. These include moisture (the disease high mortality.
is most common during rainy seasons), high
temperatures and the wounds caused by lA. Corynebacterium renale, which also causes
various ectoparasites such as ticks and biting contagious bovine pyelonephritis (q.v.).
flies and by shearing, castration, etc.
R. The organism can be found in normal
CF. Infection in susceptible skin begins with animals (prepuce of rams and some bulls and
the action of the zoospores, which later the vulva of ewes and goats).
germinate to produce branched hyphae. Acute
inflammation of the superficial layers of the MT. As for contagious bovine pyelonephritis.
skin results and spreads to other areas. These The disease is associated with the feeding of
acute lesions heal in 2-3 weeks but may high-protein diets. Flies may play a part in
progress to produce the chronic form of the transmission.
dermatitis in which thick, horny scabs are
formed which adhere to the wool and hair CF. Brownish scab formation of prepuce and
staples. vulva with ultimate haemorrhagic ulceration
The areas of skin most commonly affected and fibrosis. Condition may extend to occlusion
are the head, neck and dorsal surface of the of prepuce and vulva with vagina involvement.
body. Difficulty in urination. Restlessness. Kicking at
Strawberry foot rot (proliferative dermatitis) belly. Uraemia, toxaemia and septicaemia (q.v.)
in sheep is an infection of the lower limbs, often ensue. Spontaneous recovery sometimes
from knee to coronet, with D. congolensis. takes place.
Brown scabs appear which, when removed,
P. See CF.
reveal a raw, bleeding, granuloma surrounded
by an ulcer. The disease, if severe and D. Lesions are fairly characteristic.
prolonged, causes considerable loss of body Differential diagnosis: the viral diseases,
weight. ulcerative dermatosis of sheep and pustular
Strawberry foot rot has been recorded only vulvovaginitis of cattle.
in the British Isles and Australia.
P. See CF. J.
Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition
D. Diagnosis is largely based on the good and no general signs.
appearance of the lesions and confirmed by Affected organs: D.
smears from scabs, culture of the organism and Carcase and viscera: T, in cases of uraemia,
fluorescent antibody and ELISA tests. toxaemia, septicaemia.
526 Meat Hygiene
ERYSIPELAS (SWINE) persistence in soil depends on many factors
such as temperature, pH and the presence of
I. An acute or chronic infectious disease of other organisms.
pigs in which skin, lesions, high fever and Although the bacillus is easily destroyed by
sometimes septicaemia, occur in the acute form water at 100°C and by disinfectants such as
and proliferative lesions in chronic cases. caustic soda and the hypochlorites in a few
minutes, it is resistant to formaldehyde and
O. Common in most areas of the world. phenol and can remain viable for long periods
in buried carcases, dried blood, frozen and
lA. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (insidiosa), a
chilled carcases (10 months) and salted and
Gram-positive, non-motile, non-capsulated,
smoked meat (3--4 months).
microaerophilic, straight or slightly curved,
slender rod which resembles Listeria MT. Soil contaminated with the faeces of
monocytogenes but which is feebly motile. affected animals and birds. Direct and indirect
E. rhusiopathiae is also responsible for contact with affected, in-contact, and carrier
arthritis (polyarthritis) in sheep and cattle, post- animals which discharge the bacteria in their
dipping lameness in sheep and acute faeces, urine, saliva and nasal secretions. Flies
septicaemia in turkeys, ducks and geese (q.v.). are known to play a part in the transference of
Erysipeloid in man is a localised zoonotic skin infection. Infection probably takes place by
infection caused by E. rhusiopaihiae, often ingestion and also through skin wounds.
accompanied by arthritis, in persons handling Contaminated materials such as bedding,
animals (farmers, meat and fish plant workers), soil, feed and water serve as media for indirect
poultry, meat, reptiles and freshwater fish and transmission of infection.
shellfish. Infection has been reported via surface water
As with animals, the infection is acquired contaminated by rodents and sewage from
through cuts and abrasions. After an incubation meat plants and from fish meal used in feed.
period of 2-7 days a red, painful, oedematous As with many diseases, predisposing factors
lesion appears on the skin, commonly on the such as poor housing, low standards of
hands, legs and face, and occurring more often hygiene and inefficient husbandry methods act
in women than men. This lesion often has a as stressors in causing the disease, which
raised border. seems to be more prevalent in recently
Patients are fevered owing to a bacteraemia farrowed sows. It is possible that genetic
which rarely extends to a septicaemia and factors play a role, as does the actual virulence
arthritis, especially of the fingers, may be of the organisms.
present. Other constitutional symptoms such as
CF. The disease occurs in four main forms -
inappetence and depression may occur
acute septicaemia, subacute skin form, chronic
depending on the severity of the condition.
arthritis and vegetative endocarditis. While the
Most cases, however, remain as a mild skin
acute and subacute types are dramatic and
infection.
frequently lead to death, the chronic forms are
Erysipeloid responds well to penicillin and
by far the most important economically.
erythromycin, but recurrences may take place.
The condition is prevented by ensuring high Clinical signs are classified as acute, subacute
and chronic manifestations. There may be a
standards of personal hygiene and care in the
subclinical form in which no symptoms are
handling of animals, especially pigs, carcase
evident but which develops into chronic swine
meat, poultry and fish.
erysipelas.
R. E. rhusiopathiae is very widely distributed Acute swine erysipelas begins with a
in nature, in soils, fish and other forms of bacteraemia (the temporary presence of bacteria
wildlife. Pigs and other livestock may act as in the bloodstream) in which the organisms
carriers, the organism existing in the tonsils, may be quickly eliminated with the sole
other lymphoid tissues and intestinal tract. development of temporary localised skin
In the soil it can exist as a saprophyte for a lesions which quickly disappear without
year or more and this accounts for the sporadic septicaemia occurring. In this case either the
outbreaks of the disease which in Britain occur animal is partly immune or the bacteria are of
mainly in the warmer summer months. Its low virulence. More typically, the bacteria are
 Infectious Diseases 527

virulent and/ or the pig lacks immunity and the Acute SE: In addition to the 'diamonds' there
case quickly develops into a generalised may be oedema and congestion of the lungs,
infection (septicaemia). petechial haemorrhages on the epicardium and
Clinical signs appear suddenly and some myocardium, especially in the left atrium.
pigs may be found dead. Other pigs show very Varying degrees of gastritis are common, from a
high temperatures (104-109°F), stiffness of gait mild catarrhal to a haemorrhagic type. The liver
with evident leg pain; difficulty in lying down; is congested, as is the spleen, which may also be
shifting from one foot to another; recumbency; enlarged. The kidneys show petechiae in the
depression; inappetence; constipation cortex and the bladder is usually congested.
sometimes followed by diarrhoea, and Lymph nodes are enlarged and congested and
resentment and squealing when disturbed. may be haemorrhagic.
Abortion may occur in sows which also may Chronic SE: The main finding is a chronic
develop agalactia. non-suppurative arthritis affecting mainly the
Skin lesions vary from generalised erythema stifle, hock, elbow and carpal joints. On
with purplish discoloration of the ears, snout occasions the spine is affected. Some
and belly to light pink or purple diamond- or granulation tissue with erosion of the articular
quadrangular-shaped raised, firm weals on any surfaces may be present along with
part of the body but most commonly seen on serosanguinous fluid containing fibrin in the
the back and sides. Necrosis of the skin lesions synovial cavities. The joint capsule is
may occur, with sloughing of the affected parts. thickened and its synovial membrane is
Fatal SE is usually associated with livid dark hyperaemic. Changes in the joints may be so
red or purplish lesions affecting ears, belly, advanced with fibrous tissue formation as to
thighs, tail and jowls, whereas light pink lesions cause ankylosis.
normally lead to recovery. Healing of the skin The vegetative endocarditis cases show wart-
changes takes weeks owing to secondary like growths which contain the bacilli in large
infection. numbers. These are present on the heart valves,
Subacute SE: The symptoms are less severe - usually the mitral valve. Mitral stenosis
pigs may still feed; temperature is lower; skin normally gives rise to compensatory
lesions few in number; no evidence of leg enlargement of the heart. Emboli from these
stiffness and quick recovery. cardiac vegetations may give rise to infarcts,
Chronic SE: This may follow either acute or which are usually observed in the kidneys.
subacute SE and is manifested mainly by signs
D. The typical 'diamond' skin changes are
of arthritis and sometimes cardiac insufficiency.
diagnostic of acute SE but less obvious lesions
There is enlargement and stiffness of joints
along with arthritis and endocarditis make for
with lameness and disinclination to move. In
difficulty in diagnosis. Acute SE usually
those cases which progress to valvular
responds to treatment with penicillin within
endocarditis (seen most often in young adult or
24h which supports a tentative diagnosis.
mature pigs), death may occur from embolism
At post-mortem E. rhusiopaihiae can be
at times of undue exertion. Dyspnoea (difficult
detected in stained smears from blood, heart,
or laboured breathing) is evident especially
joints, kidneys, liver, etc., and cultured on
after exertion. Feeding usually continues but
enriched media.
there is progressive loss of condition.
Serology: Agglutination, complement fixa-
In all forms of SE the type and severity of
tion and immunofluorescence tests have been
symptoms and the outcome largely depend on
used but may not always be specific and
early diagnosis and the initiation of effective
sensitive.
treatment with penicillin.
J. Judgement in cases of SE is notoriously
P. All the changes produced by E. rhusiopathiae difficult because of the various categories
are non-suppurative in type, unless involved and the situation regarding ante-
complicated by secondary invaders. mortem inspection, antibiotic residues and the
The diamond or rhomboid skin lesions are results of microbiological examination.
characteristic of SE but not the various other Ante-mortem: Acute and subacute SE: R,
changes. These skin lesions sometimes only retain for treatment. Slaughter to be delayed
become evident in the carcase after scalding. until after treatment and recovery.
528 Meat Hygiene
Post-mortem: Judgement in cases of polyarthritis and post-
dipping lameness can be more lenient than in
1 Acute and subacute SE: Carcase, T.
typical SE provided carcase condition is
2 Chronic SE: Carcase, A. (Arthritic/ cardiac satisfactory, since these are essentially chronic
lesions localised, condition satisfactory and
no systemic effect. No hazard to consumers.) diseases.
3 Chronic SE: Carcase, T. (Arthritis widespread
and/ or condition poor with systemic effects.)
4 Chronic SE: Carcase, A. (Cardiac lesions mild, GLANDERS (FARCY, MALLEUS)
condition good, no systemic effects, no
hazard to consumers.) I. An acute or chronic, highly fatal, contagious
disease of solipeds (horses, asses and mules)
An alternative judgement for (2) and (4) above manifested by ulcerating nodules in the upper
in some instances would be heat treatment (Hh) respiratory tract, lungs and skin. A zoonosis, the
with condemnation of affected parts. disease may occur in man, in whom it is
generally fa'tal. Cases have occurred rarely in
sheep and goats. Cats and dogs may be infected
Polyarthritis in sheep and cattle by eating infected meat.
Notifiable disease (UK).
In lambs E. rhusiopathiae infection is responsible
for arthritis which commonly affects the knee, O. Glanders, at one time Widespread
elbow, stifle and hock joints. Although the throughout the world, has been eradicated
condition may be acute in type, it is usually from many countries by test and slaughter
chronic and may also affect calves and kids. programmes and no longer occurs in the
Infection takes 'place through skin wounds, western hemisphere. The disease was
very often following docking and castration, eradicated from Britain and Denmark in 1928,
but it can also occur via the navel. N. Ireland (1913), France (1959), Germany
Affected joints are swollen, painful and hot (1955), Sweden (1943), Switzerland (1937),
to the touch, but non-suppurative. Septicaemia Russia (1940), Austria and Portugal (1952) and
is transient in the acute form and the animal Spain (1956). S. Africa has had no cases since
usually recovers in 2-3 weeks, although death 1945, the USA since 1956, Japan since 1935 and
is sometimes a feature in very acute cases. Australia since 1891. Glanders has never been
However, the more common sequel is a chronic recorded in New Zealand.
arthritis when the bacteria lodge in the joints. In Glanders is now restricted to exceptional
adult sheep a valvular endocarditis may be outbreaks in Turkey, Syria, India, Burma,
present along with necrotic skin lesions. Afghanistan and China. '
(Valvular endocarditis in sheep may be also
lA. Pseudomonas (Malleomyces) mallei, a Gram-
caused by Streptococcus faecnlis.)
negative, aerobic, flagellated bacillus which is a
The condition must be differentiated from
true parasite unable to survive for longer than 6
the arthritis of joint ill due to streptococci,
weeks in the absence of its specific animal host.
muscular dystrophy (q.v.) and other forms of
The organism is fairly easily destroyed by light,
lameness.
heat and most disinfectants.
In cattle erysipelas is rare, but polyarthritis
has been recorded with evidence of abscesses in R. The organism is present in the exudates
the lungs and liver. from respiratory and skin lesions of infected
Post-dipping lameness in sheep is associated and carrier animals.
with the fact that sheep dips through continued
use become contaminated with various bacteria
including E. rhusiopaihiae. Infection takes place
MT. Infection usually takes place by the
ingestion of food and water contaminated by
nasal discharges.
1
through skin abrasions, especially on the hoof
and fetlock, these areas becoming hot and CF. In the acute form of glanders there is high
painful. fever (temperature 106°C) due to a septicaemia,
While deaths may occur in all these coughing, respiratory distress with a nasal
erysipelas conditions, loss of condition is the discharge, at first serous and later purulent and
more common sequel. blood-stained. Nodules (about 1 cm in

I
 Infectious Diseases 529
diameter) appear in the nasal passages and on Post-mortem: Carcase and viscera, T.
the lower legs and abdomen. Death from Glanders in man is a rare occurrence -
septicaemia usually occurs within a few days veterinarians, horse butchers and laboratory
following a rapid loss of weight. workers being usually affected. Symptoms
The symptoms in the chronic form of include fever, malaise, muscle pains,
glanders are related to the specific lesions pneumonia and pleurisy and usually death
which develop in the various sites - nasal within 3 weeks. The lesions are similar to those
passages, lungs or skin - although there may be occurring in equidae.
combinations of all three. Chronic cases are ill Glanders is a notifiable diseases in most
for several months, the outcome being either countries with a test and slaughter programme.
death or apparent recovery to become carriers.
In the nasal form, granulomatous nodules
develop on the nasal septum and the lower
HAEMOPHILOSIS
parts of the turbinate bones. These nodules,
which resemble tubercles, become ulcerated
I. An infectious, often fatal, disease of cattle in
and later heal with star-shaped scar tissue. The
which meningitis and encephalitis are the main
nodules are usually discrete but some may
manifestations but which is also associated
coalesce. The submaxillary lymph nodes are
with pneumonia, pleurisy, myocarditis,
enlarged and oedematous.
arthritis, mastitis and infertility.
In the pulmonary form of glanders, small pea-
sized tubercle-like nodules with caseous or cal- O. Worldwide, but most common in North
cified centres are formed in the lungs. There is America (in feedlot animals), Europe and
usually an accompanying bronchopneumonia Australia.
caused by breakdown of the nodules with dis-
lA. Haemophilus somnus, a small, Gram-
charge of infective pus. The bronchial and
negative, non-motile, non-sporing.
mediastinal lymph nodes are normally
microaerophilic coccobacillus which requires
involved and nodules and ulcers may be pre-
special X and V factors for growth.
sent in the larynx and trachea. Old nodules,
which sometimes may be found in the liver and R. The organism appears to be a commensal
spleen, often develop a fibrous capsule. in the respiratory tract and is present in the
The cutaneous form of glanders (jarcy') urine and vaginal discharges of infected
shows nodules along the lymphatics, especially animals.
of the lower limbs. They degenerate to form
MT. Exact mode of transmission is unknown
ulcers with the discharge of a thick, viscous
but is probably by inhalation.
pus. The associated lymphatics become
tortuous and indurated and local lymph nodes CF. There is a very high temperature (up to
are enlarged and oedematous and eventually 108°C), depression, inappetence, blindness,
discharge a similar type of pus. opisthotonos (head and tail bent upwards and
backwards), incoordination, nystagmus
P. See CF.
(involuntary movement of eyeballs in unison),
D. Diagnosis is confirmed by the mallein test circling, hyperaesthesia, paralysis and coma in
(injection of 0.1 ml of mallein intradermally into 1-2 days. On occasions animals may be found
the lower eyelid with reading in 24h). Positive dead. Less severe forms of the disease show
reaction is marked oedema of eyelid with mastitis, otitis, endometritis, myocarditis,
purulent conjunctivitis. Also indirect pneumonia, arthritis, abortion and infertility.
haemagglutination and conglutinin
P. The main form of the disease shows
complement absorption tests.
haemorrhagic infarcts and fibrinous meningitis
The condition must be distinguished from
in the brain and spinal cord. Other lesions in the
epizootic lymphangitis (q.v.) and melioidosis
less acute forms of haemophilosis are consistent
(q.v.).
with the clinical findings.
J. D. Diagnosis is based on CF along with
Ante-mortem: T. Glanders cases should not isolation and culture of H. somnus.
be admitted to meat plants. Histopathology of brain tissue.
530 Meat Hygiene
Differential diagnoses include rabies, time with no untoward effects or some opacity
Aujeszky' s disease, lead poisoning, in one or both eyes. The degree of eye damage
polioencephalomalacia, listeriosis. varies greatly depending on susceptibility. On
occasions, small ulcers appear on the cornea
J. Only the less acute forms of haemophilosis without opacity.
are likely to be encountered at meat inspection.
Carcase and viscera: T. P. See CF.
Other species of haemophilus are
D. The condition must be distinguished from
responsible for causing disease: Glasser's disease
conjunctivitis due to trauma, foreign bodies,
(infectious polyarthritis of young pigs) is due to H.
parasites, etc. Similar symptoms are seen in
suis (parasuis); Septicaemia complex of sheep is other diseases such as bovine malignant catarrh
due to Haemophilus agni, and Pleuropneumonia of
(q.v.), infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis
pigs is caused by H. (Actinobacillus)
(q.v.), mucosal disease (q.v.) and keratitis due to
pleuropneumoniae.
various pathogens.
J.
Ante-mortem: R.
Post-mortem: Carcase and viscera, A.
INFECTIOUS KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS
(INFECTIOUS OPHTHALMIA, BLIGHT,
PINK EYE)
LEPTOSPIROSIS (WEIL'S DISEASE,
I. An acute, non-fatal, infectious disease of HAEMORRHAGIC JAUNDICE, SWINE
cattle, sheep and goats characterised by HERD FEVER, MUD FEVER, CANICOLA
conjunctivitis, lachrymation, photophobia, FEVER)
spasm of the circular muscle of the eyelid and
corneal opacity and ulceration. I. A group of contagious diseases of all farm
livestock and man which vary in severity and
O. Worldwide.
are characterised by septicaemia, fever,
lA. Moraxella bovis, either alone or in mixed haemoglobinuria, jaundice, infertility and
infections with Mycoplasma, Neisseria, Rickettsia, abortion in most animals. Weil/s disease in
Chlamydia and certain viruses, e.g. !BR virus. human beings is an important zoonosis.
Mor. bovis is a Gram-negative, strictly
aerobic, non-flagellated short rod or coccus O. Worldwide. The disease is endemic in
which varies greatly in virulence. some countries where it is more important as a
zoonosis than a clinical disease in livestock.
R. Carrier animals, in which the organisms Some serotypes are restricted geographically.
exist in the nostrils.
lA. Pathogenic leptospires, which belong to the
MT. Via the conjunctiva by direct and indirect single species Leptospira interrogans complex,
contact with materials contaminated with the which itself is subdivided into over 200
ocular and nasal discharges of affected and serovars (serotypes) arranged in 23 serogroups.
carrier animals. Various species of flies, Leptospires belong to the order
especially those which tend to favour the Spirochaetales which are Gram-negative,
orbital regions, play an important part as elongated and slender (6-20 urn x 0.1 urn), very
vectors in causing infection. motile, aerobic, non-sporing bacilli occurring as
loops or tight coils.
CF. See I. The disease occurs most often
The most common leptospires occur as
during the summer and autumn when flies are
follows:
active. Susceptibility among livestock varies
greatly, Zebu cattle being very resistant. Bright Cattle: L. inierrogans, serovars hardjo, pomona
sunlight, pollen, dust, grass seeds, etc., are and grippotyphosa. Canicola and
predisposing agents. icterohaemorrhagiae have also been isolated.
There may be a mild to moderate fever in Pigs: serovars p0111ona, braiisiaoa, grippotyphosa,
some cases, with inappetence and a fall in milk canicola and icterohaemorrhagiae.
yield, but most cases recover in a few weeks Sheep: serovars p0111ona, hardio, grippotyphosa.
 Infectious Diseases 531
Horses: serovar bratislaua. symptoms are often so mild as to be
Dogs: serovars canicola, icterohaemorrhagiae, overlooked. This is the type most common in
grippotyphosa, pomona. pigs and is rarely fatal.
Brown rat: serovar icterohaetnorrhagiae. P. In addition to the symptoms listed in the
clinical findings, there are haemorrhages under
Serovars pomona and grippotypllOsa are mucous membranes, abomasal ulceration and
commonly found in wild animals. mucosal haemorrhages, and petechiae in the
epicardium and lymph nodes in the more
R. Domestic and wild animals, reptiles and
severe forms. The urine is a dark port-wine
amphibians. Affected and shedder animals are
colour. The most significant lesion in chronic
responsible for introducing infection. Wild
leptospirosis is in the kidneys, which have a
animals acting as carriers include badgers, deer,
mottled appearance owing to the presence of
raccoons, skunks, opossums, foxes, squirrels,
rats, mice and other rodents. Saprophytic, non- numerous small red or white infarcts in the
cortex.
pathogenic strains of leptospires also occur,
being abundant in water, even in domestic D. Diagnosis is confirmed by demonstration
water supplies. In Victoria, Australia, a survey of the organism in urine; culture from blood,
of kidney samples from 218 cattle revealed milk or urine; animal (guinea pig) inoculation;
leptospires in 18 (8.3%), all being identified as L. microscopic agglutination and ELISA tests.
hardio. Leptospirosis must be distinguished from
brucellosis, babesiosis, anaplasmosis,
MT. The portal of entry of Leptospira species is
brucellosis, bacillary haemoglobinuria in cattle,
usually through wounds or abrasions in the
erysipelas in sows and chronic copper
skin or through mucous membranes (usually
poisoning in sheep.
conjunctiva, nares and vagina). In utero
infection has been recorded and the disease has J.
been transmitted by coitus in cattle. Urine is a Acute leptospirosis: Carcase and viscera, T.
common source and, less commonly, Chronic leptospirosis: Carcase and viscera,
contaminated feed and water. Urine can be A. Affected organs (kidneys), D.
infective for long periods after an animal has
Leptospirosis in man (Weil's disease) has a
apparently recovered.
wide range of symptoms - haemolytic anaemia,
CF. Some leptospires are pathogenic for jaundice, muscular pains, headache,
certain animals (although they can cause conjunctivitis, vomiting, mental confusion and
disease in any mammals) while others are sometimes meningitis. The death rate is low but
found in accidental hosts in which, however, increases with advancing age.
they are capable of producing septicaemia and The disease is an occupational hazard,
acute disease. occurring among sewer workers, farmers,
The disease occurs in acute, subacute and veterinarians, abattoir personnel, fish workers
chronic forms, the symptoms being fairly and all persons exposed to river, canal and lake
similar in all animals. water contaminated with the urine of infected
Acute leptospirosis is manifested by domestic and wild animals. The disease is
septicaemia, high fever, icterus, easily treated with penicillin G and
haemoglobinuria, anorexia, anaemia, loss of amoxycillin.
milk yield, respiratory distress and listlessness.
Abortion with stillbirths and retention of the
placenta, infertility and mastitis with thick,
yellowish, blood-tinged milk are common in LISTERIOSIS (LISTERELLOSIS,
cows. Mortality in general ranges from 5% to MONONUCLEOSIS, CIRCLING
15%, the higher rates occurring in calves, which DISEASE)
are more susceptible.
In the subacute form the symptoms are I. A sporadic infectious disease affecting a
milder and jaundice may be absent. wide range of animals, especially cattle, sheep,
Abortion and stillbirths may be the only sign goats, sometimes horses and pigs, birds and
evident in the chronic form, in which man, characterised by encephalitis/menin-
532 Meat Hygiene
goencephalitis and/or septicaemia, abortion rapidly within the silage. Good-quality silage
and sometimes enteritis in ewes. requires rapid and efficient lactic acid
fermentation, low pH, high dry matter content,
O. The disease occurs throughout the world strict anaerobic conditions and freedom from
but is more common in temperate climates - soil. Big bale silage is believed to be more
USA British Isles, Europe, Australia and New responsible for multiplication of Listeria than
Zealand - where it has a winter-spring clamp silage since low pH, anaerobic
prevalence. conditions and freedom from moulds and fungi
Listeriosis is notifiable in several countries - are more difficult to achieve owing to the entry
Cuba, Salvador, Bahamas, Bermuda, Israel, of air through air holes and broken bales.
Malaysia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Finland,
Latvia, Sweden and Ukraine. MT. Ingestion and inhalation of contaminated
materials are the usual routes of infection,
lA. Listeria monocuiogenes, a Gram-positive, which may also occur via the conjunctiva. It is
microaerophilic, non-sporing, flagellated (but possible that small wounds in the buccal
only weakly motile) coccobacillus which grows mucosa may be a portal of entry.
well under a wide range of temperatures, even
down to 4°C. 1. monocftogenes resembles E. CF. Predilection sites for Listeria appear to be
rhusiopaihiae which, however, is non-motile. 1. the intestinal wall, brain (medulla oblongata)
ioanooii is another pathogen but many listeriae and uterus/placenta, and organisms localise in
are non-pathogenic, e.g. 1. innocua, 1. seeligeri. these sites from the appropriate portals of entry.
1. monocvtogenes is probably present more The most common manifestations of listerio-
widely in carrier animals than is generally sis are encephalitis or meningoencephalitis,
realised. Examination of brain smears from septicaemia and abortion, but they rarely occur
apparently normal sheep showed the presence together.
of the organisms in 5% of them (Gracey 1961, Encephalitis affects all ages and both sexes and
unpublished data). The exciting conditions is exhibited by a rapid onset and usually death in
which enable such organisms to multiply and 2 days in sheep (up to 14 days in cattle).
become pathogenic are as yet unknown. Although recovery may take place, there is
always permanent brain damage. Affected
R. The organism is very widely distributed in animals separate from the flock or herd, show
nature. Soil, rotting vegetation, feedingstuffs, incoordination and ataxia, push the head against
faeces, surface water, sewage sludge, plants and stationary objects, crowd into corners and walk
even insects harbour 1. monocvtogenes. It is a in circles, always in the same direction.
normal commensal in the intestines of animals Salivation, nasal discharge, anorexia,
and man. conjunctivitis, strabismus (squint) and blindness
As with many diseases, there are important with pus in the anterior chamber of the eyes are
predisposing factors such as poor standards of commonly observed. Paralysis of the face and
hygiene, low levels of nutrition, overcrowding, throat, with difficulty in the prehension of food
severe climatic conditions (e.g. from warm to and slow mastication and swallowing may be
extremely cold and wet), pregnancy and evident. Paralysis and recumbency eventually
parturition. take place and death due to respiratory failure.
The increased use of poor-quality silage has Mortality may be as high as 90%.
been held responsible for outbreaks of Abortion usually occurs in late pregnancy
listeriosis in cattle and sheep as well as without any premonitory signs. While fetuses
nutritional deficiencies (reduction of voluntary normallv die in utero, stillbirths and neonatal
food intake, loss of body weight, ketosis, deaths ~re not uncommon. In some cases in
reduced milk yield and infertility), fungal sheep, septicaemia accompanies abortion with
diseases, bacilli (especially B. Iichenijormis death on occasions.
abortion), and botulism. Septicaemia appears to be more common in
Poor-quality silage is classified as silage young calves and lambs than adults. In pigs it is
which is poorly fermented, has a pH of 5.0 and seen in piglets under 1 month of age. In all cases
over, often contains soil, moulds and fungi and it terminates rapidly.
has aerobic/microaerophilic conditions. Under Enteritis as an entity in listeriosis seems to be
these conditions, 1. monocytogenes multiplies on the increase. Indeed, it is possible that the
 Infectious Diseases 533
clinical manifestations of listeriosis are Pregnant women, elderly persons and the
changing, at least in the UK. immunocompromised must avoid contact with
infective materials, aborted fetuses and known
P. In encephalitis, apart from congestion of the
infected persons. Pregnant women should not
meninges, there are no gross lesions.
assist with lambing/calving or even be present
Histological examination is necessary to show
at such events. Only pasteurised foods,
the microabscesses in the brain (pons and
especially soft cheeses, should be consumed.
medulla) and spinal cord. In the septicaemic
Cases should be reported to the Local Health
form tiny, yellowish, discrete necrotic foci may
Authority, an obligatory requirement in several
be found in any organ but especially in the liver,
US states and some countries.
spleen, heart, lymph nodes, adrenal glands and
lungs. Similar lesions may also occur in aborted
fetuses, which are usually oedematous and
autolysed and have blood-tinged fluid in the MELIOIDOSIS (PSEUDO-GLANDERS,
serous cavities. RODENT GLANDERS, WHITMORE'S
DISEASE)
D. At ante-mortem, listeriosis may be
confused with many other diseases showing
1. An uncommon bacterial disease mainly of
neurological signs - BSE, acetonaemia, sporadic
rodents but also occurring in a wide range of
encephalomyelitis, lead poisoning, brain
farm livestock (sheep, goats, pigs, horses, cattle
abscess, rabies, and with pregnancy toxaemia,
and dogs) and wild animals, including
brain abscess, gid, otitis media in sheep. Other
primates, and man. Lesions take the form of
causes of abortion, e.g. brucellosis, must also be
suppurative or caseous changes in lymph
borne in mind in all species.
nodes and viscera resembling those of glanders.
At post-mortem the appearance of numerous
discrete necrotic foci in the septicaemic form o. Although originally thought to be
and in fetuses is very suggestive of listeriosis. restricted to tropical and subtropical countries -
Diagnosis is confirmed by isolation of L. Mexico, S. America, ;Brunei/Darussalam, Iran,
monocytogenes from brain, cerebrospinal fluid, Malaysia and Singapore - the disease has been
blood, fetus and placenta in particular. Culture recorded in Australia, Papua New Guinea, New
on enriched selective media is necessary to Caledonia and France and is a notifiable disease
distinguish the organism from other in New Zealand.
diphtheroid bacteria. Immunofluorescence is of
lA. Pseudomonas (Malleomyces) pseudomaliei, a
value but not serology. Gram-negative, oval-shaped motile (with polar
J. Carcase and viscera: T. flagella) aerobic bacillus.
Human listeriosis Infection results from the R. The organisms are very widely distributed
ingestion of contaminated food - unpasteurised in nature, where they can survive as
milk, cheese (usually soft cheese), vegetables saprophytes for long periods in soil and water,
and other forms of food. Inhalation of the although they are easily destroyed by heat and
organism is also a possibility. Skin lesions may the usual disinfectants. P. pseudomallei is found
result from direct contact with infected animals in the faeces and discharges of infected animals.
and contaminated materials. Neonatal infection Rodents and other wild species act as
occurs in utero from an infected mother. reservoirs.
Symptoms are very similar to those in
MT. Ingestion of contaminated food and
animals. A mild infection may only show
water, through skin wounds and by inhalation.
influenza-like signs but the
meningoencephalitis type is manifested by CF. Clinical signs vary according to the body
fever, intense headache, nausea, vomiting, part involved. In sheep there is fever due to
delirium and coma. Endocarditis and liver septic pneumonia, coughing, anorexia,
necrotic foci may be present, along with listlessness, weight loss, ocular and nasal
internal and cutaneous abscesses. Fatality may discharges (when the nasal bones become
reach 30% in adults and in new-born infants. ulcerated). Arthritis with lameness may be
Susceptibility is greatest in the newborn, the present as well as mastitis and encephalitis.
elderly and immunocompromised individuals. Most cases are chronic,. especially in pigs and
534 Meat Hygiene
goats, with frequent recoveries, but acute R. See lA. The organism also exists in soil anc
encephalitis cases with death within one week water.
sometimes occur. Cases of encephalitis show
MT. Via wounds and abrasions in skin.
the usual signs of incoordination, blindness,
mouth, intestinal and genital tracts from
abnormal gait, head deviation, etc.
discharges from infected and carrier animals.
P. Abscesses with thick greenish pus or Predisposing factors which reduce the integrity
caseous material in most organs, especially the of skin and mucous membranes, e.g. wet
lungs. Pneumonia. Microabscesses in brain. conditions, badlv laid concrete and stony
surfaces, play an important part in infection. .
D. Culture of the organism from infective
material, abscesses, etc., on the usual media.
Agglutination test. Differential diagnoses:
glanders and strangles (q.v.) in horses. Foot rot of cattle {pododermatitis,
interdigital necrobacillosis}
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
1. An infectious disease of the feet of cattle
Human melioidosis Symptoms in man vary
caused by F. necrophorum acting in conjunction
from virtually no signs to a rapidly fatal with Bacteroides nodosus and Bacteroides
septicaemia which, however, is uncommon.
meianinogenicus, associated with severe
Agricultural workers are mainly affected. Many
lameness and loss of condition. It is the most
of these have antibodies to P. pseudomallei
common form of lameness in cattle, in which it
without clinical disease. Symptoms in clinical
is of great economic importance.
cases include respiratory distress, coughing,
fever, chest pain, osteomyelitis and skin CF. Sudden onset of severe lameness usually
abscesses. in one foot (especially a hind foot), which
Preventive measures are mainly directed becomes oedematous owing to a fissure in the
towards the prevention of wounds and their interdigital cleft which becomes necrotic with a
contamination, and avoidance of ingestion of foul-smelling discharge. This may progress to a
contaminated water and dust. purulent arthritis and tenosynovitis. There is
fever, reduced milk yield and loss of condition
in longstanding cases.
P. See CF.
NECROBACILLOSIS
D. Based on the typical lesions in which there
1. A complex of several usually chronic is no foreign body.
diseases in which necrotic lesions are formed in
different parts of the animal body by bacteria of
J. Foot rot cases are frequently presented as
casualties.
the Fusobacterium genus. Included are foot rot of
Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition is
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, foot abscess of
satisfactory and general signs are absent.
sheep, interdigital dermatitis of sheep, necrotic
rhinitis of pigs, oral/laryngeal necrobacillosis Infectious foot rot of sheep and goats is
and focal necrosis of the liver of cattle and associated with invasion of the interdigital skin
sheep. of the feet by Bacteroides nodosus, either alone or
in association with F. necrophorum. It is common
O. Worldwide in distribution, except arid and
in feet with overgrown claws, especially fore
semi-arid areas.
feet, and has the same predisposing factors as
lA. Fusobacterium spp. especially F. the bovine condition. The hoof matrix becomes
(Sphaerophorus) necrophorum, a large (up to infected and partially detached from the digit.
Ifl um long) Gram-negative, anaerobic, non- Affected feet have a characteristic odour. Severe
sporing, non-motile beaded bacillus which is lameness and loss of condition ensue.
frequently found as a commensal in the mouth, Foot rot in pigs is usually the result of
intestine or genital tract of many animals and infection with F. necrophorum associated with
man. It can act as a secondary invader in mixed Corynebacterium pyogenes and various
infections as well as being the primary cause of staphylococci. Foot abscess of sheep (septic
disease, even to producing septicaemia. laminas) may affect either the toe or the heel of
 Infectious Diseases 535
the foot, which becomes painful and hot due to D. Clinical signs and lesions are usually suffi-
purulent inflammation. The causes are the same cient to establish a diagnosis. Stained smears
as in foot rot in pigs. and culture of organism from necrotic ulcers.
lnierdigital dermatitis (scald) in sheep is
generally less severe than foot rot in that there
is no separation of hoof. As with foot rot, almost
the whole flock may be affected and all four Focal necrosis of liver in cattle and sheep
feet. The skin of the cleft is red and swollen and
MT. Fusobacterium necrophorum is a normal
suppuration may extend to deeper tissues.
inhabitant of the rumen microflora and gains
Necrotic stomatitis and rhinitis in pigs: F.
entrance to the liver following inflammatory
necrophorum is commonly isolated from necrotic
changes and wounds in the rumen or through
lesions on the skin, mouth, tongue and nares of
the navel via the umbilical vein. Feedlot cattle
pigs of all ages. As with many conditions,
are commonly affected, as are barley-beef
mixed infections occur with C. pyogenes,
animals. High levels of carbohydrates in the
streptococci, staphylococci, spirochaetes and E.
feed appear to predispose to the disease.
coli. Necrotic rhinitis begins with ulceration of
the nasal and turbinate bones, which later CF. Most animals show no clinical signs but
become necrotic with swelling and deformity of severe cases exhibit loss of weight and a few
the face and a foul-smelling nasal discharge, the animals may die suddenly from peritonitis and
swelling of the face distinguishing it from toxaemia due to the rupture of one or more
atrophic rhinitis. large abscesses. In such cases there is evidence
of colic or vague digestive disorder.
P. The term 'liver abscesses' is a misnomer since
most of the early lesions are circumscribed
Oral/pharyngeal/laryngeal necrobacillosis areas of coagulative necrosis, although older
I. An infectious, highly fatal disease, mainly lesions (one month) may be true abscesses.
of calves, but also occurring less commonly in They are a fairly common finding at meat
sheep, in which ulceration and necrotic inspection - up to almost 100% in some feedlots
diphtheritic membranes are formed in the in the USA. A figure of 22% of barley-beef
mouth, pharynx or larynx. animals has been recorded in the UK. The
lesions are usually pale yellowish in colour,
O. Worldwide, especially under intensive
about 2-5 cm in diameter. The actual number in
conditions. a liver varies greatly but a number between 5
lA. Fusobacterium necrophorum. and 8 is common.
A complication which sometimes occurs is
R and MT. See under Necrobacillosis.
erosion and perforation of the wall of the
CF. Oral necrobacillosis (necrotic stomatitis) - posterior vena cava with sudden death from
Fever, inappetence, depression, salivation, septicaemia in an otherwise healthy animal.
dyspnoea, fetid breath with difficulty in The term 'sawdust livers' encountered
prehension and chewing. Well-defined ulcers commonly in young fattening cattle in the USA
with central necrotic material are present in the relates to livers containing several minute
buccal mucosa. yellowish foci of necrosis (1-2mm in diameter).
Pharyngealllaryngeal necrobacillosis (calf They are collections of liver epithelial cells
diphtheria) differs only from the oral form in the undergoing coagulative necrosis along with
siting of the necrotic ulcers, which are present white blood cells (lymphocytes and
in the pharynx and larynx and may involve the neutrophils). Although their exact nature is
vocal cords. Severe cases may extend to unknown, it is considered that they may
complete occlusion of the laryngeal opening. represent the beginning of telangiectasis or
These organs are oedematous and there is a abscesses alongside of which they often exist.
blood-stained purulent discharge. Lesions in
both instances may extend to the lungs to cause
J. (Hepatic necrobacillosis)
Carcase and viscera: A, provided no general
a septic pneumonia and death from toxaemia.
signs present and condition good.
P. See CF. Affected part (liver): D.
536 Meat Hygiene
PARATUBERCULOSIS (JOHNE'S more common in Jersey, Guernsey and
DISEASE) Shorthorn cattle in the UK. At one period in
Northern Ireland, Johne's disease was most
I. A chronic, infectious disease of cattle, sheep, common in Ayrshire cattle and in Blackface
goats, deer and wild ruminants in which there sheep but was not encountered in other sheep
is persistent diarrhoea, loss of weight and breeds.
eventual death. The incubation period in cattle is long,
probably not less than 2 years. Symptoms
O. Worldwide. The disease, however, appears include loss of condition which extends to
to be more common in certain countries, being emaciation, reduced milk yield, intermittent
enzootic in cattle in the United Kingdom, or continuous watery 'hose-pipe' diarrhoea,
France, Denmark, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, dehydration and weakness which warrants
Bangladesh, Australia and New Zealand, and culling. Although appetite is usually
of high occurrence in Puerto Rico. A recent maintained and temperature is normal, there
survey in south-west England showed the is an increased thirst. Coat colour is lost and
proportion of farms affected with Johne's oedema may develop in the intermandibular
disease to be 1.0% and the cumulative incidence space. In sheep and goats diarrhoea is not as
on these farms to be 1.9% per year (Cetinkaya et serious as in cattle, the faeces being only soft.
al., 1994). In Greece it is enzootic in sheep and Emaciation is the main feature in these
goats. Several countries - Ireland, N. Ireland, species.
Sweden, Ukraine, Australia, New Zealand,
USA and others - have made Johne's disease a P. In cattle and goats changes may be minimal
notifiable disease. in the early stages. Well-developed lesions are
characteristic and are present in the small
lA. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (johnei). intestine, caecum and beginning of the colon in
Like Myco. bovis and Myco. tuberculosis, it is an all species. The wall of the intestine is grossly
acid-fast, usually stumpy, non-motile, non- thickened, with the mucous membrane
sporing, aerobic bacillus which often appears in assuming a corrugated appearance - it looks
clumps. This 'acid-fastness' is related to the almost like the surface of the cerebrum. The
presence of a waxy material in the cell wall mesenteric and ileo-caecal lymph nodes are
which makes the mycobacteria difficult to stain. enlarged and oedematous and the ileo-caecal
However, staining with hot carbol fuchsin valve is inflamed and oedematous.
allows the stain to penetrate but it is retained Sheep usually show a deep yellow
despite efforts to remove it with acid or alcohol. pigmentation of the intestinal wall, which may
Three major strains of Myco. paratuberculosis be thickened but not corrugated. The
exist - one bovine and two sheep strains, one of associated lymph nodes present oedema and
which is a yellowish pigmented one - in enlargement.
addition to several variants.
D. The characteristic lesions, loss of condition,
R. The organism is very resistant and can diarrhoea and chronic nature of the disease are
survive for over one year in soil and faeces, reasonably diagnostic. Differential diagnoses
although it is susceptible to sunlight and include salmonellosis, coccidiosis, parasitic
drying. The organism is shed in the faeces of gastroenteritis and chronic molybdenum
infected and clinically normal carrier animals. poisoning.
MT. By the ingestion of contaminated food The organism can be demonstrated in
and water. The bacteria enter the mucosa of the stained smears from faecal and lymph node
small intestine and the mesenteric, samples, which can also be cultured in special
retropharyngeallymph nodes and tonsils. media. Serological tests (complement fixation,
agar gel immunodiffusion, ELISA).
CF. Infection takes place early in life (usually
under 1 month of age in cattle), calves acquiring J.
infection soon after birth. As with probably all Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition is
disease, predisposing factors play an important satisfactory and no systemic or degenerative
part in producing clinical disease. Breed is changes evident. Affected organs: Intestines
believed to be important, the disease being and mesentery, D.
 Infectious Diseases 537

PASTEURELLOSIS one time most common in South and East Asia,

it now appears to be confined to Nepal (high
Bacteria of the genus Pasteurella are involved, incidence), Pakistan (enzootic), Vietnam, Saudi
either as direct causes or as secondary invaders Arabia, Sri Lanka and Mongolia. There is a low
in many animal diseases. Direct cause diseases sporadic occurrence in Spain, Portugal, Greece
include the following: and Latvia.
Pasteurella muliocida lA. Pasteurella muliocida, serotypes 6:B and
Haemorrhagic septicaemia of cattle. 6:E, the latter causing HS in Africa and 6:B
Meningoencephalitis of cattle. elsewhere.
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of pigs, sheep R. The organism is found in affected and
and goats. carrier animals (upper respiratory tract and
Lymphadenitis in lambs. pharynx).
Septicaemia of horses and donkeys. MT. By ingestion of contaminated food and
Abscesses in rabbits (q.v.). water.
Genital infection of rabbits (q.v.). CF. Acute or peracute illness almost always
Rhinitis (snuffles) and bronchopneumonia resulting in death in less than one day. Some
of rabbits (q.v.). animals may be found dead. High fever,
dullness, respiratory distress, salivation and
Pasteurella haemolutico nasal discharge. Oedematous swellings on
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of cattle throat, neck, head and brisket with congested
(shipping fever). mucosae showing numerous petechiae.
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of sheep and
goats. P. In addition to CF lesions, petechial
haemorrhages are distributed throughout the
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of pigs.
body, especially under serous membranes.
Meningoencephalitis of calves. Oedema of lungs, retropharyngeal and cervical
Meningoencephalitis of horses, donkeys lymph nodes. Blood-stained fluid in thoracic
and mules. and abdominal cavities and in pericardial sac.
Past. anaiipesiijer is the causative agent in D. Rapid course of disease, high fever, earlier
duck septicaemia (q.v.). history (especially if no vaccination) and lesions
The pasteurellae are small, oval, facultatively are indicated of haemorrhagic septicaemia.
anaerobic, capsulate, non-motile, Gram- Differential diagnoses include rinderpest,
negative bacilli which show bipolar staining salmonellosis and anthrax.
with methylene blue. They are very virulent, Isolation of organism from blood and organs.
especially Past. muliocida, for animals and birds Serology indirect haemagglutination,
and can be carried by apparently normal coagglutination, immunodiffusion.
animals and birds.
J. It is unlikely that cases of HS will be
presented for slaughter, nor should they be.
Carcase and viscera: T.
Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS, barbone)
(Plate 3, Fig. 14) Meningoencephalitis of cattle due to P.
muliocida and the same disease caused by P.
I. A septicaemic pasteurellosis of cattle and
haemolutica present clinical signs similar to all
water buffalo, the latter being the most
cases in which the brain and meninges are
susceptible. On occasions deer, bison, camels,
affected with inflammatory change
yaks, horses and pigs have been affected.
incoordination, ataxia, fever, depression
O. The disease is mainly confined to tropical (opisthotonos), blindness, delirium, seizures,
and subtropical countries. In Africa it has a high progressive paresis, coma.
incidence in Gambia, Mali, Niger, Sudan, East The causes of meningoencephalitis are
Timor and Tanzania. In S. America it is enzootic legion and include many other bacteria and
in Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, viruses, fungi, worm parasites, protozoa and
Panama, Venezuela and Argentina. Although at chemical agents.
538 Meat Hygiene
Judgement in meningencephalitis due to tance transportation causing huge economic
Pasteurellae is the same as that for HS. losses.
O. Worldwide. The disease is common in
temperate countries, especially the USA,
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of pigs Canada and Europe.
1. An acute septicaemic or chronic infectious
lA. Pasteurella haemolytica, alone or sometimes
disease of pigs characterised by sudden death
in combination with P. multocida. They can act
in the septicaemic form and acute or chronic
in combination with viruses, mycoplasmas, etc.
bronchopneumonia.
R. Both organisms are normal inhabitants of
lA. Pasteurella muliocida, usually in
the upper respiratory tract. Affected, recovered
association with other organisms such as
and carrier animals also act as sources of
Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Actinobacillus infection.
pleuropneumoniae.
Occurrence, reservoir, mode of transmission, MT. By inhalation. Spread of the disease is
clinical signs and diagnosis are similar to those more common under crowded conditions.
in other respiratory diseases.
CF. Shipping fever is more common in young
P. Acute, septicaemic and chronic cases show cattle (up to 2 years of age) but can affect adult
the relevant changes of bronchopneumonia, the animals. It frequently occurs in animals which
acute cases with marked fibrinous have undergone long journeys. Young cattle
bronchopneumonia while chronic ones reveal recently conveyed to feedlots or markets are
abscess formation in the lungs and sometimes very susceptible and often develop the disease
pericarditis. within a few hours of arrival. In some instances
clinical signs do not appear for several weeks.
J. The stress associated with transport plays a part
Carcase and viscera: T, acute, septicaemic
but other stressors such as overcrowding, poor
cases.
ventilation, prolonged holding without feed
Carcase and viscera: A, no general changes
and water, sudden weather changes, mixing of
and condition good.
stock from different sources and stressful
Affected parts and organs: D, heart, lungs
handling are important factors in causing the
and pleurae.
disease.
Lymphadenitis of lambs caused by Pasteurella Clinical signs include depression, fever,
muliocida differs from caseous lymphadenitis inappetence, dyspnoea, nasal discharge with
(CLA) due to Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis mucopurulent material and coughing. Some
in being more acute and the lymph nodes 50% of stock may be affected, with up to 10%
(submaxillary, cervical, prescapular, cranial), mortality after some weeks or months.
although swollen, do not contain the caseous Condition is lost as the disease progresses.
material seen in CLA.
P. Fibrinous bronchopneumonia mainly
J. Judgement warrants total condemnation affecting the anterior and ventral portions of
because of the fevered carcase. the lungs. Serofibrinous exudate which may
Septicaemia of equidae caused by P. muliocida become necrotic in later stages is present
has a sudden onset and a rapid course and is between lung lobules. There may be pleural
unlikely to be encountered at meat inspection. and pericardial adhesions. Catarrhal bronchitis
Judgement merits total condemnation. and bronchiolitis are usually present.
D. The circumstances surrounding the
outbreak, the lesions and the clinical signs are
usually adequate for a diagnosis. Early
Pneumonic pasteurellosis of cattle treatment normally brings a good response.
(shipping fever, transit fever)
J. Slaughter should be delayed until treatment
1. A severe infectious respiratory disease of is completed.
cattle in which acute fibrinous bronchopneu- Acute pneumonic pasteurellosis: Carcase
monia and toxaemia occur following long-dis- and viscera, T.
 Infectious Diseases 539
Recovered cases of shipping fever: Carcase J.
and viscera, A. Acute septicaemia and systemic forms:
Affected organs (lungs, heart): D. Carcase and viscera: T.
Chronic pasteurellosis: Carcase and viscera,
AorKh.
Pneumonic pasteurellosis ('enzootic Affected organs: D.
pneumonia') of sheep and goats
1. An infectious respiratory disease of sheep
and goats which can occur in an acute SALMONELLOSIS (PARATYPHOID) (see
septicaemic form or as a more chronic entity. A also Chapter 14)
systemic type of pasteurellosis occurs in lambs
up to one year of age. 1. A contagious zoonotic disease of great
economic importance affecting all farm
O. In countries with temperate climates -
animals, poultry and man occurring either as a
Europe, USA, Canada, Australia and New
peracute septicaemia, acute enteritis or chronic
Zealand.
enteritis.
lA. Pasteurella haemoujiica. Biotype A strains
O. Worldwide. The disease is more prevalent
cause septicaemia and the more chronic form of
where intensive livestock husbandry methods
pasteurellosis while biotype B strains are
are practised and where animals are imported
responsible for the peracute systemic disease.
into farms.
R and MT. As for shipping fever in cattle. Infection rates vary greatly in different parts
of the world and in different species, but figures
CF. Pneumonic pasteurellosis: All ages of sheep
as high as 15% have been recorded in healthy
may be affected. The predisposing factors are
dairy cattle (with higher isolations in calves)
very similar to those for cattle. Animals may be
and as high as 54% in pigs kept intensively. In
found dead while others show respiratory
the USA 45 (75%) of 60 herds with an average of
distress, mucopurulent discharge, fever,
584 cows showed that at least one cow had
inappetence and coughing.
recently been exposed to salmonellae when
Septicaemic pasteurellosis: Occurs primarily in milk samples were tested. Up to 50% of healthy
young lambs and kids. Onset and progression
horses have been shown to be salmonella
is very rapid. Both pneumonic and septicaemic
carriers.
types may be present in a flock at the same
In the UK in 1992 there was a general decline
time.
in the number of isolations of salmonellae in
Systemic pasteurellosis: Affected animals are cattle, sheep and poultry. In the latter species
usually found dead. Those found alive are
this reduction was probably due to the
listless, show dyspnoea and a frothy discharge
implementation of government Codes of
from the mouth. Practice for the control of salmonella in the
Past. haemoluiica has been recorded as a cause production of final feed for livestock, controls
of mastitis in ewes.
on salmonella contamination in processed
P. Lesions vary according to the type of animal protein and alterations in the
disease. In the acute and septicaemic forms there composition of compound poultry feed.
is lobar pneumonia affecting the apical and Isolations of salmonellae from pig carcases
cardiac lobes of the oedematous lungs with a have shown varying levels: 7.3% in Northern
fibrinous exudate in the pleural and pericardial Ireland; 9.9% in England (Nottingham et al.,
cavity. Petechiae and ecchymoses are present 1972); 27.0% in Australia 1970; 44.8.% in USA
throughout the carcase. (Gustafson et al., 1976), the materials used being
The systemic form shows no evidence of mainly faeces or caecal contents. Pig products
pneumonia but there is haemorrhagic (sausages) have also shown high isolations:
abomasitis with ulceration and petechiation of 28.0% in USA (Surkiewicz et al. 1972) and 29.7%
the visceral peritoneum and parietal pleura. in England (Roberts et al., 1975).
Ulceration may also be present in the pharynx Even higher isolations are being recorded in
and larynx. The kidneys may present changes poultry. In Scotland a survey of 480 fresh and
similar to those of pulpy kidney. frozen poultry carcases gave 215 positive
540 Meat Hygiene
salmonella isolations, an incidence rate of 45%. probably the most common serotypes isolated,
Each carcase was rinsed in a sterile polythene an increasing number of exotic types, e.g. S.
bag with 300 ml of sterile buffered peptone indiana, S. seftenberg, S. hadar, S. iaksonu are
water (pre-enrichment broth). being encountered. Some salmonellae are host-
A survey by the Consumers Association in specific, e.g. S. pullorum and S. gntiinarum (both
Britain in October 1994 showed that three out of non-food-poisoning organisms) for poultry, S.
five poultry carcases contained food poisoning cholerae-suis for pigs and S. typhi and S.
bacteria and of 160 raw chicken samples pamtuphi for human beings. But the pattern of
examined salmonellae were present in 36% of serotypes in anyone locality can change in a
them. Portugal had the worst record, with 48% very short time. The all-too-frequent occurrence
of samples contaminated with salmonellae, of antibiotic resistance has further complicated
while Norway came out best with only 1% the picture. The extensive use of antibiotics in
contaminated followed by Greece with 4%. animal feeds and in the treatment of animal and
A 1994 survey of poultry carcases in human disease has created strains of resistant
Northern Ireland revealed an incidence of 5%, bacteria which have become widely
this lower incidence being occasioned by the disseminated and are transferable between
institution of strict control measures. animals and man.
In Britain the Zoonoses Order 1989 requires
statutory isolation of salmonellae from all the R. While infected, carrier and shedder
food animals and poultry as well as horses, animals and birds can be regarded as the main
deer and pigeons to be reported. An isolation is sources of infection, salmonellae are also found
defined as 'the reported identification of in wild animals and birds, including cold-
salmonella from an animal or group of animals, blooded species. Pets such as tortoises,
an animal carcase, animal feed, or from animal terrapins, turtles, dogs, cats and human beings
products or surroundings which can be are also incriminated although humans are rare
specifically related to identifiable animals'. as chronic carriers.
Details of total salmonella isolations and the The organisms exist in water, although they
main serotypes isolated from cattle, calves, do not multiply there but can grow well in
sheep, poultry and animal feed in Great Britain foods of high a" (water activity); pH values of
during the period 1986-92 are given in Chapter 4.0 and below inhibit their multiplication in
14. foods (also restricted by the presence of
lactobacilli). Although they may not grow in
lA. Members of the genus Salmonella, of certain foods, they can survive to cause illness.
which there are now over 2000 serotypes. Only They are fairly easily killed by heat (above
a relatively small number, however, are 70°C) but are fairly sensitive to beta- and
responsible for clinical disease in animals and gamma-irradiation and pasteurisation.
man. Division and subdivision of the genus is Salmonellae can persist in dried faeces and dust
made on the basis of their antigenic analysis, for years.
most strains possessing two or more somatic Like all Gram-negative organisms
(0) antigens and one or more flagellar (H) Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Shigella, Yersinia,
antigens. Like most microorganisms they vary Campylobacter, Vibrio, etc., Salmonella spp. are
greatly in virulence between different serotypes more sensitive to freezing than Gram-positive
and even in individual serotypes. bacteria such as Clostridium, Bacillus,
Salmonellae are Gram-negative, motile, non- Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Lactobacillus.
capsulate, facultative anaerobes which form The epidemiology of salmonellosis is very
small rods (less than 0.5 urn), either straight or complex and not all the various factors
curved. determining the occurrence and frequency of
Virulence depends on the presence of cell the disease are known. Among the culprits are
toxins (cytotoxin, enterotoxin, lipopolysaccha- intensive systems of husbandry, especially
ride) as well as the action of flagella. Most sal- those combined with failure to batch bought-in
monellae are intracellular parasites. animals; lack of routine cleansing and
There is a wide variation in the incidence of disinfection procedures; overcrowding;
the various serotypes from country to country. inadequate facilities for handling slurry; the
While S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis are application of fresh slurry directly to pasture
 Infectious Diseases 541
with immediate grazing by livestock; careless intermittently passed in the faeces, or latent
disposal of carcases, fetuses and placentas; bad carriers in which the organisms remain in the
housing designs; contamination of tonsils and/or lymph nodes, with the faeces
feedingstuffs and water supplies with faecal salmonella-free. Passive carriers are those that
material; inadequate control of rodents and acquire infection (without subsequent invasion)
other pests; unsatisfactory storage of which disappears in a salmonella-free
feedingstuffs; feedingstuffs of low biological environment. All types of carriers can become
value; inadequate nutrition. clinical cases when stressed.
Breeding programmes which are designed to Salmonellae cause clinical infection (most
promote production (of milk and meat) to the common in cattle) by invading the cells of the
total exclusion of disease resistance are believed intestinal mucosa, especially of the ileum and
to play a significant part in causing caecum, where they multiply, their various
salmonellosis and other diseases. toxins causing enteritis. If resistance is low, the
Other predisposing factors include organisms spread beyond the gut and
deprivation of food and of colostrum in the mesenteric lymph nodes to invade the
newborn animal; long-distance transport; bloodstream. A bacteraemia or a severe
recent parturition; intercurrent disease, e.g. septicaemia may result, depending on bacterial
internal parasitism, especially liver fluke virulence and body resistance. Salmonellosis
disease; the administration of certain drugs; occurs in four main forms - septicaemia,
prolonged exercise; rough handling; mixing of enteritis, abortion and carrier.
different groups; chilling; internal parasitism.
Septicaemia This is most common in young
In fact any stressful situation may generate
animals - calves, piglets, foals and lambs.
salmonellosis, especially in the young animal
Illness is very acute with high fever, depression
and those with low resistance. The frequency
and death usually within 1-2 days. Young pigs
with which young calves are transported to
often show a purplish discoloration of the skin,
markets is a notorious cause of salmonellosis.
the ears and abdomen being mainly affected.
The disease can also occur in animals which
Scab formation and subcutaneous petechiation
have been subjected to prolonged surgical
may also be present.
techniques.
Enteritis Inflammation of the intestine may
MT. The usual route of infection is by the be acute, subacute or chronic.
ingestion of contaminated food and water. Acute enteritis (most common in adults) is
Infected, carrier and shedder animals excrete accompanied by fever and inappetence with
the organisms in the faeces, which contaminate putrid, watery diarrhoea or dysentery which
the environment in a multiplicity of ways - via may contain mucus or fibrin or even shreds of
premises, vehicles, equipment, personnel mucous membrane. Colic is evident, straining
(including those with unhygienic habits and to defaecate (tenesmus) and dehydration. The
infected and chronic carrier personnel), feed, death rate may reach 100%. Abortion is
milk, water supplies, pasture, streams, rivers, common in cows and arthritis in calves which
etc. The feeding of milk contaminated with survive this acute stage, while others may
salmonellae to calves has been responsible for develop pneumonia and encephalitis with
outbreaks, as have fresh and processed meats eventual death, these symptoms being also
and animal and plant products used as common in pigs.
feedingstuffs. Infected human and animal Subacute enteritis assumes a milder form with
sewage spread on pasture is a further means of less severe diarrhoea and fever and a greater
infection, which can also be mediated by chance of recovery. Abortion, however, may be
rodents and birds. prevalent in cows and ewes.
Salmonella organisms may also be Chronic enteritis - a common form in cattle
transmitted via the airborne route. and pigs - is manifested by intermittent fever,
diarrhoea of reduced amount but with changes
CF. Once salmonellae gain entrance to the similar to the acute and subacute forms,
animal body, a carrier or clinical state ensues. inappetence and severe loss of condition.
Animals acting as carriers may be active Abortion is common in cows, in which
carriers, with the organisms being regularly or gangrene of the extremities (ears, tail, lower
542 Meat Hygiene
limbs) may occur as complications. Animals J. Carcase and viscera: T.
recovering from all forms of salmonellosis
inevitably become carriers.
SWINE DYSENTERY (HAEMORRHAGIC
P. Septicaemic form: Apart from submucosal DYSENTERY, BLOODY SCOURS,
and subserous haemorrhages there may be no 'VIBRIONIC DYSENTERY', SD)
other changes.
Acute enteritis: Inflammation of the small and I. A common contagious disease of pigs in
large intestine - mucoid or haemorrhagic. which there is haemorrhagic or mucoid
Oedema of the spiral colon and caecum, inflammation of the large intestine.
especially in pigs. Mesenteric lymph nodes O. Common in most pig-producing countries,
enlarged, haemorrhagic and oedematous. especially the USA, Canada, Europe, Australia
Submucosal petechiation. Intestinal contents and New Zealand.
resemble respective types of diarrhoea. There
may be fatty degeneration of the liver with lA. Treponema hyodysenteriae, a spirochaete
thickening of the wall of the gall bladder. (elongated, loosely-coiled, motile but with no
Petechiae may be present under the flagella), Gram-negative, anaerobic,
epicardium. haemolytic) bacillus 6-8.5 urn in length. It is
A fairly constant finding in pigs is fine possible that other bacteria and viruses in the
petechiation of the kidney ('turkey egg kidney') pig intestine may contribute in causing swine
along with lung congestion or consolidation. dysentery. (T. pallidum is the cause of syphilis in
Chronic enteritis: The caecum and colon show man.)
focal (in cattle) or diffuse (in pigs) necrosis with R. Faeces of affected, recovered and carrier
greyish-yellow adherent material covering a pigs. It is possible that rodents may be sources
red, roughened, granular mucosa. Mesenteric of infection.
lymph nodes, spiral colon and caecum are
oedematous and swollen. Pneumonia may be
MT. By ingestion of contaminated food and
present in all species. water and by direct and indirect contact, e.g. via
In pigs the necrosis may take the form of so- contaminated clothing of attendants.
called 'button' ulcers which are raised, discrete CF. The disease is common in pigs of 15-70 kg
areas in the caecum. (Some contend that these liveweight but can affect all ages.
ulcers are caused by the swine fever virus.) The Treponema hyodysenteriae proliferates rapidly
spleen is enlarged and rectal stricture caused by in the intestine and produces its inflammatory
prolonged scarring of its wall due to chronic effects on the mucosa by means of two toxins,
enteritis is evident. haemolysin and lipopolysasccharide (LPS).
Symptoms include diarrhoea which at first is
D. Diagnosis is often difficult since grey and soft, later becoming watery with
salmonellosis presents symptoms similar to mucus, blood and fibrinous exudate. In chronic
many other conditions. Cattle: enteric forms of the disease the faeces contain dark
colibacillosis, coccidiosis, cryptosporidiosis, blood ('bloody or black scours'). Affected pigs
paratuberculosis, parasitic gastroenteritis, show fever, anorexia, dehydration with
bovine viral diarrhoea, infectious bovine increased thirst, weakness, incoordination and
rhinotracheitis, etc., arsenic and molybdenum marked loss of weight with prolonged disease.
poisoning, etc. Pigs: colibacillosis, swine P. Lesions are mostly confined to the large
dysentery, swine fever, classical swine fever, intestine (caecum, spiral colon and rectum),
swine dysentery, pasteurellosis, septicaemic although some congestion may be present in
swine erysipelas, etc. Sheep: coccidiosis, the stomach.
pasteurellosis, colibacillosis, parasitic In the acute stages of the disease there is
gastroenteritis, campylobacteriosis, etc. hyperaemia and oedema of the large intestine
Diagnosis is confirmed on laboratory wall and swelling of the mesenteric lymph
examination of faeces, tissues, feed, etc. by nodes. The mucous membrane is covered with
culture of the organism using selective media flecks of mucus, blood and fibrin.
because of the large number of other bacteria More chronic stages show yellowish necrotic
present, especially in faeces. debris overlying a red, granular mucosa.
 Infectious Diseases 543
D. Clinical signs and post-mortem findings Some lambs exhibit nervous signs while others
are usually adequate for a tentative diagnosis, become paraplegic. There is rapid loss of
which is confirmed by isolation of T. condition.
hyodysenteriae in smears and anaerobic culture.
P. Abscesses are commonly found in the
Differential diagnoses: as for salmonellosis.
enlarged joints, liver, lungs, heart, kidneys,
J. brain and spinal cord. These abscesses, which
Acute swine dysentery: Carcase and viscera, contain a greenish-yellow pus, may also be
T. found in the skin and vertebral column.
Chronic swine dysentery: Carcase, A.
D. The clinical signs along with the lesions
Affected organs: D, provided no systemic
and the presence of Ixodes ricinus ticks are
changes present and condition satisfactory.
presumptive of tick pyaemia. Isolation of the
causal organism confirms the diagnosis.
Differential diagnoses include tick-borne
TICK PYAEMIA (ENZOOTIC
fever, joint ill, erysipelothrix infection.
STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS)
The organism, Staphylococcus aureus, is also
involved in the causation of ulcerative
L An endemic bacterial disease of lambs (2
dermatitis in sheep, pyoderma in horses, and
weeks up to 3 months of age) characterised by
chronic mastitis in cows.
septicaemia or bacteraemia with the
A related organism, Staphylocccus huicus,
development of pyaemic abscesses mainly in
causes exudative epidermitis in pigs ('greasy pig
joints but which can occur in any organ.
disease') an acute generalised eczematous
O. The disease appears to be restricted to the inflammation of the skin which occurs
British Isles. worldwide and is especially serious in younger
pigs, older animals being more resistant.
lA. Staphylococcus aureus, a small, spherical,
Affected pigs show intense reddening of the
mainly aerobic, non-motile Gram-positive
skin which becomes thickened and encrusted
organism (0.7-1Ilm in diameter) which is a
with exudate of serum. Sometimes vesicles
common commensal of the skin and
appear which become infected and burst.
nasopharynx of man and animals but has to be
Erosions of the coronary band of the feet are
regarded as a potential pathogen.
common. Affected pigs have a high
It is a pyogenic, i.e. pus-producing, organism
temperature with inappetence. The mortality
having the ability to cause abscesses, pustules
rate in young pigs may be as high as 90%.
and infections in accidental or surgical wounds.
It is unlikely that acute cases will be
Much of this pathogenicity is its ability to
presented for slaughter, but older more chronic
produce coagulase, a thrombin-like enzyme,
cases probably merit total condemnation
which coats the coccus with protective fibrin,
because of emaciation.
and deoxyribonuclease (DNase), another
aggressin which assists to make the organism J. Tick pyaemia and Exud. epidermitis: T.
more virulent.
R. Affected and carrier sheep. TUBERCULOSIS (TB) (see also Chapter 16)
MT. Tick pyaemia is associated with the
activity of the tick Ixodes ricinus, and the agent L A usually chronic, debilitating, but
of tick-borne fever, Cytocetes phagocvtophila sometimes acute, infectious disease of all
(q.v.). This particular agent reduces the vertebrates, birds and man characterised by the
defences of the animal by, for example, causing development of tubercles in any part of the
a leukopenia following the puncture of the skin body. Zoonosis.
by the three-host tick. Infection may also occur
O. Animal tuberculosis is now rare in
via the umbilicus.
developed countries which have instituted
CF. A septicaemia or bacteraemia ensues, the eradication programmes, although breakdowns
former rapidly leading to death while the latter still occur and the organisms continue to be
results in lameness with stiff, swollen and occasionally detected at meat inspection. In
painful joints due to the formation of abscesses. Britain many of the younger meat inspectors
544 Meat Hygiene
have not encountered a TB lesion, although the M. avium (of which only two serovars -1 and
disease is now (1998) spreading in the south- 2 - are pathogenic) is the only strain pathogenic
west of England, being associated with for birds but can also cause TB in most
infection in badgers, and has subsequently vertebrates and some cold-blooded species.
appeared in the north and east. Organisms of the genus Mycobacterium
Germany was declared free of bovine (which includes M. leprae, the cause of leprosy
tuberculosis in December 1996. Annual testing in man and M. intracellulare and M.
is no longer required, the disease being scrojulaceum, (pathogens for pigs) are acid-fast
monitored by the meat hygiene authorities. It is (q.v.), Gram-positive, non-motile, non-sporing.
estimated that Germany will save about DM 10 non-capsulate, aerobic bacilli which occur as
million annually in control costs. slender, curved or straight rods (31-tm x 0.3I-tm),
In developing countries, especially in Africa, often appearing singly, as pairs or in bundles.
the picture is very different. In the Cote d'Ivoire Only a few members of the mycobacteria are
in 1992 50% of all totally condemned bovine pathogenic, the majority existing as
carcases and 10% of totally condemned sheep saprophytes in soil, water and plant life.
and goat carcases were due to tuberculosis. The organisms are fairly resistant: M. bovis
Isolation rates in Morocco in 1992 were 30% for can remain viable for over 2 years in frozen
M. bovis and 9.7% for M. tuberculosis. Recently carcases and for months in pickled meat.
reported prevalence in cattle in Somalia was Decomposition does not affect viability -
4.54-10.20%. Some 44 African countries virulent tubercle bacilli have been discovered in
recognise the presence of bovine TB in their decomposed bovine lung after 167 days, in
herds (WHO/FAO/OIE, 1993), with high decomposed bovine carcases after several years
occurrences in Benin, Gambia, Mali, Niger, and in tuberculous poultry carcases buried 2Yz
Sudan and Tanzania. Bovine TB appears to be metres deep for 27 months.
less of a problem in the Americas and Asia.
R. Affected, subclinical and carrier animals
Although M. tuberculosis is the most frequent
excrete the organisms in sputum, faeces, milk,
cause of human TB, some cases are due to the
urine, uterine and vaginal material and
bovine strain, making bovine TB a zoonosis of
discharges from open lymph nodes.
great public health significance.
Mycobacteria have been isolated from the
Animal tuberculosis is most common in
tonsils and lymph nodes of apparently normal
cattle, pigs and goats and less so in sheep and
pigs and can easily escape detection in all
horses. Goats are very susceptible, especially if
species at meat inspection, which in most
kept in the vicinity of affected cattle, and sheep
countries is a solely visual procedure.
- although previously thought to be resistant -
Human beings, although primarily
may also develop the disease but to a lesser
responsible for infecting other human beings,
extent.
are occasionally responsible for the disease in
Wildlife may also be affected with
animals, as are cats, dogs and goats. Wildlife,
tuberculosis. In New Zealand it was diagnosed
in 36 of 53 (68%) of bush tail possums as well as e.g. badgers and possums, also makes a
in stoats and hares. contribution to the maintenance of infection. In
the south-west of England in 1983, 11.4% of
badger carcases contained viable M. bovis, a
lA. There are three main types of tubercle
bacilli - human (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), lower incidence being found in foxes and rats.
bovine (Mycobacterium bovis) and avian Wild birds, e.g. starlings, harbouring M. avium,
(Mycobacterium avium). All three types can have been incriminated as a source of infection
produce disease in species other than their in pigs.
own. However, M. tuberculosis mostly affects MT. Infection is most commonly developed
man, only on rare occasions causing disease in through inhalation (90% of bovine cases) or the
dogs, parrots and non-human primates. Most ingestion of contaminated food, especially
cases of infection in animals caused by M. milk, and water. Inhalation is the common
tuberculosis are of minor importance and easily route in housed stock where the opportunity
overcome. for the spread of tuberculosis from animal to
M. bovis can affect most vertebrates, animal is greatest. The feeding of infected milk
including man. and dairy products to young animals and to
 Infectious Diseases 545
children is a common means of acquiring the lesions due to TB may be present and should
disease. The feeding of untreated swill and meningitis ensue nervous symptoms become
abattoir offal to pigs has caused the disease as evident. On occasions infected superficial
has the use of improperly cooked offal from a lymph nodes may rupture to the exterior.
poultry plant. Horses. Symptoms similar to those in cattle
Tuberculosis may also on occasions be set up with pulmonary TB may occur but a common
via coitus from infected uterine discharges or sign is neck stiffness due to TB of the cervical
infected semen. vertebrae.
Direct invasion through mucous membranes
or broken skin may be rare routes of infection. Pathogenesis and lesions All types of the
Where TB lesions are confined to a prescapular tubercle bacilli are able to produce progressive
or precrural lymph node, however, infection disease, this ability being ascribed in part to the
may be attributed to a skin route. complex lipids in the bacterial cell walls. Their
virulence, however, is a complex entity, and
CF: Clinical signs depend on the nature and mav also be associated with the action of toxic
locations of the lesions but in some situations, lipids and factors released by bacteria which
e.g. miliary tuberculosis and extensive caseous inactivate body defence mechanisms.
lesions in the spleen, liver and lungs, Concurrent deficiencies in mononuclear
premonitory symptoms may be entirely absent. function may also contribute to the spread of
Cattle: Pulmonary involvement in advanced infection.
cases is associated with a typical intermittent, Tuberculosis spreads in the animal body in
moist cough with the head held low and tongue two stages - primary complex and post-
extended, great loss of condition, sluggishness, primary dissemination. When tubercle bacilli
fast and difficult breathing, anorexia and first gain entrance to the body they create a
usually rough coat. Enlargement of the primary JOCllS. This lesion usually occurs in the
retropharyngeal lymph nodes produces a lung (most often in cattle, pigs, man) or intestine
typical snoring sound with difficulty in (most often in poultry). In cattle it is commonly
swallowing. found on the upper border of the lung and may
Tuberculous meningitis is evidenced by be so small as to be overlooked, with the only
disturbances of behaviour - excitability, mania obvious lesion being present in the
and sometimes blindness. retropharyngeal lymph nodes (or the
TB mastitis takes the form of induration and mesenteric lymph node if infection occurs by
enlargement of the udder, especially its upper ingestion). Lymphatic drainage from this
part, along with similar changes in the primary focus leads to the formation of
supramarnrnary lymph nodes, and sometimes secondary tiny yellowish-white caseous lesions
the precrural and iliac nodes. Such changes are in the associated lymph node(s). Tissue reaction
only found in the more acute caseating to the invading and multiplying bacilli takes
breakdown type of TB mastitis, which is of vital the form of a proliferation of epithelioid and
importance for public health. giant cells with necrosis and caseation or
Tuberculous enteritis is associated with calcification and the formation of connective
diarrhoea but is a rare occurrence as is TB tissue creating a tumour-like granulomatous
metritis. This latter results in either infertility or nodule or 'tubercle'. The combination of the
abortion (the calf being affected with primary focus and adjacent lymph node lesion
generalised TB). In tubercular orchitis in the is known as the 'primary complex'.
bull the testes are enlarged and indurated but A typical tubercle is a firm, hard nodule,
painless. whitish or yellowish-white in colour and about
Sheep and goats: Symptoms in the pulmonary 1-2 cm in diameter. This can become larger
form resemble those in cattle. owing to the combination of two or more
Pigs: Early TB lesions in pigs are usually adjacent tubercles. Section reveals a necrotic,
confined to the retropharyngeal, submaxillary caseous (cheesy) or calcified centre, depending
and mesenteric lymph nodes. Generalisation is on the age of the lesion. A grating feeling is
not common but may occur with the bovine experienced on section when calcification is
type and less commonly the avian bacilli and present. If body resistance is high, the tubercle
present signs similar to those in cattle. Joint becomes reduced in size and encapsulated by
546 Meat Hygiene
fibrous tissue. If healing does not take place, tuberculosis as elucidated by the German
secondary infection usually occurs followed by veterinarian Robert von Ostertag, who
suppuration or liquefaction necrosis and published his Handbuch der Fleischbeschan fur
cavitation. In calcified tubercles, virulent bacilli Tierarize, Arzte und Richter in 1872. However, the
may be found but are usually few in number elimination of bovine tuberculosis in many
and undergoing degeneration. Typical tubercles countries with the introduction of so-called
are not always formed in tuberculous infection 'production diseases' with emphasis on the health
- a fibrinous or fibrinopurulent exudate may be status of the live animal has significantly
the only evidence in rapidly fatal situations, e.g. altered the situation regarding post-mortem
tuberculous meningitis, and in immuno- examination and the need for lymph node
compromised animals. incision with its inevitable risk of
If body resistance is low, this first stage of contamination.
spread is followed by the second stage - post-
primary dissemination - when spread to other
Reactions in different species
organs takes place by contiguity, e.g. from lung
to pleura, by the lymphatic system or by the The nature of the reaction to tubercle bacilli by
systemic circulation. The number and extent of the animal body depends on several factors -
secondary, generalised lesions are related to the the virulence of the organisms; the type of the
number and virulence of circulating bacilli. TB bacilli (bovine, avian or human); the
Secondary infection of the intestine may also defensive ability of the animal, including that
follow a pulmonary lesion when virulent produced by a previous assault and the species
organisms are coughed up and then swallowed. of the animal itself.
Pulmonary lesions may also give rise to a Moderately pathogenic organisms are fairly
suppurative bronchopneumonia. easily destroyed by macrophages (epithelioid,
Entry of bacilli into the systemic circulation endothelioid, reticuloendothelial cells) with
can take place by a tubercle eroding the wall of giant cell and granulation tissue reaction, while
an artery or vein or breaking down the very virulent bacilli produce an exudative
lymphatic barrier in a lymph node. (In man tissue reaction and usually generalisation.
infection has been known to cause rupture of
Cattle, sheep and goats TB is fairly rare in
the aorta.) Large numbers of bacilli are
sheep and goats and resembles that in cattle
disseminated into the systemic circulation and
when caused by the bovine bacillus. M. avium
lodge in capillaries of remote organs (lungs,
may be responsible for disseminated
kidneys, spleen, liver, bones, etc.), giving rise to
tuberculosis.
the millet-sized lesions of rapidly fatal miliary
tuberculosis. Calcification is usually prominent, especially
in lymph nodes. Lesions may be either cellular
More often, however, generalisation results
(if resistance is high) or exudative (if resistance
in 'breakdown' tuberculous lesions occurring as
is low). In cattle tubercles on the pleura and
caseous masses in the uterus, kidneys, lungs,
peritoneum are fairly common - the so-called
pleura, lymph nodes, etc. These are large, dry,
cheesy areas interspersed with small
'grapes' or 'pearl disease'. These are normally
haemorrhages which in lymph nodes often take 0.5-1.0 cm in diameter and on section show
caseous and calcified centres under a thickened
the form of radiating lines of caseation - the so-
called stellate caseation in which calcification is pleural membrane.
absent. Such changes are indicative of complete Tubercles may occur in any lymph node,
absence of body resistance. especially the retropharyngeal, submaxillary,
bronchial, mediastinal and mesenteric nodes.
The judgement of tuberculous carcases
TB lesions may be found in the bovine
depends on the number and disposition of the J

lesions as well as their character, whether acute vagina in the form of tubercles or ulcers.
or chronic, the overall picture being an
indication of the success or failure of tissue Affections of specific organs
reaction. Much the same can be said for all
disease conditions. Lungs
Traditional meat inspection procedures were In cattle the primary focus is usually on the
largely based on the pathology of bovine upper border of a main lobe appearing as a
 Infectious Diseases 547
rounded nodule or tubercle beneath the pleura. tongue and intestine may occur, the latter
This may heal by fibrosis or progress by resulting from the breakdown of lung lesions
caseation and liquefaction of the lung tissue. and swallowing of bacilli. Infection of the
Progression takes the form of greyish or tongue results in enlargement and induration
yellowish areas of caseous bronchopneumonia with caseous lymphadenitis in the
which tend to be circumscribed by serous retropharyngeal and parotid lymph nodes.
infiltration into the interlobular septa, the Occasionally, nodules may occur in the small
infiltrate eventually becoming fibrosed to intestine, especially the ileum, and these
localise the lesion. Should localisation not coalesce to produce ulcers covered with greyish
occur, however, these caseous lesions may mucopurulent material.
coalesce to create even larger areas in the lung
tissue.
Discrete encapsulated and calcified foci with Pericardium
similar lesions in bronchial and mediastinal Tuberculous pericarditis is always a sequel to
lymph nodes may occur. TB pleurisy. Early stages are in the form of red,
Miliary tuberculosis is manifested by the velvety granulations near the base of the heart
presence of numerous small tubercles widely which appear as caseous areas encasing the
distributed throughout the lungs, which are heart in later stages. Extensions to the
enlarged and oedematous, and is the result of myocardium and endocardium are rare.
haematogenous spread.
In pigs the lung lesions assume a fatty
appearance without lymph node involvement
Liver
and are usuallv devoid of caseation, The liver and the hepatic nodes may become
calcification or fibr~sis. infected from a primary intestinal infection via
the lymph from the duodenum, by secondary
infection from the intestine when bacilli are
Pleurae swallowed (via the mesenteric lymph nodes
Tuberculous pleurisy occurs following a and portal venules), by the bloodstream or
primary lung infection via lymphatic drainage congenitally via the umbilical vein.
or by direct rupture of a pulmonary lesion or In pigs the tubercles due to the bovine strain
thoracic lymph node. are very tiny, being no larger than a pinhead,
In cattle early stages show as soft, velvety, red and are caseated or calcified and encapsulated.
granulations. The typical chronic stages of In avian infection yellowish-grey tubercles of a
'grapes' or 'pearl disease' appear as large productive type form and resemble small
numbers of shiny grey nodules (tubercles) metastatic tumours, e.g. lymphosarcoma or
which on section have caseous or calcified parasitic spots.
centres overlaid with very thickened fibrous
pleural membranes. -
In pigs serous membranes are rarely affected
Spleen
but assume the form of tiny, scattered discrete Tuberculosis of the spleen may be
nodules which penetrate to the SUbpleural haematogenous in origin, an extension from a
tissue. tuberculous peritonitis, or (in calves) of
congenital origin.
In the calf and pig lesions are more common
Peritoneum in the spleen substance, while adult cattle more
Uncommon in cattle and other animals. often exhibit surface lesions.
Changes similar to the pleural lesions occur
when infection arises from a liver lesion or
congenitally.
Kidneys
Infection occurs via the bloodstream, In cattle
small discrete greyish-white nodules are
Alimentary tract usually confined to a few lobes but may be
Primary infection with lesions in the intestinal scattered throughout the kidney parenchyma.
tract is relatively rare but ulcers in the tonsils, Coalescence of these small foci can result in
548 Meat Hygiene
larger areas of caseation from which infection of Udder
the ureter and bladder may ensue.
In cattle, infection may arise by haematogenous
spread, by lymphatic route from an abdominal
Bones and joints lesion or by the teat canal through the
introduction of infected equipment.
Bacilli may disseminate from a primary focus
The lesion may be an acute caseating one of
by the bloodstream to the vertebrae ~nd .ends of
one or more quarters with enlarge.n:-ent of the
long bones. This can occur early m Me and
associated supramammary and iliac lymph
infection may develop then or months, even
nodes. If a forequarter is affected, the precrur~l
years, later. . node on that side may be involved. In chrornc
In cattle TB is most often seen m vertebrae tuberculosis mastitis, lesions are absent in the
and ribs and less often in the spongy tissue of supramammary lymph nodes. The udder is
the epiphyses of bones and .the ~ter~um. (T~e enlarged and indurated in both forms.
reverse appears to be the Situation m man m
whom the weight-bearing bones are most often
involved.) . Male genitalia
Cavitation or caries of the bone occurs with Haematogenous in origin, tube~c~[Link]
destruction and rarefaction of bone tissue and involves first of all the epididymis and
the formation of yellowish granulation tissue.
afterwards the testis, in which tubercles appear
Extension of the process may take place
with great enlargement of the organ.
through the epiphysis into the joint capsule -
TB arthritis - which most commonly affects the
knee, hock and stifle. Muscle
In pigs lesions may be found in th~ ve~tebra~, Lesions of tuberculosis are rarely encountered
especially the lumbar, and the ischiopubic
in muscle. If found, for example, in the tongue
symphysis. or mvocardium, they usually result from
contiguity with other infected organs such as
joints, serous membranes or bones.
Female genitalia
Cattle The vagina, uterus and ovaries may Central nervous system
become affected by haematogenous spread, by
Tuberculous meningoencephalitis most
contiguity from an infected perit?neu~ ?r fro,m commonlv develops in the primary infection
coitus from an infected bull (penis, epididymis,
staze via' the bloodstream and occurs most
testis). Rarely, treatment for infertility has
introduced the disease.
oft~n in calves and young cattle. Caseous foci
mav be found in the brain and extend to the
Tuberculous oaoinitis shows as nodules or
o ., , meninges. Tuberculous lesions in ~he .~ertebrae
ulcers in the vagina. Tuberculous metritis IS
mav by contizuitv
""~I b ... r produce merungitis of the
evidenced by either small pin-head yellowish
spinal cord.
foci or larger, fleshy, translucent lesions in the
endometrium. Older lesions appear as pea-
sized nodules in the submucous tissues. The Other organs
endometrium becomes thickened and thrown
Tuberculous lesions of the adrenal body,
into folds, the disease process eventually
involving all the layers of the uterus and the prostate gland, thyroid .gland, ey~ or pancre~s
are usually indicative ot a generalIsed systemic
peritoneum.
infection, "although the pancreas may become
TB metritis is normally bilateral and usually
infected by contiguity with a TB liver.
originates in the region of the bifurcation of the
cornua. D. Accurate diagnosis in the live animal is
Affected ovaries have an uneven appearance only possible in advanced cases in ,cattl.e.
with caseous, calcareous or purulent nodules, Reliance has to be placed in the tuberculm skm
while the fallopian tubes are invariably test (single intradermal test (SID), Stormont
involved, showing numerous greyish-white test, short thermal test, comparative test, etc.).
granulations. Immunity to tuberculosis is cell-mediated and
 Infectious Diseases 549
depends largely on interaction between pressure, leaving smooth cavities. These lesions
sensitised T lymphocytes and macrophages. are caused by Corynebacterium pyogenes.
The tuberculin test is based on the The chronic nature of the disease and its
phenomenon of acquired hypersensitivity which similarity to many other infections makes
occurs when the body encounters a foreign clinical diagnosis difficult except perhaps for
substance. When the host again meets the same the fulminating pulmonary form in cattle with
antigen (q.v.) a vigorous reaction takes place, its typical chronic cough. Clinical diagnosis is
the reaction varying in degree from minor normally only possible in the later stages of the
tissue damage to severe illness and even death. disease.
There are four types of hypersensitivity Widespread lesions involving lungs, liver, spleen
depending on the form of mechanism involved. and associated lymph nodes have been found in the
Type I is the anaphylactic type or immediate carcases of cattle in good condition reacting to the
hypersensitivity reaction. Cell-mediated or tuberculin test, the live animals having shown no
delayed-type reactions are classified as Type IV, premonitory symptoms.
in which the hypersensitivity reaction to the Lesions that bear a close resemblance to
skin test is delayed, taking some 48-72 h to tuberculosis but are caused by Brucella suis have
reach its maximum response in which there is been reported in the vertebrae of pigs in the
oedema and induration at the site of USA. These foci appear as greyish-white
introduction of the antigen (tuberculin). abscesses and are usually found in the
Most countries now use a standard purified- lumbosacral region but sometimes in the
protein-derivative (PPO) tuberculin for the carcase lymph nodes; they usually originate in
routine testing of animals in disease eradication the intervertebral spaces and extend to the
programmes. The tuberculin is prepared from vertebral bodies. In some cases of Br. suis
cultures of M. boots and M. tuberculosis grown infection, lesions are confined to the spleen.
on special media. In the SID test in cattle, 0.05 Mesothelioma of the bovine pleura and
ml of tuberculin is injected into the skin, usually peritoneum may assume a grape-like form
of the neck but sometimes the anal or caudal superficially resembling tubercles.
fold and the reaction is read 2-3 days later, pre-
and post-injection skin measurements being
Parasitic infections
made using calipers.
Smears of sputum, milk and discharges Certain parasites in the food animals give rise
stained bv the Ziehl-Neelsen method are to cheesy, sometimes calcareous, necrotic foci in
employed in the live animal, and material from various tissues, especially where the parasite
lesions in the carcase which can also be used for dies and undergoes degeneration.
culture. The liver of the horse may show nodular or
serpentine, caseous or calcareous foci due to the
larvae of some types of strongyles. In other
Differential diagnosis animals TB-like lesions may be found in the
Tuberculosis may be confused with many other liver caused by invasion of Ascaris larvae or,
diseases, especially those of pulmonary origin - especially in sheep, the wandering larvae of
lung abscess, contagious bovine pleuropneu- lung strongyles. Irregularly distributed nodules
monia, aspiration pneumonia, coccidioidmyco- and serpentine-like burrows which are
sis, mucormycosis, Johne's disease, actinobacil- common in the substance and on the surface of
losis, actinomycosis and lymphosarcoma. sheep livers, are most likely to be produced by
Some parasitic infestations (Ascaris, the immature forms of Fasciola hepaiica, Ascaris
Cysticercus ienuicoliis, Fasciola, hydatid cysts, spp. or Cysticercus ienuicollis. The former may
Muellerius, Metastrongylus, etc.) give rise to also give rise to tuberculous-like changes in the
lesions which on occasions resemble tubercles, liver of pigs, these foci taking the form of white
in particular if calcification is present. spherical nodules, usually situated superficially
Many lesions in pigs resemble TB, especially and composed of a thick connective-tissue
those occurring in the submaxillary nodes. capsule with brownish or yellowish semi-solid
These take the form of small, yellowish necrotic contents.
foci surrounded by a connective-tissue capsule Hydatid cysts in the liver and lungs may
which are easily expressed on incision or degenerate to form a cheesy mass encapsulated
550 Meat Hygiene
in connective tissue; multilocular cysts in TB-like lesions in cats and dogs. M. kansasii is
particular may bear a resemblance to TB, but responsible for cervical lymphadenitis and
the laminated cuticular membrane is still pneumonia in human beings and skin TB in
present even after the cyst has degenerated and cattle.
can be readily picked up with a pair of forceps.
In most parasitic infections microscopical
examination of the caseous mass will usuallv 'Skin tuberculosis'
reveal some residual portion of the caus~l
This misnamed condition is important in
parasite, e.g. hooklets or calcareous corpuscles
connection with TB eradication schemes since a
from a tapeworm. proportion of affected animals react to the
The subpleural tissue of sheep lungs
several tuberculin tests, especially to avian
frequently shows grey, sharply delimited tuberculin. The number of cases is said to be
nodules caused by lungworms of the genus
increasing in Great Britain, although probably
Muellerius. In the pig, the larvae of the not more than 50% of clinical cases of 'skin
lungworm Metastrongylus apri (elongatus) or M.
tuberculosis' give a reaction to mammalian
pudendotecius may appear as glistening, tuberculin.
translucent nodules beneath the lung pleura
The path of infection is probably via the skin,
and sometimes in the lung substance; these foci
since cattle lose their sensitivity when the
are common in young pigs and are often
lesions are removed surgically. -
discrete, though sometimes aggregated or in The lesions are indurated, painless,
long chains with no associated lymph node
subcutaneous nodules, varying in size from
changes. being just noticeable up to the size of a hen's
egg. Most are about 1-2 cm in diameter,
occurring singly or in chain formation, usually
Other types of mycobacteria following the course of a lymphatic vessel.
They are attached to the skin and are most
While M. boois, M. tuberculosis and M. avium are
commonly found on the limbs, especially the
the classic mycobacteria, other types exist, some
fetlock, forearm, hock and less frequently, the
of which can cause disease in animals and
chest wall and shoulder. They have also been
interfere with the interpretation of the
recorded in the prescapular, popliteal and
tuberculin test, especially to avian tuberculin.
submaxillary lymph nodes and the connective
M. paratuberculosis (M. johnei), the cause of
tissue surrounding the sheath of the metatarsus
Johne's disease in ruminants. A major
but are considered to be extensions of the
bacterium is Mycobacterium leprae, the cause of
typical skin forms.
leprosy in man, who is affected with
The nodules consist of a fibrous wall,
hypopigmented macules and nodules on the
commonly enclosing a caseocalcareous centre
skin and mucous membranes in addition to
but in other cases a thick, yellow glutinous pus,
damage and enlargement of peripheral nerves.
a dried material resembling powdered maize or
Other less important forms include M.
dried flake-like pellicles. Microscopically, the
joriuitum. M. scrofulaceum, M. iniracelluiare, M.
lesions are indistinguishable from tuberculous
chelonei, M. phlei, M. smegmatis, M. aquae, M.
nodules, and although acid-fast bacilli (not
marinum and M. kansasii.
pathogenic mycobacteria) can nearly always be
Most of the tuberculous-like, non-
detected, they cannot be grown on ordinary
progressive lesions are encountered in pigs, in
culture media nor are they pathogenic for
which M. intracellulare causes a lymphadenitis
guinea pigs.
of mesenteric lymph nodes, which tend to
Various bacteria have been isolated, but the
become calcified, and M. [oriuiium causes a
organism considered the main cause is
chronic arthritis. M. smegmatis has been isolated
Mycobacterium kansasii.
from TB-like lesions in porcine lymph nodes.
M. aquae is associated with nodular teat lesions Differential diagnosis The condition must be
in cows. M. scrojuiaceum produces TB-like distinguished from ulcerative lymphangitis
lesions in cattle and dogs. M. mari11l 1111 causes and cattle farcy. These conditions, however,
tuberculous lesions in fish and man. M. chelonei, involve thickening of the associated lymphatics
M. phlei and M. [crtuiium produce cutaneous with chronic ulceration and discharge of pus.
 Infectious Diseases 551
Judgement of 'skin TB' The condition is of no and, if he considers it necessary, the
importance in meat inspection since the popliteal.
nodules are removed with the skin.
Code of judgement. Indications of unfitness
Judgement of tuberculosis for human consumption. Part IX
The character of the lesions, whether acute or 1. (1). If upon inspection of any carcase an
chronic, their extent and disposition, inspector or OVS is satisfied that the
localisation or generalisation, carcase condition animal was suffering from tuberculosis
(although if good, total condemnation may be (generalised) or tuberculosis with emaciation,
warranted on occasions) must all be taken into he shall condemn the whole carcase and all
consideration. the offal and blood removed or collected
therefrom as being unfit for human
consumption.
Routine post-mortem procedures and
judgements
Indications of generalised TB or TB with
These vary to some extent in different emaciation
countries. (a) Miliary tuberculosis of both lungs with
GREAT BRITAIN evidence of TB elsewhere.
Routine post-mortem inspection for (b) Multiple and actively progressive lesions
of TB.
tuberculosis
(c) Widespread TB infection of the lymph
Under the Fresh Meat (Hygiene and nodes of the carcase.
Inspection) Regulations 1995, Schedule 10, Part (d) Diffuse acute lesions of TB of both the
VIII, it is prescribed that: pleura and peritoneum associated with an
Where an inspector or OVS has reason to enlarged or tuberculous lymph node of
suspect that any part of the carcase or offal of the carcase.
any animal is infected with tuberculosis, he
shall, in addition to carrying out the provisions (e) Active or recent lesions present in the
of the preceding Parts of this Schedule - substance of any two of the following:
spleen, kidney, udder, uterus, ovary,
(a) in the case of any carcase, require the testicle, brain and spinal cord or their
carcase to be split, examine the vertebrae, membranes, in addition to TB lesions in
ribs, sternum, spinal cord and, if he the respiratory and digestive tracts.
considers it necessary, the brain, and if a (f) In the case of a calf, congenital
lesion of a kidney is visible or suspected, tuberculosis.
incise the kidney;
(b) in the case of the carcase of any bovine
animal, soliped or farmed deer, examine Indications of localised tuberculosis
in detail (i.e. examine by making deep
multiple incisions into lymph nodes) the (1) Where an inspector or OVS is satisfied
following lymph nodes (being lymph that a carcase of offal is affected with
nodes not already examined), namely, the tuberculosis other than generalised
superficial inguinal, prepectoral, tuberculosis or tuberculosis with emaciation,
presternal, suprasternal, xiphoid, he shall reject the following parts of the
subdorsal, intercostal, prescapular, iliac, carcase and offal as unfit for human
sublumbar, ischiatic, precrural and consumption:
popliteal, those lymph nodes which are (a) any part of the carcase infected with
least likely to show infection being localised tuberculosis and any other part
examined first; and contiguous thereto;
(c) in the case of the carcase of any swine, (b) the head, including the tongue, when
examine in detail the following lymph tuberculosis exists in any lymph node
nodes (being lymph nodes not already associated with the head or tongue, save
examined) namely, the superficial that where in a particular lymph node or
inguinal, cervical, prepectoral, nodes the lesion is small and inactive and
prescapular, subdorsal, iliac, precrural, the lymph node is not enlarged, he may
552 Meat Hygiene
regard the head and tongue, or both, as fit typical lesions shall be sent to ADRI (Nepean)
for human consumption after the removal for examination. Use of the Bovine
of the affected lymph node or nodes and Tuberculosis Kit is permitted to allow shipment
the surrounding tissue; of specimens in both formalin and borate.
(c) any organ or viscera when Specimens are not required from carcases
tuberculosis exists in the substance, or on affected to a lesser extent.
the surface thereof, or in any lymph node Swine carcases with mandibular and
associated therewith. mesenteric lymph nodes affected which are
subsequently approved, must be 'held' and
(2) An inspector or OVS shall reject any part stamped four times on each side with the letter
of a carcase and any offal or blood 'T'. Carcases so stamped shall be held on a
contaminated with tuberculosis material designated rail in the cooler.
as unfit for human consumption. The cutting of such carcases shall be done
under the direct supervision of an inspector, at
CANADA
the end of the pork cutting operations. The cuts
Food Production and Inspection Branch, Meat may either be sold or processed for domestic
and Poultry Products Division trade only (the export of such meat is
The following instructions apply to prohibited). Containers of such cuts and
ruminants, pigs and horses. trimmings shall be stamped with the letter 'T'.
The veterinarian in charge may approve
NOTE. The following disposition applies to the alternative procedures which ensure that these
carcases of animals presented as part of the products are not exported.
regular kill. When lesions similar to those Needle-point and rubber stamps bearing the
caused by M. bovis are detected in carcases of letter 'T' (at least 5 cm in height) have been
animals from premises being depopulated issued.
because of tuberculosis, their carcases shall be
condemned regardless of extent of infection. CODEX ALL'vIEl\.'TARIl!S COM,,1ISSION
Entry of the tubercular organism, and
organisms which produce granulomatous Food and Agriculture Organization of the
lesions similar to those caused by M. bonis, is United Nations. World Health Organization.
most common via the respiratory or digestive Alinorm 93/16A
tract. Evidence of infection, therefore, is
expected in three primary areas - the lymph
nodes of the head, the lymph nodes of the Section VI. Post-mortem procedures
lungs and the mesenteric lymph nodes. When Para 58. (a) in all animals in which a systemic or
granulomatous lesions similar to those caused generalised disease is suspected, in all animals
by M. bovis are detected in more than one of positive to the tuberculin test, in all animals in
these primary sites, the other body lymph which lesions suggestive of tuberculosis arefound at
nodes shall be incised and examined for post-mortem inspection, and in all horses reacting
lesions. to the mallein test, the main carcase lymph
Disposition of affected carcases reflects both nodes (being the precrural, popliteal, anal,
the location and extent of lesions detected. superficial inguinal, ischiatic, internal and
Affected carcases shall be condemned if: external iliac, lumbar, renal, sternal,
prepectoral, prescapular and atlantal nodes), as
(i) lesions are detected in one or more well as the lymph nodes of the head and
primary sites and one or more body viscera, should be incised and examined.
lymph nodes; or
(ii) lesions are detected in any other organ,
e.g. lungs, liver, spleen. Section IX. Recommended final judgement in
cases of tuberculosis
When carcases are affected to a lesser extent,
the affected lymph node and the corresponding Judgement symbols
portion of the carcase shall be condemned, e.g. A - Approved as fit for human consumption.
head and tongue, lungs or intestines and T - Totally unfit for human consumption.
stomach(s).
The term 'granulomatous lymphadenitis' shall D - Designates organs or parts unfit for
be used to report the condemnation of carcases human consumption.
and portions. K - Conditionally approved as fit for human
In cases where swine carcases are con- consumption. (Kh - heat treatment; Kf-
demned for granulomatous lymphadenitis, freezing or heat treatment.)
 Infectious Diseases 553
I - Meat showing minor deviations from 77°C if not found beyond one primary
normal but fit for human consumption. site.
L - Approved as fit for consumption, with (ii) Avian type confined to submaxillary
limited distribution. glands: A. Parts of carcase: D. Head: D.
... - Not applicable, e.g. in cases of T the (iii) Extensive lesions in lymph nodes or other
columns referring to partial condemnation organs affected:
are not applicable. (Meat from animals
affected in anv wav bv tuberculosis is Small ruminants and horses: T.
excluded fro~ international trade.)
Cattle and buffaloes
(i) Carcase and viscera: Cases of residual TULARAEMIA (RABBIT FEVER,
infection or reinfection where an FRANCIS DISEASE, DEERFLY FEVER,
eradication scheme has terminated O'HARA'S DISEASE)
(including reactors without lesions: T)
(ii) During final stages of an eradication I. A highly contagious zoonosis affecting
scheme and where natural prevalence is mainly wild animals (jack and cottontail rabbits,
low: hares, beavers, muskrats, voles, mice, birds,
- Reactor without lesions: Kh. Lungs and reptiles and fish) but which may also infect
udder: D. Alternatively L or A, but domestic animals (usually sheep, pigs, horses
excluded from international trade. and less commonly calves and dogs) and man.
- One organ only affected and no miliary O. The disease appears to be confined mostly to
lesions: Kh. Lungs and udder: D. the northern hemisphere, having been recorded
Provided chronic conditions such as in Czechoslovakia, France, Norway, Sweden,
anaemia, cachexia, emaciation,
loathsome appearance, degeneration of British Isles, USA, Canada, China and Japan.
organs and oedema are absent. lA. Francisella (Pasteurella) iularensis, a small
- More than one organ affected or Gram-negative, non-sporing, encapsulated,
miliary lesions in one organ: T non-motile coccobacillus.
(iii) During early stages of an eradication R. Various forms of wildlife (see above),
scheme and in high prevalence areas:
affected and carrier animals, hard ticks,
- Reactor without lesions: L. Lungs, deerflies and mosquitoes.
udder: D. A instead of L if L not
economically feasible, but excluded MT. The organism is capable of being
from international trade. transmitted in several ways - by inoculation
- One organ only affected and no miliary through the skin or conjunctiva, e.g. from bites
lesions: Kh. Lungs, udder. D. Provided of ticks and flies or from handling or dressing
chronic conditions, etc., absent. infected carcases; by ingestion of contaminated
- More than one organ affected but no food, e.g. insufficiently cooked rabbit and hare
signs of generalisation of recent or contaminated water; by inhalation of dust
haematogenous spread: Kh. Lungs, from contaminated hay, soil or grain and
udder: D. T if economically feasible occasionally by the bites of infected animals.
and chronic conditions, etc., absent.
- Generalisation: T CF. Animals: Symptoms associated with
septicaemia are evident - high temperature,
anorexia, lethargy, stiffness, dyspnoea,
Pigs progressive loss of weight, coughing, diarrhoea
Carcase and viscera: and recumbency with death in a few days to 2
weeks. Cases usually develop in the spring
(i) Localized in throat or mesenteric lymph when ticks are active.
nodes (bovine or avian type): Kh. Parts of
carcase D. Organs D. Intestines D. Man: Incubation period is usually 3 days.
However, T in areas where bovine TB Symptoms vary greatly from formation of a
eradication scheme is concluded or in painful, indurated swelling at the site of
final stages, or at any time if of bovine inoculation which usually ulcerates with
type. Alternatively to Kh heat treatment at lymphadenitis in the regional lymph node to
554 Meat Hygiene
pneumonia or a condition resembling typhoid R. Many types of wildlife, especially rodents
with pharyngitis, abdominal paint diarrhoea and birds, which show no sign of disease,
and vomiting. Widespread involvement of harbour the organisms in their intestines.
lymph nodes usually results in death. Infected and carrier animals, including sick
puppies and kittens, also act as sources of
P. The skins of sheep are often infested with
infection. The organisms are known to inhabit
large numbers of ticks. Most consistent lesions are
the tonsils of pigs, making undercooked pork a
tiny whitish foci of miliary necrosis in the liver,
potential source of infection for man. Pigs so
spleen and lymph nodes, these organs being veq
infected usually show no signs of disease.
enlarged. On occasion larger areas of necrosis
may develop. The presence of ticks on the skin MT. By ingestion of contaminated food and
may be associated with areas of congestion and water and by contact with infected animals or
necrosis under the skin with enlargement and people.
congestion of the regional lymph nodes.
CF. Clinical signs vary according to the
Pigs develop pneumonia with abscesses in
species of organism and animal involved. Y.
the submaxillary and parotid lymph nodes.
pseudotuberculosis can cause enterocolitis,
Great care is required in the handling of
abortion, mastitis, pneumonia, lymphangitis
carcases in endemic areas and in the laboratorv
and abscesses in ruminants as well as
with infected material. -
epididymitis and orchitis in rams. Subclinical
D. Symptoms of septicaemia along with gross cases are, however, common. As with many
lesions and the presence of ticks suggest diseases, the presence of predisposing factors
tularaemia. Diagnosis is confirmed by culture plays a vital role in causing the disease.
of the organism from lesions, by indirect Y. enterocoliiica appears to be a less common
fluorescent antibody or tube agglutination test. cause of disease in animals than Y.
Differential diagnoses include other pseudotuberculosis but can be responsible for
septicaemic diseases, acute pneumonia, tick enterocolitis and abortion in sheep.
borne fever, etc. In man both organisms have been recognised
in recent years as the causal agents of
J. Carcase and viscera: T. gastroenteritis (especially in children),
mesenteric lymphadenitis, fever, headache,
pharyngitis, anorexia, arthritis, abscess
YERSINIOSIS (PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS) formation in the liver and spleen and even
osteomyelitis and septicaemia.
I. A usually self-limiting acute bacterial
P. Common findings are microabscesses with
zoonosis which occasionally causes disease in
ulceration and thickening of the intestinal wall.
animals and man.
Affected animals usually great loss of
o. Worldwide, especially in Scandinavia, condition. See also CF.
Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
D. A positive diagnosis can only be made by
lA. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Y. enterocolitica an efficient microbiological investigation.
and Y. pestis. These are short, oval, capsulate, Differential diagnoses include all those
non-motile Gram-negative bacilli which exhibit conditions in which gastroenteritis is
bipolar staining with methylene blue and other manifested.
dyes.
Y. pestis is the cause of bubonic plague (the
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
Black Death of the Middle Ages) which is still
endemic in many countries. Transfer of
infection to man occurs when an infected rat
flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) or other rodent VIRAL DISEASES
aspirates human blood and then regurgitates
the bacilli into the puncture wound, causing AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS (AHS)
septicaemia, enlargement of regional lymph
nodes, often in the groin, and sometimes I. A peracute, subacute or mild febrile disease
pneumonia (pneumonic plague.) of equidae, transmitted by insects and
 Infectious Diseases 555
characterised by oedematous and respiratory, D. Clinical signs are fairly typical of the
changes. cardiac (subacute or 'Dikkop') form but less so
of the peracute and mild forms.
O. Until 1943 when the first cases were Laboratory investigation is necessary to
recorded in Egypt by the Royal Army confirm diagnosis. This includes isolation of
Veterinary Corps, the disease was restricted to and typing of the virus by mouse inoculation,
Africa south of the Sahara. Since then it has cell culture, complement fixation, virus
spread throughout the Middle East and reached neutralisation and haemagglutination-
Afghanistan, Pakistan and India in 1960. Cases inhibition tests.
have been recorded in Spain (last occurrence Differential diagnoses include babesiosis,
1990) and Portugal (last occurrence 1989), purpura haemorrhagica and equine infectious
having apparently reached there from North anaemia.
Africa.
J.
lA. An orbioirus of the family Reoviridae.
Carcase and viscera: In clinical cases, T.
R. Affected horses, mules and donkeys and Reactor animals: L.
insect carriers. It is probable that an unknown
reservoir, possibly some form of wildlife, also
exists.
AFRICAN SWINE FEVER (WARTHOG
MT. The disease is transmitted during warm, DISEASE, AFRICAN PIG DISEASE, ASF)
wet weather by the bites of various
bloodsucking flies and insects, e.g. midges of I. A highly contagious, febrile, viral disease
the genus Culicoides, mosquitoes (Aedes aegupti, which represents a more virulent form of swine
Anopheles stephensi and Culex pipiens) and fever (hog cholera, HC) and characterised by
possibly ticks. the presence of multiple haemorrhages and
high mortality.
CF. Symptoms vary according to the virulence
Notifiable disease (UK).
of the virus. The mild form exhibits only fever
and malaise for a few days. O. The disease was confined to Africa until
The subacute cardiac or oedematous (Dikkop) 1957 when it appeared in Portugal and in 1960
form is manifested bv oedema of the in Spain. A total of 65 outbreaks (86 in Italy and
supraorbital fossae (which may extend to the 13 in Spain) were confirmed in the European
head, eyelids, lips, shoulders and brisket), Community in 1996. The last cases in France
fever, conjunctivitis, cyanosis of tongue and occurred in 1974, in Malta in 1978, in Cuba in
gums, dyspnoea, restlessness and some loss of 1980 and Belgium in 1985. Cases have also
appetite. Mortality is less than 50%. appeared in Brazil, Haiti and the Dominican
In the peracute or respiratory form (Dunkop) Republic. ASF is currently enzootic in Angola,
there is severe respiratory distress, colic, intense Zaire, Zambia, Cameroon, and Guinea Bissau
conjunctivitis, dyspnoea, spasmodic coughing and of high occurrence in Malawi.
often accompanied by a frothy, yellowish, nasal
lA. A DNA virus of the family Iridoviridae.
discharge and rapid onset of death.
Although the clinical signs and pathology
P. Lesions vary according to the severity of the resemble those of swine fever, the latter is
disease and include pulmonary oedema caused by a different virus (pestivirus, family
(especially of the interlobular septa); oedema of Togaviridae).
the intestinal wall and congestion of the liver in
R. The natural hosts are wild swine -
the peracute form of AHS, while the cardiac
warthogs, bush pigs and giant forest hogs,
form exhibits hydropericardium with petechiae
carrier domestic pigs and argasid (Ornithodoros
and ecchymoses in the epicardium and
spp.) ticks which also act as vectors.
endocardium; subcutaneous oedema especially
of the head and neck. Myocarditis, MT. By ingestion (e.g. by the feeding of
haemorrhagic gastritis and petechiation of the uncooked infected pork) and inhalation of
ventral surface of the tongue and of the materials contaminated with the secretions,
peritoneum, may also be present. including urine, of infected pigs.
556 Meat Hygiene
CF. High fever, inappetence, listlessness, in pigs for life. It has an affinity for ganglion
incoordination, diarrhoea, dyspnoea and neurons in infected animals and is sensitive to
cyanosis. Pregnant sows may abort. With heat, sodium hypochlorite, formaldehyde, lime
virulent forms of the virus mortality may reach and phenol.
100%.
R. Infected and carrier pigs.
P. Peracute cases may show no significant
MT. By inhalation or via skin abrasions
changes. Less severe cases exhibit petechial
through direct and indirect contact with
haemorrhages in the submucous and
infected pigs and contaminated materials such
subserosal tissues, lymph nodes, heart, ileo-
as feed, water, bedding, floors, etc. The virus
caecal valve, larynx, bladder and renal cortex.
infects the upper respiratory passages and
There is excess fluid in the pericardial, pleural
travels along the cranial nerves to the brain. A
and peritoneal cavities and ecchymoses are
viraemia results, with virus reaching all parts of
present on the skin of the abdomen and legs.
the body.
The spleen is usually enlarged. More chronic
cases may exhibit ulcers in the caecum and CF. The main symptoms of Aujeszky's disease
colon (but are less common than in SF) with are fever, depression, anorexia and convulsions.
nodular infarcts in the liver and spleen. Virulence of the virus, age of pig and route of
exposure determine the mortality rate, which is
D. The disease is easily confused with swine
highest in piglets. Other signs include muscular
fever and can only be confirmed by laboratory
spasms, pruritus, blindness, vomiting,
examination - fluorescent antibody staining,
incoordination and loss of weight. Sneezing
ELISA test, indirect immunofluorescence,
with nasal discharge and coughing are common
radioimmunoassay, haemadsorption, etc.
symptoms in older pigs which also show head
Differential diagnoses include swine fever and
pressing, opisthotonos (head and tail bent
acute swine erysipelas.
upwards and abdomen downwards),
ASF is a notifiable disease in most countries.
constipation and prostration, coma and death.
J. Carcase and viscera: T. Illness in young pigs may be as short as
24-48 h, while older pigs have a longer period
of sickness and may even survive after 6 weeks.
Cattle, sheep, dogs and cats exhibit similar
AUJESZKY'S DISEASE (PSEUDORABIES, clinical signs, with pruritus and various
MAD ITCH, INFECTIOUS BULBAR nervous manifestations being prominent.
PARALYSIS)
P. The primary lesions are in the brain, which
I. A highly fatal, contagious disease of pigs shows congestion of the meninges and excess
and rodents and less commonly cattle, sheep, cerebrospinal fluid. There is rhinitis,
goats, dogs and cats which affects primarily the pharyngitis, tonsilitis, tracheitis and
CNS with nervous symptoms (incoordination, oesophagitis with petechiation of lymph nodes
tremors, pruritus, convulsions), especially in and kidnevs. On occasions small necrotic foci
older pigs, being prominent. are present in the liver and spleen.
Notifiable disease (UK).
D. History, clinical signs and post-mortem
O. Widespread throughout the world, lesions provide a tentative diagnosis.
causing serious economic losses, especially in Confirmation of diagnosis is based on the
the USA. Aujeszky's disease is currently subject isolation of virus in culture, virus
to eradication programmes (test and slaughter neutralisation, immunofluorescence, ELISA,
of infected pigs) in several countries - GB and complement fixation and indirect
USA (commenced 1983), N. Ireland haemagglutination tests, etc.
(commenced 1994) - and vaccination (New Differential diagnoses include transmissible
Zealand North Island) using gene-deleted gastroenteritis, leptospirosis, influenza, viral
'marker' vaccines. encephalomyelitis (Teschen disease),
encephalomyocarditis, E. coli septicaemia,
lA. A porcine herpesvirus-I which is present swine erysipelas, Glasser's disease,
in saliva and nasal discharges and may persist hypoglycaemia in young pigs, etc.
 Infectious Diseases 557
J. Diseased pigs: Much depends on the CF. Symptoms vary from outbreak to
severity and extent of the lesions and the outbreak; not all affected pigs show blue ears.
condition of the carcase. Fever, inappetence, reduced growth rate,
Carcase and viscera: T, A or Kh. diarrhoea, abortions and stillbirths (generally
Parts of carcase and organs (brain, spinal occurring in late pregnancy), respiratory
cord): D if conditionally approved for human distress (dyspnoea, hyperpnoea) and cyanosis
consumption with heat treatment (Kh). of extremities especially ears, teats, abdomen
and vulva are among the signs demonstrated.
P. Pneumonia, which may be lobar or
bronchial in type.
BLUE-EARED PIG DISEASE (PORCINE D. A definite diagnosis can only be made by
REPRODUCTIVE AND RESPIRATORY serological tests.
SYNDROME, PRRS) Differential diagnoses include porcine
encephalomyocarditis, swine fever,
1. A usually mild 'new' contagious disease leptospirosis, Aujeszky's disease and all causes
affecting pigs of all ages in which influenza- of abortion in sows.
like symptoms, abortions and stillbirths, and
sometimes cyanosis of extremities are
J. Carcase and viscera: T or A, depending on
extent of pathological changes and condition of
evident.
carcase.
O. The disease first appeared in the USA,
Canada and Europe in 1987, after which
Germany (1990), Netherlands, Denmark, Spain,
British Isles and Myanmar reported cases.
BLUETONGUE
Since its introduction into England in 1991
the disease has assumed a much milder form 1. A non-contagious, insect-borne disease of
and controls operating under the Blue-cared
sheep, and less commonly cattle, goats, camels
Pig Order 1991 were revoked in November
and antelopes in which there is intense
1992; the disease is no longer notifiable. All EC
congestion of the buccal/nasal mucosa and
member states have taken similar action.
coronary bands of the feet with severe
It is reported (1999) that some 240 of
lameness.
Northern Ireland's pig herds are infected by
Notifiable disease (UK).
Blue-Ear disease. Testing showed 8% of 450
herds to be positive for PRRS raising fears that O. The disease appears to be confined to
a high number may be infected which may Africa, USA (where it is enzootic), Middle East,
warrant a test and slaughter programme. To and parts of Asia. Many countries report
date no reactors have been reported in the serological evidence of infection but no clinical
Republic of Ireland. In Denmark the US PRRS cases, e.g. in North and South America.
vaccine caused devastation, with abortions in
about one-third of the initial 1000 herds lA. An orbivirus of the family Reoviridae.
vaccinated. R. Affected and carrier sheep, cattle, goats,
lA. A new virus, the Lelystad agent, named camels and wild ruminants.
after its discovery at the Central Veterinary MT. Transmission occurs by insect vectors,
Laboratory, Lelystad, Netherlands. The e.g. biting midges of the Culicoides spp. and
ingestion of [umonisin, a mycotoxin, has been mosquitoes.
incriminated in the USA as a possible vehicle
for the introduction of the virus. CF. Sheep of all ages are susceptible except
those from immune ewes. After an incubation
R. Affected and carrier pigs and their
period of 1-2 weeks during wet weather,
secretions and stillbirths.
affected animals develop fever, anorexia,
MT. Probably by inhalation and ingestion of depression and dyspnoea. The dental pad,
contaminated materials (airborne spread of the buccal and nasal mucosae become inflamed
disease was suspected in Germany). and then ulcerated and there is a watery,
558 Meat Hygiene
afterwards bloody, discharge from the nose. ME Probably by ingestion.
The tongue is swollen and, less often, cyanosed
CE Peracute (alimentary) form - high fever,
while the lips are swollen and bleed easily.
hyperaesthesia (increased sensitivity to external
Oedema of the face, ears and submaxillary
stimuli), gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, dyspnoea
region sometimes occurs. Other signs include
and convulsions with rapid onset of death.
pneumonia, conjunctivitis, lameness and
Acute (head and eye) form: This is the most
torticollis.
common type and is accompanied by fever,
P. See CF. The superficial changes are anorexia, depression, mucopurulent nasal and
accompanied by gelatinous oedema of the eye discharges, conjunctivitis, oedema of
subcutaneous tissues with petechiation and eve lids, salivation, necrosis of skin of nostrils,
sometimes degeneration of skeletal muscles. teats, vulva and scrotum. Lymph nodes are
usually enlarged and haemorrhagic. Nervous
D. Symptoms are suggestive of a tentative
symptoms are usually present - incoordination,
diagnosis. Confirmation requires isolation and
leg weakness, muscular tremors, head-pushing
identification of the virus (fluorescent antibody,
and paralysis. Death usually occurs in 1-7 days.
serum neutralisation tests, etc.).
Chronic form: Mild fever with recoyery in
Bluetongue must be distinguished from foot-
7-10 days.
and-mouth disease, contagious pustular
dermatitis, photosensitisation, vesicular P. Virtually all organs in the body are affected.
stomatitis, malignant catarrhal fever, etc. In addition to the lesions in CF above, the
following changes may be found: int1ammation
J. Carcase and viscera: T. Reactor animals: A.
extending to erosion of the buccal, nasal,
pharyngeal, oesophageal, gastric and intestinal
mucosa, blood-stained intestinal contents;
enlarged liver showing degeneration changes;
BOVINE MALIGNANT CATARRH generalised lymphadenitis and petechial
(MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER, haemorrhages in the brain and meninges.
MALIGNANT HEAD CATARRH,
D. Accurate diagnosis is only possible using
CATARRHAL FEVER, BMC)
histopathology and virology - ELISA, indirect
immunofluorescence and virus neutralisation
I. An acute and peracute infectious, viral
tests.
disease of cattle, deer, buffaloes and wild
Differential diagnoses: rinderpest, bluetongue,
ruminants (and sometimes sheep and pigs)
East Coast fever, infectious bovine
characterised by nasal and eye lesions,
rhinotracheitis, etc.
stomatitis, gastroenteritis and usually high
mortality. J.
Carcase and viscera: T, where general signs
O. Worldwide, but occurring most often in of fever, toxaemia, etc., exist.
Africa. In most countries, BMC has a low Carcase: I and viscera: D, provided general
sporadic prevalence. changes absent.
lA. Two distinct viruses - an alcelaphine
herpesvirus (carried by species of the family
Alcelaphinae of antelopes, mostly wildebeest BOVINE PAPULAR STOMATITIS
and hartebeest) and a sheep-associated BMC
virus, probably a herpesvirus. Although the I. A benign, contagious, viral condition of
latter infects sheep it does not cause clinical young cattle in which papules (small raised
disease. firm nodules 0.5-1 cm in diameter) appear on
the buccal mucosa, muzzle and inside the
R. Infected and carrier cattle, wildebeest, nostrils.
hartebeest and other wild ruminants and sheep
O. The disease occurs in Europe, USA,
and their fomites (fomes) - inanimate objects
Canada, New Zealand, Australia and Africa as
and materials on which disease-producing
a sporadic entity.
organisms are conveyed such as bedding,
faeces, etc. lA. Parapoxvirus.
 Infectious Diseases 559
R. The secretions, especially the saliva of TSE has been recorded in 85 domestic cats in
infected and carrier animals. Britain and the disease has been successfully
transmitted experimentally to cattle, sheep,
MT. Via minute wounds and abrasions in the
goats, pigs, mink, mice, marmosets and
buccal and nasal mucosae.
macaques.
CF. Frequently no general signs are evident A spongiform encephalopathy disease
but slight fever, anorexia, some weight loss and closely resembling BSE has been reported in
salivation may be present on occasion. The three ostriches (Struthio camelus) in zoos in
papules usually heal in a few days, although Germany. The first incident occurred in 1986 in
sometimes successive crops of papules may a female weighing 150 kg, the others in a
develop. younger hen of 80 kg and a juvenile male
weighing 60 kg. All birds showed symptoms of
P. See CF. The papules are round and dark red
ataxia and incoordination. The birds were fed
in colour. Some may coalesce to form larger
on an omnivorous diet which included meat
areas with a roughened surface.
from casualty slaughtered cattle. It was not
D. The disease is only important because of determined, however, whether contaminated
its possible confusion with other forms of feed was the source of the infection. At this time
bovine stomatitis, e.g. foot-and-mouth disease, Germany was officially free of scrapie and BSE.
vesicular stomatitis, bovine erosive stomatitis (a Spongiform degeneration of the medulla
zoonosis), etc. oblongata was evident. Since no material was
The lesions suggest a diagnosis of papular available for examination for the presence of
stomatitis, which can be confirmed by a virus scrapie-associated fibrils or mouse-
neutralisation test, electron microscopy and cell transmission studies, a diagnosis of BSE could
culture. not be established nor could the possibility of
an environmental toxaemia or a dietary
J. Carcase and viscera: A. Head and tongue: D. deficiency be ruled out.
All th~se diseases have common features -
long incubation period (commonly 3-5 years in
cattle), only adult animals showing clinical
BOVINE SPONGIFORM signs, long clinical course, transmissibility,
ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE, PRION similar neurological brain changes and
DISEASE, 'MAD COW DISEASE') probably a common feed source.
Creutzfeld-lakob disease (subacute spongiform
I. A progressively fatal, non-inflammatory, encephalopathy, CJD) affects adult human
nervous disease of cattle which is one of a beings of either sex in mid-life and is
group of transmissible spongiform characterised by progressive dementia and
encephalopathies (TSEs) occurring in animals - myoclonic seizures (rhythmic contractions of
scrapie in sheep and goats (to which BSE is muscle groups), cerebellar ataxia,
closely related), transmissible mink disorientation, hyperaesthesia, loss of speech
encephalopathy (TME), chronic wasting disease and blindness. It occurs worldwide and the
(CWD) of mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk incidence is usually given as one in a million,
and the human diseases of Creutzfeld-Jakob but this probably represents an underdiagnosis.
disease, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker In addition to the sporadic form there is a
syndrome and Kuru. familial form - 15% of CJD cases in Israelis of
Notifiable disease (UK). Zoonosis. Libyan origin. Little is known about the method
BSE is regarded by some as a distinct entity of transmission but human-to-human methods
from scrapie, but may not be so. with deaths in all cases have occurred - via
To date (November 1998) spongiform corneal grafts, contaminated brain electrodes
encephalopathy has also been recorded in 19 and the use in children of growth hormone
captive wild animals in eight zoological derived from human pituitary glands. The
collections in the British Isles - 6 greater kudu, infectious agent (prion, slow virus), the
8 cheetah, 2 ocelot, 6 eland, 3 puma, 1 gemsbok, histopathology and the abnormal fibrils appear
1 nyala, 2 Arabian oryx and 1 scimitar-horned to be similar to the scrapie and BSE findings.
oryx, 1 tiger, 1 bison and 2 ankole cows. While CT (computer tomography), MRI
560 Meat Hygiene
(magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG assist Table 17.1 Number of cases of BSE in the UK and
in diagnosis, CJD, like scrapie and BSE, can other countries. June 1998.
only be confirmed at present by histopathology.
The Cersinumn-Siraussler-Scheinker syndrome Country Date of last report Total cases
is a variant of CJD and is usually familial in
UK
origin. It is attended by varying symptoms
including dementia, memory loss, intellectual Great Britain [an 1999 171 391
decline and cerebellar ataxia. There is amyloid Northern Ireland Dec 1998 1783
plaque deposition in the brain (which may to Guernsey [an 1999 677
some extent differentiate it from BSE, scrapie Isle of Man [an 1999 431
and CJD) and has been diagnosed in a family Jersey Dec 1998 141
with presenile dementia by prion protein gene Aldernev June 1995 2
analysis (Collinge et al., 1990). The authors state
that because of the underdiagnosis of CJD and Other countries
GSS/ previous epidemiological studies may
have underestimated their prevalence, a fact Republic of Ireland [an 1999 345
which may be of significance in the possible Switzerland Dec 1998 282
transmission of BSE. Portugal [an 1999 195
Kuru is a similar progressive neurological France Jan 1999 50
disorder which was once prevalent (up to the Germany [an 1999 6
early 1960s) in the Fore natives of the New Belgium [an 1999 7
Guinea highlands. Affecting mainly women Netherlands [an 1999 4
and children it was associated with ritual Italy [an 1999 2
cannibalistic practices associated with the care Oman Feb 1994 2
of the dead, whose brains containing the
Luxembourg [an 1999 1
infective agent were consumed. Affected
Denmark [an 1999 1
persons showed cerebellar ataxia and helpless
incapacity, with death usually within 1 year. Falklands Feb 1994 1
The custom of mortuary feasting, in which Canada Feb 1994 1
females and children ate the brain and other Source: BSI Progress Report. Dec. 1998. MAFF.
internal organs of a dead relative while the men
would mainly eat meat, ended some 40 years
ago. No one born after 1959 has contracted kuru It is likely that these cases arose from the
disease, but odd cases of kuru still occur consumption of infected animal feed and/or
because of the very long incubation period. the importation of infected cattle from Britain.
In view of the latter trade it is also probable that
O. BSE was first identified at the Central there has been serious underreporting of BSE
Veterinary Laboratory, Weybridge, England in cases in Europe.
November 1986 (Wilesmith et al., 1988). It is known that France imported consider-
However, it is possible that the disease was able amounts of meat and bone meal from
inapparent and endemic before this date and Britain, some of which may have been re-
that this situation may also apply to countries exported. But the possibility exists that some of
other than Great Britain. The possibility exists the BSE cases confirmed outside Britain may
that it may have been confused with other dis- also have been due to the existence of endemic
eases such as listeriosis, acute metabolic dis- scrapie (or 'avirulent' endemic BSE).
eases/ lead poisoning, polioencephalomalacia, The fact remains that the exact incidence of
cerebro-spinal abscess, tremorogenic mycotox- many diseases in animals and man is not
ins/ etc. known because of the existence of subclinical
The current worldwide distribution of infection and the fact that relativelv few
reported cases of BSE is shown in Table 17.1. histopathological examinations are performed.
The sixth case recorded in Germany was Brain lesions similar to those associated with
believed to have been imported from scrapie have been encountered in sheep found
Switzerland. Germany has had no homebred dead without any premonitory symptoms
cases of BSE to date. (Clark, Dawson and Scott, 1994).
 Infectious Diseases 561
Since November 1986 the disease in Great being reported, these being significantly less
Britain has developed into a major epizootic with than in the years 1991-1996. Between 1 January
173391 (N. Ireland 1783) cases occurring over 1996 and 26 June 1997 the number of reported
30000 in Great Britain up to January 1999. 30.9% cases was 22% below that for the same period in
of herds with adult breeding cattle, 49.8% of 1997 and 65% lower than the same period in
dairy herds and 12.5% of beef suckler herds have 1996. In addition, fewer young animals are
experienced at least one case of BSI. Of the total being affected.
30000 herds, 39% have had only one confirmed It is confidently expected that, while some
case while 75% have had four 0; fewer. cases of BSE will be confirmed in cattle exposed
Out of an adult cattle population of some 4.5 to infected feed and born shortly after the feed
million in Great Britain the current annual ban because of the prolonged incubation
incidence is 7.5 cases per 1000. Up until 7 period, the overall number of cases will
February 1977, 31 497 cases (N. Ireland 182) continue to drop and eventually cease to occur.
were confirmed in animals born after the At least the feed ban has prevented some 50000
ruminant feed ban (July 1988). Most of these cases which would otherwise have occurred.
animals were born immediatelv after the feed
ban was introduced and were fed feedingstuff lA. The exact nature of the causal agent is not
containing ruminant protein already in the feed yet known. It has been variously described as a
chain and being used up despite the ban. The 'slow virus', a prion (a minute infectious
very long incubation period means that further pathogen which contains a form of protein
cases will be confirmed in such animals. resistant to procedures that hydrolyse nucleic
However, it is fully expected that cases will acids), a oirin (a tiny microorganism devoid of
reduce significantly and eventually cease from nucleic acid and associated with cellular
this common-source epidemic. protein) and a [ilamenious virus. That it is
BSE has been of great economic importance, infectious in nature there is no doubt since both
especially in the British Isles, because of the crude and purified extracts from the brain and
high cost of detection, control measures and other tissues of infected cattle can reproduce
compensation involved. This does not apply, the disease in a wide range of animals (see
however, to individual herds where the in-herd above).
incidence is low. The occurrence of BSE has Although infectious in form, it does not
been accompanied by extensive, and often produce any immune response in the animal,
misguided, media involvement in Britain, with which makes the development of a suitable
consumer concern about the safety of beef for diagnostic test difficult.
human food. The fact that little is known about The infective agent is an extremely resistant
the pathogenesis of the disease (on which entity having the ability to endure extreme
comprehensive research is currently being physical and chemical conditions. Some strains
conducted) has fuelled these fears. of the agent (more than 15 have been identified)
Since all the evidence pointed to the fact that can resist boiling while others retain some
BSE was caused by the ingestion of feedingstuff infectivity after heating for 1 h at 121QC or at
containing infected protein, a ban on the use of 240°C for 1 min. High-temperature autoclaving
ruminant-derived protein in ruminant is necessary to totally destroy it. The processes
feedingstuffs was introduced by the Ministry of normally used to inactivate infectious agents
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in July 1988. have little effect on it, e.g. detergents and
The feed ban refers to The Bovine Offal disinfectants at normal concentrations, organic
(Prohibition) Regulations 1989 which prohibit solvents, concentrated salt solution and UV and
the use of r specified bovine offal' (brain, spinal ionising radiation.
cord, thymus, tonsils, spleen and intestine Rapid freezing and exposure to ether and
(from duodenum to rectum) in ruminant 20% formalin do not inactivate the scrapie
feedingstuffs. These specified bovine offals agent.
(SBO) now termed specified risk material The BSE infective agents can be detected in
(SRM) were also banned in human food in 1989 the brain, spinal cord, retina, tonsils, spleen and
(1990 in Scotland). intestines but not in muscle and milk. In all the
The feed ban, as predicted, has markedly transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
reduced the number of suspected cases now (TSEs) these agents are abnormal, distorted
562 Meat Hygiene
prions (PrP), which are minute glycosylated the subclinical incidence of scrapie is much
protein molecules devoid of nucleic acid. They greater than realised, the long incubation period
are also protease-resistant, i.e. they are not revealing only a relatively few clinical cases.
broken down into amino acids during Unlike scrapie, which appears to run in
digestion. Different species of animals have families, BSE does not appear to be simply
brain cell prion proteins of different inherited. But the possibility exists that the
compositions. susceptibility of individual animals to BSE is
Distorted prions in the brain are able to inherited. (Wijeratne and Curnow, 1990).
deform normal prions. Over a long period of It is known that the agents of BSE can also be
time the resultant process of spongiosis, gliosis transmitted via the conjunctiva, broken skin
and neuronal death is due, it is believed, to the and nasal mucosa. Extreme care is therefore
depletion of normal brain prions rather than the necessary in handling all suspect animals, carcases
deposition of distorted prions. and tissues.
It has been suggested that organo-
CF. Symptoms vary greatly in type and
phosphorus compounds used for killing
severity. They are insidious in onset, become
migrating warble larvae have caused BSE by
progressively pronounced over a period of 1-6
altering the prion protein to become an infectious
months or so.
agent. This concept, however, by an individual
Since the disease is essentially a CNS
organic farmer in Somerset, England, has been involvement, the clinical signs are "associated
dismissed by most experts. However, studies on
with disturbances in behaviour and posture
the possible connection are being carried out at
and may vary from day to day. The most
the Institute of Psychiatry in London.
commonly reported signs are apprehension,
The concept that BSE is an autoimmune
hyperaesthesia and locomotor ataxia. Although
disease and not an infection - put forward by
appetite is usually retained, there is progressive
Ebringer and colleagues in London - is also
loss of condition and milk yield.
dismissed because of the non-infectivitv of
Some animals are reluctant to move while
these conditions. .
others display changes of gait with a character-
For decontamination purposes it has been
istic high-stepping action of the forelegs accom-
recommended that high concentrations of
panied by hindquarter incoordination, swaying
sodium hypochlorite, and possibly molar
gait and difficulty in turning.
sodium hydroxide, are the most effective
Many animals exhibit aggression - to other
chemicals against the unconventional
cattle and to human beings - by butting activity.
transmissible agents of BSE and scrapie (Taylor,
Some resent handling by drawing the head
1989).
away and kicking violently. Increased noise
R. The SRMs (especially brain and spinal tends to produce exaggerated reactions with
cord) of infected and carrier animals. startled looks, ear twitching and muscle
tremors.
MT. All the evidence suggests that BSE was
While aggression is a common sign, some
acquired through the ingestion of feedingstuff
cows may tend to avoid other cattle. There may
containing the infective agent, making it an
be excessive licking of the coat with rubbing
extended common-source epidemic.
and scratching, but pruritus, which is common
Changes in the rendering process of inedible
in scrapie, is not a feature. Nose licking and hip
meat and offal were made in the late 1970s and
movements in response to stroking are
early 1980s, presumably for economic reasons.
sometimes observed.
The hydrocarbon fat solvent extraction process
Animals in later stages of BSE show
was abandoned and lower rendering
increased weakness and loss of weight with
temperatures were adopted, resulting in the
stumbling, falling and inability to rise. Affected
scrapie agent (or an existing agent of BSE) not
animals are normally slaughtered under the
being destroyed in the meat and bone meal.
government eradication scheme before death
Some of this material was exported to Europe
ensues.
and Ireland where it was probably responsible
for further cases. P. Lesions are confined to the central nervous
The situation was also accompanied by a systems. Apart from loss of condition there are
huge increase in the sheep population in which no gross pathological changes.
 Infectious Diseases 563
The major changes are in the brainstem More recent work by Collinge and his team
(pons! medulla oblongata and midbrain) which (Collinge et al., 1996b)! has shown that the
connects the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal physicochemical 'signature' or marker of prions
cord. These take the form of microscopical in patients dying of nvCJD, after transmission
degenerative changes in the grey matter with to mice, matches that of prions in BSE! in cats
discrete round or oval vacuoles or microcavities with naturally transmitted BSE and in mice and
and BSE-associated fibrils (SAFs) and macaque monkeys experimentally-infected
accumulation of prion protein (PrP). (Plate I, with BSE but not with prions in humans with
Fig. 3.) (See also Infective Agent.) acquired or sporadic CJD. This work, besides
Statutory diagnosis in Great Britain is providing a rapid result! also holds out the
achieved by examination of the brainstem prospect of an ante-mortem test for CJD and
obtained through the foramen magnum! which nvCJD and possibly BSE.
obviates the need for total brain extraction. According to experts at the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the
D. The clinical signs! especially their
National CJD Surveillance Unit in Edinburgh!
progressive nature and whether they display
there remains the potential for a UK epidemic
certain characteristic locomotor disturbances!
of nvCJD even though the link between BSE
may be of value in making a tentative diagnosis
and nvCJD has yet to be proved. If BSE is linked
of BSE. But hypomagnesaemia and nervous
to CJD! the best-case scenario was assessed at
ketosis (usually of short duration and
75 cases! assuming a 100% effective SBM ban
confirmed by clinical chemistry)! listeriosis!
and a mean incubation period of 10 years. The
lead poisoning! sporadic encephalomyelitis!
worst-case scenario was estimated to be 80000
rabies, downer cow syndrome, cerebrospinal
cases of CJD if the specified bovine material ban
abscess, etc., have to be borne in mind.
was only 90% effective and the incubation
Positive diagnosis can only be made by
period is 25 years. If the incubation period is
detailed histopathology.
longer, there could even be more cases.
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
All suspect BSE cases must be treated in
accordance with government regulations.
Control measures
(It has been recommended as an additional
public health precaution that mechanically- Control measures have been directed towards
recovered meat should not be used for human the protection of both animal and human
consumption. ) health.
1 The elimination of the causal agent by
New variant-CJD (nvCJD) banning the feeding of ruminant-derived
protein to ruminants.
Although there had been no scientific evidence 2 The slaughter and proper disposal of all
linking BSE and CJD in man, the occurrence of clinical cases of BSE.
14 clinical cases of variant-CJD during 1994-96 3 The specified risk material ban, which
prompted a reassessment of the situation. These removes all tissues containing the causal
cases exhibited unusual features - younger agent in animals incubating the disease.
average age and different clinical symptoms!
EEG brain activity and pathology (Collinge et Specified risk material refers to the head
al., 1996a). (including the brain but excluding the tongue)!
The Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory spinal cord, spleen! thymus, tonsils and
Committee (SEAC) in March 1996 conjectured intestines of a bovine animal 6 months or over
that 'on current data and in the absence of any which has died or been slaughtered in the
credible alternative the most likely explanation United Kingdom. For animals less than 6
at present is that these cases are linked to months of age SBM includes the thymus and
exposure to BSE before the introduction of the intestines only where an animal less than 2
SBO ban in 1989'. The CJD Surveillance Unit months of age has been slaughtered for human
(CJDSU) also reported in a similar fashion. consumption in the UK or, if over 2 months old!
Since these reports were issued! 35 cases have where it has died or been slaughtered! in the
been confirmed in the UK (December 1998). UK.
564 Meat Hygiene
The SBM (No. 3) Order 1996 required for Veterinaru Surgeons handling k,:own or
specified solid waste recovered from any part suspected cases of BSE, much of which also
of the drainazeb
system in slaughterhouses
.
applies to abattoir personnel.
handling bovines or other premises processmg
bovine carcases where SBM is handled, to be
1. Initial examination of suspect cases
disposed of as SBM.
Extra care must alwavs be taken when handling
BSE checks In Great Britain these are carried a BSE suspect. Isola"te the animal away f~om
out on the slaughter and disposal of animals, noise. Avoid handling in places where an excited
rendering plants, storage and transport of SBM, cow could trap anyone. Handle firmly. but
etc., mainly by the State Veterinary Service and quietly. Arrange for the animal to be restr~u:ed
the Meat Hygiene Service. The Environment safelv, preferably in a crush. When exammmg
Agency, Health and Sa~ety Executive, ~ocal the oral cavity, wear plastic or latex gloves and
authority EHOs and tradmg standards officers carefully wa~h off any traces of saliva from
are also involved. protective clothing. Dispose .o~ gloves by
incineration. Beware when exammmg the udder
Bovine offals (prohibition) regulations - BSE cases can kick out violently and
1989 repeatedly. Examination ~f. t~e head m~y be
resented. Notify the Divisional Vetermary
In addition to the controls listed above, these Officer immediately BSE is suspected. Note that
Regulations also stipulated that whatever the milk from a BSE suspect placed under restriction
source of SBO (meat plants or farms), the by the Ministry may only be fed to its own calf.
methods of identification, control and ultimate
disposal remained the same.
Once removed from the slaughtered animal 2. Venepuncture
after dressing, the SBO must either be sterilised, When blood samples have to be taken for
thorouzhlv denatured or stained with a speci- differential diagnosis, use vacutainers rather
fied dy~[Link] and subsequently removed, un?er than svrinzes and dispose of needles carefully
permit from a local authonty, to rendenng into ~n a~propriate safe container. Apply
plants, collection centres (for onwar~ transfer to rigorous standards of hygiene to the handlmg
a rendering plant) on excepted premIses such as of all samples. Blood splashes should be
a hospital, medical or veterinary school (where thoroughly removed.
SBO may onlv be used for instructional,
research or diagnostic purposes).
Handling at rendering plants is designed to 3. Caluings, cleansings and caesarian sections
ensure that SBO is kept separate at all times If it behaves like scrapie, the BSE agent may be
from other material that is intended to be used, present in the placenta and/ or fetal fluids of
after processing, for use in feedstuffs for non- affected CO\",'S. Washable protective clothing
ruminant animals. After rendering, the meal and armlenzth zloves should be worn when
b b
derived from SBO remains under official calving a BSE suspect, either naturally or by
control and may only be moved from the site of caesarian section, or if cleansing is needed. If
production under authority of a movement available, a face mask should also be used.
permit to a specified destination - burial in a Placentae should be disposed of with the
licensed landfill site or incineration. minimum of handling and disposal should
The SRM Order 1997 and the SRM Regs. 1997 preferably be by incineration, but careful burial
supplement the above controls which are now is an acceptable alternative. This is, in fact, a
EU-wide. condition of the Restrictive Notice (Form A)
served on BSE suspects by the Divisional
Veterinary Officer.
Precautions to be taken by persons
handling known or suspected cases of BSE
Although the Southwood report stated that BSE 4. Post-mortem examinations
was unlikely to affect man, the UK Ministry of Note that post-mortem examinations of
Agriculture in January 1990 issued Guidelines suspects are not normally permitted. vv'here
 Infectious Diseases 565

CHRONOLOGY OF BSE

1732. First record of scrapie in sheep.

Late 1970/early 1980. Changes made in rendering techniques.
Apr. 1985. First suspect cases of BSE.
Nov. 1986. BSE identified as a new disease entity.
Apr. 1988. Southwood Committee appointed.
June 1988. BSE made a notifiable disease in England, Scotland and Wales.
July 1988. Government ban on the feeding of ruminant-derived to ruminants.
Aug. 1988. Compulsory slaughter for BSE-suspect animals with 50% compensation.
Dec. 1988. Government bans use of milk from BSE suspects other than for feeding to cow's
own calf. Duration of ruminant feed ban extended.
Jan. 1989. First BSE case reported in Ireland.
Feb. 1989. Southwood report published - risk of transmission to man 'remote and
theoretical'. Tyrrell Committee set up to establish R&D requirements.
Nov. 1989. Ban on use of 'specified offals' - brain, spinal cord, spleen, thymus, tonsils and
intestines (SBOs) - in human food (England, Wales). Original regulation
referred to bovines over 6 months of age; later extended to include thymus and
intestines of younger cattle. Case numbers exceed 9000 (200 weekly in GB; 50%
in SW England). 32 cases in N. Ireland and 15 in Republic of Ireland.
Jan. 1990. Tyrrell Report published. Government to spend £12 million on BSE research in
next 3 years. SBO ban for human food (Scotland).
Feb. 1990. Compensation increased to 100% for suspect animals.
Sept. 1990. Ban on use of SBO in any animal and bird feed with export of such feed 'to'Third
Countries stopped by rendering industry.
Oct. 1990. Introduction of improved cattle records so that offspring of confirmed cases can
be identified.
July 1991. Ban on export of SBO feed to Third Countries.
Nov. 1991. Ban on use of SBO meat and bone mealfor-fertilisers.
Mar. 1992. Bovine Offal Prohibition(Amendment) Regs 1992 prohibited useof the head after
the skull is opened and removal of the brain except in an area free from any
food intended for human consumption.
Tyrrell Committee satisfied with current controlmeasures,
May 1992. EC Commission decision prohibits Community trade in bovine embryos derived
from BSE confirmed or suspect dams or those born after 18.7.88.
July 1993. 100000th confirmed case of BSE in Great Britain announced.
June 1994. Commission Decision 94/381 prohibited feeding of mammalian protein in
Community other than in Denmark. EC Decision 94/382 approved alternative
heat treatment for processing animal waste.
July 1994. Commission Decision 94/474 required bone-in beef for export to be derived from
cattle certified not to have been on holdings where BSE was confirmedin. the
previous 6 years.
566 Meat Hygiene

Nov. 1994. Bovine Offal (Prohibition) (AM) Regs 1994 extended ban on use of some SBO in
human food to calves under 6 months of age slaughtered for human
consumption.
Spongiform Encephalopathy (Misc. AM) Order 1994 extended ban on use of SBOs
in animal feed, banned use of mammalian protein in ruminant feedingstuffs
and made notifiable laboratory suspicion of TSEs in species other than cattle,
sheep and goats.
Dec. 1994. Beef from cattle born after 1 January 1992 excluded from certification requirement.
Mar. 1995. Restriction lifted on use of milk, gelatin, amino acids, dicalcium phosphate, dried
plasma and other blood products from mammalian tissues in feedingstuffs for
ruminants.
Portugal reported first case of BSE in 1995 - in a 6-year old cow born in Portugal.
Mode of infection unknown. Portugal had 6 cases in 1994.
Apr. 1995. The Meat Hygiene Service (MHS) was established in Great Britain (1.4.95) taking
over responsibility from local authorities for hygiene, inspection and welfare
requirements in licensed meat premises in Britain.
May 1995. The number of reported cases of BSE in Great Britain was 45.3% lower than in the
same period in 1994 and 56.2% lower compared with 1993. There was a
continued downturn in the incidence of BSE in 5-year old and younger
animals.
The numbers of confirmed BSE cases born after the introduction of the ruminant
feed ban on 18 July 1998, by year of birth, were 9983 (1988), 7858 (1989), 1589
(1990), 116 (1991) and 1 (1992).
July 1995. Commission Decision 95/287 repealed earlier Decisions regarding certification-
animals less than 2Y2 years old at slaughter now exempted. A 100% check on age
declarations and holding freedom from BSE was demanded along with
removal of lymph nodes from boneless beef during cutting.
Export certification requirement introduced - beef from cattle less than 2Y2 years
old at slaughter now exempted.
Aug. 1995. Specified Bovine Offal Order 1995 made tighter; controls on record keeping and
dedicated lines for rendering plants processing SBO; prohibited removal of
brains and eyes - whole skull to be disposed of as SBO; prohibited removal of
spinal cord except in slaughterhouses.
(Up to 1 July 1998, 36657 cases of BSE had been confirmed in Great Britain after
the feed ban, suggesting 'some continued leakage of infective material into
animal feed'. 'Some fine tuning of controls and processing plants was needed
to prevent potentially infected material finding its way into cattle feed'.)
Oct. 1995. Fourth case of variant CJD reported in under 3 years; renewed speculation over the
possible transmission of BSE to man. Investigations by CJDSU in Edinburgh
showed that the incidence of CJD in Britain was not significantly different from
other European countries where there is no reported BSE. The CJD Unit failed
to find any increased incidence in veterinary surgeons or abattoir workers.
Dec. 1995. GB Government Chief Medical Officer, Sir Kenneth Calrnan, stated that there was
no scientific evidence that BSE could be transmitted to humans or that eating
beef caused CJD. 'All the studies to date on transmission have shown that beef
is safe. There is no epidemiological evidence of transmission from beef to
humans or of transmission when muscle (meat) from cattle clinically affected
with BSE is injected into mice.'
 Infectious Diseases 567

Scientists investigating possible links between BSE and beef sold to consumers
said there could be a 'species barrier' which prevents humans developing BSE.
Professor J. Collinge said he was reassured by the findings of experiments in
genetically engineered mice which indicated that the disease did not react with
a protein which triggers CJD. The research, however, was not yet finalised and
would continue for another 6 months.
SBO (AM) Order 1995 prohibited use of bovine vertebral column in manufacture
of mechanically recovered meat (MRM) and some other products for human
consumption and the use of bovine MRM from vertebral column in food for
humans. All plants producing bovine (MRM) to be registered. Export of bovine
MRM derived from vertebral column prohibited to other EC Member States
and to Third Countries for human consumption.
Jan. 1996. Eire: All cattle taken from herds in which a BSE animal was found to undergo
post-mortem histopathology before being allowed into the human food chain.
Policy in Eire was to destroy the whole herd if a BSE animal was detected.
German Parliament decided to ban all imports of UK beef but this action was
branded illegal by Britain and the European Commission, which gave the
German government one month to end the ban on British beef.
Mar. 1996. British Secretary of State for Health, Mr Stephen Dorrell, announced that a new
form of CJD had been identified in 10 people who had recently died of the
disease. The SEAC advised that, although there was no direct evidence of a link
with BSE, in the absence of any credible alternative, the most likely explanation
was that the cases were linked to exposure to BSEbefore the introduction of the
SBO ban in 1989.
British government set out proposals for the selective culling of cattle in order to
accelerate the decline in the number of BSE cases and to meet the conditions for
a phased lifting of the EU ban on the export of cattle, beef and beef products
agreed by European heads of government at the recent summit in Florence. The
scheme would be targeted on animals likely to have had access to the same feed
as confirmed BSE cases. The scheme was declared unscientific and unjustified
by the British Veterinary Association, scientists and farmers.
Commission Decision 96/239 prohibited export from the UK of live bovines,
semen and embryos, meat and products from bovine animals slaughtered in
the UK, materials for use in medicinal, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products
and meat and bone meal (MBM).
The Beef (Emergency Control) Order 1996 prohibited sale for human consumption
of meat from bovines showing more than 2 permanent incisors.
The BSE (Amendment) Order 1996 prohibited sale or supply of mammalian MBM
or any feedingstuff containing mammalian MBM for feeding to farm animals,
horses and farmed fish.
Specified Bovine Material Order 1996 replaced SBO Order 1995 and required the
whole head of all cattle over 6 months, except uncontaminated tongues, to be
treated in the same way as 'SBO'.
Apr. 1996. Scheme for compulsory deboning replaced by scheme to slaughter
over the age of 30 months.
Use of Cattle Identification Documents approved.
Derestriction of meat derived from animals slaughtered in certain Third Countries
where no cases of BSE were recorded.
Use of MBM as, or in, fertiliser for use on agricultural land prohibited.
568 Meat Hygiene

Fresh Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (AM) Regs 1996 allowed slaughterhouses to
slaughter all cattle over 30 months and calves under 10 days of age with strict
separation of meat.
May 1996. SBM (No. 2) Order required SBM to be removed from carcases and handled
separately, as for animals under 30 months. The carcase meat must be dyed a
different colour from SBM.
Cold storage of carcases and rendered material before incineration would mean
slaughtering capacity would rise to 30000 a week in Great Britain.
The Dutch government planned to destroy 64000 young cattle although no cases
of BSE had been reported in Holland even in animals imported from Britain.
The action was described in veterinary circles as 'emotional and political'.
June 1996. Concern was expressed that some stocks of MBM were still held on farms and
feed mills which could be incorporated into animal feed. The amount
eventually transpired to be 10500 tonnes, with 9500 tonnes at feed mills. This
material was collected to be safely disposed of along with effective cleansing of
premises. It is now an offence to have MBM or animal feed containing MBM on
farms, feed mills and feed merchants' premises.
July 1996. Commission Decision 96 1449 IEC approved alternative heat treatment systems
for processing animal waste in order to inactivate the infective agent.
Aug. 1996. Preliminary results of a 7-year MAFF experiment on the possible maternal
transmission of BSE indicated that the disease could pass from dam to calf but
at a low level. The SEAC concluded that the rate under field conditions would
be 1%. The actual route of transmission was not determined.
UK Government launched its BeefAssurance Scheme for specialist grass-reared beef
herds (established for 4 years) which have not been affected by BSE or been in
contact with MBM. Animals born in registered herds would be permitted
under strict conditions to be sold for slaughter for human consumption up to
the age of 42 months. A report 'Transmission dynamics and epidemiology of
BSE in British cattle' by Professor R.M. Anderson and colleagues in Oxford
concluded that the BSE epidemic was 'well past its peak', in 'rapid decline' and
'likely to fade close to extinction by the year 2001 even in the absence of a
targeted cull'.
Trading Standards Officers discovered evidence of adulteration of lamb mince
with beef in Manchester. Some 62% of minced lamb and pork samples
contained beef, some more than 20% beef. The discovery, conducted in 50
stores, followed similar checks in west London where 6 out of 10 packets of
lamb mince tested contained more than 2% beef. Two samples from a
supermarket chain had a beef content of 10%. Accidental contamination of
mincing machines due to inadequate cleaning was discounted by officials
because of the high levels.
Sept. 1996. An official cover-up of the BSE situation in Europe by the European Commission
was reported with the start of an enquiry by the European Parliament into the
handling of the 1996 beef panic. The UK Government submitted a proposal to
the EU for a Certified Herds Scheme which would certify animals under 30
months of age from herds free from BSE as suitable for export. The scheme
would be of special benefit to Northern Ireland, which has a low incidence of
BSE and an efficient cattle traceability system.
Mechanically-recovered meat (MRM). Use of MRM is banned in minced meat but
may be used for human consumption from the bones of cattle, sheep, pigs and
poultry, except the backbone of cattle. The production of MRM is controlled by
 Infectious Diseases 569

the Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) Regs 1995 which require the
registration and inspection of premises, analysis of any potential food safety
hazards and assessment of methods used by producers.
Heads of Sheep and Goats Order 1996 came into effect and banned the sale for
human consumption of sheep and goats heads (excluding the tongue) except
from animals born, reared and slaughtered in Australia or New Zealand.
Oct. 1996. A report in Nature by Professor J. Collinge and colleagues at the Imperial College
School of Medicine showed a link of BSE with the new variant CJD (nvCJD). A
molecular marker which distinguished nvCJD from other forms of the disease
and which is also found in BSE cases and in BSE experimentally transmitted to
other species. The results are believed to be 'consistent with the hypothesis that
nvCJD results from transmission to humans'. They also suggested that the
work identifying the molecular marker could be used in the differential
diagnosis of nvCJD and may allow strain typing in various animals/to
determine if BSE has also been transmitted naturally to these species.
Nov. 1996. Scientific Meeting at Wellcome Trust Centre for the Epidemiology of Infectious
Diseases, University of Oxford: BSE reported to be virtually eliminated from
younger British cattle and epidemic estimated to be over by mid-1988.
Individual ages of cattle over 30 months that were slaughtered had not been
recorded, making attainment of Florence Agreement in JlU1e 1996 uncertain. The
incidence of scrapie should be determined and the ED advised to eradicate the
disease as a long-term objective. Strains of sheep resistant to scrapie can be bred.
Studies being conducted to determine if BSE can be transferred back into sheep.
The need for a diagnostic test in subclinical cases was stressed. The CJDSU in
Edinburgh predicted that hundreds of Britons would die each year from the
new variant CJD (linked to BSE) with the peak occurring in about 7 years' time.
A new brain disease in cattle - idiopathic brainstem neuronal chromatolysis
(IBNC) - has to date killed over 100 cattle. First discovered in 1989, three years
after BSE was first reported, it has mainly affected beef cattle in Scotland aged
between 6 and 12 years of age.
A 50.7 m ecu research programme into the TSEs was launched by the European
Commission.
Switzerland decided to subsidise the slaughter of 230 000 after 1
December 1990 to restore the confidence of consumers.
Dec. 1996. UK Government announced the slaughter of up to 128,000 more cattle deemed
most at risk from BSE to conform to the Florence Agreement and asked to have
the EU ban on British beef and beef products lifted. The European Union farm
ministers, however, said it could be a long time before the ban was lifted.
The US Government proposed a wide-ranging ban on the use of tissues from
cattle, sheep and goats in animal feed as a precaution against an outbreak of
BSI. The continued use of blood, milk and gelatin would be permitted. If
approved, the ban would codify a voluntary ban already being observed by the
US meat industry.
Norway announced details of an intensive research programme on the pathology
and epidemiology of scrapie and its implications for human health.
Jan. 1997. Hill et al. (1997) studied PrP in human tonsillar tissue obtained at necropsy and
were able to confirm nvCJD by Western blot analysis, the findings being the
same as those from the brain of the same patient (a 35-year-old woman). This
work may well pave the way for the early clinical diagnosis of CJD, nvCJD,
scrapie and BSE using tonsillar tissue obtained under local anaesthesia.
570 Meat Hygiene

A Rhode Island hen which has been showing unusual nervous symptoms on a
farm on the Surrey-Kent border in England where six cows developed BSE is
to be humanely destroyed and its brain examined for evidence of BSE by Dr
Harash Narang. Although tests carried out by the UK Ministry of Agriculture
in 1990 showed no evidence of poultry susceptibility to BSE, a spongiform
encephalopathy has been recorded in ostriches in Germany (see above).
The Republic of Ireland recorded 74 cases of BSE in 1996 compared with 16 in
1995. In 1997, 11 new cases have been confirmed. This marked increase in
incidence has caused concern about exports and has prompted an investigation
by EU officials.
In Germany 15000 cattle, including 2052 imported from Britain and 3074 from
Switzerland were to be slaughtered following the occurrence of a case of BSE
in a cow born in Germany. Four previous cases were associated with imported
animals.
In 1997 (up to 11 February) there were 858 cases of BSE (1 in Germany; 1 in France;
3 in Portugal; 14 in Ireland and 839 in the UK).
The 20th Commission Directive 97 jljEC banned the sale of cosmetic products
containing material derived from the brains, spinal cords and eyes of cows,
sheep and goats giving legal effect to the situation already existing in the
cosmetics industry. The ban is provisional and will be reviewed in the light of
new knowledge.
The draft of the European Parliament's Inquiry Committee into BSE was
published and revealed numerous misdemeanours and failures in the handling
of the BSE crisis by both the European Commission and the British
Government.

EC revised proposal on Specified Risk Materials (SRM) In order to achieve a

common level of basic controls on SRM throughout the Community the
following SRM would be banned from human and animal food: (1) The head
(including the brain and eyes but excluding the tongue) and spinal cord of cattle
over 12 months of age and sheep and goats over 12 months of age or which
have a permanent incisor tooth erupted from the gum; (2) the spleen of all sheep
and goats; (3) vertebral column from cattle, sheep and goats banned from use
in MRM. Strict controls (similar to those in place for disposal of SBM in the UK
to be applied to the disposal of SRM; and equivalent SRM controls to apply to
imports from third countries.
This Proposal differs from existing British controls in cattle in terms of tissues
covered and the age of the animal but goes beyond them for sheep and goats
in including the spinal cord and spleen.
In Germany 15000 cattle (imports from Britain and Switzerland) are to be
slaughtered following the occurrence of a case of BSE in a Galloway calf born
to a cow imported from Scotland.
It has been suggested that organophosphorus compounds used for killing
migrating warble larvae have caused BSE by altering the prion protein to
become an infectious agent (see text).

Feb. 1997. Two proteins belonging to the group 14-3-3 have been detected in the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of CJD patients which are absent from normal
individuals and those suffering from other dementing diseases (Harrington et
al., 1996). These proteins are thought to originate from pathological neuronal
tissue.
 Infectious Diseases 571

The first case of BSE in a cow in Holland is recorded. All close relatives of the
animal along with 110 cows are slaughtered.
Lamb and pork mince sold by UK supermarkets and butchers is shown to contain
as much as 30% beef on occasions. Some of these samples had been labelled
'beef free'.
Mar. 1997. The European Union Scientific Veterinary Committee confirmed that British milk
is safe to drink, a finding endorsed by the World Health Organization which
concluded that there is no evidence that BSE can be passed on through milk.
Poland confirmed the existence of 51 cases of BSE- 29 of them in 1996. Main source
of infection is thought to be MBM imported from the UK during 1988-89. (MBM
from the UK was exported widely in EU and non-EU countries.)
Total number of BSE cases in the UK in 1996 was 6871, a reduction of 53% from
14471 in 1995. A total of 1.18 million cattle have been slaughtered under the
UK's over 30-month scheme by January 1997.
British government submits proposal for a Certified Cattle Herds Scheme to EU in
attempt to get ban on beef exports lifted for herds which had no association
with BSE, all preconditions for a phased lifting of the ban having been met.
These include a selective slaughter of cattle most likely to have been exposed
to contaminated feed; the introduction of a passport system to record
movements; removal of all MBM from farms and feedmills; implementation of
a scheme for the slaughter and disposal of cattle over 30 months of age;
tightening of controls in abattoirs to ensure complete removal of SBM.
Examination of brain sections from an 11-year old Labrador dog in Oslo, Norway,
which showed symptoms of incoordination and seizure, revealed changes in
common with SE. Confirmation is sought from the Institute of Animal Health
Neuropathogenesis Unit in Edinburgh. In Norway SBM was removed from the
animal food chain in 1990. This investigation recalls tests in the UK in 1991 on
the brains of 400 hounds, which showed some fibril abnormalities but which
were inconclusive owing to spoilage changes in the brain tissues.
European Parliament adopted a report from its Committee of Enquiry into BSE
criticising Britain's handling of the BSE crisis and accused the EU of giving
priority to the beef market rather than human health. Many final
recommendations also made.
SBM Order 1997 revokes and replaces SBM (No. 3) Order 1996 as follows. SBM
tallow and derivatives must not be used in cosmetic, medical and
pharmaceutical products or in feed. Their use in technical products may be
permitted subject to plant approval and end-use of product guaranteed.
More stringent staining provisions are laid down - stains to remain visible over
whole surface of SBM until either incinerated or rendered.
Enforcement is given stronger legal base.
The role of water companies providing sewerage services for domestic, industrial
and commercial customers: SEAC recommends that appropriate containment
and control measures are introduced for discharges from premises handling
SBM. WSCs and MAFF to work closely together to ensure implementation of
recommendations and operational practices.
Tallow production: The Bovine Products (Production and Dispatch) Regulations
1997 require all UK tallow for food, feed, pharmaceutical, medical and cosmetic
use to be manufactured to export standards in registered premises, bovine
vertebral column to be supplied to registered renderers separate from other
raw materials and manufacturers using UK-manufactured tallow for above
uses to use only tallow produced in a registered plant.
572 Meat Hygiene

Scientists at the Institute of Grassland Research, Aberystwyth, Wales report that a

urine test for the early diagnosis of BSE may be available within 18 months.
A drug, IDX, has been developed at the Instituto Nazionale Neurologico Carla
Besta, Milan, which prevents the development of amyloid and prion protein
deposits in Alzheimer's disease, Creutzfeld-Jacob disease and [Link] toxic as
yet for clinical use in patients, IDX is being regarded as a prototype for the
development of safer alternatives.
The current lack of knowledge of many aspects of BSE is exemplified by a second
call from the EU Commission for BSE research funding, the priorities being
possible transfer to man, transmission mechanisms of prion diseases and the
prevention and treatment of TSEs.
Apr. 1997. European Commission reports that many Member States have not taken adequate
steps to detect BSE or to prevent its further spread. The number of expected
cases of BSE in continental Europe is estimated at several thousand, yet only a
few hundred have been officially reported. Deficiencies in Europe include poor
surveillance systems; farmers not always compensated in full for declaring
cases acting as a disincentive; feed labelled as MBM-free often found to contain
as much as 5% owing probably to cross-contamination in feed mills; rendering
plants not converting to batch-processing at BODe and 3 bars pressure for at
least 20 min.
EU calls for laboratory examination of all suspect BSE cases, complete record
keeping, better training and a reference laboratory to ensure uniform
application of standardised procedures.
New EU heat treatment rules for SBM are BODC at 3 bar pressure for at least 20
min, based on scientific research on the survival of the BSE agent in mice
carried out in mid-1990s.
Case for the early lifting of the ban on the export of beef in Northern Ireland is
made by a Committee of MPs in London because of its lower incidence
compared with the rest of the UK.
EU informs Britain that it must meet conditions (set in June 1996) for ensuring
freedom of gelatin from BSE if export trade of gelatin is to be restored.
Latest case (fifteenth in 1997) of BSE in Switzerland believed to be result of
maternal transmission since infected dam "vas born after the ban on feed
containing SBM.
Final results of MAFF's 7-year cohort study to determine maternal transmission
indicate the risk to be less than 10% according to SEAC. However, variation in
genetic susceptibility to BSE following feed-borne exposure may be an
additional factor in the aetiology of the disease. Further research on the
mechanism of direct maternal transmission and on genetic factors
recommended by SEAC. Current control measures to protect the public
considered adequate by SEAC, who advise UK government to consider the
possibility of a cull of calves from BSE-affected mothers and its effects.
May 1997. UK Ministry of Agriculture uncertain of numbers of BSE cases buried in landfill
tips in England between 1988 and 1991.
UK Environment Agency is currently investigating the geology and hydrology of
six landfill sites in England to determine 'whether BSE infection is leaching into
watercourses and/or contaminating topsoil. Preliminary results suggest that
contamination is minimal due to microbial activity which, however, is very
slow. BSE-prion emissions of MBM incinerated in power stations are also to be
assessed by the Environment Agency. Although it has been suggested that the
BSE prion can survive temperatures up to 1l00DC this is now considered
 Infectious Diseases 573

improbable. Certain amino acids can, however, survive power station high
temperatures.
European Commission planned to introduce Specific Risk Materials (SRM) and
clarified terms of the export ban, especially in relation to raw bovine materials,
e.g. gelatin.
SEAC advised that SRM controls be extended to imported meat despite absence
of Community measures.
June 1997. The Commission's Scientific Veterinary Committee commented on the UK
proposal to set up an export certified scheme as a step towards lifting the
export ban.
The UK government reminded farmers about compulsory registration of cattle
under the cattle passport scheme.
July 1997. Agriculture Council accepted the European Commission proposals on SRM
(Commission Decision 97/534/EC).
UK selective cull - animals in groups of 10 or less to be valued by one valuer
instead of two in order to speed up the cull.
Setting up of new computerised cattle tracing system - British Cattle Movement
Service - announced. System to be operational during 1998.
The UK Bovine Products (Production and Despatch) Regulations 1997 revoked
earlier legislation on emergency measures to protect against BSE.
Sept. 1997. The UK Fresh Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Amendment) Regulations 1997
removed provision for the slaughter of private kill animals, ensuring full meat
inspection for all red-meat animals.
Definition of 'animal by-products'. Category of 'meat from a bovine animal
slaughtered for human consumption and subsequently to be from an animal
over 30 months of age' added to definition.
Oct. 1997. UK proposal for export of meat and meat products from cattle born after 1 August
1996 and proposal for compulsory slaughter of offspring born on or after 1
August 1996 to affected BSE dams submitted to European Commission.
SEAC satisfied with UK measures on the safety of beef following review of human
blood and blood products.
Nov. 1997. European Commission to visit Northern Ireland to examine their computerised
system for tracing animals, which has been in force for some 10 years.
Final report on BSE endorsed by European Parliament (19 November).
Dec. 1997. UK government announced measures to require the deboning of all beef from
cattle of over 6 months of age before sale (Beef Bones Regulations 1997).
UK government announced Public Enquiry into BSE to be conducted by Lord
Justice Phillips.
Jan. 1998. Existing SBM Order replaced by The Specified Risk Material Order 1997 in UK,
providing further controls on specified risk material.
Mar. 1998. UK BSE Enquiry. Public hearings commenced.
European Commission Agriculture Council allowed export of beef and beef
products from Northern Ireland under Export Certified Herd Scheme and laid
down new conditions for the export of tallow from UK cattle and gelatin from
non-UK cattle.
Apr. 1998. Previous cattle identification orders revoked by The Cattle Identification
Regulations 1998: cattle born after 1 January 1998 to have a MAFF-approved
eartag and a cattle passport. The system will come into force on 28 September
1998 and will include a register of cattle, compulsory cattle tagging and a
574 Meat Hygiene

history of the animals until their death. New system will only affect animals
born after 28 September 1998.
May 1998. Controls on exports of meat, meat products and 'preparations' from UK
strengthened by The Bovines and Bovine Products (Trade) Regulations 1998.
Validity of export ban on UK beef upheld by EC.
June 1998. Ban lifted on the export of certified beef herds from Northern Ireland.
Switzerland confirmed fifth case of BSE of 1998 (in a 7-year-old cow). Total
number of cases of BSE in Switzerland in 1997 was 38.
July 1998. First case of BSE in Liechtenstein is reported.
The UK National Audit Office announced the cost of BSE from 20 March 1996
(when the link between BSE and nvCJD was reported) to be £2.5 million. By
the year 2000 it was expected to cost £1 billion more.
New legislation requiring the compulsory slaughter of scrapie-affected sheep and
goats is announced for England, Scotland and Wales following advice from
SEAC and Decision (8/272/EC) of the European Commission. Controls on
scrapie-affected animals will be enhanced and research work furthered.
Aug. 1998. France confirmed three further cases of BSE. All affected animals and associated
herds destroyed in line with government policy.
EU's Calf Processing Aid Scheme to cease in the UK after November 1998. 1.2
million calves were slaughtered under the scheme in the UK from April 1996.
Sept. 1998. UK Cattle Tracing System launched: (Cattle Database Regs. 1998).
Oct. 1998. SRM (AM) Regs. 1998 enabled carcases of sheep over 12 months without spinal
cords removed to be sent to France, subject to certain conditions. Scientific
Steering Committee confirmed safety of bones and of hydrolysed proteins from
bovine hides.
Nov. 1998. Postal survey on incidence of scrapie commenced in UK.
Jan. 1999 Cattle Identification (AM) Regs. 1998 required one tag to be applied within 36h of
birth and second tag within 30 days. BSE Offspring Slaughter Regs. 1998
implemented compulsory cull of offspring born on or after 1 Aug. 1996 to BSE
cases confirmed before 25 Nov. 1998.

In the UK the number of reported cases of BSE between 1 January and 26 June
was 22% lower than in the same period in 1997 and 65% lower than in the same
period in 1996.
About 80 suspect cases per week are being reported in the UK compared with
1000 per week during the peak of the epidemic in 1993.
These figures indicate that the feed ban is affecting the course of the disease in the
manner predicted. By 2001 the disease will decline to insignificant levels.
BSE in the European Union: There were 2382 reported outbreaks of BSE during
1998 (up to 27 August 1998): 3 in Belgium, 9 in France, 51 in Portugal, 37 in the
Republic of Ireland and 2281 in the UK.
 Infectious Diseases 575
required for insurance or other purposes, it • wash your hands before eating, drinking
should be under carefully controlled and smoking;
conditions which have been agreed with the • wash down contaminated areas with
Divisional Veterinary Officer. Extreme care detergent and water;
must always be taken when carrying out post- • rinse protective clothing free of debris after
mortem examinations, particularly to avoid use and wash with water and detergent.
puncture wounds. Protective clothing must be
worn at all times, including thick rubber gloves REPORT ALL ACCIDENTS TO YOUR
and, preferably, face masks. Instruments must EMPLOYER
be sharp and in good condition and must be Because of the very long incubation period it
thoroughly washed and disinfected after use. follows that there is a large number of
Sodium hypochlorite freshly diluted 1:5 with subclinical carriers of the BSE and scrapie
water yields a solution containing 2% available agents, which no one can recognise, the above
chlorine and should be used to wash down precautions should be supplemented by the
contaminated areas. In view of the caustic following in all cattle and sheep dressing:
nature of sodium hypochlorite, it should be • Do not pith cattle. Provided stunning and
stored and used with care. shackling are efficiently performed, pithing
is unnecessary, besides creating another
possible infection hazard.
5. Accidents
• Do not remove spinal cords by hand,
Care should be taken to avoid puncture thereby risking cuts. If carcase splitting is
wounds and cuts. Accidental injuries should uneven use a chine saw to remove the
immediately be washed thoroughly in running spinal cord.
water and further first aid treatments rendered • Do not remove brains (bovine or ovine) by
as appropriate to the type of injury. Existing any method from skulls. Handle only head
cuts and abrasions should be covered with meat and tongues.
waterproof dressings. • Face masks, gloves and saw guards should
be used at the carcase-splitting point.
Precautions to be taken by meat plant • All tools, especially carcase-splitting saws
personnel engaged in the slaughter and and captive bolt pistols, should be
dressing of carcases where BSE is known frequently and thoroughly sterilised.
to exist • Carcase-splitting saws and captive bolt
pistols should be provided with splash
The UK Health and Safety Executive has issued guards. (There should be immediate
the following advice: research into effective non-penetrative
In the UK cows suffering from BSE are now stunning.)
slaughtered and their carcases taken for • Adopt a high standard of personal hygiene,
disposal. washing hands and arms frequently using
While it is very unlikely that BSE will affect antibacterial soap.
human health, it is important to take
reasonable precautions in handling the carcases
of these animals. Advisory notes for farmers. UK Ministry of
The precautions suggested here will also Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF)
protect you from other diseases of cattle known
and Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
to affect man.
So when handling BSE carcases: All suspect cases of BSE must be reported
immediately to the Ministry of Agriculture
• cover cuts and abrasions with waterproof (Divisional Veterinary Officer).
dressings before work starts; A Restrictive Notice (Form A) is served on
• wear protective clothing including gloves; all suspect BSE cases and this restricts
movement. Form B lifts restriction when BSE is
• avoid cuts and puncture wounds during excluded.
work; If BSE is confirmed a Notice of Intention to
• use eye protection if there is risk of Slaughter (Form C) is served and slaughter and
splashing; proper disposal arranged as soon as possible.
576 Meat Hygiene
Handling of suspect BSE animals Calving
Since some BSE suspects become aggressive, There will be few cases in which it is necessary
hypersensitive and difficult to handle, for a suspect cow to calve. As soon as a
MAFF jHSE have issued the following advice: veterinary officer is certain that an animal is
affected with BSE, Form C will be served and
• Handle the animal quietly. slaughter arranged. Slaughter will not be
• Isolate it on a quiet loose-box on straw. postponed to allow a cow to calve normally; and
• Handle it firmly but quietly, always allowing you are strongly advised not to attempt to have
a route of escape for the handler in case the a calf delivered prematurely by caesarian
animal becomes aggressive; take particular section.
care in handling the head and udder as they Suspect animals which do calve must be
can be headshy and violent kickers. housed 'whilst calving and for 72 hours
afterwards. An isolation box for calving must be
approved by a veterinary officer beforehand,
Treatments and must, after calving, be disinfected with
chlorine-based disinfectant diluted to give 2%
Whenever animals have to be treated on farm, active chlorine.
whether or not BSE, the following advice If calving has to be assisted, wear washable
reduces the risk of spreading diseases from protective clothing and arm-length gloves.
animal to animal, and from animal to handler: Always avoid direct handling of placenta
• For injections, use new needles each time. (cleansings). If unable to do so, wear gloves. This
is sound advice when dealing with cattle,
• If treating several animals without using
up all the medicine in the bottle, place one whether or not they are BSE suspects. For
needle in the bottle and use another for disposal of cleansings, the preferred method is
injecting the stock. This prevents by incineration, but careful burial is an
contamination of medicines that will be acceptable alternative. For suspects under
kept in store. Ministry Restrictions this is in fact a legal
requirement.
• Dispose of used needles safely in a strong
container. Puncture wounds are frequently
caused by leaving needles lying around Future research
where they can injure stock or their
handlers. A wide-ranging research programme is being
conducted on several aspects of bovine in the
• Accidental injuries should immediately be
washed thoroughly in running water before UK spongiform encephalopathy including the
giving appropriate first aid treatment. following:
Existing cuts and abrasions should be • Epidemiology
covered with waterproof dressings. Blood
splashes from animals under treatment • Study of tissues showing infectivity
should be washed off thoroughly. • Vertical transmission from dam to calf
• Embryo transfer
• Development of diagnostic tests.
Hygiene • Effectiveness of statutory controls to be
Always follow simple hygiene practices when monitored
handling all animals, whether or not they are • Evidence of TSEs in other species to be
BSE suspects; although there is no evidence monitored
that humans can be infected with BSE there are
• Mechanism of BSE infection, etc.
a number of diseases where this is possible.

Breeding BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA (BVD),

Experiments are being carried out to determine MUCOSAL DISEASE COMPLEX (MD)
whether BSE can be transmitted from dam to
calf, but results may not be available for several 1. An infectious, febrile disease of cattle
years. If you wish to obtain advice on breeding (mostly 6-24 months), deer, buffaloes and wild
from the offspring of cows affected with BSE, ruminants in which the lesions are confined to
you should consult your veterinary surgeon. the alimentary tract.
 Infectious Diseases 577

O. Occurs throughout the world. Although J.

infection is common BVD is usually mild or
Carcase and viscera: T. Acute cases with
subclinical in type with few deaths but
fever, general changes, T.
occasionally serious illness with high mortality
takes place.
lA. A pestivirus of the family Togaviridae
which is related to the viruses of classical swine CONTAGIOUS ECTHYMA
fever and border disease, all of which have the (CONTAGIOUS PUSTULAR
ability to cross the placenta and invade the DERMATITIS, SORE MOUTH, ORF)
fetus.
I. A very infectious viral disease of sheep and
R. Infected and carrier animals. Fetuses
goats in which pustules and scabs ('scabby
infected early in gestation with a cytopathic
mouth') develop on the muzzle, lips and teats.
strain of the virus eventually become major
It also occurs in musk ox, caribou, buffalo,
sources of infection.
camels and other wild ruminants and has been
MT. Direct and indirect contact with faeces, recorded in dogs which have had access to
nasal discharges, saliva, urine, uterine infected carcases. It is a zoonosis since the
discharges following abortion, semen and milk disease can affect man (q.v.) (see Occupational
in addition to congenital infection. Infections and Injuries).
CF. BVD may affect cattle of all ages but is O. Occurs throughout the world, affecting
most common and most serious in 6-24-month- mostly young animals.
old animals, while young calves are rarely
affected. I. A parapoxvirus of the family Poxviridae
In the mild form there is slight fever, 'which is related to the viruses of pseudo-
inappetence and some diarrhoea, with recovery cowpox, goatpox and bovine papular stomatitis.
in a few days. Acute mucosal disease is The virus is very resistant to desiccation and can
manifested by fever, salivation, depression, remain viable ~in scabs for years. It spreads
anorexia, dehydration and the voiding of rapidly within susceptible animals.
profuse watery, evil-smelling faeces which may
R. Affected and carrier animals, carcases,
contain mucus, blood and strands of fibrin - the
wool and contaminated equipment and
signs of a haemorrhagic enteritis. Death may
materials.
take place in 1 week. In chronic BVD there is
intermittent diarrhoea, progressive loss of MT. Via cuts and abrasions in the skin.
weight, rough coat, bloat, hoof ulcerations and
deformities and erosive skin lesions. CF. '01/ occurs most commonly in young
lambs (2-6 months of age) in the spring in
P. The main lesions are seen in the acute form temperate climates when lambs are at grass.
- erosion and ulceration of the buccal mucosa, Mortality rates are normally low (5-15%), these
tongue and muzzle. These erosions may extend being due to complications, probably
to the oesophagus, forestomachs, abomasum pneumonia.
and intestine. Congestion of the nasal passages The primary lesion, a papule, develops on
with a mucopurulent discharge and lymphoid the skin of the lips at the corner of the mouth
tissue necrosis, especially of the intestine, may and soon becomes a vesicle, and then a pustule,
be present. with the formation of adherent scabs covering
D. History, clinical signs and post-mortem painful areas of ulceration and granulation. The
lesions may assist in diagnosis but this can only papule, vesicle and pustule stages are, however,
be confirmed by virus isolation, immunological rarely noticed. Spread to the nostrils and
and histopathological investigations. sometimes to the mucosa of the mouth below
Differential diagnoses: foot-and-mouth the incisor teeth then follows.
disease, rinderpest, bovine malignant catarrh, The scabs become confluent and fissured and
winter dysentery, Johne's disease, parasitic attempts at removal are resented by the animal.
gastroenteritis, salmonellosis, molybdenum Sucking and grazing are made virtually
and arsenic poisoning. impossible and the animal becomes unthrifty.
578 Meat Hygiene
There is often transfer of infection from the MT. The virus is transmitted in Africa mainly
mouths of lambs to the udders of ewes. by Hyalomma ticks, especially H. anaiolicum and
On occasion, lesions develop on the coronets H. plumbeum plumbeutn, the latter being more
and interdigital clefts of the feet, causing involved with infections in wild animals and
lameness, and on the ears. birds. Amblyomma and Boophilus ticks are also
Secondary infection with Sphaerophorus known vectors in Africa while Ornithodoros and
necrophorus and other organisms is a frequent Amblyomma transmit infection in west Pakistan,
occurrence. India, Russia and the Middle East. The link
In severe cases a viraemia occurs with between Africa, Russia and Asia is attributed to
systemic invasion leading to gastroenteritis and migrating birds, many of which are unaffected
pneumonia. by the virus.
P. See CF. In some instances ulcers in the nasal CF. The main clinical signs in animals and
passages, upper respiratory tract and birds are fever, anorexia and depression with
alimentary tract represent additional lesions. some degree of haemorrhage from the natural
D. Lesions, especially of the lips and mouth, orifices.
are fairly typical. Foot lesions, however, may be In man the onset is sudden with usually
confused with dermatophilosis (cutaneous continuous fever, headache, vomiting, back
streptotrichosis, strawberry foot rot) which can pain, photophobia, joint pains and bleeding
co-exist with 'orf". from all natural orifices and under the skin.
Other differential diagnoses include blue- Mortality is usually 15-30% but may be as high
tongue, mycotic dermatitis, facial eczema and as 80%. Nervous symptoms may be present.
ulcerative dermatosis of sheep. The latter is a P. Haemorrhagic inflammation of virtually all
viral condition in which raw, granulating ulcers
body systems.
appear on the lips, feet, legs, vulva and penis.
Scab formation is not normally present and the D. Isolation of the virus in sucking mice.
granulomas assume cauliflower-like shapes. ELISA test. Tissue culture.
J. J. Total condemnation in animals and birds.
Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition is The European Union banned (November
satisfactory and no systemic changes are 1996) imports of ostrich meat and live birds
evident. from South Africa following an outbreak of
Head: D.
Congo Fever in meat plant workers in
Oudtshoorn in Western Cape Province. Sixteen
workers were affected and one woman died.
CRIMEA-CONGO HAEMORRHAGIC The infection is said to be more virulent in
FEVER (CCHF, CONGO VIRUS DISEASE) ostriches than in other animals and birds. The
South African authorities are currently
I. A very severe, often fatal disease primarily assessing the risks of this zoonosis to human
of man but which can also occur in a less severe health.
form in a wide range of domestic (especially The IU imports some 800 tonnes of ostrich
cattle and goats) and wild animals and birds meat annually from South Africa.
(zoonosis). Following an incubation period of
about 1 week the disease is characterised (in
man) by marked haemorrhagic fever. Zoonosis.
O. Africa (especially the Congo and Nigeria), ENZOOTIC BOVINE LEUKOSIS (EBL,
USSR, Middle East, West Pakistan, India and BOVINE VIRAL LEUKOSIS, BOVINE
southern China. LYMPHOSARCOMA, MALIGNANT
LYMPHOMA, LEUKAEMIA,
lA. A nairovirus, serogroup Crimean-Congo, LYMPHOMATOSIS, RETICULUM CELL
named after the Nairobi Sheep disease and SARCOMA, LYMPHOCYTOMA)
related to three other viruses known to infect man
- Dugbe virus, Ganjam virus and Hazara virus. (The terms above have been used at various
R. Infected and carrier animals, birds and times for the same disease and are virtually
ticks. synonymous).
 Infectious Diseases 579
I. A highly fatal, neoplastic condition of cattle The virus in EBL is present in lymphocytes,
in which there is a malignant proliferation of lymphoid tumours, blood and milk but rarely
the leukocyte-forming tissues in almost any in saliva, nasal secretions or semen except when
part of the animal body. contaminated by blood or tissue exudates. It
Leukocytes are colourless blood corpuscles can be intermittently excreted in urine.
whose chief function is to protect the body The virus, which does not persist for long
against invasion by microorganisms. They outside the animal's body, is readily destroyed
include granulocytes (basophils, eosinophils, by detergents and disinfectants at normal
neutrophils), non-granulocytes (lymphocytes, concentrations and by pasteurisation of milk at
monocytes) and thrombocytes (platelets). 74QC for 17 s or 60°C for 30s.
Notifiable disease (UK). Under Council
Directive 64/432 'Animal health problems R. Infected and carrier cattle and discharged
affecting intra-community trade in bovine blood from these animals.
animals and swine' cattle exported to another MT. Transmission of the disease takes place
Member State must come from EBL-tested herds. by the transfer of lymphocytes from affected
O. EBL has been reported in Europe, Africa, cattle. This normally requires close animal
Asia, North and South America, Australia and contact, the presence of a wound or abrasion
New Zealand. It is enzootic in many countries and/ or the use of infected surgical and other
in South America and Europe and of high instruments, e.g. hypodermic syringes,
occurrence in Latvia. Serological surveys have tattooing instruments, dehorning saws and
shown various levels of reactors, from none to gouges. The use of vaccines inadvertently
100%. Infection with the virus does not containing BVL virus has been known to
necessarily mean that animals will develop produce the disease. Bloodsucking insects such
clinical disease, a situation which applies in as ticks, horse and stable flies may play a part in
many viral and bacterial diseases. Other factors transmission.
are involved in the precipitation of disease, an Congenital infection takes place in less than
important one being genetic predisposition. 10% of calves born to seropositive dams.
Enzootic bovine leukosis is of economic CF. Once the virus gains access to the animal's
importance in those countries in which it occurs bloodstream it remains permanently. The
because of the culling of affected animals, animal becomes seropositive in 1 to 3 months
reduction in body weight and milk yield, after infection but only some 30% develop a
infertility, meat plant condemnations and the lymphocytosis. In spite of the presence of virus,
cost of eradication programmes. relatively few animals become clinical cases, the
A national testing programme for EBL was average annual rate of infected animals
commenced in Britain in 1992 using blood and showing tumours being about 0.3%. Not all
milk samples. The milk testing procedure using animals become infected probably because of
bulk samples has not been sensitive enough to innate genetic resistance.
comply with EU regulations. Future testing will At least four forms of EBR are recognised.
rely on milk samples from individual cows and Enzootic EBR is a disease of adult cattle in which
a blood sample from all other cattle. The overall tumours develop in various sites in the body,
prevalence is very low. symptoms varying according to the sites
The EBL eradication programme in Sweden involved. After an incubation period of some
is due to be completed in 1997 and will mark 4-5 years, these include loss of condition,
the end of a successful campaign commenced in anaemia, inappetence and enlargement of
1989. Sweden will be declared EBL-free one superficial lymph nodes, which are softish but
year later in accordance with EU regulations. non-painful to the touch. There is a rapid onset
lA. The bovine leukaemia virus (BLV), a C- of death (2-3 weeks).
type retrovirus which causes a chronic B-cell Tumours in the alimentary tract may be
proliferative disease in cattle. B lymphocytes accompanied by bloat and chronic diarrhoea,
are involved in humoral immunity mechanisms the dark-coloured faeces being due to the
in the production of antibodies. When activated presence of blood pigments arising from
by an antigen - in this case the BLV virus - ulceration and haemorrhage. Enlargement of
proliferation of the cell results. the retropharyngeal nodes give rise to snoring
580 Meat Hygiene
and difficult breathing. Heart lesions may show enzootic leukosis in the adult reasonably safe.
oedema of the brisket and jugular vein But other forms of the disease are difficult to
engorgement with extreme weakness. diagnose and may be confused with bovine
Nervous symptoms in the form of posterior tuberculosis (especially where retropharyngeal
paresis, incoordination, fetlock knuckling and lymph nodes are affected causing snoring),
recumbency attend cases where the central Johne's disease, bovine viral diarrhoea,
nervous system is involved. If lymphosarcoma cerebrospinal abscess and actinobacillosis.
develops in the orbital fossae, protrusion of the While a negative test suffices to rule out EBL,
eye occurs. a seropositive test does not necessarily indicate
Skin leukosis occurs in young adults and is EBL. Only histopathology of neoplastic tissues
non-fatal. Superficial flat tumours develop can confirm a diagnosis of EBL.
which regress after a few weeks.
Thymic leukosis affects calves of 6-18 months J.
Carcase and viscera: T, in cases of
and is characterised by a huge enlargement of widespread lesions. A, where lesions are
the thymic region due to virtual replacement of restricted, with D, Kh if economically feasible.
the gland by lymphosarcoma. Local oedema
Reactor animals: A.
and dyspnoea are also evident.
Calf lymphosarcoma is seen in calves under 1 Since enzootic bovine leukosis is a notifiable
year of age and is manifested by weakness, disease in Britain, all cases in bovines showing
depression, inappetence, fever, paraplegia and swollen, painless lymph nodes and
death in a few weeks due to widespread lymphocytosis must be reported to the Ministry
tumour formation. of Agriculture for histopathological
examination. If lymphosarcoma is diagnosed,
P. Lymphosarcomas are probably the most
the Ministry will arrange for a veterinary
common forms of tumour encountered in the
examination of the herd of origin, which will be
food animals. They occur as resilient white or
placed under restriction until the results of
slightly yellowish, textured masses of tumours
serological tests are known. Positive cases of
by metastasis in reticuloendothelial tissue
EBL are slaughtered.
anywhere in the body. These masses vary in
size and shape and may occur as large bodies,
small discrete tumours or fine streaks.
The kidneys, spleen, lymph nodes, liver and EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS
thymus are especially involved in the young (EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS)
animal. In the older animal the heart is often
affected, especially the right atrium. One or I. An infectious viral disease of horses, mules
more discrete masses may be found in the heart and donkeys transmitted by biting insects, and
but some infiltrate among the muscle fibres, manifested by signs of nervous derangement,
giving the appearance of whitish streaks. The paralysis and moderate to high mortality.
abomasum and intestine are frequently affected
O. The disease appears to be mostly confined
with ulceration, especially in the abomasum.
to south and north America, where it is of low
Nervous system involvement takes the form
sporadic occurrence in Argentina, Brazil and
of thickening of the peripheral nerves and the
USA but enzootic in Guyana. Venezuela had its
meninges.
last case in 1991. Canada has recorded cases but
Lymphosarcoma may be encountered in the
is now free following a vaccination programme.
uterus and cervix of the cow.
Borna disease (an encephalomyelitis of
Lymph node leukosis appears as a gross
equidae caused by an unclassified RNA virus)
enlargement of the node in which there is both
is reported to be of exceptional occurrence in
normal lymphoid and neoplastic tissue,
the former GDR.
differentiated by colour, the neoplastic tissue
being whiter in colour than the normal
Japanese encephalitis, transmitted by
mosquitoes, is primarily a disease of human
lymphoid. Discrete foci of yellowish necrosis
beings which can infect horses and pigs causing
may be found in the neoplastic zone.
abortions and stillbirths in the latter. Cattle,
D. The presence of multiple superficial lymph sheep and goats can also be subclinically
node enlargement makes a diagnosis of infected.
 Infectious Diseases 581
lA. An alphavirus of the family Togaviridae lA. A lentivirus of the family Retroviridae,
of which there are three strains (eastern, related to the human HIV virus. Although
western and Venezuelan). A subtype of the easily destroyed by drying it is resistant to
Venezuelan virus can infect man, causing a boiling for 15 min but readily inactivated by the
zoonosis of significant public health usual disinfectants.
importance.
R. Infected and carrier horses and biting flies
R. Infected and carrier horses along with a (mosquitoes, deer flies and stable flies).
bird (domestic and wild) and rodent-mosquito
cycle. MT. Via the bites of biting flies, use of
contaminated surgical instruments and needles
MT. Equine encephalomyelitis is transmitted intrauterine, and by the ingestion of infected
by the bites of insects - mosquitoes, bugs, lice milk by foals.
and mites.
CF. EIA is prevalent during warm periods
CF. Clinical cases occur during the summer
when biting flies are active. When the virus
months when biting insects are active. There is
gains access to the bloodstream, a viraemia
fever, depression, inappetence, hyperaethesia,
occurs and persists in infected WBCs of infected
impaired vision, difficulty in swallowing, head
horses for life. Red blood cells and
pressing, circling, inability to prehend food,
macrophages are destroyed and blood vessel
drooping lower lip, paralysis and death often in
walls and nerves are damaged.
3 days.
Intermittent fever, inappetence, depression,
P. Apart from changes associated with fever, weakness, loss of condition and jaundice are
there are no gross lesions. evident along with ventral abdominal oedema.
Mucous membranes become pallid and show
D. The seasonal occurrence of the disease, its petechial haemorrhages especially in the mouth
localisation and the presence of nervous symp- and conjunctivae. Pregnant mares may abort.
toms point to a tentative diagnosis of Recovery often takes place but some animals
encephalomyelitis. Confirmation is made by become weaker and die.
serology - virus neutralisation, haemagglutina-
tion inhibition and complement fixation tests. P. In addition to the lesions given in CF there
Differential diagnoses - rabies, degenerative is enlargement of the spleen and liver and
myeloencephalopathy, botulism, verminous associated lymph nodes. All tissues are pale in
encephalitis, cerebrospinal abscess, chemical colour and loss of condition is marked. Clotting
and plant poisonings. in blood vessels is prominent in most cases.
J. D. Clinical signs of anaemia and seasonal
Carcase and viscera: Clinical cases, T. occurrence point to EIA, which is confirmed by
Reactors, L. the immunodiffusion or 'Coggins' test.
Brain and medulla: D. Differential diagnoses include babesiosis,
purpura haemorrhagica, leptospirosis,
phenothiazine poisoning.
EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA (EIA, J.
SWAMP FEVER) Carcase and viscera: Clinical cases, T.
Reactors: A, provided no systemic changes
I. An acute or chronic infectious viral disease present and condition is good.
of equidae in which anaemia (temporary or
permanent) occurs with usually low mortality.
o. EIA appears in sporadic form worldwide EPHEMERAL FEVER (THREE-DAY
but is most common in south America, where it SICKNESS)
is enzootic in some countries. USA, Mexico and
Canada have low sporadic outbreaks as has I. An infectious viral disease of cattle and
Australia. It was last reported in Great Britain water buffalo transmitted by biting insects,
in 1976, in Spain (1983) and in Sweden (1989). probably mosquitoes and sandflies. Subclinical
582 Meat Hygiene
cases occur in wild ruminants, e.g. deer, CF. Fever, depression, inappetence,
wildebeest, waterbuck and cape buffalo. conjunctivitis, mucopurulent nasal discharge,
inflammation of the coronary bands of the feet
O. Africa, Asia, Australia and East Indies. with lameness and usually death in 2-4 days.
lA. A rhabdovirus. The tongue is swollen and cyanotic, making
swallowing difficult, and cyanosis with oedema
R. Infected animals. The virus does not persist is present in the submandibular tissues.
in recovered animals. Morbidity may be as high as 90% and mortality
60%.
MT. The disease is transmitted solely by the
action of biting insects. P. The lesions resemble those of bluetongue.
There is widespread hyperaemia, oedema and
CF. As with all insect-borne diseases, petechiation, often with necrosis of the mucosae
ephemeral fever occurs during the warm of the respiratory and alimentary tracts
summer months when biting insects are active. accompanied by fibrinous thrombosis of small
Symptoms vary but include inappetence, fever, blood vessels. Petechiae may also be present in
depression, lachrymation, nasal discharge, the myocardium.
dyspnoea, muscular stiffness, decreased milk
yield and recumbency. Abortion occurs in a few D. The rapid clinical course and fairly specific
cases. Recovery in a few days is the usual lesions are suggestive of epizootic
outcome and mortality rates are very low. haemorrhagic disease.
Diagnosis is confirmed by serology, tissue
P. Polyserositis involving the pleural, culture, etc.
peritoneal and joint surfaces, and pulmonary
oedema with collapsed lungs. J. Carcase and viscera: T.
D. Based entirely on clinical signs and the
short duration of the illness.
EQUINE INFLUENZA
J. Carcase and viscera: T or A depending on
severity of changes. Kh may be utilised in
1. An acute, highly infectious and contagious
certain areas.
febrile disease of equidae in which bronchiolitis
and sometimes pneumonia and pleurisy occur.
O. Most countries of the world have reported
EPIZOOTIC HAEMORRHAGIC DISEASE cases.
OF DEER
lA. An orthomvxovirus of two distinct strains
and several subtypes, all varying in virulence.
1. An acute, viral disease of deer, especially
white-tailed deer, transmitted by biting insects R. Infected animals and their fomites. It is not
and characterised by haemorrhagic and known whether a carrier state exists.
necrotic changes in the alimentary and
MT. By inhalation of aerosol deposition into
respiratory tracts and heart. The disease closely
the upper respiratory passages directly from
resembles bluetongue.
infected animals and contaminated materials.
Notifiable disease (UK). A definite threat to
British deer exists. CF. After a short incubation period (1-3 days),
clinical signs include fever, coughing, nasal
O. The disease at present appears to be
discharge (at first serous but later
confined to North America.
mucopurulent), lachrymation, depression,
lA. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus anorexia, dyspnoea and weakness. Head lymph
(EHDV) of the Orbivirus group related to the nodes are enlarged and limb stiffness with
bluetongue virus (BTV). laminitis often ensue. Mild cases usually
recover in 2-3 weeks but more seriously
R. Infected and carrier deer. affected animals may be ill for several months.
MT. Biting insects of the species Culicoides (a The mortality rate (highest in younger animals)
variety of biting midges). is normally low.
 Infectious Diseases 583
P. Bronchiolitis, pneumonia, pleurisy and imported into Britain should all be tested for
sometimes perivasculitis (inflammation of the EVA.
tissues surrounding blood vessels) and lA. An arterovirus of the family Togaviridae.
myocarditis (in fatal cases).
Serous/mucopurulent discharge in upper R. Infected horses and carrier stallions. The
respiratory tract. virus is plentiful in aborted fetuses.
D. Clinical signs are presumptive of equine MT. Via the respiratory, digestive and
influenza especially when movements of horses venereal routes.
are involved. CF. Fever, conjunctivitis, lachrymation, spasm
Differential diagnoses include equine viral of the orbital muscle of the eyelid, photophobia,
arteritis, strangles, equine viral inappetence, periorbital oedema, seropurulent
rhinopneumonitis and other respiratory nasal discharge, respiratory distress, muscle
infections. and joint pain, skin rash, colic, diarrhoea and
J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided no jaundice. Ventral and preputial oedema may be
systemic signs are present. T or Kh if febrile evident in stallions. Abortion in mares is not
changes are evident. uncommon, often with partly autolysed
Animals in acute stages of the disease (as for fetuses. Many animals display few clinical
all febrile conditions) should not be presented signs. Symptoms are more severe in young, old
for slaughter - delayed slaughter should be and debilitated animals.
undertaken. P. In addition to the lesions mentioned under
CF, systemic changes in the form of respiratory
congestion and petechiation, swelling and
Equine viral rhinopneumonitis
necrosis of vascular walls, especially of the
Caused by a herpesvirus, this occurs smaller arteries and venules, are present.
throughout the world but is not now present in There is also subcutaneous oedema with
Australia (last case 1990), Spain (last case 1989), petechiation, mostly of the limbs and abdomen,
Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria (last cases 1989). excess fluid in the body cavities, pulmonary
It presents clinical signs and lesions similar to, oedema, enteritis and splenic infarcts.
but more intense than, equine influenza and
D. Diagnosis can only be confirmed by virus
warrants similar, but more severe, action.
isolation since the disease may be confused
with equine influenza, African horse sickness,
Garth virus infection, leptospirosis, equine
rhinopneumonitis and salmonellosis.
EQUINE VIRAL ARTERITIS (EVA
EQUINE TYPHOID, EPIZOOTIC
J. Carcase and viscera: T, clinical cases.
Reactor animals: A.
CELLULITIS, PINKEYE)

1. An acute, infectious, viral disease of

equidae characterised by fever, inflammatory
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (FMD,
and degenerative changes in blood vessels,
APHTHOUS FEVER)
especially small arteries and venules and
muscle cells with abortion in mares.
1. An acute, highly contagious viral disease of
o. Some sporadic outbreaks of EVA have all cloven-footed animals (domestic and wild)
occurred in the USA, Canada, Europe in which fever and vesicular epithelial
(especially Denmark, where it appears to be desquamation appears in the mouth and on the
enzootic, Netherlands and Sweden). Serological feet and teats. FMD also affects hedgehogs,
evidence without clinical cases is reported from voles, moles and rats.
most EU Member States, Australia and New FMD infection is rare in man, taking the form
Zealand. of a mild fever with mouth dryness and small
Statutory control is planned in Britain in the vesicles in the mouth, lips, tongue and fingers
event of further outbreaks. It has been at the base of the nail.
recommended that all entire colts and stallions Notifiable disease (UK and most countries).
584 Meat Hygiene
O. Foot-and-mouth disease has occurred in Foot-and-mouth virus is not destroyed by
most countries of the world but many are now pasteurisation temperatures since it is protected
free, apart from occasional outbreaks, as a result by milk fat and cells. The virus can also survive
of control programmes. for considerable periods in skins and hides
However, freedom over some years is which have been salted or disinfected.
frequently followed by a recurrence; for FMDV is fairly easily destroyed by the usual
example, Greece experienced 95 outbreaks in disinfectants, alkali being the most effective.
1994 having been free of FMD since 1984. Disinfectants such as phenol and mercuric
Similarly, in 1993, Italy had 57 outbreaks, the chloride (bichloride of mercury) which
previous cases occurring in 1989. Japan has not coagulate protein, are much less effective since
had an outbreak since 1908 and Australia since the virus lacks a lipid-containing envelope. A
1871, while FMD has never occurred in New 4% solution of sodium carbonate (washing
Zealand. USA has not had any outbreaks since soda) or 2% caustic soda is recommended,
1929 and Canada since 1952. In 1996 there were while 5% formalin is of value in the disinfection
39 reported outbreaks in the European Union- of stacks of hay and straw.
all in Greece
In Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, R. Infected and carrier animals and their
Peru and Bolivia on the other hand, FMD is fomites. Although pigs are not generally
enzootic as it is in many countries in Asia where regarded as carriers, sheep and goats along
Bhutan and Myanmar have high occurrences. with wild fauna act as reservoirs for the virus,
Several African countries (Nigeria, Ghana, as may certain insects such as ticks.
Cameroon, Ethiopia, Tanzania) have enzootic
prevalences, while Swaziland has been free of MT. The primary methods of transmission of
FMD since 1969. infection are by inhalation and ingestion.
Direct contact between animals and indirect
lA. An aphthovirus of the family contact through the medium of contaminated
Picornaviridae of which there are seven major materials are involved in the spread between
serotypes (A, 0, C, SAT (Southern African pigs and from pigs to cattle. Airborne infection
Territories) 1, SAT 2, SAT 3 and Asia 1) and undoubtedly plays an important part in
several subtypes. causing outbreaks, the migration of birds being
The virus is able to survive for several incriminated in introducing infection from
months outside the animal body, especially Europe to Britain.
under low-temperature and dry conditions. In The movement of animals, people (via their
bone marrow it can remain infective for 76 clothing and even nasal mucosa) and infected
days, but decomposition reduces this to 30 inanimate objects plays a major part in
days. spreading the disease, since FMDV can survive
High or low pH rapidly inactivates the virus, for long periods in temperate and subtropical
as do strong sunlight and high temperatures. conditions. It is known that wind can transport
It is susceptible to acid conditions and in the virus almost 200 miles, so that birds may
muscle is inactivated in 2 days by lactic acid. In not necessarily have been involved in some
chilled infected carcases the virus remains outbreaks in Britain coincident with outbreaks
infective for 2 months and for 100 days in in northern Europe.
frozen infected ones. On muscle fascia and fat On gaining entry to the body, the virus
stored at 1°C it will survive for 14 days, and on lodges in the nasopharynx, where it persists.
frozen muscle fascia and fat for 21 days. From there it enters the bloodstream, causing a
Commercial refrigeration of imported meat in viraemia which leads to the virus appearing in
the past has played an important part in all tissues of the body, being present in urine,
maintaining the infectivity of the virus. The milk, saliva, semen and faeces as well as
greatest danger is undoubtedly infection from vesicles.
meat scraps and bones of infected animals and
uncooked swill containing infective material. CF. Because of its high infectivity, loss of
Contaminated biological products such as production of meat and milk, losses in young
vaccines have also been responsible for stock, interference with livestock movements,
outbreaks of FMD. cost of control, etc., FMD creates huge economic
 Infectious Diseases 585
losses even though it does not cause a high In all species secondary bacterial infection
mortality. tends to develop after vesicle eruption,
Cattle and pigs are the most susceptible especially in the feet.
animals while sheep and goats are relatively All species lose condition, but adult resistant
resistant. Very young animals are most severely animals usually resume feeding in 3-4 days,
affected, the death rate in piglets and young with the mouth and foot lesions healing rapidly.
calves often being very high.
P. In addition to the superficial lesions
After an incubation period of 2-14 days a
mentioned under CF, similar vesicles may
fever develops, at the end of which vesicles
develop in the oesophagus, trachea, bronchi,
appear and the temperature falls. The virus is
stomach and intestine. Haemorrhages may be
capable of penetrating intact mucosa and is
present on the epicardium in young calves,
probably assisted by abrasions and cuts.
lambs, piglets and kids. The myocardium may
Vesicles are most commonly found on the
buccal mucosa, tongue, muzzle, udder (which assume a striped appearance due to the
development of small, greyish foci of varying
develops mastitis), teats and the snout of pigs.
size, this being due to hyaline degeneration and
The animal becomes dull, with lack of appetite
necrosis of muscle fibres along with a
and cessation of rumination. Prehension of
lymphocytic infiltration - the so-called 'tiger
food, chewing and swallowing become difficult
heart'. Similar changes may be found in skeletal
and a peculiar smacking sound is occasionally
muscles.
heard when the mouth is opened. Salivation is
prominent in the bovine (but not in pigs, sheep D. The fact that the clinical signs of FMD are
and goats), the flow of saliva becoming thick virtually indistinguishable from vesicular
and glairy and hanging from the commissures stomatitis of cattle, swine and horses, vesicular
of the mouth. exanthema of swine, swine vesicular disease
The mouth lesions have a whitish appear- and other ill-defined vesicular diseases makes
ance, measure up to 5 cm in diameter and con- an accurate diagnosis of FMD difficult.
tain a straw-coloured fluid. These eventuallv While a tentative diagnosis may be made,
rupture within 48 h, leaving red, painful ero- reliance has to be placed on serological tests -
sions and ragged portions of epithelium. complement fixation, ELISA, virus
Coincident with the mouth lesions is neutralisation, agar-gel precipitation, etc.
evidence of lameness, the animal often lifting a J. Carcase and viscera: T, diseased animals
foot and shaking it as though to dislodge a and contacts, in countries normally free of
foreign body. The lameness is due to the FMD.
development of vesicles in the interdigital cleft, In other countries or areas judgement must be
on the heel, on the dewclaws and around the in accordance with current animal health
coronet. One or more feet may be affected. requirements and consistent with effective
In sheep and goats the vesicles are much public health protection. Particular attention
smaller in size, disappear more quickly and must be paid to secondary bacterial infections
may be absent from the mouth. A disinclination and general findings. Sanitary measures must
to move is a common finding in all classes of comply with national animal health policy.
animals once foot lesions develop. (Codex Alimentarius Commission, Alinorm
Pigs are most often affected by foot lesions 93/16A, 1993)
rather than mouth lesions, although vesicles
may occur on the snout, inside the nares and in In those countries where slaughter of con-
sows on the udder around the nipples. tacts is practised, but destruction is not eco-
Pregnant sows may abort with either stillbirths nomically feasible, diseased carcases are totally
or piglets which die in a few days, the latter condemned and in-contacts conditionally
showing no vesiculation and death being due to approved, subject to heat treatment.
myocarditis. Abortion may also take place in In countries where a slaughter policy is not
cattle, with subsequent infertility. practised because of economics, recovered
In sheep, goats and pigs it is common for the animals and in-contacts 60 days after the last
claw of the foot to be gradually shed with the case are passed for human consumption after
formation of new horn underneath, a process deboning and condemnation of the
known as 'tliimbling', oesophagus, udder, testes, pharynx and bones.
586 Meat Hygiene
Diseased carcases are totally condemned or with white necrotic foci evident in the liver,
subjected to heat treatment. spleen, kidney and visceral lymph nodes. If
bronchopneumonia is present there may be
desquamation of columnar epithelium.
INFECTIOUS BOVINE Meningitis shows as an intense hyperaemia of
RHINOTRACHEITIS OBR, RED NOSE) the meninges.
D. The lesions in uncomplicated cases are
I. A very infectious viral disease of cattle in
suggestive of IBR. The disease must be
which upper respiratory and genital infections
distinguished from bovine virus diarrhoea,
and sometimes encephalitis are present. Many bovine malignant catarrh and calf diphtheria.
wild ruminants are seropositive to the virus
and a mild form may affect them. J. Carcase and viscera: 1, systemic changes
present. A, systemic changes absent and
O. IBR has been reported in all four
condition good.
continents, being enzootic in Canada, USA and
many south American and European countries
including Great Britain. The disease has a high
incidence in New Zealand. JAPANESE B ENCEPHALITIS (JE)
lA. A bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) which is I. An acute inflammatory viral encephalitis of
related to the virus causing infectious pustular
man which can be transmitted to horses, cattle,
vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis in bulls.
sheep and pigs.
R. Infected and carrier cattle and wild It is one of a group of arthropod-borne
ruminants. encephalitic diseases which can affect man -
Eastern and Western equine encephalitis,
MT. Via the respiratory and genital tracts.
California encephalitis, Australian encephalitis,
CF. In the respiratory form there is fever, St. Louis encephalitis, Rocio encephalitis, etc. -
inappetence, depression, conjunctivitis, each having specific viruses.
lachrymation, coughing, dyspnoea and a nasal
O. At present the disease is confined to Asia,
discharge, at first serous and becoming
where it occurs sporadically in Korea. It has
purulent later. Bronchopneumonia is a
been eradicated from Japan (1985), Singapore
common feature, as is abortion in late
(1988) and Indonesia (1989). It has never been
pregnancy. (Abortion may accompany either
reported in Africa, north and south America,
form of the disease.) There is intense
Europe or Oceania, although it has been
hyperaemia of the nasal passages ('red nose')
reported rarely in man in some of the Pacific
and buccal mucosa.
islands.
In the genital form there is vaginitis with
papule formation and then ulceration and lA. A group B flavivirus.
vaginal discharge. Infection may extend to the
R. There is a wide range of hosts including
uterus, causing a septic metritis. Similar lesions
man, pigs, rodents, birds, amphibians, bats and
occur on the penis and prepuce of bulls.
mosquito adults and eggs.
Encephalitis, or, more strictly, meningitis, in
the young animal is evidenced by MT. Via the bite of infective mosquitoes, Culex
incoordination, ataxia, paralysis, excitement iriuteniorhsmchus and C. vis1111Ui. These
and death. mosquitoes play an important part in
Mild cases usually recover in 2 weeks but maintaining a constant human-mosquito-pig
deaths may occur in bronchopneumonia and cycle.
cases complicated by secondary bacterial
CF. Clinical signs in acute cases in horses
infection.
include fever, lassitude, inappetence, jaundice,
P. In addition to the changes noted under CF, incoordination, ataxia, blindness,
there are petechiae or ecchymoses and/ or focal hyperaesthesia, muscle tremors. Mild cases,
areas of necrosis in the nasal passages, sinuses, which are the most numerous, recover in a few
pharynx, larynx and trachea. In young animals days, but severe cases take longer and a few
these changes may extend to the forestomachs, end fatally.
 Infectious Diseases 587
In pigs there is encephalitis and abortion CF. The nodules are raised, round,
with stillbirths in sows. circumscribed (1--4 cm in diameter), firm and
In all species of domestic animals JE may be painful. Most disappear quickly but those which
asymptomatic, especially in cattle, sheep and persist remain as hard nodules for years or
goats. develop yellowish or greyish necrotic centres
with sloughing of the overlying skin. The regional
D. The differentiation of the various forms of
lymph nodes are enlarged and oedema is present
encephalitis and encephalomyelitis is probably
on the ventral abdomen, udder and legs.
the most difficult task presented to the clinician.
General symptoms vary from peracute to
Accurate diagnosis requires the use of
mild, even inapparent. Fever, depression,
laboratory procedures - virus neutralisation,
inappetence, rhinitis, conjunctivitis and
ELISA, mouse inoculation tests.
lachrymation are evident. Severely affected
J. Carcase and viscera: animals quickly lose condition. The mortality is
Horses: Clinical cases, T Reactors, L or Kh usually low - less than 2%, with morbidity
and D (blood). 5-50%.
Pigs: L or Kh and D (blood, brain, genital Losses are occasioned by reduced body
organs). 'weight and milk yield and hide damage.
P. See I and CF.
D. The type of skin lesions and their sudden
LUMPY SKIN DISEASE (LSD) (Plate 1, appearance makes the diagnosis relatively easy,
Fig. 1) but lumpy skin disease has to be differentiated
from pseudo-lumpy skin disease due to a
I. A highly infectious viral disease of cattle in herpes-virus, rinderpest, bluetongue, pox and
which round, firm nodules appear on the skin contagious ecthyma.
and sometimes in the nares, turbinate bones,
mouth, muzzle and the mucosae of the
J. Carcase and viscera: T, where systemic
changes are present. A or Kh, absence of general
respiratory, alimentary and genital tracts.
signs and condition good.
Notifiable disease (UK).
O. At present lumpy skin disease appears to
be confined to Africa, except for Lebanon where NAIROBI SHEEP DISEASE (NSD)
it is known to exist although the distribution
and occurrence are unknown. Lumpy skin I. An infectious highly fatal, viral disease of
disease is enzootic in Rwanda and Zambia and sheep and goats transmitted by ticks and
of high occurrence in Reunion and Tanzania. characterised by dysentery and abortion in
Israel, Congo and Cote d'lvoire had their last pregnant ewes.
cases in 1989 and Egypt and Sudan in 1990. Man can be affected with a mild form of the
disease.
lA. A capripoxvirus, the Neethling poxvirus,
O. Although the disease has occurred in
which is related to the virus of sheep and goat
Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Zaire and Somalia,
pox. Tanzania and Uganda, recent information
R. Infected and carrier animals and probably indicates that it is now confined to Somalia.
buffaloes. Native breeds like the Zebu cattle are lA. A bunyavirus of the genus Nairovirus.
more resistant than European breeds and
probably also act as carriers. R. Infected and carrier sheep, goats, wild
ruminants and certain ticks.
MT. Infection is probably transmitted by
MT. The virus is transmitted by the ticks
biting insects, mainly mosquitoes and midges,
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, R. pulchellus and
although the disease has apparently occurred
Amblyomma oariegatum, all stages of which can
where insects have been absent. Contact spread
be infective.
is also probable since saliva, nasal and
lachrymal discharges, semen and milk contain CF. After an incubation period of 1-2 weeks,
the virus. fever develops with mucopurulent, blood-
588 Meat Hygiene
stained nasal discharge, depression, ensues but CNS signs only appear after the
inappetence and dysentery. Pregnant animals virus enters the brain. These take the form of
may abort. Mortality may be as high as 90% in depression, muscular tremors, twitching lips
sheep but goats are more resistant. and nostrils, ataxia with a jerky gait, head
pressing, torticollis, hyperaesthesia,
P. Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis, especially
convulsions, collapse and death in a few days.
severe in the caecum and colon, enlargement of
Mild cases may recover but others, especially
abdominal lymphoid tissues (spleen, lymph
young lambs, may die suddenly without
nodes, Peyers patches, etc.) and petechiation of
showing nervous symptoms.
endocardium and epicardium.
P. No gross changes are evident. Pneumonia
D. Symptoms and lesions are suggestive of may be present as a complication. Histo-
Nairobi disease but it must be differentiated
pathological examination of the brain reveals a
from heartwater by isolation of the virus
non-suppurative polioencephalomyelitis.
(immunodiffusion test, mouse inoculation,
hamster kidney cell culture, etc.). D. The seasonal occurrence of the disease, the
nervous symptoms and the presence of ticks on
J. Carcase and viscera: T severe clinical
rough upland pastures point to louping ill.
disease.. Kh and D, no systemic changes and
Confirmation of diagnosis can only be
carcase, drug and bacteria-free.
confirmed by laboratory methods - virus
isolation, mouse inoculation, serum
neutralisation, etc., are necessary since histo-
OVINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS pathological changes are not specific for
(LOUPING ILL)
louping ill.
I. An acute viral disease of the central nervous J. Carcase and viscera: A and D, provided no
system of sheep transmitted by ticks. general changes present. T or Kh, provided
The disease also occasionally affects goats, condition good, drug and bacteria-free.
cattle, pigs, horses, deer, dogs and man.
O. Originally thought to be confined to
southern Scotland, Louping III has now been OVINE PROGRESSIVE PNEUMONIA
confirmed in England, Ireland, Norway, Spain, (MAEDI, MAEDI-VISNA, LA BOUHITE,
Bulgaria and Turkey. GRAFF-REINERT DISEASE, LAIKIPIA
lA. A virus of the Flaviviridae family closely LUNG DISEASE)
related to a group of viruses transrri:itted by I. A chronic, viral disease of sheep and goats
ticks and primarily associated with human manifested by progressive pneumonia,
encephalitis. arthritis, mastitis tmaedi syndrome) and on
R. Infected and carrier sheep, horses, grouse occasions, acute encephalomyelitis toisna
and ticks (in salivary glands), the latter having syndrome).
the ability to carry the virus to the following O. Maedi and maedi-visna are limited to
year. Canada (where they are of high occurrence),
MT. Infection is transmitted bv the bite of the Europe and South Africa, where they were first
nymphal and adult stages of th~ three-host tick recorded, along with the USA. It is of low
Ixodes ricinus, which is most commonly found sporadic occurrence in many European
on rough hill pastures. Infection can ~ also be countries but was eradicated from Iceland in
spread by contaminated equipment, e.g. 1965 and no longer occurs in the USA. Asian
hypodermic needles, and possibly by droplet countries, South America and Oceania are
infection. currently free of the disease.
Caprine arthritis-encephalitis of goats is
CF. Louping ill occurs mainly in the spring caused by a similar retrovirus and exhibits
and autumn when ticks are active. After symptoms similar to those of maedi-visna.
inoculation by an infected tick, the virus
replicates in lymphoid tissues and produces a lA. Retroviruses of the family Lentovirinae
viraemia which lasts up to a week. High fever which persist in WBCs and are able to produce
 Infectious Diseases 589
proliferation in lungs, joints, udder, brain and and man) in which papillomas or warts
lymphoid tissues. develop as benign tumours on the skin of any
part of the body but mostly the head, neck,
R. Infected and carrier sheep. shoulders, back, abdomen, vulva, penis and
prepuce.
MT. By ingestion of colostrum containing the
virus/ by inhalation of aerosol droplets or by O. Worldwide.
intrauterine transmission.
lA. Papillomaviruses, of which several
CF. The incubation period is long and may distinct types have been identified, all
extend to several years, the disease being responsible for different types of warts and all
uncommon in animals less than 2 years of age. host-specific. In cattle there are five types and in
In the maedi syndrome there is a progressive man up to 20.
loss of condition with listlessness, dyspnoea, R. Infected animals, clinical and subclinical,
coughing with copious bronchial exudate and and possibly insects.
non-inflammatory mastitis.
The uisna syndrome is distinguished by the MT. The virus gains entry to the epidermis
appearance of nervous symptoms in the form of through cuts and abrasions by direct and
ataxia, muscle tremors, paresis and eventual indirect contact with infected animals and their
paralysis. Arthritis is also present. fomites. On occasions infection has been
Except in very young lambs and kids, the introduced through the use of infected
development of symptoms is slow and equipment, e.g. tattooing and dehorning
progressive. instruments, metal ear tags, etc. The actual
warts themselves are infectious by contact.
P. The lungs exhibit pneumonia with marked
consolidation and hyperplasia of interlobular CF. The type, site and duration of the warts
tissues and are very firm and heavv, The depend on the specific virus involved. All are
associated lymph nodes (bronchial, mediastinal actual outgrowths of the epidermis.
and retropharyngeal) are enlarged and Papillomas vary in size from tiny/ diffuse
oedematous and lymphoid hyperplasia of elevations to large pedunculated growths.
tissues other than the lymph nodes is evident in Shape also varies, some being flattened while
the thoracic cavity. others are elongated and some cauliflower-like
The mastitis is of a non-inflammatory type, in appearance. The small forms, common in
the udder being very indurated. horses, tend to be multiple and the large
The CNS lesions take the form of an fibropapillomas, usually found in cattle, single
encephalomyelitis which apart from some in occurrence. All are self-limiting with
superficial inflammation, requires recovery usually within 6 months. Some,
histopathology for diagnosis. however, especially those in the urinary (e.g.
bladder), genital and gastrointestinal tracts
D. The progressive nature of the disease, (which are often associated with bracken
clinical signs and PM lesions may point to poisoning), may persist for long periods,
maedi-visna but laboratory procedures - causing great loss of condition. Such cases,
complement fixation, agar gel along with warts on the penis and in the vulva
immunodiffusion and ELISA tests - and and vagina, justify casualty slaughter.
histopathology are necessary for an accurate In horses, warts are usually numerous and
diagnosis. small in size and affect all ages, while cattle
tend to have single larger forms. Sheep, goats
J. Carcase and viscera: Tor A, depending on and pigs are less commonly affected, but warts
extent of lesions and condition of carcase. may occur on the udder and teats of goats and
may progress to malignant squamous cell
carcinomas.
PAPILLOMATOSIS (WARTS) Although papillomas are usually sporadic
entities, outbreaks have occurred where large
1. A viral disease of cattle and horses (and less numbers of cattle - even up to 75% - may be
commonly sheep, goats, deer, dogs, birds, fish, involved in a herd.
590 Meat Hygiene
P. See CF. The actual warts in the early stages MT. By inhalation, and via the conjunctiva
are r~u?d and smooth but become rough and and buccal mucosa. Direct and indirect contact
[Link] later. They actually consist of a very with the reservoir of infection.
~hIcker:ed [Link] spinosum of the epidermis
CF. Clinical signs, which are usually subacute
m which fibrous tissue occurs, especially in
in sheep, include f~ver, depression, anorexia,
cattle. nasal discharge, at first serous, later becoming
~. D~agnosis is fairly straightforward except
mucopurulent, catarrhal conjunctivitis with
m eqmdae where the lesions may be confused matting of the eyelids and profuse diarrhoea
with sarcoid, the most common form of which may be mucoid and blood-stained. A
neoplasm in this species. Equine sarcoids secondary pneumonia with coughing often
possess some malignancy and may be present de:Telops. Abortion is common in pregnant
amm~ls. Emaciation is prominent in long-
anywhere on the body but are most common on
the penis and limbs. They may be wart-like, standmg cases. Death may take place in 1-2
fibroblastic, simulating granulation tissue and weeks.
sessile or flat P. Stomatitis with shallow necrotic lesions
inside lower lip, under surface of tongue and
J: ~~pillomatosis is of little meat hygiene on cheeks and gums. The hard palate and
sIgnIfIcance except when complications occur pharynx may also show lesions. Similar
with the internal forms and when condition is erosions occur in the forestomachs, small and
lost in severe and long-standing cases. The large intestine, even extending to the rectum,
value of hides and skins is reduced. Peyer's patches being severely affected. The
Carcase and viscera: A, provided no systemic ileo-caecal junction and the rectum often show
changes and condition good, or I and D. characteristic 'zebra stripes' due to congestion of
the folds of the mucosa.
There is lymphadenitis of the retropharyn-
geal and mesenteric lvmph nodes and the
PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS (PPR, spleen is often enlarged:
PEST OF SMALL RUMINANTS, GOAT A lobar pneumonia affecting the cardiac and
PLAGUE, KATA) apical lobes, particularly on the right side is
present Should complications develop, this
I. An acute or subacute viral disease of goats pneumonia becomes bronchopneumonic in
and sheep and some wild ruminants type.
resem~ling rinde~pest and characterised by
necrotic stomatitis, gastroenteritis and D. A presumptive diagnosis is based on clini-
pneumonia. cal signs, history (especially where new stock
Notifiable disease (UK). have been recently introduced) but virus isola-
tion and identification by complement fixation,
O. The disease at present is confined to Africa
agar-gel precipitin or virus-neutralising tests
(where it is of low sporadic occurrence in many
are necessary to distinguish PPR from conta-
countries but has a high prevalence in Ghan~
gious caprine pleuropneumonia, contagious
and Senegal) and the Middle East (Lebanon,
ecthyma, heartwater, coccidiosis, pasteurellosis
Oman and United Arab Emirates).
and rinderpest.
lA. A n:~rbillivir~s of the family
Paramy~[Link] which has an affinity for
J. Carcase and viscera: T or A or Kh with D
depending on systemic changes and carcase
lymphoid tissue and the epithelium of the
condition.
gastrointestinal tract. It is related to the
morbillivirus of rinderpest.
R. .Infected goats and sheep and wild
POX DISEASES (VARIOLAE)
ruminants and their excretions, secretions and
fomites. A carrier state does not exist but I. [Link],. acut~, subacute or benign highly
subclinical cases may spread the disease durinz contagious VIral diseases of animals (excluding
the incubation period. b dogs), non-human primates, birds and man
 Infectious Diseases 591
characterised by typical vesicular eruptions on disease exhibits only skin lesions and without
the skin (and mucous membranes in sheep and systemic disturbance. As fever regresses, the
goat pox). pustules become covered with exudate and
The lesions commence as macules finally scabs which darken in colour and are
(discoloured spots) which progress to papules very irritant, making the animal scratch
(small, solid, circumscribed elevations), then intensely. Star-shaped scar formation takes
vesicles (small sacs containing fluid) and finally place after scabs are shed.
pustules, which erupt forming crusts. The condition in goats is more severe than
The pox diseases affect many different that in sheep.
species of animals and man (smallpox or
variola major and alastrim or variola minor) - P. In addition to the skin lesions described
sheep and goats (Plate 2, Fig. 11), cows, horses, above, changes may also occur in the form of
pigs, camels, rabbits and poultry. white pocks in soft viscera and lungs. On
Sheeppox and goatpox are serious and often mucous membranes the lesions are ulcerated
fatal conditions in which infection is and a haemorrhagic enteritis may be present in
transmitted by inhalation, by direct contact and severe cases.
possibly by biting insects. The other pox D. The skin lesions associated with systemic
diseases are benign in nature, immunologically changes are strongly suggestive of sheeppox
distinct from sheeppox and goatpox and spread and goatpox.
by direct contact only. Differential diagnoses include contagious
pustular dermatitis, bluetongue, mange,
cutaneous streptothricosis.
SHEEPPOX AND GOATPOX
J. Carcase and viscera: T or Kh or L with D
depending on presence/absence of systemic
Notifiable diseases (UK).
changes, body condition.
O. These diseases are at present confined to Recovered cases: A and D.
Africa, Middle East and parts of Asia. They
In Britain carcases intended for human
have a high occurrence in Gambia, Mali, Niger
consumption may be removed from an infected
and Senegal and are enzootic in Ethiopia, Iran,
place only if they are certified free from
Lebanon, Turkey, Yemen, Pakistan and
sheeppox/goatpox and after the skin has been
Afghanistan. Mongolia had its last case in 1977
removed; an affected carcase must be burned or
and China in 1989. Europe appears to be free at
buried in a manner similar to one affected with
present. FMD.
An outbreak of sheep and goatpox occurred
in Greece in 1994.
lA. Capripoxviruses of the family Poxviridae. COWPOX (VACCINIA,
The sheeppox virus (SPV) affects only sheep VARIOLOVACCINIA)
while the goatpox virus (SGPV) affects both
sheep and goats, the two viruses being Cowpox is a rare, mild contagious disease of
antigenically distinct. dairy cows in which lesions appear on the
R. Infected animals and their fomites. udder, teats and sometimes the perineum,
thighs, vulva and mouth. Calves may show
MT. See above under I. lesions on the lips and mouth and bulls on the
CE The incubation period is about 4-14 days, scrotum. A sporadic infection, it may affect
after which there is severe systemic reaction virtually all animals in a herd..
with fever, depression, inappetence, The causal cowpox virus is related
mucopurulent discharges from nose and eyes antigenically to the smallpox virus and is
and salivation, with up to 80% mortality in the identical to that causing horsepox.
acute form. The lesions described above may be Cowpox has only been reported in western
found on any part of the body but most Europe and is becoming less common. Infection
commonly on the muzzle, ears and parts is spread during milking and milkers may
devoid of wool and hair. A benign form of the acquire infection on the hands and arms and
592 Meat Hygiene
sometimes the face, along with mild fever and salivation may be present, but the condition is
lymphadenitis. usually self-limiting and clears up in a month
or so.

PSEUDO-COWPOX (MILKER'S NODULE,

PARAVACCINIA) Judgement of cowpox, horsepox and
swinepox
This is a very common, benign condition Carcase and viscera: A or L with D.
occurring worldwide caused by a parapoxvirus
which is related to that of bovine papular
stomatitis and contagious ecthyma.
Lesions begin as small papules or vesicles on PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS
the udder and teats of dairy cows. Scab (DRIVING DISEASE, JAAGSIEKTE,
formation quickly develops, with granulation OVINE PULMONARY CARCINOMA)
tissue under the scabs. This heals from the
centre, producing a circular ring of small scabs 1. A contagious, viral, usually fatal, disease of
which persists for several months. adult sheep, and less commonly goats, in which
Spread through the herd is slower than in chronic pneumonia with adenocarcinoma are
cowpox and, as with the latter, milkers' hands manifested.
may be infected with itchy, red nodules which
O. Jaagsiekte occurs throughout the world
heal spontaneously in a few weeks.
except Australia and New Zealand. It is
enzootic in Peru and of low sporadic
occurrence in many European countries
SWINEPOX
including the United Kingdom. Iceland had its
last case in 1952, Yemen in 1968, Uruguay in
In this disease, typical pox lesions appear on
1982, Romania in 1987 and Spain in 1990.
the abdomen, sometimes the sides of the bodv,
and may actually involve the whole body lA. Probably a retrovirus.
surface. Unlike the other pox conditions, the
R. Infected and carrier sheep and goats.
lesions rarely proceed beyond the vesicle stage,
but scabs do form with eventual healing. MT. Natural transmission is by the
The cause is a suipoxvirus of the family respiratory route.
Poxviridae.
CF. The incubation period is long (1-3 years),
The disease occurs in the USA, especially in
resulting in clinical signs occurring when sheep
the mid-west, where 1-5% of pig herds may be
are 3-4 years of age.
affected at anyone time, especially during the
Respiratory involvement appears as
summer months. It also occurs in South
increasing dyspnoea and a watery nasal
America (Chile, Uruguay) and some African
discharge which is accompanied by marked
countries.
loss of condition. Fever is absent and there is no
Transmission is by contact with infected
loss of appetite. Death, from congestive heart
animals, by wounds and by the bites of the pig
failure or coincident pasteurellosis, usually
louse, Haematopinus suis.
ensues in 2-5 months.
P. Lesions are confined to the thoracic cavity.
HORSEPOX In addition to lobar pneumonia, the enlarged
lungs exhibit firm, greyish areas of neoplastic
A very rare, benign pox disease of horses which tissue (adenocarcinoma). Some of these may be
at the moment appears to be confined to small, discrete foci while others are extensive
Panama and Mozambique. lesions, all demarcated from the lung tissue.
Two forms of the disease are recognised - a The trachea and bronchioles contain large
buccal form in which typical pox lesions appear amounts of white, frothy fluid and the
in the mouth, pharynx, nostrils and larynx and mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes are
a leg form in which the pasterns and fetlocks are enlarged and may contain metastases of the
affected. Lameness along with fever and tumour.
 Infectious Diseases 593
D. The clinical signs in adult sheep, and is now a problem in France, Germany, Austria,
especially the lesions, are indicative of Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
pulmonary adenomatosis. Poland and Lithuania. The migration of foxes
Differential diagnoses include maedi-visna has also been responsible for the spread of
and pasteurellosis. rabies southward in Canada, where wolves,
Diagnosis is confirmed by histopathological skunks and bats also act as reservoirs, while in
examination of the neoplastic tissue, there the USA skunks, racoons and coyotes spread
being at present no available serological tests. the disease. The jackal is a common reservoir in
the Middle East.
J. Carcase and viscera: T or A or L with D. In addition to foxes, vampire, frugivorous and
insectivorous bats have been responsible for
causing bovine rabies in Mexico, Central and
RABIES (HYDROPHOBIA, LYSSA) South America and in South Africa mongooses
have a high incidence of rabies. In recent years
I. An acute, fatal viral infection of all warm- rabies virus has been isolated from insectivorous
blooded animals and man transmitted bv the bats in Denmark and Germany. In May 1996 a
saliva via bites of rabid animals ~ and Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii which had
characterised by nervous symptoms and bitten two women in Newhaven, England, was
ascending paralysis. found to be infected with the rabies virus
Notifiable disease in all countries. (lyssavirus 2/ ELB 2). As a precaution,
Rabies occurs throughout the world, with an prophylactic treatment (immunoglobulin
estimated 30000 human deaths per annum. It is injected into the wound followed by six
enzootic in animals in manv African, Asian and subcutaneous injections of vaccine in the upper
South American countries and of high arm) was given to the women. The case was
occurrence in Angola, Mali, Senegal, Tanzania, regarded as an isolated one, the bat probably
Uganda, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, India, having flown across the English Channel,
Pakistan, Mexico, Bhutan, Cambodia and although this species of bat can be found in the
Yemen. The disease is enzootic in the eastern United Kingdom. Bat rabies is endemic in
and southern states of the USA. France, Germany, Denmark, Holland and Spain
Many countries in all four continents are and has caused two deaths in humans, the most
now free of rabies as a result of successful recent being in Finland in 1985.
eradication measures. Australia had its last case A UK Ministry of Agriculture surveillance
in 1867/ Republic of Ireland in 1903/ N. Ireland programme since 1987 in which 2000 bats were
in 1923 and Britain in 1970. tested for rabies virus gave negative reactions
Rabies has never been reported in many in all of them.
countries, many of them island communities, In the second quarter (April to June) of 1996/
which possess rigid quarantine regulations. WHO reported 2035 cases of rabies in Europe
Included are New Zealand, Mauritius, (including non-El.I countries), of which 1373
Bahamas, Bermuda, Jamaica, St Vincent (67.5%) were in wild animals and 660 (32.4%) in
Grenadines, Cyprus/ Finland, Greece, Sweden, domestic animals.
Eire, Singapore, Iceland, Isle of Man, Fiji, The wild animals included 1151 foxes/53
Hawaii Oceania and Norway. raccoon dogs, 19 badgers, 31 roe deer, 33
Other regulations, in addition to quarantine, reindeer, 24 pine martens, 14 stone martens, 9
proposed by WHO for control of dogs include polecats, 5 hares, 5 bats, 4 squirrels, 2 black rats,
notification of suspected cases; destruction of 2 musk vats, 2 wolves and a single case in a
infected animals, those bitten by rabid or lynx, aretic fox, ferret, red deer, wild boar and
suspect dogs and unvaccinated animals; hedgehog.
leashing and muzzling; control of movement; The domestic animals included 298 dogs, 144
control of stray dogs; mass immunisation and cats, 158 bovines, 28 sheep, 24 horses, 1 donkey,
dog registration. 2 pigs and 5 goats (35 of the dog cases occurred
On the other hand, rabies has become a in Turkey). Four cases of bat rabies occurred in
serious threat in Europe where it has spread Germany and one in England (see above).
westward, mainly by infected red foxes It is remarkable that, with numerous wild
(300-400 cases annually) in wooded areas, and and domestic animal cases in Europe, few
594 Meat Hygiene
human cases occur. There were, however, two which contains large amounts of the virus. Less
human cases in the Russian Federation and one commonly, the virus may gain entrance
in Germany (imported from Sri Lanka). through abrasions and cuts on the skin and
bucc~l ~ucosa. Inhalation is also a possibility in
lA. A rhabdovirus of the genus Lyssavirus, of certam mstances, e.g. bat-infested caves.
which there are four serotypes, serotype 1 being Multiplication of the virus occurs at the site
responsible for classical animal and human of inoculation (in muscle or mucous cells), after
rabies. Serotypes 2, 3 and 4 are antigenically which it travels via the peripheral nerves to the
related but rarely cause serious infection. spinal cord and then the brain.
Serotype 4 has been identified in European
bats. CF. The incubation period is very variable, in
Rabies virus resembles that of vesicular some cases being as short as 21 days and others
stomatitis. It is one of the largest viruses, beina as long as 6 months and longer. (A 6-month
75-80nm in width and up to 180nm long. 0
quarantine cannot be relied upon to give
R. See O. The predominant animal species
protection since rabies occurred in two dogs in
responsible for maintaining the virus varies in quarantine in Britain (1970) following an
different parts of the world. Canine or urban incubation period believed to be 7-9 months.)
rabies is transmitted by dogs, 'while svlvatic Most cases of canine rabies are said to develop
rabies is a disease of wild carnivores and bats within 3-12 weeks.
with sporadic spillover into dogs, cats and In all species, two forms of rabies are
domestic animals. recognised - paralytic and furious - which
Mass oral rabies vaccination, using follow a short prodromal period.
attenuated live virus vaccines in baits such as In the paralytic form, clinical signs include
c~icken heads, fish meal, polymer, etc., and
incoordination, paralysis of the throat, inability
directed mainly at foxes and other 'wild to s:\'~llow, salivation, drooping of lower jaw,
carnivores, was introduced in Europe (1978) by strammg to defaecate and urinate, eventual
WHO and followed by Canada and USA. The total body paralysis, coma and death in a few
European programme covers 300000 km" in ten hours.
countries - Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, The furious form of rabies - the so-called
France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, 'mad-dog syndrome' - is manifested by mania
Slovenia and Switzerland. Manual distribution and aggression after a period of melancholy
at p:edetermined points is now mainly 'which lasts one or two days. Symptoms are
practised, although small helicopters are used wry variable, especially in animals other than
in some cou~tries. The programme is showing dogs and cats. Anxiety, alertness,
success and 1S constantly the subject of research. hyperaesthesia and aggression are prominent.
In 1986 the world's first controlled field trials Dogs will attack other animals, people and
of rabies vaccines contained in baits for free- moving objects, wander, and chew and swallow
roaming dogs was launched. These dozs cannot foreign objects, even the wire of cages to the
easily be immunised by injection. 0
extent of breaking teeth. Natural fear is lost.
It is confidently hoped that by using all these Muscular seizures and incoordination ensue
strategies rabies will be eliminated from most with eventual paralysis after one or two days of
European countries within the next few years. mania with death in a few hours.
Many types of rabies vaccine are now ava"ilable Cattle tend to bellow hoarsely, become
for the different species - (Human Diploid Cell dangerous and will pursue and attack human
Rabies Vaccine (HDCV) and Rabies Vaccine, beings and other animals and sometimes show
Adsorbed (RVA)),both inactivated vaccines, for sexual excitement.
human beings and inactivated oral SAG2, SAD Horses and mules have been observed to
B19, Ry675, etc., vaccines for dogs. In some display symptoms simulating spasmodic colic,
endemic areas, e.g. Central and South America i~c.o~rdin~~ion, hyperaesthesia, lower jaw
vac~ina~ion ~f cattle is practised to protect
rigidity, biting at the near knee, throwing the
agamst infection by vampire bats. body forcibly down on the off side but no
aggres~ion, biting or kicking (Gracey,
MT. Rabies is almost always transmitted by unpublished). Some cases, however, bite and
the bite of an infected [Link]-;,al via the saliva, kick viciously.
 Infectious Diseases 595
Pigs are inclined to be aggressive and impression smears or sections of brain tissue
excitable and exhibit salivation, convulsions (especially of the hippocampus of the dog and
and paralysis but, like horses, can display many Purkinje cells in herbivores) with Sellers.
different signs. Mouse inoculation tests may be used where
Affected cats and foxes are aggressive and Negri bodies cannot be demonstrated in some
attack and scratch viciously. Foxes and skunks cases.
will attack large animals like cattle and have The fluorescent antibody test using fresh,
been known to invade houses and attack frozen or glycerolated brain or salivary tissue is
human beings. now the diagnostic method of choice.
P. Apart from self-inflicted wounds and the J. Carcase and viscera: T.
presence of foreign bodies in the stomach,
(It has been recommended (Codex
especially in dogs and cats, there are no gross
Alimentarius Commission, Alinorm 9316A)
lesions. The lesions of rabies are microscopic
that the carcases of food animals slaughtered
and limited to the CNS, where they may be
within 48 h of being bitten can be approved (L)
indiscernible except for some meningeal ~ and
as fit for human consumption and
cerebral congestion.
condemnation of the bite area with
Microscopic examination shows some
surroundings and distribution restricted to
diffuse encephalitis in the form of perivascular
limited areas. Special precautions are to be
cuffing, necrosis of neurons and the presence of
taken to prevent occupational hazards.
cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies),
Alternatively, slaughter may be delayed during
especially in the hippocampus, brainstem and
an extended quarantine period to permit
gasserian ganglia.
confirmation.)
D. Diagnosis of clinical signs, especially in the
early stages, is frequently very difficult as
rabies can be confused with many other
Control
nervous diseases such as lactation tetany, Various measures are in force in different
polioencephalomalacia, lead poisoning, countries depending on factors such as rabies-
listeriosis, louping ill, enterotoxaemia, free status, geographical position (e.g. whether
Aujeszky's disease, Teschen disease, Glasser's an island), threat posed from rabies-endemic
disease, African swine fever and various forms areas, convention, etc.
of meningitis. European Union: Dogs, cats and other pets
A common early symptom in the dog is an travelling from rabies-free countries to other
inability to swallow, giving the impression of countries, rabies-free or not, have no
an obstruction in the throat or between the teeth restrictions. Pets from other countries require
or of tenderness in the mouth. prior vaccination (within 30 days and 1 year).
Since human beings may be exposed to Norway and Sweden: Previous strict
infection, it is vital that an accurate diagnosis is quarantine regulations are now replaced by a
made as quickly as possible. The importance of 'passport' system: Microchip or tattoo
an accurate diagnosis cannot be overstressed identification of dogs and cats; effective
because of the risk of human exposure and the vaccination; residence in a EU /EFTA country
necessity for prophylactic treatment which, in for the preceding 12 months; at least 4 months
itself, is psychologically very traumatic. after vaccination, a blood sample must show an
If the animal is rabid, it will die. The brain is antibody titre (REFIT) of at least 0.5 i.u/ml
then carefully removed using rubber gloves which for animals previously immunised can be
and goggles and placed in ice. If a delay is measured 1 month after vaccination; quarantine
anticipated, half of the brain should be put in for all animals failing tests and those from non-
10% formalin and half in 50% glycerine. EU /EFTA countries not rabies-free.
The Norwegian and Swedish system (which
is said to operate very efficiently) is currently
being advocated by some authorities to replace
Tests the present UK regulations, which require 6
The simplest test is the demonstration of typical months' quarantine with vaccination on entry
Negri inclusion bodies following the staining of and revaccination after 14 days.
596 Meat Hygiene
RIFT VALLEY FEVER (INFECTIOUS Abortion and diarrhoea may be the only signs
ENZOOTIC HEPATITIS OF CATTLE AND present in adults, in which infection may pass
SHEEP, RVF) unnoticed.
In man an influenza-like fever develops with
1. An acute, infectious, viral disease of myalgia, arthralgia, headache, chills and ocular
ruminants (mostly sheep) and man transmitted lesions in which retinal haemorrhage takes
by mosquitoes in which focal hepatic necrosis is place.
a prominent feature.
Notifiable disease (UK). P. The characteristic lesion is a focal necrosis
of the liver, large diffuse, greyish lesions being
O. The disease is confined to Africa at present present in lambs and discrete foci in adult
but, being an insect-borne entity, has a potential animals. The liver is enlarged and yellowish or
for spread outside this continent. Rift Valley brownish in colour and shows haemorrhages in
fever occurs in several central African the parenchyma, haemorrhages being also
countries. It appeared for the first time in West present on the body serous surfaces, heart and
Africa in 1987 and stimulated much research on skin.
epidemiology, surveillance, diagnostics and
animal and human vaccine production. D. Rift valley fever should be suspected
RVF was recognised in Egypt in 1993 in during warm, wet weather where mortality
animals and human beings after an absence of rates are high in young animals (under 1 week),
12 years. In this outbreak in the Aswan with abortions and stillbirths in adults and all
Governate an abnormally high number of showing characteristic liver changes. Mild
abortions occurred in cattle and water buffalo. fevers in stockmen, veterinarians, etc., assist in
Only ocular forms of RVF in man were the diagnosis.
reported, but of 676 humans tested, 41 (6.1%) Diagnosis is confirmed by virus isolation
were positive for RVFV-specific IgM. and identification using mice or cell cultures.
Histopathology of liver sections may be
lA. A phlebovirus of the family Bunyaviridae performed to identify cell necrosis and
which can remain viable for a considerable time acidophilic inclusion bodies. Differential
in the eggs of the mosquito Aedes lineatcpinnus diagnoses include bluetongue, ephemeral fever,
and possibly other biting flies. The virus is Nairobi sheep disease and Wesselbron disease.
easily inactivated by acid conditions. The latter affects sheep and wild ruminants and
is caused by a flavivirus transmitted by culicine
R. Primary vertebrate reservoirs are not
mosquitoes. It presents much the same
known but may be various wild ruminants, the
symptoms and lesions as RVF and can only
virus being supported by various species of
effectively be distinguished by serology.
biting flies and rodents.
J. Carcase and viscera: 1. A and D with
MT. Several species of mosquitoes of the condemnation of liver and blood. Reactors only.
genera Aedes and Culex and possibly midges of
the genus Culicoides and sandflies iPhleboiomus
spp.).
Infection in man occurs through skin RINDERPEST (CATTLE PLAGUE)
abrasions and by inhalation from infected
animals, their excretions and secretions and 1. A peracute to mild, highly contagious, viral
fomites. disease of all cloven-footed animals, domestic
and wild.
CF. The disease occurs during warm, wet Notifiable disease (UK).
weather when biting insects are active.
Symptoms include rapid onset, high fever, O. Cattle plague, at one time a terrible
leukopenia, inappetence, depression, scourge of livestock in Africa, south America,
incoordination, collapse and death in 1-2 days Asia and Europe, is now confined to Africa
in young animals, which may suffer up to 90% (Djibouti, Ethiopia and Uganda), Asia (India
mortality. Adult animals appear to be more and Sri Lanka) and the Middle East (Saudi
resistant, with symptoms less severe and the Arabia, Oman and Yemen), where it still causes
death rate lower. Pregnant animals abort. epizootics.
 Infectious Diseases 597
Europe is completely free and much of the Acute cases show the more typical signs of
New World has never experienced the disease. fever, depression, inappetence, ocular and nasal
Effective control measures (movement control, discharges, at first serous but later
quarantine, disease surveillance, prevention of mucopurulent, congested mucosae, dyspnoea,
feeding of uncooked swill, vaccination, etc.) dehydration and bloody/mucoid diarrhoea.
have dramatically eradicated the disease in The mucosal lesions are evident in the mouth,
many countries - as long ago as 1770 in Sweden, dental pad, undersurface of tongue, hard
1772 in Denmark, 1870 in Holland, 1875 in palate, lips, vulva and vagina and take the form
Switzerland and 1877 in the United Kingdom. of small necrotic pinpoint foci which enlarge
and coalesce with desquamation of the
lA. A morbillivirus of the family
epithelium, leaving red, shallow erosions.
Paramyxoviridae with many strains and
Pregnant animals abort. Most cases die in 1-2
degrees of virulence. It is related to the virus of
weeks. Morbidity may be as high as 100% and
peste des petits ruminants, canine distemper
mortality 90% in severe outbreaks.
and human measles.
Sllbac~tte cases occur in animals with innate
The virus is not very resistant and cannot
resistance where the disease is endemic, acutely
survive for long outside the host. It is rapidly
affected animals being found in places
inactivated by sunlight and heat, being
originally free of the disease. These subacute
inactivated in dried secretions in 24-28h and in
cases show mild fever, transient diarrhoea,
salted raw hides in 48 h. At temperatures of
dyspnoea and skin lesions in the form of
25.5°C and over it does not persist in muscle
macules/papules/scab formation on the udder,
and offal for longer than 10 days but can remain
perineum and scrotum. Most subacute cases
viable for 1 year in frozen and chilled carcases.
recover.
The greatest danger arises from lymphoid
tissues such as bone marrow and lymph nodes
P. Lesions vary according to the severity of the
where virus concentration is highest.
disease.
R. Infected animals, domestic and wild. A Most carcases are dehydrated and
carrier state apparently does not exist. emaciated, especially where the disease has
persisted for some time. Lesions are mostly
MT. The virus is present in all excretions and
limited to the alimentary tract from the mouth
secretions and is transmitted by ingestion or
and pharynx to the anus.
inhalation. Since the virus does not survive for
The buccal mucosa is congested and covered
long outside the body, close contact between
with soft, greyish, necrotic plaques which look
animals is required for infection to take place.
like sprinkled bran. These plaques often
Contaminated food and water are other
coalesce into a soft, cheesy mass which sloughs,
vehicles of infection but insects do not appear
leaving erosions with ragged edges.
to be involved. The necrotic process is also evident in the
Following entry via the nasopharynx, the
abomasum (which may also show petechiae)
virus multiplies first in the retropharyngeal and intestine along with a haemorrhagic
lymph nodes and tonsillar tissue and then
mucosa. Where the transverse furrows alone
spreads by a viraemia to the lymphoid tissues are inflamed or petechiated, the mucous
of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, membrane presents a typical/tiger skint
causing extensive tissue damage. appearance. Similar haemorrhagic/necrotic
CF. Susceptibility varies greatly among the changes affect the vagina, vulva and prepuce.
various species of animals - high in African The turbinate bones and nasal septa are
buffalo, wild pigs, antelopes, giraffes, Ankole congested and covered with a thick, tenacious
cattle, Channel Island and other introduced mucopurulent discharge. Epicardial and
breeds; moderate in wildebeest and zebu and endocardial haemorrhages are often present in
mild in gazelles, domestic pigs, sheep and peracute cases.
goats.
Following an incubation period of 3-15 days, D. Rinderpest is suspected where recent
clinical cases may be peracute, acute, subacute animal movements have occurred and where
or subclinical. Peracute cases exhibit sudden fever and a highly infectious disease has
onset of fever, collapse and death in a few days. occurred with erosive alimentary changes.
598 Meat Hygiene
Confirmation of diagnosis is based on lA. See also BSE. The causal microorganism,
isolation and identification of the virus and an 'unconventional virus', does not produce
identification of specific antigens. any kind of immune response in the host, either
Differential diagnoses include haemorrhagic in natural or experimental infection. Over 15
septicaemia, FMD, bovine malignant catarrh, strains of the 'slow virus' have been identified.
bovine virus diarrhoea, bluetongue, Nairobi In the brain it produces distinctive fibrils,
sheep disease and peste des petits ruminants. termed scrapie-associated fibrils (SAF), which
J. Carcase and viscera: T. Land D, subacute contain an amyloid protein, an abnormal
cases in endemic areas. Without general carcase substance deposited between cells in many body
changes. Distribution limited to areas affected tissues in several clinical disorders of animals and
by outbreak and covered by vaccination, Kh if man (see I above). Amyloid protein also occurs in
economically feasible. the senile plaques of the cortex in human patients
suffering from Alzheimer's disease, the most
common of the senile dementias.
SCRAPIE (RIDA, TREMBLANTE DU Scrapie, BSE, CJD and Kuru can be
MOUTON) (Plate I, Fig. 2) experimentally transmitted to susceptible host
species. Some 20 stable strains of the scrapie
1. A progressive, non-febrile, fatal disease of
agent have been identified. Based on clinical
the CNS of adult sheep and goats characterised
signs, two main types of scrapie are recognised.
by a long incubation period, pruritus and
Type I, which causes sheep to lose their wool, is
abnormal gait. the most common type and when inoculated
It is one of the so-called transmissible
into cattle causes clinical disease without
spongiform encephalopathies similar to bovine
equivalent BSE brain lesions. Type 2 is the rarer
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (q.v.),
form of scrapie, occurring as a trembling ataxia
transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME),
similar to the symptoms of typical BSE and to
chronic wasting disease of mule deer and elk and
variant-CJD. Type 2 is the form of scrapie most
Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-
likelv to have infected cattle and man.
Straussler-Scheinker syndrome and Kuru of man.
The nature of the scrapie agent is
O. Scrapie is now limited to Europe (UK, controversial. It multiplies very slowly with a
Ireland, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Iceland, long incubation period and takes the form of
Norway), Cyprus, Canada and USA. Except for tubulofilamentous particles (nemaviruses,
South Africa (last case 1972), it has not occurred NVP) and scrapie-associated fibrils as
in Africa or in Asia (except for Cyprus and ultrastructural markers, while PrP (protease-
Japan). Only sporadic cases occur, but early resistant protein) is a protein marker.
slaughter probably reduces the actual number Nemaviruses are specific to all the SEs.
of cases because of the very extended
R. Infected sheep, goats, placentae, fetal
incubation period. The fact that scrapie has been
fluids, pastures and possibly fomites.
diagnosed in sheep found dead without premonitory
symptoms also indicates that the true incidence is MT. Natural transmission occurs bv
higher than generally thought. contagion, contact and maternally - vertic~l
In 1992 the USA established a voluntary and horizontal transmission. Virus in placentas
flock certification programme with fOl;r and fetal fluids is thought to be the source of
different categories of certified scrapie-free infection for both newborn lambs and other
stock, a measure which should materiallv assist sheep. The young animal is the most
in eradication of the disease, which -occurs susceptible to infection.
almost exclusively in pure-bred sheep, In sheep, and possibly also in goats, scrapie
especially Suffolks. tends to run in families. However, while host
In June 1992 a case was diagnosed in genetic variation occurs in both natural and
Norway, following which a stamping-out experimental scrapie in sheep, this is not the
policy and movement control was adopted. case in BSE. Differences in susceptibility occur
The largest sheep-raising countries of the in different breeds, families and individuals
world, Australia and New Zealand, had their and these are related to the genetic make-up of
last cases of scrapie in 1952 and 1954, the sheep and to a single gene termed Sip
respectively. (scrapie incubation period).
 Infectious Diseases 599
Recent work (Hunter et al., 1997) has shown CNS). Amyloid-like fibrils termed scrapie-
that scrapie is not solely a spontaneous genetic associated fibrils (SAF) are present and
disease, i.e. dependent on the PrP genotype considered to be diagnostic. They consist of a
alone, but requires an additional exogenous prion protein and are believed to be associated
factor such as an infectious agent, or possibly a with the length of incubation period and in
toxic agent. This work stemmed from a study of susceptibility.
Cheviot and Suffolk sheep of UK, Australian
D. The clinical signs, age incidence and flock
and New Zealand origin. Scrapie-associated
history point to scrapie. Diagnosis is confirmed
PrP alleles were present in the sheep from all
by histopathological examination of brain
three countries even though Australia and New
tissue, especially the medulla.
Zealand are free of scrapie. These countries
possess strict quarantine regulations - only J. Carcase and viscera: Clinical cases: T.
sheep from low-risk regions are imported and Contacts, offspring and ancestors: L.
are quarantined off-shore for 3 years. If healthy,
the progeny are introduced into the national
flock by embryo transfer. If scrapie occurs in SWINE FEVER (SF), CLASSICAL SWINE
quarantine, all the animals are slaughtered. FEVER (CSF), HOG CHOLERA
Suffolk sheep coding QQ171 are highly
susceptible to scrapie while coding RR171 1. A highly contagious, febrile, viral disease of
animals are resistant. Gene testing of all sheep pigs of all ages occurring as a peracute, acute,
breeds should enable the development of a pool chronic or subclinical entity.
of scrapie-resistant stock. Notifiable disease UK and most countries.
CF. The incubation period is long and extends O. Worldwide in distribution, having first
from 3 months to 5 years or more. Clinical signs appeared in the USA. Except for Madagascar,
also continue for 6 months or so and include Guinea Bissau and South Africa, most countries
changes in behaviour, with the animals in Africa have not experienced classical swine
becoming excitable, even aggressive, with fine fever. It is common in South America and Asia,
muscular tremors appearing on the head and where it is enzootic in occurrence. Canada had
neck. Pruritus is prominent, the animal biting its last case in 1963 and the USA in 1976.
and rubbing the skin, especially over the rump, Australia and New Zealand have not
shoulders and chest. Wool is lost over large encountered classical swine fever, which has
areas, the animal looking like a sheep scab case. been eradicated in many countries through
A loss of weight takes place, although appetite efficient control measures - quarantine,
is lost only in the later stages of the disease. The slaughter, vaccination.
head is elevated and characteristic nibbling There were 55 outbreaks of CSF in the
movements are made with the lips. European Union in 1966 (49 in Italy, 4 in
Hyperaesthesia is present, the animal reacting Germany and 2 in Austria).
abnormally to external stimuli of noise, sudden
lA. A pestivirus of the family Togaviridae
movement, etc.
which possesses strains of varying virulence
There is incoordination of gait and head
and antigenicity.
carriage, weakness which progresses to
The virus is destroyed in the carcase within 1
emaciation and collapse with sternal or lateral or 2 days by post-mortem muscular acidity, but
recumbency and death. in carcases of animals slaughtered in the
In the UK, sheep and goats showing clinical incubative stage and immediately chilled, the
signs of scrapie must by law be slaughtered
bone marrow may remain infective for 3-6
with compensation paid to owners. months or more. It survives in frozen pork for 5
P. Except for loss of wool and condition and years and at least 27 days in bacon that has been
abrasions caused by rubbing and biting, there pickled, dried and smoked, salting having a
are no gross lesions. preservative action on the virus.
Microscopic changes are confined to the CNS The virus is fairly easily destroyed by the
and take the form of vacuoles in the grey matter usual disinfectants at standard concentrations,
and neurons with hypertrophy of astrocytes e.g. 2% sodium hydroxide, 5% phenol, and by
(supporting cells of ectodermal origin in the drying.
600 Meat Hygiene
In pig houses the virus remains infective in D. While the clinical signs and post-mortem
faeces, bedding, etc., for several weeks. lesions may indicate SF, an accurate diagnosis
can only be made by laboratory examination -
R. Infected and carrier pigs. immunofluorescence, ELISA, and histo-
pathology of brain tissue.
MT. The main route is by ingestion. A Differential diagnoses include African swine
common source of infection is unprocessed or fever, enzootic pneumonia, salmonellosis,
inadequately processed swill containing swine erysipelas, pasteurellosis, mulberry heart
infected meat scraps. Since all excretions and disease, purpura haemorrhagica and
secretions are infective, the disease can be leptospirosis.
spread by direct and indirect means - clothing,
]. Carcase and viscera: T, acutely diseased
boots, equipment, animal and human vectors,
carcases, or Kh and D. Also for in-contacts.
unsterilised syringes and needles and even
birds, flies and mosquitoes.
SWINE INFLUENZA (PIG FLU, HOG FLU,
CF. The incubation period is usually short
FERKELG RIP PE)
(5-10 days). On gaining entry to the animal
body the virus multiplies in the tonsils,
I. An acute, highly contagious, febrile, viral
thereafter spreading by a viraemia to involve
disease of pigs in which prominent respiratory
lymphatic tissues. The blood vascular system
symptoms are evident.
(WBCs and blood vessel endothelia) are also
involved in the spread of the virus in the body, o. Swine influenza occurs in many parts of
as is the bone marrow and spleen. the world - the USA, where it first appeared in
Affected pigs show fever, lethargy, inappe- 1918, Canada, Europe, South America, Japan
tence, diarrhoea, dyspnoea, conjunctivitis, often and eastern Asia. Except for Kenya, it does not
with matting of the eyelids, reddening of the appear to be common in Africa.
skin, especially of the abdomen, and nervous lA. Swine influenza virus (SIV) is a type A
symptoms such as circling, incoordination, influenza virus of the RNA orthomyxovirus
muscle tremors and convulsions. group. There are several different antigenic
Morbidity may be as high as 100% and strains. While pigs are the principal hosts of
mortality in young pigs, in particular, may be as SIV, humans mav also be infected, but the
high. disease apparently does not spread in man.
Influenza viral infections also occur naturally in
P. Peracute cases may show no lesions. Acute horses, mink, seals and birds. Animal reservoirs
cases exhibit Widespread petechiae (rarely are suspected as sources of new human
ecchymoses) on the skin, larynx, bladder, influenza virus subtypes, recombination taking
kidney ('turkey egg kidney'), brain, lymph nodes place between the pig and human strains.
and ileo-caecal junction. The gall bladder may
show infarcts. R. Infected and carrier pigs.
The typical 'button' ulcers, which used to be MT. By inhalation, the virus multiplying in
common at the ileo-caecal junction and were the bronchial epithelium eventually producing
probably the result of secondary salmonella congestion and atelectasis (collapse) of the
infection, are now rarely seen. lungs and profuse bronchial and tracheal
Encephalitis of a non-suppurative type is exudate.
considered diagnostic of SF. Enteritis is a
common finding, as is congestion of the liver CF. Clinical signs, which appear suddenly,
and lungs. include high fever (up to 108°C), dyspnoea,
In chronic SF there is a necrotic enteritis of
sneezing, coughing, inappetence, mucoid
the large intestine accompanied by enteritis of oronasal discharge, weakness, loss of weight
the small intestine and pneumonia. and prostration. The death rate is usually low
Where abortion has taken place, fetuses are (less than 5%), but morbidity may be as high as
frequently mummified, oedematous, mal- 100%.
formed or resorbed. Petechial haemorrhages P. Lesions are mainly confined to the chest
are common in fetuses. cavity. The lungs are collapsed and show
 Infectious Diseases 601

purplish-red areas of pneumonia and of As with many viruses, there is variation in

emphysema, especially of the apical and virulence with the different strains.
cardiac lobes. Severe pulmonary oedema may SVD virus is very resistant to the actions of
on occasion affect the lungs. Mucoid or heat, cold and disinfectants, requiring low and
mucopurulent exudate is present in all the air high levels of pH and heating to 68°C to destroy
passages, which are congested. The cervical, it. It can survive in frozen pork products
bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes are indefinitely.
oedematous. R. Infected and carrier pigs.
Changes may also be present in the
abdominal cavity as gastritis, enteritis of the MT. Infection occurs by direct and indirect
large intestine and enlargement of the spleen. contact via abrasions on the skin and probably
Overall the changes are similar to those of also by ingestion. The virus is present in all
enzootic pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma secretions and excretions and especially in
hyopneumoniae (q.v.). vesicular fluid. As with FMD, a common
method by which infection is acquired is the
D. Confirmation of diagnosis can only be feeding of swill containing infected material
made by isolation of the virus or demonstration derived from slaughtered infected pigs.
of the specific antibody by haemagglutination- Intermediate means of transmission include
inhibition, etc. human and animal vectors, vehicles,
Differential diagnoses are similar to those for contaminated equipment, clothing, etc.
classical swine fever, especially enzootic
pneumonia. CF. Symptoms are usually mild, with
morbidity high and mortality low. Slight fever
J. Carcase and viscera: T, A or Kh, depending and inappetence accompany the lameness
on degree / extent of body changes and caused by the foot lesions and the salivation
condition. which occurs in some cases. The foot vesicles
occur most often on the coronary bands of the
claws and the supernumerary digits, especially
SWINE VESICULAR DISEASE (SVD) at the heels. Shedding of the horn of the claws
1. A mild, self-limiting disease of pigs in may take place as in FMD. The mouth lesions
which vesicles, indistinguishable from those of are evident on the lips, snout and tongue and
FMD, vesicular exanthema of swine (VES) and other vesicles may be present on the legs and
vesicular stomatitis (VS), appear in the mouth abdomen. The vesicles appear first of all as
and on the feet. raised, whitish macules which become darker
Notifiable disease in UK. in colour and eventually rupture leaving a
small ulcer. In many cases symptoms may be so
O. SVD was first recorded in Italy in 1966, mild as to go unnoticed. Recovery usually
since when it has appeared in many' European follows in 2-3 weeks.
countries, Hong Kong and Japan. Africa has
been free, as has South America except for P. See CF.
Bolivia, where the last case occurred in 1991. D. Diagnosis is based on the examination of
Several countries have eradicated SVD - skin samples or vesicle fluid by complement
Poland (1972), Switzerland and Japan (1975), fixation, ELISA, serum neutralisation, or agar-
Malta (1978), Austria and Greece (1979), Britain gel diffusion.
(1982), France (1983) and Germany (1985) - but J. Carcase and viscera: A or Kh and D (head,
the disease still persists in Italy, Holland and feet, intestines) depending on severity and
Hong Kong. extent of lesions.
There were 5 reported cases of SVD in the
European Union in 1996, all in Italy.
lA. An enterovirus of the family TRANSMISSIBLE GASTROENTERITIS
Picornaviridae, which includes the human (TGE)
coxsackie viruses which cause similar lesions in
man - enteroviral vesicular pharyngitis, 1. A prevalent highly infectious, viral disease
enteroviral vesicular stomatitis with exanthem of pigs of all ages characterised by diarrhoea,
and enterovirallymphonodular pharyngitis. dehydration, vomiting and high mortality.
602 Meat Hygiene
O. The disease appears to be mainly confined J. Carcase and viscera: T, or Kh and D if
to the northern hemisphere. It is uncommon in economically feasible.
Africa, being only recorded in Cameroon and
Zaire. It is enzootic in the USA, Bolivia, Costa
Rica and France. A number of European VESICULAR EXANTHEMA OF SWINE
countries have successfully eradicated TGE, (VES, SAN MIGUEL SEA LION VIRUS
including Spain, Latvia, Lithuania, Holland and DISEASE)
Romania. The disease does not occur in
Australia, New Zealand and the rest of I. An acute, highly infectious, viral disease of
Oceania. pigs in which vesicles are formed in the mouth,
on the snout and tongue, and on the soles,
lA. A coronavirus which has an affinity for coronary bands, interdigital clefts of the claws
epithelial cells, especially of the small int~stine of the feet.
where it causes villous atrophy. Although The lesions are very similar to those of FMD,
resistant to low temperatures, TGEV is easily swine vesicular disease and vesicular
destroyed by drying, sunlight, boiling and the stomatitis.
action of the usual disinfectants.
O. The disease appears to be restricted to the
R. Infected and carrier pigs. USA and the state of California (where it was
MT. Probably by ingestion and inhalation. eradicated in 1959), Hawaii and Iceland.
Direct and indirect spread, including aerosol lA. A calcivirus which may also affect cattle,
transmission, can occur. horses, mink, fish, snakes, marine mammals,
Vehicles of infection are similar to those primates and man. The San Miguel sea lion
operating for FMD, SVD, etc., the feeding of virus is indistinguishable from VESV.
unsterilised swill and human and animal
vectors, transport vehicles, dogs, cats, rats, R, MT, Cl-, P, 0 and J. As for swine vesicular
birds and flies being involved in the transfer of disease.
the virus.
CF. Following entry of the virus into the body,
VESICULAR STOMATITIS
it multiplies in the respiratory and intestinal
tracts.
I. A highly contagious, febrile, viral disease of
The incubation period is short (1-2 days) and
cattle, horses and pigs, and less commonly,
is followed by profuse watery, fetid diarrhoea
sheep and goats, in which vesicles similar to
(yellowish-green in colour), slight fever,
those in FMD, SVD and YES are formed.
inappetence, vomiting (the vomitus being a
Notifiable disease UK.
yellowish foam), thirst, depression and
dehydration. Young pigs are more likely to O. Vesicular stomatitis is restricted to the
succumb than older animals and their mortality New World - North and South America -
may reach 100%. Older pigs exhibit less seve{e where it is enzootic in Mexico, Colombia and
symptoms and generally recover in about 1 Nicaragua. The USA has been free from 1980
week. and Canada from 1949, and in recent years
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, and Brazil have
P. There is carcase dehydration with greenish successfully eradicated the disease.
or yellowish watery contents in a thin-walled
translucent small intestine (SI) due to the lA. A vesiculovirus of the family
destruction of the intestinal villi. Gastritis may Rhabdoviridae which also infects many forms
be evident along with enteritis, especially of wildlife - deer, raccoons, bobcats, monkeys,
where secondary pathogens operate. rodents and cold-blooded animals.

D. Clinical signs and the characteristic SI R. Infected and carrier animals, including
picture are suggestive of TGE. Confirmation of wildlife forms and biting insects and frogs.
diagnosis depends on immunofluorescent MT. By ingestion through direct and indirect
antibody examination, demonstration of TGE contact with contaminated food, pasture and
viral antigen, histopathology, etc. water. Sandflies and mosquitoes are also
 Infectious Diseases 603
involved in the transrrussion of the virus to The disease now appears to be confined to
susceptible hosts. the Ukraine, Madagascar and Guyana. Overall
there has been a marked decline in incidence.
CF. The disease occurs during the warm
In 1992, viral encephalomyelitis was
season when biting insects are active. After a
diagnosed serologically in Northern Ireland in
short incubation period (2-8 days), vesicles
pigs without clinical signs, the disease being
form in the mouth, on the dorsum of the
never suspected or recorded.
tongue, dental pad, hard palate, gums, lips,
angles of the mouth and muzzle. These appear lA. An enterovirus of the family
as blanched, raised swellings, some of which Picornaviridae of several different antigenic
may undergo necrosis. The teats of cattle and strains varying in virulence, all capable of
the feet of pigs may be affected. causing encephalomyelitis in pigs. The Teschen
strain is a virulent form whereas Talfan (first
P. See CF. There are no significant internal
described in England in 1957) and other strains
changes.
are less pathogenic.
D. Differentiation from FMD in particular is
R. Infected and carrier pigs.
of importance. This is achieved by the use of
complement fixation, ELISA, virus neutralisa- MT. By ingestion and inhalation.
tion/ mouse passage, etc.
CF. Following an incubaiion period of 7-21
Differentiation from FMD in horses is simple
days, symptoms in Teschen disease include
since horses are not susceptible to foot-and-
fever, lassitude, anorexia and nervous
mouth disease.
disturbance manifested by seizures,
J. Carcase and viscera: As for YES. incoordination, circling, stiffness, knuckling of
fetlocks, opisthotonus, nystagmus (rhythmic
Viral papular stomatitis, probably of viral
movement of both eyeballs in unison), paralysis,
origin, may occur in cattle, mostly young stock,
coma and death within a few days of onset.
as a mild condition without general symptoms.
Clinical signs in Talfan and related
Small, reddish papules are present in the
conditions are less severe and consist of ataxia
nostrils, muzzle and buccal mucosa and
(muscular incoordination) and paresis (slight
disappear in about 1 week.
paralysis), usually with recovery but with loss
Viral papular dermatitis is a mild equine of weight.
disease caused by unidentified viruses in which
P. Gross lesions are confined to the medulla
firm papules form on the skin which disappear
and cerebrum, which show an
in 1 week leaving a dry crust.
encephalomyelitis, and the body cavities,
where there is pleurisy, pericarditis and peri-
tonitis.
VIRAL ENCEPHALOMYELITIS OF PIGS
D. While the clinical signs and the post-
(PORCINE POLIOMYELITIS, TESCHEN
mortem lesions may suggest
DISEASE, TALFAN DISEASE)
encephalomyelitis, laboratory procedures
(complement fixation, virus neutralisation) are
I. An acute or subacute viral disease of pigs,
necessary to establish an accurate diagnosis.
analogous to human poliomyelitis, in which
Differential diagnoses include listeriosis,
nervous symptoms predominate. Aujeszky's disease, rabies, classical swine fever,
O. Teschen disease was first reported in African swine fever, oedema disease,
Czechoslovakia in 1929/ where it was restricted pasteurellosis and lead poisoning.
to certain areas. Since then many European, and
J. Carcase and viscera: T or Kh and 0 (brain,
a few African and South American countries,
spinal cord, alimentary tract).
have encountered outbreaks but few have been
recorded in Asia or Oceania. Many European
countries have succeeded in eradicating the
DISEASES CAUSED BY RICKETTSIAE
disease - Switzerland (1940)/ Romania (1954)/
Germany (1957)/ Poland (1967)/ Czechoslovakia Rickettsiae are tiny (0.3 urn x 4.0 urn) rod-shaped,
(1973)/ Austria (1980) and Latvia (1982). pleomorphic, Gram-negative, obligate
604 Meat Hygiene
intracellular parasites in certain arthropods, They are the causal agents of the diseases
mainly mites, fleas, lice and ticks, in which they listed in Table 17.2.
cause no disease, but when transmitted to a
vertebrate host are capable of causing
extremely serious plagues in animals and man.
ANAPLASMOSIS (GALL SICKNESS)
Like the bacteria, they contain RNA and
DNA, glucosamine and muramic acid in their
I. An acute, subacute or chronic non-
cell walls and enzymes for metabolic activity,
contagious disease of cattle, sheep, goats and
and have the ability to reproduce by binary
wild ungulates associated with fever, anaemia,
fission. Fortunately, they are unstable outside
jaundice and emaciation.
the cell walls of the host, except Coxiella burneiii,
and are sensitive to antibiotics and O. Anaplasmosis has a wide distribution in
disinfectants. tropical and subtropical countries with a slight
The family Rickettsiaceae comprises several extension into temperate zones. Most African
genera including Rickettsia, Coxiella, Anaplasma, and South American countries experience the
Ehrlichia, Coxiella burneiii, the cause of Q fever, disease and in some of them anaplasmosis has
is Gram-positive, unlike the rickettsiae. a high occurrence - Lesotho, Uganda, Guyana
Therickettsiae have a very wide range of and Puerto Rico. It is exceptional in the USA
hosts in nature in both domestic and wild and Mexico but does not occur in Canada.
animals and birds. Many Asian countries are affected but to a

Table 17.2 Diseases caused by rickettsiae with their vectors and hosts.

Disease Organism Vector Host

Typhus group R. protoazeki Body louse Man

R. mooseri Rat flea Rats

Spotted fever group R. rickettsi Tick Small wild mammals dogs, birds
R. siberica Tick Wild animals, birds
R. conorii Tick Small wild mammals, dogs
R. akari Mite House mouse
R. ausiralis Tick Bush rodents

Scrub typhus R. tsutsugamushi Mite Small wild rodents, birds

Trench fever Rochalintaea quiniaia Body louse Man

Anaplasmosis Anaplasma spp. Tick, fly Cattle

Bovine petechial fever Ehrlichia ondiri (Tick) Cattle
Eperythrozoonosis Eperythrozoonosis spp. Lice and biting flies Cattle, sheep, pigs, llamas
Equine erlichiosis E. risticii (Tick or fly)
Contagious ophthalmia R. conjunctivae Fly Sheep and goats
Heartwater (Cowdriosis) R. ruminantium Tick Cattle, sheep, goats, wild ruminants
Q fever Coxiella bumetii Tick Man, goats, cattle, sheep
Tick-borne fever R. bovina Tick Sheep, cattle, goats, deer
R. ovina
 Infectious Diseases 605
lesser degree than Africa and South America. D. A tentative diagnosis of anaplasmosis may
Japan had its last case in 1991. The disease is be made on clinical signs, history, presence of
enzootic in Australia, but New Zealand is free. insect vectors, etc., and confirmed on
In Europe, anaplasmosis has an exceptional examination of a blood smear stained with
occurrence in the Ukraine, Albania, Bulgaria, Ciemsa, when the initial bodies will be detected
Portugal and Spain. Romania eradicated the in the RBCs. However, these can be confused
disease in 1991. with the Jolly bodies of circulating immature
blood cells in cases of anaemia or with babesias
lA. The causal agent, Anaplasma marginale (A. or trypanosomes.
avis in sheep and goats), is an obligate Complement fixation, agglutination, indirect
intraerythrocytic parasite which invades red fluorescent antibody and a DNA probe can be
blood cells and reproduces by binary fission used. A convenient rapid card agglutination
within the RBC into 2-8 round initial bodies test is now in use in the USA.
(0.2-0.5 urn in diameter) which then leave to
infect other RBCs. Some 15% of red blood cells J. Carcase and viscera: T.
have to be infected and destroyed before
clinical disease becomes apparent.
BOVINE PETECHIAL FEVER (ONDIRI
R. Infected and subclinical carriers, domestic DISEASE)
and wild.
MT. The source of infection is the blood of an I. A non-contagious rickettsiosis of domestic
affected animal. This is transmitted by the bite and wild ruminants in which numerous
of a tick or blood-sucking fly. The main ticks petechial haemorrhages are present on mucous
involved are members of the genera Ixodes, membranes.
Boophilus, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, o. The disease appears to be confined to the
Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma and Argas. The flies highlands of East Africa, mainly Kenya.
belong to the family Tabanidae, which includes
the stable, horse and deer flies and are lA. Ehrlichia ondiri, a rickettsia which is
predators on vertebrates. related to the causal organisms of tick-borne
Anaplasmosis can also be spread by fever, R. booina and R. ooina.
mechanical means - vaccination, dehorning, The organism is pleomorphic and 1.5-5 urn
ear tagging, castration and bleeding, in diameter and possesses a rippled cell wall, a
operations. plasma membrane and a nucleoid. It multiplies
initially in the spleen and parasitises
CF. Clinical signs (which are more severe in granulocytes (WBCs containing granules) and
the older animal) include fever, depression, less commonly monocytes.
inappetence, anaemia, dehydration, jaundice
and weight loss. Peracute cases may die within R. Infected and carrier animals. The carrier
2 days, but gradual recovery usually ensues in state exists for many months.
those animals which are resistant and which MT. It is possible that a tick, biting insect or
survive the RBC destruction. mite is involved, but the actual vector has not
been determined.
P. Gross changes are those associated with
anaemia, dehydration and jaundice. The spleen CF. Symptoms vary from being inapparent to
is enlarged and soft and the enlarged liver has a peracute, acute and subacute. Included in the
mahogany or deep orange colour. Body fat, severe forms are fever, depression, inappetence,
viscera and conjunctivae are yellowish or agalactia, petechiation of mucous membranes
orange in colour. Lymph nodes are enlarged and death within 3 days.
and oedematous and the gall bladder is As with many blood parasite diseases,
distended with bile. The blood is thin and fluctuations of fever occur with disappearance
watery and the heart shows petechial and reappearance of petechiae with the onset of
haemorrhages while the lungs are pale and fever. A nasal discharge, which may be blood-
oedematous and the kidneys congested. The stained, is present and there may be
alimentary tract may show patches of exophthalmia with marked protrusion of an
haemorrhage and oedema. eyeball - the so-called 'poached egg eye' - along
606 Meat Hygiene
with oedema of the conjunctiva. Dysentery is a shape with an average diameter of 0.8-1Ilm.
usual feature. Death in 20% of cases is due to a Rod-shaped and ring forms are also observed
profound anaemia. on occasions. They may occur singly or there
may be as many as five in one RBC. Although
P. Submucosal and subserosal haemorrhages
described as intracellular, the parasites infect
are numerous and ecchymoses are present in
the membrane of the red blood cells, rupturing
the heart, coronary vessels, upper respiratory
them and releasing the contents to produce
tract, bladder and alimentary tract. Lymph
anaemia, haemoglobinuria and jaundice in
nodes are enlarged and oedematous but the
clinical cases. Parasitised red blood cells are
spleen mayor may not be swollen. All changes
removed from the bloodstream by the spleen.
are associated with destruction of the RBCs.
R. Infected and carrier animals.
D. History of the outbreak, its occurrence on
high scrub land and the fairly typical PM MT. In pigs eperythrozoonosis is transmitted
lesions may suggest bovine petechial fever, but by lice and biting flies. Transplacental
confirmation can only be made by detection of transmission can also occur. In cattle the
E. ondiri in blood smears stained with Giemsa, responsible vectors are the mosquitoes Aedes
by electron microscopy, and by animal camptorhimchu» and Culex annulirostris.
inoculation. The use of infected surgical instruments and
Differential diagnoses include heartwater, needles is also a possible means of infection
babesiosis, anaplasmosis, acute transfer.
trypanosomiasis and theileriasis and arsenic
eE As with all haemolytic diseases, there is
poisoning.
fever, inappetence, malaise, anaemia with skin
J. Carcase and viscera: T. and conjunctival pallor, jaundice and loss of
weight. Examination of the pinna of the ear in
severe cases reveals the absence of the network
of small blood vessels with jaundice when light
CONTAGIOUS OPHTHALMIA OF
is transmitted through the ear. Icterus usually
CATTLE, SHEEP AND GOATS
disappears in about 1 week and the pinna blood
(INFECTIOUS
vessel network becomes evident, with the ear
KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS, PINKEYE)
assuming a normal pink colour.
New-born piglets are frequently anaemic
(See under Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis
and weak and sows often develop infertility.
caused by Moraxella bovis.)
In cattle similar signs occur and stiffness of
movement with oedema of the udder (with
agalactia) and hindlimbs may be evident in
EPERYTHROZOONOSIS
acute cases. The subclinical picture, however, is
very common as it is in sheep. Secondary
I. A usually subclinical or acute, febrile,
infection is not uncommon in all species and it
haemolytic rickettsial disease of pigs, cattle,
may be that such a situation is required for the
sheep, goats, llamas, mule deer and elk
clinical picture of anaemia, haemoglobinuria,
characterised by anaemia and icterus.
etc., to develop. Stress also probably plays an
O. The disease has been reported in all six important part in the haemolytic syndrome.
continents. Serological evidence indicates that
P. Carcases are anaemic, jaundiced and
subclinical infection is high in many countries -
lacking in condition in severe cases.
16.9% in sheep in Australia and 15% in pigs in
the USA. D. Diagnosis is made by demonstrating large
numbers of ricksettiae in blood smears stained
lA. Eperythrozoonosis spp. The causal agent in
by the Giemsa method. The organisms may be
pigs is Eperythrozoonosis suis, in sheep E. ovis
present on the surface of the RBCs, surrounding
and in cattle E. ioenuonii. The parasites appear
the platelets or in the plasma.
to be host-specific.
The organisms are intracellular parasites of J. Carcase and viscera: A, T or Kh and D,
red blood cells, although sometimes they are depending on the severity of the disease,
seen in the plasma. They are mostly coccoid in carcase condition, etc.
 Infectious Diseases 607
EQUINE EHRLICHIOSIS (EQUINE ecchymoses, pervades the ventral abdominal
MONOCYTIC EHRLICHIOSIS, wall, lower limbs and subfascia.
POTOMAC HORSE FEVER, EQUINE
EHRLICHIAL COLITIS) D. A firm diagnosis can only be made by
demonstration of the cytoplasmic inclusion
bodies in blood smears. An indirect fluorescent
I. An infectious, non-contagious rickettsial,
antibody test may be used.
febrile disease of horses characterised by
Differential diagnoses: Various forms of colitis,
depression, colic, watery diarrhoea, jaundice,
salmonellosis, equine viral encephalitis, equine
ataxia and limb oedema.
infectious anaemia, purpura haemorrhagica,
o. Equine ehrlichiosis is restricted in viral arteritis and certain poisonings, plant and
occurrence to the United States (northern chemical.
states) and Canada. It was first diagnosed in J. Carcase and viscera: T, A or Kh, depending
1984 in horses near the Potomac River in on severity of lesions.
Maryland and Virginia.
lA. Ehrlichia equi trieticiis, which parasitises
monocytes, macrophages and the epithelial
cells of the intestinal tract. HEARTWATER (COWDRIOSIS)
E. equi resembles the rickettsiae of tick-borne
fever and bovine petechial fever. It invades I. An infectious, non-contagious, tick-borne,
neutrophils, and sometimes eosinophils, and rickettsial disease of cattle, sheep, goats and
appears in them as one or more morulae or wild ruminants in which there are high fever
inclusion bodies. These are coccoid or and nervous symptoms.
coccobacillary, pleomorphic organisms (1-5 urn
in diameter) which stain bluish-grey in blood O. Heartwater appears to be confined at the
smears with Giemsa stain. moment to Africa (south of the Sahara where it
is enzootic in Botswana, Mozambique, South
R. Infected and carrier horses and possibly Africa and especially Tanzania) and South
ticks, biting flies, dogs and foxes. America where it is limited to Antigua and St
Vincent Grenadin. The disease has not been
MT. The exact mode of transmission and the reported in Asia, Europe or Oceania.
vector are not known but the occurrence of the
disease near rivers suggests a tick or some form lA. Cowdria ruminantium, an intracellular
of biting fly. rickettsia which parasitises reticuloendothelial
and vascular endothelial cells, in which it
CF. Symptoms vary according to the virulence multiplies by binary fission to produce morulae
of the organism and the susceptibility, or colonies in the cytoplasm. Rupture of the
resistance and age of the host. cells allows the rickettsial morulae access to the
Clinical signs may be inapparent and blood and lymph streams, making them
overlooked, but in the typical disease there is infective.
fever, anorexia, depression, icterus, reluctance C. ruminantium possesses several different
to move, ataxia, colic and diarrhoea with strains of varying antigenicity and virulence
dehydration. Oedema is present in the lower between which there is only partial protection.
limbs and ventral abdomen and visible mucous It is a fragile organism which is easily destroyed
membranes are petechiated. Laminitis may outside the animal body. It cant however,
occur as a complication. The mortality rate is in remain viable for 3 years in the larval stages of
the region of 10%. ticks.
Smears from vascular intima or brain tissue
P. The action of the rickettsiae on epithelia is
stained by Giemsa or May-Grunwald show the
demonstrated in the alimentary tract, where the
morulae as bluish-purple or reddish-purple
caecum and colon are congested and display
chromatic granules (up to several hundred on
areas of necrotic erosion and ulceration. The
one cell).
contents of the alimentary tract are watery and
the mesenteric lymph nodes are swollen and R. Affected and recovered animals, domestic
oedematous. Oedema, with petechiae and and wild, and several stages of three-host ticks.
608 Meat Hygiene
MT. Heartwater is transmitted by three-host O. The disease has a worldwide distribution
bont ticks of the genus Amblyomma. Although but only occurs sporadically and then in low
infection is transmitted from one stage to the incidence. Few Asian countries appear to
next in the tick cycle, there is no transovarian experience Q fever, which seems to be more
infection. common in the USA, Canada and European
countries, this being probably due to superior
CF. Symptoms vary according to the severity
investigative procedures. The incidence in
of the disease - peracute, acute, subacute or
animals and man is probably far greater than
inapparent. recorded because of the mildness of many
Peracute cases exhibit high fever, collapse cases, limited clinical suspicion and lack of
and die in convulsions in 1-2 days. In the
testing laboratories.
typical acute cases there is fever and
A survey in Ontario, Canada (Lang, 1988),
inappetence with nervous signs in the form of
revealed a high dairy cattle serological
circling, high-stepping gait, ataxia, standing
incidence of 67%, with 20% of dairy goats and
with legs apart and head bowed, blinking of
4% of sheep being positive. Although sheep are
eyelids, apparent blindness, hyperaesthesia,
generally regarded as the main source of
chewing movements, convulsions, prostration
infection, this finding would appear to cast
and death in 2 weeks.
doubt on this assertion.
Mortality varies from 100% in peracute cases
with much lower death rates in acute and lA. Coxiella burnetii. Unlike other rickettsiae,
subacute cases, many of which recover. C. burnetii is fairly stable outside the body and
relatively resistant to many disinfectants. It can
P. The multiplication of cowdria in the remain viable in soil and contaminated
reticuloendothelial and epithelial cells with materials such as bedding, wool and dust for
their ultimate destruction results in vascular manv months, even years. Pasteurisation
permeability, haemorrhages and oedema. effectively kills the organism.
Oedema is evident as hydrothorax, The organism has the ability to localise in the
hydropericardium and hydroperitoneum. uterus, placenta, mammary gland and
Pulmonary oedema is also present, along with supramammary lymph nodes, thereby
enlarged and oedematous lymph nodes. The providing a source of infection at subsequent
spleen is enlarged and subserosal petechiae and p arturitions.
ecchymoses are present in the body cavities.
R. The organism has a wide distribution in
D. Diagnosis, based on history, clinical signs nature and cycles, as do many other pathogens,
and post-mortem findings, enzootic prevalence, in domestic and wild animals and their
etc., is fairly straightforward in acute cases. arthropod vectors. Bandicoots and some
Confirmation is made by detection of C. species of wild rodents can act as natural
ruminantium by Giemsa staining of lymph node reservoirs. Many infected domestic animals,
samples aspirated by needle biopsy or brain including cats and dogs, are usually
grey matter. Antibody detection may be carried asymptomatic but can shed numerous
out using an indirect FA test. organisms at parturition.
J. Carcase and viscera: T, R, A or Kh, MT. Two main methods of transmission exist:
depending on severity and extent of lesions and (1) between wild animals and their arthropod
if economically feasible. vectors, mainly ticks; and (2) dissemination of
the organism - by direct and indirect means
without arthropod involvement between
Q FEVER (QUERY FEVER, ABATTOIR domestic animals and from them to man. Tick
FEVER, PNEUMa-RICKETTSIOSIS) transmission, however, may be involved in
domestic animal and human infection, but only
1. A usually mild, febrile rickettsial disease rarely.
which can occasionally cause abortion in sheep The main sources of disease for animals and
and goats and influenza-like symptoms in human beings are infected placentas, fetal
human beings, making it a true zoonosis. The fluids, uterine discharges and milk.
disease in livestock and in man is frequently Infection of animals and man arises from
asymptomatic. these sources by direct contact, in the form of
 Infectious Diseases 609
aerosols (which can be inhaled) or by the and sometimes horses) manifested by
ingestion of contaminated food such as raw leukopenia (reduction in the number of white
milk and water. The most important source of blood cells), and increased susceptibility to
infection for man is probably airborne secondary infections.
transmission of dust particles containing active
coxiellae as well as the handling of infected O. TBF has been identified in Europe (British
carcases. Dust particles can be carried Isles, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Spain), India
considerable distances downwind. and Africa.
Direct transmission by blood and bone
marrow transfusion has been reported in man. lA. Cytoecetes (Ehrlichia) phagocytophila,
formerly Rickettsia phagocytophila. A rickettsia of
CE Abortion with anorexia in sheep and uncertain classification, it parasitises the
goats in late pregnancy has occurred on cytoplasms of leukocytes, especially
occasions in severe infections. According to granulocytes and monocytes, in which it
recent reports, cattle can also experience appears as clusters (morulae) of pleomorphic
abortion and infertility. Infection in animals and bodies ([Link] in diameter) each possessing
man, however, is usually subclinical, but a a rippled cell wall, ribosome-like granules and
mild, febrile condition simulating influenza can a nucleoid (cf. Ehrlichia ondiri).
occur in man.
P. There are no gross lesions. R. Infected and carrier animals and ticks,
especially the nymphal and adult stages.
D. Accurate diagnosis depends on the use of
complement fixation, agglutination and MT. In temperate regions the three-host hard
immunofluorescence test and microscopy of tick Ixodes ricinus is responsible for trans-
stained tissues. mission of C. phagocytophila to susceptible hosts
J. Carcase and viscera: T, A or Kh and D but in tropical and subtropical countries
(udder, uterus). Rhipicephalus, Amblyomma and Hyalomma spp.
are the vectors.
Ticks are mainly active during the spring
months, but secondary activity can occur in the
Q fever in man autumn.
The disease affects those individuals handling CE The incubation period is 1-2 weeks,
affected animals and carcases - farmers, following which there is high fever, agalactia,
veterinarians, meat and rendering plant inappetence, dullness, loss of weight and late
workers, dairy workers, wool sorters and abortion in pregnant animals. Young stock are
laboratory personnel. more severely affected.
After an incubation period of 2-4 weeks, The action of the parasites on the leukocytes
fever develops with chills, headache, weakness, produces a marked reduction in blood
myalgia, malaise and sweating. Considerable granulocytes and monocytes and increased
variation in symptoms occurs and there may be susceptibility to other diseases such as tick
none at all even though the patient is positive pyaemia and tick-borne virus encephalitis.
serologically.
Pneumonia with coughing, pericarditis, P. Hydropericardium, splenomegaly, sub-
vegetative endocarditis and hepatitis have been endocardial haemorrhages and petechiae in the
reported in some instances, but mortality rates intestinal mucosa and thymus.
are generally low except in the patients with
endocarditis. D. A tentative diagnosis is made on the basis
of clinical signs, tick activity and PM lesions.
Diagnosis is confirmed by detection of
inclusion bodies in blood smears stained by
TICK-BORNE FEVER (TBF) Giemsa or Leishman. Serology is performed by
indirect immunofluorescence.
I. A mild, febrile, rickettsial, tick-borne
disease of ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, deer J. Carcase and viscera: T, A or Kh.
610 Meat Hygiene
DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI CF. In cattle, sheep and pigs aspergillosis may
(MYCOSES) occur as a pneumonia with fever, anorexia,
dyspnoea, nasal discharge and coughing or as a
The fungi along with the yeasts, moulds, placentitis with late abortion and stillbirths.
mildews, smuts, rusts and mushrooms belong Horses develop lesions in the guttural
to the order Mycota. They lack chlorophyll and pouches with epistaxis (nose bleeding) and
are now grouped with the protozoa and most difficulty in swallowing. Extension of infection
algae as Eumycetes. to the brain results in blindness and locomotor
They are ubiquitous in nature and most are disturbances.
of great benefit to man, being responsible, along Poultry are affected with brooder
with bacteria, for the disintegration of organic pneumonia (pneumomycosis) (q.v.).
matter and the release of valuable carbon,
P. In cattle, in the respiratory form, lobar
oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus into the soil
pneumonia, without atelectasis, is present and
or atmosphere. They are necessary in the there mav also be yellowish, caseous nodules or
making of bread, cheese, wine and beer and are
plaques or granu~lomatous lesions resembling
used in the production of some organic acids,
tuberculosis. In abortion cases the uterine wall
enzymes, vitamins and antibiotics. They are
is dark red or brownish in colour and very
also used as food in the form of mushrooms,
thickened and leathery and may show areas of
truffles and morels.
necrotic erosion with a yellowish-grey
A typical fungus grows as long filaments or
desquamated pseudo-membrane. Fetal
hyphae which branch to form a large network
membranes are retained and show
or mycelium. They reproduce by forming
corresponding lesions, while fetuses are
spores which are disseminated into the
sometimes affected with skin lesions
atmosphere, eventually germinate and develop
resembling ringworm.
into hyphae and mycelia.
Equine lesions take the form of necrotic
Reproduction, as opposed to growth, occurs
inflammation of thickened guttural pouches.
by sexual and asexual methods.
While most fungi are beneficial to man, a few D. Diagnosis requires demonstration of the
are able to cause disease in crops, animals and branching hyphae in the lesions and the use of
man, while others destroy foods, including ELISA, agar gel double diffusion and
meat. immunofluorescence tests.
J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided condition
is satisfactory and no secondary lesions are
present.
ASPERGILLOSIS

I. A mainly respiratory, and sometimes

generalised, fungal disease of virtually all
domestic animals, poultry and many wild COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS
species characterised by pneumonia, placentitis (COCCIDIOIDAL GRANULOMA,
and abortion in cattle, horses and pigs and by DESERT FEVER)
pneumonia in poultry (q.v.).
Humans can be affected with several species I. A usually mild, chronic, dust-borne, fungal
of Aspergillus, notably A. [umigarus, A. niger and infection occurring in many species of animals
A. flavus, which give rise to pneumonic but often fatal in man, characterised by
aspergillosis with sometimes thrombosis and granulomatous lesions resembling TB in the
infarction of blood vessels. They are also lungs and associated lymph nodes.
responsible for otomycosis, a fungal infection of
O. North and South America.
the outer auditory meatus and canal.
lA. Coccidioides immiiis, a dimorphic fungus
O. Aspergillosis occurs throughout the world,
which grows in soil as a saprophytic mould.
A. fumigatus being ubiquitous.
The parasitic form grows as spherules
lA. Aspergillus spp. of fungi, especially A. (spherical cells) which reproduce by the
[umigaius. formation of endospores.
 Infectious Diseases 611
R. Soil, dust and many species of domestic causing respiratory and sometimes nervous
and wild animals (coyotes, desert rodents, and skin conditions. The disease is probably
chinchillas, etc.). most common in dogs and cats.
MT. By inhalation of infective arthroconidia O. Sporadic cases occur throughout the
and sometimes via skin abrasions. world.
CF. Cattle and dogs are most often affected, lA. Cryptococcus neojormans, a yeast which is
with pigs, sheep and horses less so. After an Widespread in nature and can grow as a
incubation period of 2-4 weeks, clinical signs saprophyte in soil. It is frequently isolated from
include loss of weight, fluctuating temperature, pigeon droppings and nests and on occasions
dyspnoea, coughing, wheezing, colic, leg from human faeces and skin.
oedema and superficial abscesses. Yeasts are unicellular fungi which reproduce
by budding. C. neoformans is spherical in shape
P. Lesions are usually confined to the lungs
and measures 5-20 urn in diameter but, unlike
but may be disseminated to other body organs
other fungi, does not normally form a
such as the liver, spleen and intestinal tract.
mycelium. It stains positive with Gram's stain.
They take the form of granulomatous nodules
which contain yellowish pus or calcified R. Bird faeces are the main source of C.
material often mistaken for tuberculosis. The neoformans, although birds are not susceptible
associated lymph nodes bronchial, to infection. It may also be found in soil and
mediastinal and retropharyngeal - are also dust.
affected, and mesenteric nodes when infection
involves the abdominal organs. MT. Infection occurs by the inhalation of dust
and also via skin wounds.
D. Diagnosis is confirmed by demonstration
of the spherules in tissues, pus and giant cells as CF. Respiratory symptoms include anorexia,
fairly large bodies (20-200 um). coughing, sneezing and oculonasal discharge,
An intradermal skin test using an extract of while CNS involvement is shown by ataxia,
the fungus, coocidioidin, indicates exposure to hyperaesthesia, stiffness, circling and
the fungus in positive cases. sometimes blindness.
Precipitin and complement fixation tests Skin lesions take the form of nodules and
may also be used. ulcers accompanied by local oedema.
General signs usually accompany mastitis in
J. Carcase and viscera: T or A and D. which affected quarters are swollen and
Care is essential in handling meat and offal indurated with reduction of milk supply, the milk
because of the hazards for man. being thickened and greyish-white or watery
with flakes. C. neoformane is the most serious
fungal cause of mastitis, and can persist for
Coccidioidomycosis in man
months and result in total cessation of lactation.
The disease is systemic following the
respiratory infection and is frequently fatal. It P. Lesions are common in the thoracic cavity,
occurs in all ages, but most often in younger upper respiratory tract and mouth in the form
females after dust storms. Symptoms resemble of granulomas, abscesses and ulcers. Such
those of influenza - fever, chills, muscular changes may extend as metastases to other
pains, coughing and sometimes chest pain - in organs in the body. Like coccidioidomycoses,
the primary infection. Healing of the lesions they tend to resemble tuberculosis in the
(pyogranulomas) may then take place with ruminant. Lymphadenitis may be evident with
recovery of the patient, but organ slimy cut surfaces. The lesions in mastitis are
dissemination may ensue with fatal results. essentially granulomatous. The CNS changes
show as thickened meninges with translucent
material resembling oedema.
CRYPTOCOCCOSIS (BLASTOMYCOSIS, See also CF.
TORULOSIS)
D. The encapsulated organism can be
I.A systemic fungal disease which may identified in stained H&E preparations and by
affect horses, cattle, sheep, goats and man, fluorescent antibody technique.
612 Meat Hygiene
J. Carcase and viscera: A with D (lungs, phatics and nodes, creating nodules which
udder), Kh or T, depending on overall findings. ulcerate and exude thick, viscid, yellowish pus.
The ulcers have a tendency to close with the for-
mation of scabs and reopen at intervals. The
nodules are pyogranulomas possessing a thick-
EPIZOOTIC LYMPHANGITIS (EL,
ened fibrous capsule. The local superficiallym-
CLASSICAL HISTOPLASMOSIS,
phatic vessels are enlarged and stand out below
PSEUDO-GLANDERS) (Plate 2/ Fig. 8) the skin. The regional lymph nodes are
enlarged and firm and may also ulcerate and
I. A chronic, contagious, disease of horses and
discharge pus. The skin overlying the infected
mules (rarely donkeys) and more rarely cattle,
lymphatics is thickened and adherent to the
in which there is lymphangitis and
lymph channels and the whole limb may be
lymphadenitis with the formation of skin
grossly enlarged. Some 2-3 months are required
nodules, abscesses and ulcers emitting a thick,
for the abscesses and ulcers to regress and heal,
yellowish, viscid pus. Natural infection also
leaving a scar.
occurs in dogs, cats, rodents, bats and man.
Sometimes the larger lymph nodes are
O. Epizootic lymphangitis is now confined to infected to the extent that they become an
some countries in Africa (Benin, Ethiopia, abscess with all the lymphoid tissue destroyed.
Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Nigeria, Togo and The abscess bursts through the skin, creating a
South Africa), South America (Dominican granulating fistula which takes weeks to heal.
Republic) and Asia (Mongolia). It has never These lesions are found most often on the
been recorded in Oceania or in North America. lower limbs and shoulders but may occur on
Many countries have succeeded in almost any part of the body.
eradicating EL - Britain and Eire (1906)/ Sometimes, similar lesions may be found on
Romania (1918)/ Denmark (1945), Israel (1951)/ the lips and nasal septum and in the lungs as a
Albania (1953)/ Spain (1973)/ and Kuwait and septic pneumonia. Conjunctivitis and keratitis
Lebanon (1986). may also occur in some cases.
lA. Histoplasma capeulaium, a dimorphic P. See CF.
saprophytic fungus found in soil contaminated
D. The lesions are fairly typical in endemic
with the droppings of birds and animals in
areas but must be distinguished from the more
many subtropical parts of the world. It forms a
acute ulcerative lymphangitis caused by
mycelium with microconidia and macroconidia
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, glanders
in soil and a yeast form in animal and human
due to Pseudomonas mallei (q.v.), sporotrichosis
tissues.
due to the fungus Sporoihrichum schenckii and
R. Soil, especially that with a high organic bovine farcy caused by Mycobacterium
content, e.g. in the vicinity of poultry houses, farcinogenes.
carrier animals, domestic and wild, including The mallein test serves to differentiate
brown bats and flies. between EL and glanders and identification of
the causal organism, Histoplasma capsulaium,
MT. Infection arises through abrasions in the
confirms epizootic lymphangitis.
skin and possibly by the action of biting flies.
The inhalation of airborne spores or conidia J. Carcase and viscera: A, T or Kh with D
appears to be the usual mode of transmission in (limbs, lungs, etc.), depending on extent of
man. Since EL lesions can on occasion be found lesions and carcase condition.
in internal organs in animals, the possibility of
inhalation as a mode of infection in animals
cannot be discounted. Animal-to-animal or
MONILIASIS (CANDIDIASIS,
man-to-man transmission does not occur except
by inoculation of infected tissue.
CANDIDOSIS, CANDIDAMYCOSIS,
THRUSH)
Contaminated bedding, saddlery, grooming
tools, etc. can act as sources of infection.
I. A fungal infection of animals, birds and
CF. On entry, the spores invade the subcuta- man caused by members of the mycelial yeast
neous tissues and infect the superficial lym- Candida albicans and closely related species.
 Infectious Diseases 613
P. These fungi are common inhabitants of the The disease in sheep is termed mycotic
alimentary tract, to which they are normally dermatitis when the body is involved but not
confined as an infection, although extensions the limbs, and strawberry foot rot when the
may take place to other organs such as the lungs, lower limbs are affected.
kidneys, heart, liver, placenta, udder and skin.
The disease is of most importance in poultry o. Dermatophilosis occurs on all six
but also occurs in calves and piglets in which continents but appears to be most common in
plaques of soft, yellowish-white pseudo- Africa, South America and Oceania. It is
membrane overlying a red granulomatous area enzootic in Chad, Comoros, South Africa and
are found on the back of the tongue, Zimbabwe and of high occurrence in Gambia. In
oesophagus and stomach. South America, Antigua, Barbuda and St Lucia
Affected animals show anorexia, profuse have a high occurrence. It is enzootic in
diarrhoea and dehydration. Australia, New Zealand and Fiji and of sporadic
occurrence in several European countries.
J. Carcase and viscera: A, T or Kh, depending The disease was first reported in the USA in
on extent of lesions and carcase condition. 1961, but that country is now free of the
dermatophilosis.
Several countries have managed to eradicate
MUCORMYCOSIS (ZYGOMYCOSIS) the disease, including Guatemala (1985), Papua
New Guinea (1987), Solomon Islands (1988)
I. A contagious fungal infection of various and Israel and Northern Ireland (1991).
species of animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats,
horses, dogs, cats and certain wild animals) lA. Dertnaiophilus congoiensis, a Gram-
caused by members of the order Mucorales - positive, non-acid-fast facultative anaerobic
Mucor, Absidia, Mortierella and Rhizopus. euactinomycete which differs from the other
actinomycetes in having two stages of growth -
MT. The mode of infection is by ingestion and one of motile flagellated rods which reproduce
also inhalation of spores in mouldy hay and by budding and the other of aggregates of non-
feedingstuffs. motile coccoid cells which reproduce by cell
P. Lesions are in the form of granulomas in the fission.
intestinal wall and mesenteric lymph nodes. R. The main source of infection is probably
These caseous or calacareous nodular lesions, resistant carrier animals which have a few
white or yellow in colour, may also be found in active lesions. The organism does not remain
the liver, lungs and kidneys, especially in cattle alive for long outside the animal body except in
and pigs. In some instances round, shallow recently discarded scabs, in which it can
ulcers occur in the forestomachs of cattle and survive for several months. The possibility that
intestinal tract of pigs and are sometimes ticks and other biting insects can spread the
associated with the use of prolonged antibiotic infection may make these vectors a reservoir.
therapy.
MT. The disease is most common during
J. Carcase and viscera: As for moniliasis.
warm, wet weather of high humidity when the
natural resistance of the skin tends to be
reduced and also when biting insects are
DERMATOPHILOSIS (MYCOTIC
prevalent.
DERMATITIS, CUTANEOUS
Infection occurs through minor abrasions in
STREPTOTRICHOSIS, LUMPY WOOL
the skin. Operations such as shearing, dipping
DISEASE, STRAWBERRY FOOTROT)
and use of instruments are also involved in
causing infection as are the activities of ticks
I. An infection of the epidermis of cattle,
and biting flies.
sheep and goats, and less commonly horses,
pigs and occasionally man. An ulcerative CF. The zoospores germinate to produce
exudative dermatitis occurs with brownish hyphae which penetrate the skin at susceptible
crust formation, loss of hair, and granulation points and spread in all directions. An
tissue formation (sheep) and from time to time exudative inflammatory reaction results, with
general signs. the matting of hair and wool by brownish
614 Meat Hygiene
crusts. These lesions vary in size from 1 cm in keratinised tissues (skin, hair, nails) of animals
diameter to confluent lesions covering large and man characterised by pityriasis (formation
areas of the body. of greyish-white scales) and alopecia on
The lesions are most common on the back, thickened skin.
sides, shoulders and head but may involve
O. World,\,\Tide in distribution, especially
other parts. Calves are often affected on the
where animals are closely housed. It is usually
muzzle, with subsequent spread to the head
a self-limiting condition occurring during the
and neck.
winter months in temperate regions in cattle
The disease in sheep takes two forms: that
and clearing up once livestock experience the
already described, and a proliferative
spring sunshine, which may point to the
dermatitis ('strawberry foot rot') which affects
importance of the animal's nutritional status
the lower limbs from the knee or hock to the
and especially its vitamin D status.
carpus, especially on the coronets and heels.
Here the lesions appear as dome-shaped lA. A variety of different fungi affecting both
growths covered with brown scabs below animals and man, some species occurring in
which is a granulating cauliflower-like mass several different animal hosts.
which tends to bleed. Two main genera are responsible for
Young lambs may succumb in severe ringworm in animals - Trichophyton and
infections, but in most cases healing takes place Microsporum.
in 3 weeks or so. The following represent the most common
dermatophytes in farm animals:
P. See CF. On occasion a secondary
pneumonia may ensue. Cattle: Trichophyton uerrucosum, Tr.
mentagrcphutes, Tr. tnagninii.
D. Diagnosis is confirmed by demonstration
Horses: Tr. equinum, Tr. mentagrophutes, Tr.
of the organism in scrapings. oerrucoeunt, Tr. quinckeanum, Microsporum
Differential diagnoses include lumpy skin equinum, M. gypseu11l
disease, fleece rot, ulcerative dermatosis in
Pigs: Tr. menuigroplrftes, Tr. oerrucosum, Tr,
sheep, contagious ecthyma ('orf'), etc. rubrum, M. equinum, M. canis, M. nanum
J. As for Moniliasis. Sheep: Tr. oerrucosum, Tr. quinckeanutn, Tr.
mentagrophutes, Tr. gJJpselll11, M. canis
Goats: Tr. uerrucosum.
RHINOSPORIDIOSIS
I. A chronic, benign disease of the nasal Man (in whom the disease is termed tinea) is
mucosa and skin of cattle, horses, dogs, aquatic infected by members of the genera
birds and man caused by the fungus Trichophyton, Microsporum and
Rhinosporidium seeberi. Epidermophyton, notably Tr. mentagrophytes, Tr.
oerrucosum, n" ionsurans, n,. schoenleinii, M.
P. Soft, pinkish, polypoid growths with
andouinii and Epidermophyton flOCCOSll111.
granulomatous surfaces develop in the upper
The dermatophytes are either saprophytes in
nasal passages, and sometimes the mouth and
the soil where they break down keratinised
vagina. There is a blood-stained mucoid nasal
tissues of dead animals or pathogens acting on
discharge and dyspnoea. Granulomatous-like
the skin of animals and man. They can be
lesions also form on the skin.
passed from animals to animals, man to man
J. Carcase and viscera: As for moniliasis, but (rarely), animals to man and from soil to man.
judgement can be more lenient. The disease they cause is thus a true zoonosis.
The spores are very resistant and can survive
for months in dry, cool conditions although the
RINGWORM (DERMAPHYTOSIS, usual disinfectants and heat easily destroy
DERMAMYCOSIS, TRICHOPHYTOSIS, them.
MICROSPOROSIS, TINEA (MAN» Their structure consists of a mycelium of
hyphae and arthrospores (formed by
I. An infection by dermatophytes (fungi segmentation of the hyphae) and grow in the
causing skin and hair infections) of the keratinised layers of the skin, on and inside hair
 Infectious Diseases 615
shafts and in nails (in man). Under conditions J. Carcase and viscera: A, provided
of warmth, humidity, slightly alkaline pH and condition is satisfactory.
CO tension, the spores attack the outer layers of
the skin (stratum corneum) and hairs
producing autolysis and exudation which dries
SPOROTRICHOSIS
to form greyish-white flakes or crusts.
R. Infected and carrier animals, including I. An uncommon, chronic, contagious disease
dogs and cats, man and soil. of equidae and less commonly in cattle, camels,
dogs, cats and man in which pyogranulomas
MT. Direct contact with infected animals is and ulcers develop in animals on the limbs and
the usual mode of transmission, but infection sometimes on the head and thorax, with or
may also be caused by indirect contact with without lymphangitis and lymphadenitis.
bedding, harness, saddlery, grooming kits,
clothing, etc. O. The disease has been reported in the USA,
India and Europe.
CF. In cattle (the species most commonly
affected) ringworm is more common in the lA. Sporoihrix schenckii, a dimorphic Gram-
younger animal. The lesions are roughly positive fungus which lives as a saprophyte in
circular in outline, 3 cm in diameter and raised organic matter in the soil, animal faeces and
above the surrounding skin. The hair in the vegetable matter. In the body or culture at 3TC
infected area breaks off, leaving thick, round, it is in the form of a spherical or rod-shaped
sharply circumscribed, greyish-white areas yeast 3 x Iflum in size. Filamentous forms with
some 3 cm in diameter. Coalescence of lesions lateral hyphae and asexual single-walled
may take place to involve large areas of the conidia are formed at 22°C.
skin. Commonly a reddish ring (where spores
are actively creating inflammation) may be R. Soil and infected and carrier animals.
evident at the periphery of the hairless greyish MT. The pathogenic spores (conidia) gain
centre. The usual sites in cattle are the head and entrance to the body through skin abrasions or
neck, but lesions may occur on any part of the wounds, infection being conveyed by direct
body. There is no evidence of pruritus. contact with infected animals or indirectly
Slight differences in lesion type are through contaminated materials such as
manifested in the different animal species, but bedding, saddlery, harness, grooming
scaling and alopecia are common in all of them. equipment, etc.
Spores may be present on the skin and hair
without apparent infection, a fact which CT. Small, firm, elevated crusted nodules
emphasises the need for high standards of devoid of hair appear along the tracts of the
personal hygiene in all meat plant staff, lymphatic vessels, mainly on the lower limbs
especially those directly concerned with the but also on the head and thorax. These
handling of the live animal, the early stages of eventually ulcerate and discharge a thick,
its stunning and slaughter and the handling of creamy pus. The lymphatic vessels are inflamed
hides. and the associated lymph nodes are enlarged.
Staff must be alerted to the presence of all On occasions these pyogranulomas may
zoonoses encountered at ante-mortem become generalised and involve thoracic and
inspection. abdominal viscera.

P. See CF. P. See CF.

D. The lesions are fairly characteristic but can D. Sporotrichosis is very similar to epizootic
be confused with mycotic dermatitis and lymphangitis, from which it can be
dermatophilosis in cattle and pityriasis rosea differentiated by microscopical examination of
and exudative dermatitis in pigs. pus/tissues to detect the round rod-shaped
Diagnosis may be confirmed with the use of single spores within macrophages or by
Wood's lamp, the direct demonstration of culture.
hyphae and spores in skin scrapings and hairs, Other differential diagnoses include glanders,
and by culture. ulcerative lymphangitis and maduromycosis.
616 Meat Hygiene
J. Carcase and viscera: A, T or Kh, Parasites of the gut but also invade tissues,
depending on extent of lesions and carcase e.g. Balantidium.
condition. 4 Superclass Sarcodina (Amoebae): Movement
by pseudopodia. Asexual reproduction by
binary fission. Some free-living. Parasites of
the intestine but also invade tissues, e.g.
DISEASES CAUSED BY Babesia, Entamoeba, Theileria.
PROTOZOA Pathogenic effects are exerted in many
different ways, for example, Babesia and
The Protozoa are generally regarded as the Plasmodium are parasites of red blood cells,
lowest form of animal life, being unicellular which are ruptured releasing the contents (plus
microorganisms with a protoplasm results of reproduction) to cause
differentiated into cytoplasm and nucleus. They haemoglobinuria. There is also interference
vary greatly in size (2-100 urn) and shape, with the kallikrein system (a body system of
some, like the amoebae, possessing proteolytic enzymes produced by certain WBCs
pseudopodia, while others are flagellated like and platelets) which results in increased
Giardia and Trichomonas or ciliated like vascular dilatation and permeability to cause
Balantidium. haemoglobinaemia, anaemia and anoxia,
Reproduction may be asexual by binary fission leading all too frequently to prostration and
or schizogony in which there are successive death. Other Protozoa, e.g. Coccidia act by
divisions of the nucleus and cytoplasm to invading and destroying the mucosal cells of
produce as many as 40 000 merozoites. Sexual the intestine producing intense diarrhoea,
reproduction also occurs in some species, e.g. emaciation and often death.
Sporozoa where male and female gametes are
formed which on union give rise to a zygote
from which large numbers of sporozoites are AMOEBIASIS
produced.
Altogether there are some 30 000 species of 1. An acute or chronic protozoal infection of
Protozoa, most of whom are free-living, with man and, less commonly, animals in which
only about 20 genera of pathogenic forms. Many there is fever and haemorrhagic, ulcerative
species are saprophytic and some actually ingest colitis.
bacteria. Some of the pathogenic forms,
however, are able to inflict major plagues on o. Mainlv West Africa, SE Asia, Natal, Mexico
animals and man, e.g. the genus Plasmodium and South America and less commonly Europe
responsible for malaria is estimated to cause the and North America.
death of one million children yearly. lA. Entamoeba histolytica is primarily a
The classification of the phylum Protozoa parasite of man but on occasion can infect
(parasitic and non-parasitic) is very animals. It can exist as a commensal in the
complicated, but the parasitic forms in animals intestine (surveys have shown up to 50% of
and man can be placed in four main groups: people in tropical in countries harbouring the
1 Superclass Mastigophora (Flagellates): parasite) but can cause severe haemorrhagic
Movement by flagella. Asexual reproduction enteritis. Other less pathogenic amoebae are
by binary fission. Parasites of the intestine Ent. gingivalis, Ent. coli and Eni. hartmanni.
and genitourinary tract., e.g. Giardia,
Leishmania, Trichomonas, Trypanosoma. R. The organisms are ubiquitous in tropical
and subtropical regions.
2 Subphylum Sporozoa: Babesia, malaria and
allied parasites. Movement by gliding, MT. By ingestion of cysts in contaminated
sometimes by pseudopodia. Asexual and food and water.
sexual life cycle. Reproduction by schizogony.
Majority produce spores. Parasites of tissues, CF. The cysts establish themselves in the
e.g. Besnoiiia, Coccidia, Eimeria, Neospora, mucosal crypts of the intestine, penetrate the
Plasmodium, Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma. submucosa and form abscesses which rupture
3 Subphylum Ciliophora (Ciliates): Movement the mucosa, creating ulcers with necrotic
by cilia. Asexual and sexual reproduction. centres. In acute cases a severe dysentery
 Infectious Diseases 617
develops which may resolve or progress to a attaches itself to cattle during the larval,
chronic form. There is loss of weight, anorexia, nymphal and adult stages and on each occasion
dehydration and tenesmus. In the chronic form sucks the blood of the host and becomes
the diarrhoea may be constant or intermittent. engorged. Boophilus annulatus, on the other
hand, is a one-host tick and the various stages
P. See CF. On occasion the amoebae may enter
of its development take place on the one bovine
other organs such as the genitalia and skin.
host.
D. Diagnosis depends on demonstrating Eni. In areas in Zimbabwe where guinea fowl are
histolytica trophozoites in faecal or tissue protected, these birds have multiplied and, by
smears. consuming ticks, have virtually eliminated tick-
borne disease, a beneficial effect which can be
J. Carcase and viscera: Acute cases: T. Chronic
compared with the use of ducks and geese to
cases, T, A or Kh.
consume Limnaea iruncatula to control liver
fluke.
lA. Several different babesia are involved in
BABESIOSIS (PIROPLASMOSIS, the different animal species as follows:
REDWATER, TEXAS FEVER, CATTLE
TICK FEVER) Cattle: Babesia bouis, B. bigemina, B. berbera, B.
argentina, B. major, B. divergens
1. A group of tick-borne diseases of cattle, Water buffaloes: B. bonis, B. bigemina
water buffaloes, sheep, pigs and horses Sheep and goats: B. avis, B. motasi
characterised by fever, anaemia, icterus, Pigs: B. irauimanni, B. perroncitoi
haemoglobinaemia and haemoglobinuria. Horses: B. equi, B. caballi.
O. Babesiosis appears to occur worldwide,
especially in tropical and subtropical countries. B. bovis and B. bigetnina are normally
The USA and Canada are free at present. It is of confined to tropical and subtropical countries,
enzootic occurrence in manv countries while B. divergens and B. major occur in
including Albania, Sweden, Greece and N. temperate regions. In NW Europe the main
Ireland, but last cases were recorded in parasite is B. dioergens, B. bovis and B. major
Solomon Islands in 1929, Latvia in 1988, New being of lesser importance.
Caledonia in 1988 and in 1989 in Mauritius, A serological survey in cattle in N. Ireland
Yemen, Haiti and Yugoslavia. Both vectors and (Taylor et al., 1982) showed that the mean
disease have been eradicated from the USA and prevalence of B. divergens was 31.8%, the overall
Canada. Babesiosis is endemic in Australia but annual cost in terms of deaths, production loses
absent from New Zealand. and veterinary treatment being of the order of
The occurrence of babesiosis is related to the £250000. It was found that the disease was
distribution and activity of the various tick and mainly confined to the three counties of
biting fly vectors. The ticks involved include Armagh, Fermanagh and Tyrone.
the genera Ixodes (1. ricinus, I. persulcatusi,
R. Infected and carrier animals, domestic and
Boophilus (B. annulaius, B. microplus),
wild, in addition to ticks and, less commonly,
Haemaphysalis (H. punctatai, Rhipicephalus (R.
certain biting flies. The various protozoa pass
bursa, R. sanguineus), Dermacentor and
part of their life cycle in the tick vectors,
Hyalomma. Boophilus microplus is the tick vector
although B. bovis is only found in the larval
in Australia and B. decoloraius in Africa.
stage of B. microplus. Transovarian transmission
Ticks abound in the permanent grass and
of infection occurs in ticks, the parasite passing
bushes of rough low-lying ground and do not
through the egg to the next generation.
travel far on the ground. This means that
babesiosis tends to be limited to such districts MT. Infection is transmitted from infected
or fields. animals mainly by ticks, blood being
Ixodes ricinus differs from the American tick, transferred from an infected to a susceptible
Boophilus annulaius, which transmits Texas animal. When ticks feed on animals, the
fever, in that it is a three-host tick, leaving its parasites in the tick's saliva pass into the
host at each of its stages of development. It bloodstream. It is also possible that
618 Meat Hygiene
contaminated needles and instruments play a Cattle which have recovered from attacks of
part in the transmission of infection. Infection is babesiosis are occasionally encountered at meat
more easily transmitted by certain species, e.g. inspection. Such carcases show a typical light
B. bigeminu and B. equi. orange colour of the superficial fat. Further
Once transference of infection occurs, examination will often reveal very dark, even
multiplication of protozoa by binary fission black coloured kidneys with some evidence of
begins in the RBCs in either the peripheral or anaemia.
visceral blood vessels. Haemolysis of the
D. The post-mortem lesions encountered in
erythrocytes occurs, with release of
an endemic area at a time of tick activity (spring
haemoglobin into the plasma. There is also an
and autumn) are suggestive of babesia.
accompanying vasodilatation and permeability
Confirmation, however, must be made by the
of blood vessels through activation of the examination of Giemsa- or Leishman-stained
kallikrein system, which can lead to circulatory
smears (absolute alcohol fixed) from the
collapse and shock due to oxygen and nutrient
peripheral blood in the live animal. Similar
insufficiency, CO2 and waste products build-up,
smears may also be made at post-mortem. The
anaemia, jaundice, etc. protozoa can also be demonstrated in the
CF. Babesia infections assume several different kidnev.
forms depending on the virulence of the Th~ organisms usually appear singly in the
organism, resistance of the host, etc. The RBCs as pear-shaped bodies seldom exceeding
infection may be peracute, acute, chronic or 1.5 urn in length. Two may be found with their
inapparent. pointed ends in contact, the angle between the
After an incubation period of 2-3 weeks, in two organisms being obtuse. Sometimes the
typical acute cases there is fever, inappetence, parasites occur singly as rounded or, less
cessation of rumination in ruminants, malaise, commonly, rod-shaped or lanceolate bodies,
anaemia, jaundice and haemoglobinuria with 1-2 urn in diameter.
dark red to brown urine. Some cases display Resort may also be made to serological tests
nervous symptoms when the CNS is affected, such as complement fixation, indirect
with incoordination, mania, convulsions, coma haemagglutination and indirect fluorescent
and death. Abortion may occur in pregnant antibody, especially the last.
animals.
In horses colic is often apparent with oedema
J. Carcase and viscera: A, T, or Kh and D,
depending on degree and extent of lesions and
of the fetlocks, head and ventral abdomen, but
carcase condition.
clinical anaemia is not evident.
Affected animals can remain carriers for
months, even years, after recovery.
BALANTIDIOSIS (BALANTIDIASIS,
P. The lesions are typical of all conditions BALANTIDIAL DYSENTERY)
where red cell destruction by intraerythrocyte
parasites occurs. Acute cases show jaundice, I. A protozoan infection of the caecum and
enlargement of the spleen, which is soft and large intestine, mainly of pigs (the main host),
pulpy, and enlargement of the liver, which is higher primates, sometimes man and rarely
dark brown in colour. The gall bladder is dogs and rats in which there is enteritis,
distended with thick, dark-coloured granular anaemia, diarrhoea and poor growth.
bile. The enlarged kidneys are also very dark, Zoonosis.
even black in colour, and this coloration is often
O. Worldwide in distribution.
seen in animals which have long recovered
from babesiosis. There is subcutaneous and lA. Balantidium coli, an actively mobile
intramuscular oedema with yellow, gelatinous protozoan parasite, the vegetative forms of
fat and thin, watery blood. Clotting of the blood which are 30-150 urn in length and 25-125 urn
is characteristic in cattle and horses which have wide. It is ellipsoidal in shape and possesses
died of the disease. longitudinal spiral rows of cilia over the whole
Subendocardial and subepicardial body. The cytoplasm contains a kidney-shaped
ecchymoses are usually present in the heart. macronucleus and a smaller micronucleus
Loss of condition is evident in the carcase. along with several food vacuoles.
 Infectious Diseases 619
The parasite is a commensal in the large O. Besnoitiosis has been reported in Africa,
intestine, where it feeds on Ascarops (nematode) Europe, Soviet Union, Asia and South
eggs, starch, bacteria and ingesta. It may invade America.
the mucosa to produce enteritis and ulceration
with haemorrhage but normally there is little lA. Besnoitia are Toxoplasma-like organisms
change in the mucous membrane. which form large, thick-walled cysts full of
B. coli produces yellowish-green cysts which bradyzoites in endothelial, histiocytes and
are spherical or oval in shape and about other cells.
45-65 urn in diameter. The cysts are very Several forms of the parasite are known to
resistant organisms, much more so than the cause disease - Besnoitia besnoiti in cattle, B.
trophozoites, which are the adult, active, motile benneiii in horses and burros and B. iarandi in
stage of B. coli. reindeer.
B. coli reproduces in the large intestine by
binary fission. Conjugation, i.e. the temporary R. Domestic and wild cats (in which the
union of two individuals to transfer genetic organism is B. ioallacei; are believed to be the
material, may also take place. definitive hosts. The reservoir also includes
infected and carrier animals and wildlife.
R. Pigs, rats and other animals, especially
primates. MT. Infection probably takes place by
ingestion (cat faeces are a common source of
MT. Via the ingestion of cysts in foods and infection) and also by the bites of flies.
water contaminated with pig faeces. Sows' Mechanical transmission via syringes is also
faeces are the main source of infection for possible.
piglets.
CF. Usually only anaemia, enteritis, anorexia, CF. An initial fever is followed by
diarrhoea (which may be blood-stained) and inappetence, malaise, increased respiratory
poor growth are evident. But severe infections rate, rhinitis, swelling of superficial lymph
can result in serious haemorrhage and death nodes, anasarca, photophobia, lachrymation,
when intestinal ulceration occurs. nasal discharge and orchitis. Severe dermatitis
In man, in which the disease is very acute, develops with thickening and induration of the
there is severe colitis with desquamation of the skin, which becomes wrinkled, especially on
intestinal mucosa and watery diarrhoea. In the shoulders, neck and hindquarters. Affected
debilitated individuals the disease can be fatal. parts of the skin become hairless and portions
of the superficial layers are shed. Pregnant
P. See CF. animals are liable to abort and affected bulls
become sterile. Animals which are severely
D. Diagnosis is based on the clinical signs,
affected become emaciated. The mortality rate
post-mortem changes and the demonstration of
is in the region of 10%.
large numbers of trophozoites or cysts of
Balantidium coli in faeces, mucosal scrapings or P. In addition to the skin changes, there are
intestinal contents. 'widespread lesions in the blood vascular and
J. Carcase and viscera: Depends on degree of muscular (skeletal and cardiac) systems. There
infection and carcase condition. Usually A or T is extensive perivasculitis and myopathy due to
and D (intestine). the presence of cysts, which are also present in
the scleral conjunctiva and nasal mucosa. Fine
seed-like granules can be felt in the subcutis.

D. Diagnosis depends on the demonstration

BESNOITIOSIS of the spindle-shaped bradyzoites in affected
tissues, especially skin biopsy smears and
I. A sporozoan disease of cattle, horses, scleral conjunctiva.
burros, goats, cats, reindeer and certain forms
of wildlife in which there is severe J. Carcase and viscera: A and D, localised
inflammation of the skin, subcutis and blood lesions with no systemic effect. T, widespread
vessels. lesions or systemic effect.
620 Meat Hygiene

COCCIDIOSIS (RED DYSENTERY IN The microgametes can be regarded as the

CATTLE) spermatozoa of the higher animals. When
released into the lumen of the intestine, they
I. A usually acute, but sometimes chronic,
penetrate the intestinal cells containing the
contagious protozoan disease of all domestic
macrogametes and fertilise them, producing
animals, especially rabbits and poultry,
zygotes which become oocysts. When mature,
characterised by haemorrhagic enteritis and
the oocysts are liberated from the intestinal cells
dysentery in the acute form. and are passed out in the faeces.
o. Coccidiosis occurs worldwide, the disease The cells of the host are destroyed by the
in poultry being of high occurrence in many production of shizonts and gametes and the
countries and causing severe economic losses. release of oocvsts. Each oocvst, with the vast
The close confinement of poultry and other increase in subsequent p'rogeny, has the
animal species provides an ideal environment capacity to destroy hundreds or thousands of
for infection to develop and be maintained. individual intestinal cells. Subsequent cell
damage is caused by secondary bacterial
lA. Coccidia of the genera Eimeria, Isospora
infection.
and Cystoisospora. All coccidia are host-specific Hosts of coccidia are as follows:
and cross-immunity does not exist between the
different species. Cattle: Eimeria zuernii, E. ballis, E. ellipsoidalis,
The coccidia are sporozoan parasites which, E. canadensis, E. pelliia, E. subspherica, E.
in the form of merozoites, invade and destroy aiabamensis, Isospora absaica
the epithelial cells of the intestine. Sheep and goats: E. arloingi, E. [aurei, E. ahsaia,
E. ooinoidalis, E. ooina E. pama, E. pallida, E.
Life cycle of coccidia The life cycle is complex crandallis, E. granulosa, E. nutrsica
and slight differences exist between the Pigs: E. debliecki, E. scabra, E. porci, E. scrojae, E.
different species. For example, Eimeria, Isospora perminuia, E. poliia, E. cerdouns, E. spinosa, E.
and Cystoisospora typically require only one romaniae, I. suis
host in which to complete their life cycle, but Horses: E. leuckatti.
Cystoisospora can utilise an intermediate host
and the number of sporocysts and sporozoites (The above list is by no means complete.)
produced also varies.
Infection takes place when oocysts (present in R. Clinically affected and carrier animals.
the faeces of infected animals) are ingested.
MT. By the ingestion of food and water
Under suitable conditions of oxygen,
contaminated with oocyst-containing faeces or
temperature, moisture and available nutrients,
the licking of a coat contaminated with faeces.
etc., the oocysts sporulate with the production
of sporozoites within secondary cysts CF. Coccidiosis is more prevalent under
(sporocysts). In Eimeria spp. the sporulated conditions of overcrowding, poor nutrition,
oocyst has 4 sporocysts, each with 2 unhygienic conditions, stressful situations such
sporozoites, while the sporulated oocysts of as transportation, weaning, sudden changes of
Isospora and Cystoisospora spp. have 2 feed, inclement weather, etc.
sporocysts, each with 4 sporozoites. The destruction of the epithelial cells in the
In the small intestine (posterior half) the villi of the intestine, which can extend to the
sporozoites leave the sporocyst and invade the submucosa, is accompanied by haemorrhage
mucosa of the villi and the epithelial cells of into the lumen, catarrhal inflammation and
other organs, e.g. liver, where they develop into diarrhoea or dysentery.
multinucleated schizonts, each nucleus of which The incubation period varies in the different
becomes a merozoite. The merozoites (of which species from 2-4 weeks in cattle to 2-3 weeks in
there can be hundreds or thousands) are sheep and 1 week in pigs.
liberated when the cell is ruptured and invade Coccidiosis is mostly a disease of younger
cells in the large intestine to repeat the whole animals - usuallv under 1 vear old in cattle and
process. After a few generations of asexual horses and und'er 6 months of age in sheep,
reproduction, merozoites develop into either goats and pigs.
macrogametes (female) or microgameies (male) to The severity of symptoms depends largely
begin the sexual aspect of the coccidial cycle. on the degree of infection, the species of
 Infectious Diseases 621
coccidia, isospora, etc., involved, the form of (59.1%) of the farms and in the faecal samples
husbandry, the factors listed above, and the from 1648 (22.4%). About 50% of the calves (1-3
susceptibility of the animal. weeks old) had oocysts in their faecal samples.
In addition to the diarrhoea, there may be The prevalence of cryptosporidiosis was
whole blood, mucus and portions of sloughed highest during the summer months and farms
mucosa in the faeces. Animals lose weight, with with more than 100 milking cows and those
a rough hair coat, hindquarters are soiled with where the cows did not calve in individual
faeces, and exhibit weakness, inappetence and boxes were significantly more likely to have
dehydration. In light infestations, however, calves with cryptosporidia (Garber et al., 1994).
there may be watery faeces with little or no Other studies have revealed the presence of
blood and the animal showing no significant Cruptospcridium oocysts in 5% of piglets.
signs of ill-health. In some instances the organisms have been
During the acute period in cattle, many isolated from clinically healthy animals, a fact
animals die. Those which survive take a long which lends some doubt as to the real
time to recover body weight. pathogenicity of Cruptospcvidium at least under
Central nervous symptoms have been certain conditions.
described in some instances in cattle. The organism has also been isolated from
human faecal specimens in some 50 countries,
P. Haemorrhagic enteritis with the presence of
the prevalence varying from less than 1-4.5% in
blood-stained contents in the intestine is the
developed countries to 3-20% in developing
most significant finding. The mucosa may be
regions.
ulcerated with portions sloughed off. The
mucosa of the whole intestine from caecum to lA. The coccidian protozoan parasites
rectum is thickened and may even be formed in Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris. Both have
ridges. Less severe infections may show only a been successfully transmitted experimentally to
catarrhal inflammation of the intestinal mucosa. a wide variety of mammals including cattle,
Small whitish cysts may be visible on the tips pigs, sheep, goats, cats, dogs and mice, thus
of the intestinal villi, especially in the ileum. making Cryptosporidia non-host-specific
Anaemia and loss of condition are evident in parasites unlike the Coccidia, which are host-
more severe cases. specific.
The life history has both asexual and sexual
D. The demonstration of numbers of oocysts in
cycles of reproduction. Unlike Eimeria and
the faeces is diagnostic. It may be necessary to
Isospora, however, Cruptosporidium oocysts can
examine several faecal samples because of the
sporulate in the intestine and are immediately
many factors involved in the coccidial life cycle,
infective when passed in the faeces, whereas
stage of infection, number of infective oocysts
the former two genera only sporulate when
ingested, method of examination, etc.
they have been passed from the host.
J. Carcase and viscera: A, T, or Kh and D, Although intracellular parasites like Eimeria
depending on carcase condition. and Isospora, Cryptosporidia are extracytoplas-
mic in that the organism is fused with the cyto-
plasm of the epithelial cells, all being enclosed
CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS by host membranes.
The oocysts of Crupiosporidium possess very
I. A self-limiting acute or chronic protozoan thick walls which make them resistant to many
zoonotic disease of cattle, sheep, pigs, humans, environmental influences. They can remain
some forms of wildlife and less commonly infective for months under suitable conditions
horses, dogs and cats in which there is loss of of moisture and temperature. They are more
weight and diarrhoea. easily destroyed under dry conditions and the
usual disinfectants in normal concentrations are
O. The disease has an occurrence on all six
effective against them.
continents in a wide variety of hosts.
A monoclonal antibody technique was used R. Since the organism can cross species
in a US nationwide survey of 7369 faecal barriers, the reservoir of infection includes a
samples taken from calves" on 1103 farms. wide range of domestic and wild animals as
Oocysts of cryptosporidia were found on 652 well as man himself.
622 Meat Hygiene
MT. By the faecal-oral route, either directly The Giardia are pear-shaped binucleate
from animal to animal or man or vice versa or protozoa possessing eight flagella. The ventral
indirectly via fomites. surface of the trophozoite (which is released
from the ingested cyst) is concave and arranged
CF. Cryptosporidiosis is essentially a disease
as a sucker for attachment to the intestinal
of the young animal. Organisms are usually
mucosa of the host. The trophozoites are
shed within 5 days of infection and continue to
9-21 urn long, 5-15!lm wide and 2-4!lm thick.
be shed for about 2 weeks. The clinical signs
The organism would appear to act as a
include anorexia, loss of weight, diarrhoea,
commensal in the intestine of animals and man,
some dehydration and tenesmus.
only acting as an opportunist parasite under ill-
Symptoms resemble those of other diseases
defined conditions of host susceptibility.
in which enteritis is the major entity. The
The term zooanthroponosis has been
diarrhoea, although persistent, is self-limiting.
suggested for giardiasis and for those diseases
The mortality rate varies greatly but is
(amoediasis, cryptosporidiosis, etc.) which are
generally in the region of 5%.
maintained in nature by lower vertebrates.
P. Affected carcases are dehydrated and
R. Infected and carrier animals, birds and
anaemic. The distal small intestine is
man and many forms of wildlife.
hyperaemic with yellowish contents. There is
severe villous atrophy due to the presence of MT. By the faecal-oral route. The ingested
large numbers of the parasite (trophozoites and cysts release the flagellated trophozoites in the
schizonts). intestine, where they adhere to the villi of the
mucosa.
D. Diagnosis is confirmed by demonstration
of the oocysts in mucosal scrapings or faecal CF. The disease is most common in cattle,
samples (flotation in sucrose or zinc sulphate). sheep, human beings, dogs and cats and less
The oocysts are much smaller than Eimeria and common in horses and pigs. Young animals and
Isospora, being in the case of C. parvllm less than children are most often affected.
5 urn in diameter. C. muris is slightly larger (less The main symptoms in active cases are
than 6 urn in diameter). diarrhoea and loss of weight. In some instances
The acid-fast technique of staining may be there is steatorrhoea in which excess fat is
used, when Cnjptosporidium oocysts stain red, present in the faeces due to malabsorption
while yeasts, which are about the same size, initiated by the adherent trophozoites. In these
stain blue or green with the counterstain. cases the faeces are pale in colour, greasy and
Cryptosporidiosis must be distinguished malodorous, the situation which obtains in
from many other diarrhoeic diseases including human beings.
coccidiosis, salmonellosis, coronavirus and
P. There are usually no gross lesions in the
rotavirus infections.
intestine, although a mild enteritis may be
J. As for coccidiosis. present.
D. Diagnosis is made by demonstrating the
trophozoites in intestinal scrapings or the cysts
GIARDIASIS (LAMBLIASIS) (averaging 10!lm x 15 urn) in faeces. For the
latter the zinc sulphate centrifugal flotation
method is used.
I. A usually chronic or inapparent zoonotic
infection of most domestic animals, especially J. Carcase and viscera: A, T, or Kh and D,
cattle and sheep, birds and man in which the depending on carcase condition.
main symptom is continuous or intermittent
diarrhoea or steatorrhoea.
O. Worldwide in distribution, most cases
NEOSPOROSIS
occurring in tropical and subtropical countries
as a silent inapparent condition.
I. A protozoan infection of cattle associated
lA. Giardia iniestinalis, G. duodenalis, G. lamblia with neonatal paresis, encephalitis and
and Lamblia iniesiinalis. abortion.
 Infectious Diseases 623
O. The disease has been reported in North 75% in some areas compared with 5% in grain-
America, Australia, Japan, South Africa, United fed pigs. The incidence, however, has reduced
Kingdom and the Netherlands. significantly with the compulsory boiling of
swill before use. Although at one time recorded
lA. Species of Neospora. Although Necspora
in 20-30% of pigs in Denmark, it is now rarely
caninum (the cause of paresis and mortality in
encountered.
young dogs) is known to cause abortion in
In South Africa 0.01% of cattle and 0.04% of
cattle under experimental conditions, it is not
pigs are condemned because of sarcocystosis.
certain whether this organism is the cause in all
In Australia records of the Bureau of Animal
instances. Neospora species isolated from cases
Health in 1973 showed that of 17.4 million
of bovine abortion in the USA were
sheep slaughtered 0.27% were infested with
immunologically indistinguishable from N.
Sarcocystis spp. In the same country there have
caninum, but the exact relationship with N.
been high rejection rates, even up to 100%, due
caninum was not clear.
to sarcocystosis, many of the sheep having
R. Infected and carrier cattle and dogs. originated from irrigation areas. Microcysts of
S. hominis and S. ienella (which can only be
MT. The exact mode of transmission is not
detected microscopically) were found in 90.3%
known. It may, however, occur by the placenta,
of young sheep (less than 15 months of age) and
which is the route in dogs. Since only the
in 96.1% of adult sheep, which had macrocysts
asexual stages of the life cycle are known, many
in 13.4%. (Seneviratna and Ford, 1980).
aspects of Neospora spp. infection are not clear.
Sarcocystis berirami (equicanis) has been
In the past, the organisms have been confused
detected in oesophageal samples from 62% of
with Toxoplasma gondii.
394 horses and ponies at an abattoir in
CF. Affected animals show neonatal paresis, Cheshire, England (Edwards, 1982). The
encephalomyelitis and abortion with stillbirths. prevalence was greater in older animals and in
females.
P. Fetuses exhibit a gliosis in the CNS (an
excess of astroglia, neuroglial cells of lA. Sporozoan parasites of the genus
ectodermal origin). There is also some degree of Sarcocystis are recorded in more than 50 species
placentitis. of mammals and birds, all being host-specific.
Sarcocystis spp. develop in two-host cycles,
D. Diagnosis can only be confirmed with cer-
the definitive or final (predator) hosts being
tainty by immunohistochemical identification
dogs, cats and wild carnivores - foxes, wolves,
of the organisms in fetal tissue. raccoons, coyotes, etc. - while the farm
J. Carcase and viscera: A, providing condition livestock are intermediate hosts or prey hosts.
is adequate. Only the prey hosts are harmed, the organisms
rarely causing disease in the predator hosts.
Some of the more common Sarcocystis spp.
SARCOCYSTOSIS occurring in farm animals are as follows:
(SARCOSPORIDIOSIS) Cattle: 5. cruzi (cattle-dog, fox, etc.), 5. hirsuia
(5. bovifelis) (cattle-cat), S. hotninis
I. A usually subclinical sporozoan disease of (cattle-man)
cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, birds, dogs, Sheep: 5. tenella (sheep-dog, fox, etc.), 5.
cats, man and wild carnivores, rodents and arieiicanis (sheep-dog, fox, etc.), S. gigantea
reptiles characterised mainly by a cystic (sheep-cat), 5. medusiformis (sheep-cat)
invasion of most tissues of the body (mainly Goats: 5. capracanis (goat-dog), S. hircicanis
skeletal muscle and nervous tissue) but which (goat-dog), 5. moulei (goat-cat)
on occasions is associated with severe clinical
Pigs: 5. miescheriana (pig-dog, fox, etc.), 5.
signs and death. suihominis (pig-man), 5. porcifelis (pig-cat)
o. Probably worldwide. Most reports of Horses: 5. bertrami (horse-dog), S. neurona
sarcosporidiosis have come from Canada, USA t (unknown).
England, Iceland, Norway and Australia.
Sarcocystosis was at one time common in Life cycle The predator or scavenger host
swill-fed pigs in the USA, with an incidence of becomes infected by eating flesh containing
624 Meat Hygiene
infective sarcocysts, which are shed as frequently seen as an encephalomyelitis with
sporocysts or sporulated oocysts in the faeces weakness, ataxia, hyperaesthesia and paresis
after 1 week. The intermediate or prey host then while still maintaining appetite and alertness.
ingests these sporocysts in contaminated food Cases of lymphadenopathy, non-suppurative
and water and in the small intestine sporozoites interstitial pneumonia and encephalitis have
are released by the action of digestive enzymes also been recorded.
and bile. The sporozoites penetrate the The incidence of Sarcocystosis is higher in the
intestinal mucosa and enter arterioles in the older animal and in stall-fed cattle and pigs fed
wall and lymph nodes. Each sporozoite then on swill.
divides by multiple fission into first generation In horses there is a tendency for nervous
schizonts. Numerous merozoites are liberated symptoms to develop owing to the presence of
from each schizont, enter the bloodstream and sarcocysts in the brain and spinal cord.
develop into second-generation schizonts in the Humans can act as intermediate hosts and
capillary endothelium throughout the animal have been infected with S. suihominis by eating
body. Merozoites liberated from second- uncooked pork and with S. hominis from
generation schizonts circulate in the uncooked beef. Symptoms in man include
bloodstream in mononuclear cells or transient nausea, diarrhoea and abdominal
extracellularly. Merozoites from second and pain.
third generations penetrate muscle cells and
neurons and glial cells in the brain, where they P. Schizonts are distributed throughout the
encyst. These tissue cysts contain one or two body in endothelial cells, being especially
parasite forms (metrocytes) each of which common in striated muscle, heart, brain, liver,
divides to produce an infective cyst some 2-3 lung and kidneys.
months after initial ingestion. In muscle the cysts lie within or between
Although many sporocysts are small, some individual muscle fibres and have a
are large enough to be recognised at meat characteristic cigar-shape known as Miescher's
inspection. (Average size of S. cruzi is 16.3 urn bodies, sacs or tubules (4.5)lm x 0.35 urn). The
by 10.8 um.) larger cysts may lie loose in the perimuscular
connective tissue and are globular, oval or
R. All infected and carrier species listed bean-shaped. Although the size of the cyst is
above. determined by its age and the host species, its
MT. Animals become infected through eating basic structure remains the same, namely a cell
foodstuffs and pasture contaminated with the which may be striated and consists partly of
sporocysts from dogs, foxes, etc., which acquire sarcolemma, a cavity which mayor may not be
infection from eating infected meat and offal. subdivided by septa, and contents that are
viscous or gelatinous and opaque to milky
CF. Although sarcocysts have not been white or yellowish in colour. The cyst contains
regarded in the past as pathogenic, recent sporoblasts along the periphery and varying
experience has shown that they can produce numbers of sickle-shaped nucleated
disease. Their importance is being increasingly sporozoites known as Rainey's corpuscles.
recognised. For example, the chronic condition In cattle sarcocysts are found chiefly in
Dalmeny disease, in which there is emaciation, active muscles such as the tongue, masseter
submandibular oedema and ex ophthalmia, is muscles, heart and diaphragm. Slight
now believed to be a bovine sarcocvstosis. In infestations found in the masseter muscles at
most instances, however, sarcocystosis is post-mortem tend to disappear during
subclinical. The species of Sarcocystis largely overnight chilling. On occasions, the muscle
determines the severity of the disease. lesions may be concentrated in foci varying
Severely affected cattle show fever, anorexia, from 3 or 4 spots to a solid greenish area about
loss of condition and milk yield, muscle 10 cm in diameter.
spasms, diarrhoea, hyperaesthesia, weakness, Only larger cysts are visible to the naked eye,
anaemia and sometimes death. Abortion occurs appearing as light grey dots on cross-section
in some cases. and spindle-shaped on longitudinal section.
Other species of livestock display similar Small cysts are only visible when degeneration
symptoms. Sarcocystosis in sheep, however, is and calcification occur.
 Infectious Diseases 625
Lesions of focal eosinophilic myositis, blue wildebeest, eland and siberian roe, in
characterised by spindle-shaped greenish areas which there is fever, lymphadenopathy,
which may coalesce to form lesions several leukopenia, anaemia and often high mortality.
centimetres in diameter, may be caused by Theileriosis includes East Coast fever,
degenerating or decomposing sarcocysts, but Corridor disease, tropical theileriosis or
similar lesions occur without any apparent Mediterranean Coast fever and benign bovine
connection with Sarcocystis. The two conditions theileriosis.
may co-exist. It has also been shown that other Members of the genus Theileria and Babesia,
parasitic organisms and allergic reactions having similar life cycles, are sometimes
focused on muscle may elicit eosinophilic termed piroplasms and their diseases
myositis. A connection between sarcocystosis piroplasmosis. While both parasites attack
and eosinophilic myositis has, therefore, not RBCs, Theileria spp. utilise both red and white
been proved. blood cells to complete their life cycle in the
There is a wide variation in pathological mammalian host.
findings in sarcocystosis, from few gross lesions
Life cycle of Theileria parva in the bovine:
apart from multiple areas of pallor in heavily
The infective uninuclear sporozoites (1.5 pm in
infested muscle, to Widespread petechial and
diameter) are transmitted in the saliva of
ecchymotic haemorrhages and hepatitis,
infected ticks, e.g. Rhipicephalus appendiculaius
glomerulitis and retinitis in encephalomyelitis
when its nymphal and adult stages feed on the
cases in sheep. Erosions and ulcerations in the
susceptible mammalian host. In the
mouth and oesophagus have been described in
lymphocytes, lymphoblasts and lymph nodes
cattle.
the sporozoites replicate into several
In the pig the muscles of the abdominal wall,
multinucleated macroschizonis (Koch's blue
diaphragm and the masticatory and skeletal
bodies). After a series of macroschizont
muscles are most often affected.
replications microschizonis containing
Lesions designated as 'sarcocysts' are
numerous nuclear particles or 'cocci' (up to 120)
sometimes encountered in the shoulder muscle
are formed. When the cell ruptures, they are
(m. triceps brachii) incision during routine
freed as micromerozoites and enter red blood
inspection of bovine carcases in Africa, these
cells to form the characteristic piroplasms
lesions being of a light green iridescent coloration
which represent the end-form of the infection in
or forming streaky greyish-white areas elongated
the bovine.
along the course of the muscle fibres. Sometimes
In the nymphal ticks, merozoites are liberated
the lesions are widely distributed throughout the
in the tick gut from the red blood cells by lysis
carcase musculature without evidence of
and develop into several sexual forms of
sarcosporidiosis. The lesion is essentially a focal
microgameies and macrogametes. From these
eosinophilic myositis and may be an allergic 'male' and 'female' forms, zygotes are produced,
manifestation to an unidentified parasite.
which increase in size to form motile ookineies
D. Diagnosis depends on an accurate which pass to the salivary gland. In the salivary
evaluation of the herd/flock and its association gland, sporogony occurs with the production of
with dogs, along with the clinical signs listed numerous infective sporozoites.
above, detection of humoral antibodies and The various stages of development of the
histopathological examination of a wide range parasite pass through the larval, nymphal and
of organs, including kidney, liver, spleen, adult forms of the ticks, but there is no
muscle, spinal cord and lymph nodes. transovarian transmission.
J. Carcase and viscera: A T, or Kh and D,
depending on the degree of infestation and
carcase condition. EAST COAST FEVER (ECF)

I. An acute, non-contagious, protozoan tick-

THEILERIOSIS borne disease of cattle, water buffalo and
certain wild ruminants characterised by high
I. A group of protozoan tick-borne infections fever, lymphadenopathy, leukopenia, anaemia,
of cattle, sheep, goats and wild ruminants, e.g. emaciation and high mortality.
626 Meat Hygiene
(Corridor disease is a form of East Coast fever CF. Many factors are involved in the degree of
which occurs primarily in buffaloes but can be virulence of the disease - immune status of the
transmitted to cattle. It is caused by T. latorencei animal (e.g. buffaloes and zebu cattle and
(bovis) and is transmitted by the tick young animals are less susceptible), level of tick
Rhipicephalus zmnbiensis.) infestation, origin of tick population, level of
infective dose, strain of organism, etc.
O. As the name implies, ECF is mainly An initial sign is enlargement of the lymph
confined to East and Central Africa, being of nodes in the region of the tick bite (in 1-2 weeks
especially high occurrence in Sudan and after tick attachment).
Zambia. Namibia had its last case in 1986, In the acute form of ECF there is high fever,
Central African Republic in 1986 and Nigeria in depression, anorexia, lymphadenopathy, lachryma-
1990. The disease has been eradicated from tion, nasal discharge, diarrhoea and/or dysentery,
South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique and emaciation, weakness, prostration and death in
Zimbabwe. 7-10 days in severe cases. In some instances there is
CNS in~olvement with circling ('tuming sickness'),
lA. Theileria paroa, a sporozoan parasite convulsions, head pressing and muscular tremors.
whose merozoite forms (1.5 urn x 0.5-1 urn) in A few animals show blepharospasm (spasm of the
red blood cells are comma, rod, round, ring or orbital muscle of the eye) and keratitis.
annular-shaped. With Romanowsky stains they Most of the clinical signs are associated with
appear as a blue cytoplasm with a red the tremendous damage to the reticuloendothe-
chromatin granule at one end. In lymphocytes, lial system.
and occasionally in lymph nodes and the
spleen, where they are actively multiplying, P. The principal pathological features are
they become larger, circular or irregularly- emaciation, lymph node enlargement, marked
shaped bodies (schizonts or Koch's blue bodies) pulmonary oedema and hyperaemia along with
up to 12/lm in diameter. hydrothorax and hydropericardium. The lung
There are three subtypes of Theileria parm: T. interlobular septa are well-defined and the
parva paroa, transmitted between cattle; T. parm bronchi and trachea are full of frothy exudate.
laiorencei, transmitted from buffalo to cattle; and Ecchymotic haemorrhages are evident on the
the feebly pathogenic T. parva bonis, which is serosal and mucosal surfaces of many organs.
transmitted between cattle. The liver is often slightly enlarged and shows
mottled grey areas. The thymus, lymph nodes,
R. Infected animals and the larval, nymphal abomasum and intestines may exhibit necrosis
and adult stages of the vector ticks, only the and ulceration.
latter two being capable of transmitting Sometimes the lymph nodes are oedematous
infection. Carrier status is believed to be rare in and haemorrhagic and show areas of necrosis.
East Coast fever but recovered cases of Corridor
disease (benign form of ECF) can act as carriers. D. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and the
Water buffaloes and wild bovidae can sustain demonstration of schizonts in lymph node
the tick population but not the parasite. biopsy smears and piroplasms in blood smears.
The complement fixation test and especially
MT. The main vector tick is Rhipicephalus the indirect fluorescent antibody test can be
appendicuuitus, but other species of Rhipicephalus used to detect infection with T. paroa.
as well as species of Hyalomma are probably Differential diagnoses: babesiosis,
also involved. Adults and nymphs of R. anaplasmosis, trypanosomiasis.
appendicultuus can remain alive on the ground
for over a year without feeding, but T. parva
J. Carcase and viscera: T, A, or Kh and D,
according to severity of lesions and carcase
infection in the ticks only remains infective for
condition.
about 9 months.
Once an infected nymph or adult tick feeds
to engorgement it loses its infection completely.
MEDITERRANEAN COAST FEVER
Infection is transmitted by the nymphal and
(TROPICAL THEILERIOSIS)
adult stages of the ticks, the infective
sporozoites being injected into the ruminant I. A non-contagious tick-borne protozoan
host when the ticks engorge on it. disease of cattle and water buffalo characterised
 Infectious Diseases 627
by fever, lymphadenopathy, emaciation, O. Middle East, South Africa, Kenva, Korea,
anaemia and icterus. India and Australia. J

O. The disease occurs in the Middle East from lA. Cattle: Theileria muians, only small
Morocco to Egypt and Iran (enzootic both numbers of which are present as schizonts and
countries), Iraq, Kuwait and Yemen. Portugal, sporozoites.
Russia and Greece have a low sporadic Sheep and goats: T. ovis.
occurrence and Great Britain an exceptionally
R. Recovered animals and infected ticks.
low one. It would appear to have been
eradicated from Japan and Malaysia but is MT. Cattle: Transmission is effected by the
important in the Far East, notably in Bhutan. tick Rhipicephalus appendiculaius, R. eoerisi,
Australia and New Caledonia are sporadically Amblyomma uariegaium and others.
affected, but there is only serological evidence Sheep and goats: Rhipicephalus bursa and R.
without clinical signs in New Zealand. eoertsi.
lA. Theileria annulata (T. dispar) is the usual CF. Mild fever, malaise and low degrees of
organism involved in the Middle East, but T. anaemia and lymphadenopathy.
orienialis (transmitted by Haemaphysalis spp.
P. Slight anaemia and slight enlargement of
ticks) is active in Russia, Asia and the Far East.
lymph nodes. In more acute cases lesions
R. Water buffaloes and infected ticks. resemble those due to T. paroa.
MT. The tick vectors are species of the genus D. As for East Coast fever.
Hyalomma.
J. As for East Coast fever.
CF. Fever, inappetence, malaise, oculonasal
Malignant theileriosis occurs in sheep and
discharge, diarrhoea and dysentery following
goats, in which there is severe damage to the
early constipation, loss of condition,
lymphatic system, with high fever, jaundice,
enlargement of peripheral lymph nodes,
anaemia and a mortality which may reach
anaemia and jaundice. Mild, subacute, acute
100%.
and chronic forms of the disease may occur.
Malignant theileriosis is caused by Theileria
Different strains of organisms vary in
hirci, which is similar in morphology and
pathogenicity, some strains of T. annulaia
distribution to T. annulata, the cause of
causing mortality rates of up to 90%.
Mediterranean Coast fever.
P. Pallor of mucous and serous surfaces with The post-mortem findings, diagnosis and
Widespread petechiation which is also present judgement are similar to those for East Coast
on the epicardium and endocardium. The liver fever.
is enlarged and brownish in colour and the
spleen is swollen and pulpy. Lymph nodes are
enlarged, hyperaemic and oedematous. The
lungs show oedema and congestion, while TRICHOMONIASIS
mucosal erosion and ulceration is common in
the abomasum. I. A non-febrile, contagious, venereal,
protozoal disease of cattle associated with early
D. As for East Coast fever.
fetal death, abortion and infertility in cows and
J. As for East Coast fever. bulls.
O. Worldwide.
lA. Trichomonas foetus, a pear-shaped
BENIGN THEILERIOSIS OF CATTLE, flagellated protozoan (10-25Ilm x 5-15Ilm)
SHEEP AND GOATS possessing three flagella of the same length as
the organism body at the rounded anterior end
I. A non-contagious, protozoan disease of and one flagellum at the pointed posterior end.
cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in which the An undulating membrane runs the length of
mild clinical signs are malaise, fever, anaemia the body and a prominent nucleus and axostyle
and lymphadenopathy. are present.
628 Meat Hygiene
The organism multiplies by longitudinal TOXOPLASMOSIS (see also Chapter 14)
fission, there being no sexual development.
T. foetus commonly occurs as a comrnensal in I. A usually latent or asymptomatic protozoan
the genital tracts of the cow and the bull, where disease of most animals, birds and man but
it may cause no abnormality but on occasions which in systemic form can cause abortion with
leads to early fetal death (2-4 months after stillbirths in ewes and encephalitis, pneumonia
conception), abortion, post-coital pyometra and and neonatal mortality in all species of
urethritis in the bull. livestock.
Trichomoniasis also occurs in fowls, turkeys Its occurrence in man, in whom it produces
and other birds, T. gallinae being the cause of fever, mononucleosis, lymphadenopathy,
'oral canker' in which yellowish necrotic lesions lymphocytosis, even myocarditis and death,
appear in the mouth, crop and oesophagus. make it an important zoonosis.
Three species of Trichomonas are found in O. Toxoplasmosis occurs worldwide, being of
man: T. vaginalis in the genitourinary tract, T. special importance in Africa, where it is of high
hominis in the caecum; and T. tenax in the
occurrence in Angola, in North and South
mouth. America (enzootic in the USA and Costa Rica)
and Europe (enzootic in Great Britain and
R. Infected and carrier animals. Northern Ireland). In Northern Ireland and
New Zealand the disease is widespread in
MT. By coitus, an infected bull being a
sheep.
constant source unless properly treated.
Asian countries appear to be less seriously
Artificial insemination may also be involved on affected. Several countries, notably, Belize
occasions with the use of contaminated AI
(1983), St Vincent Grenadin (1991), Oman
pipettes and artificial vaginas.
(1991), Namibia (1990) and Singapore (1988)
have managed to eradicate toxoplasmosis.
CF. At one time regarded as a serious cause of
Seroprevalence surveys have shown high
bovine abortion and infertility, trichomoniasis
rates of infection (as high as 25% or more in
is now of minor importance mainly because of
pigs, goats, sheep and cattle) in many different
the Widespread use of artificial insemination.
countries.
The parasite localises in the vagina, uterus
and oviduct and initially does not interfere with lA. Toxoplasma gondii, a sporozoan
conception. But later a vaginitis and intracellular parasite whose trophozoites are
endometritis with a mucopurulent discharge crescent-shape and 6 urn x 3 urn in size. The
develops and leads to early fetal death, organism was first isolated in 1908 in a North
placentitis and abortion followed by repeat African rodent, the gundi. Its exact role in
breeding and delayed calving. Pyometra results disease, however, was not recognised until
from death and maceration of the fetus. 1939, one reason being that great differences in
Trichomoniasis is self-limiting in the female, virulence exist between different strains of the
infection being cleared after one normal oestrus organism.
following a normal parturition. It occurs in a wide range of mammalian,
In the bull, trichomoniasis is usually including man, and avian hosts (intermediate
asymptomatic. The parasite invades the hosts) and its entire complex life cycle, which
epithelium of the penis, prepuce and anterior has asexual and sexual stages, takes place
urethra. mainly in members of the cat family, which are
the definitive hosts. Two main cycles are
P. See CF. recognised - an enteroepithelial cycle in cats and
an extraintestirutl cycle which takes place mainly
D. Based on history and clinical signs along in non-felines but can also occur in cats.
with the examination of fetal fluid, placental The enieroepiihelial cycle is similar to that of
fluid, uterine exudate, samples of smegma from other coccidia and consists of several
bull. multiplication stages in the mucosal cells of the
small intestine with the production of gamonts
J. Carcase and viscera: A and D, provided and oocysts. Oocysts are shed in the faeces some
carcase condition satisfactory. 15 days after infection.
 Infectious Diseases 629
The extraintestinal cycle takes place mainly in Abortion and fetal death are common in sheep
non-felines, e.g. rodents, and consists of the and less so in pigs and cattle.
development of tachyzoites (rapidly multiplying
P. Granulomata, which may undergo necrosis,
stages) in many different tissue cells
(fibroblasts, liver, reticular and heart cells, etc.) are characteristic of toxoplasmosis and are found
in the lungs, heart muscle and CNS. Pneumonia,
and bradyzoites (slowly multiplying stages) in
focal necrosis of the liver, kidneys and spleen,
the brain, heart and skeletal muscle.
Cats acquire infection in two ways, by hydrothorax, ascites, lymphadenitis, necrotic
enteritis, nephritis, metritis, placentitis and
carnivorism (of mice, rats, birds, etc.) and by
vaginitis may also be evident.
eating infected meat.
D. The lesions, epidemiology and clinical
R. Although it has been shown that up to 65% signs are suggestive of toxoplasmosis but must
of cats may be serologically positive to be supported by isolation of T. gondii, its
Toxoplasma, only 1% of infected cats shed demonstration in tissue sections, and serology
oocysts at anyone time. However, on these (complement fixation, indirect fluorescent
occasions, which may be coincident with antibody, indirect haemagglutination and
carnivorism, several millions of oocysts are Sabin-Feldman dye tests).
passed in the faeces. The feral cat is more prone
to infection than the domestic cat, and young J. Carcase and viscera: Clinical cases: T.
cats are more susceptible than older ones. Reactors, A and D.
Predation probably plays an important part in
facilitating transmission. It is also likely that
certain wild animals and birds, in which the TRYPANOSOMIASIS
organism is passed through successive
generations, act as reservoirs, all these factors I. A group of diseases of animals and man
together making for a widespread availability caused by protozoan trypanosomes transmitted
of oocysts, which are very resistant organisms. by biting flies or bugs (except for dourine,
MT. Farm livestock acquire infection through which is transmitted by coitus) characterised by
the ingestion of oocysts from infected cats in intermittent fever, anaemia, loss of condition
contaminated food and water. It is possible that and frequent high mortality.
pigs can be infected by eating infected carrion O. Trypanosomiasis is of most serious
(dead rodents, piglets, etc.). consequence in Africa south of the Sahara,
Congenital infection has been reported and especially in Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger,
is of significance in man. Uganda and Tanzania, where it is of high
occurrence. Asia and South America are
CE Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular
affected to a less degree and the disease has
parasite which has a predilection for
been eradicated from several countries - Japan
reticuloendothelial and central nervous system
(1987), Mexico (1988), Oman, Pakistan and
cells. Multiplication of sporozoites or
Papua New Guinea (1991).
bradyzoites in intestinal cells results in their
The distribution of trypanosomiasis
destruction and the liberation of numerous
corresponds with that of its insect vectors,
organisms into the bloodstream to reach other
except in the case of dourine.
parts of the body.
Most infections are usually subclinical and lA. Trypanosomes are undulating, thread-like
clinical cases are not common. But sporadic cells (15-30).lm x 3 urn) possessing a central
cases, and even epidemics, can occur. Clinical nucleus and a kinetoplast with a flagellum
signs vary according to the body system attached to the body by an undulating membrane.
attacked, the species of animal, its age, sex and The kinetoplast is an accessory body which is
whether pregnant or not. When they do found in some Protozoa, contains DNA and
happen, they may be acute (more common in replicates independently. There is also a
the younger animal) and include fever, granular blepharoplast or basal granule from
inappetence, malaise, dyspnoea, diarrhoea, which the axoneme arises, the axoneme
jaundice and nervous signs (ataxia, representing the spine of the flagellum. The
convulsions, muscular tremors, teeth grinding). overall shape of the organism and the position
630 Meat Hygiene
of its contents vary in the different species and of wildlife (warthog, duiker, bush pig, eland,
in its four stages of development. buffalo, etc.) in which there is intermittent
The epimastigote stage occurs mainly in parasitaemia, fever, anaemia, loss of condition,
arthropods but also in a few vertebrates. infertility and frequent high mortality.
Multiplication takes place in gut of arthropods
O. Nagana is limited to those regions of
(tsetse flies, etc.) to form the infective
Africa where the tsetse fly (Glossina spp.) is
(trypomastigote stage) in the salivary glands of
found, between latitudes 14° Nand 29° S. Some
arthropods. Infection is transmitted when the
23 species of tsetse flies are known to be capa-
arthropod ingests blood from the host. In some
ble of transmitting infection, but there are three
cases trypomastigotes accumulate in the hind- main species involved - Glossina morsiians
gut of the arthropod and are passed out in the
(found in savannah areas), Glossina palpalis
faeces to cause infection by contaminating the
(inhabiting land round rivers and lakes) and G.
skin and/ or wounds. [usca (occurring in high forest areas).
A promastigote stage in the form of a round
Occurrence of the disease also varies according
body without an undulating membrane occurs
to the distribution of the different try-
in arthropods, while an amastigote stage is found
panosomes.
in arthropods and vertebrates.
The presence of tsetse flies is not necessary
Those trypanosomes which produce infective
for the maintenance of T. vivax and this
stages in the salivary gland of the arthropod
trypanosome has been isolated in South
belong to the Salivaria group and those in which
America (Colombia, Guyana, Panama,
infective stages are formed in the gut and
Suriname and Venezuela).
passed out in the faeces belong to the Siercoraria
Control measures (directed at the tsetse fly,
group. Most pathogenic trypanosomes belong
the use of prophylactic treatment and resistant
to the Salivaria group - including Trypanosoma
stock) have reduced the incidence of
vivax, T. congolense, T. evansi, T. suis, T. brucei, T.
trypanosomiasis.
rhodiense, T. uniforme, T. simiae, T. gambiense, T.
equinum and T. equiperdum. An exception is T. lA. See above.
cruzi, the cause of Chagas' disease, which
R. Carrier animals in the chronic state and
belongs to the Stercoraria group.
numerous wild animals as well as tsetse flies.
Trypanosomes are closely related to the
Leishmania which are found in man, canidae MT. Tsetse flies become infected when they
and rodents. feed on an infected animal host. Such infected
They are parasitic mainly in the blood and flies then inoculate the animal when they feed
lymph of vertebrates and invertebrates, on its blood. Other biting flies are also involved
although some invade tissue cells in the former. since trypanosomiasis occurs where tsetse flies
Most species spend part of their life cycle in have been eliminated. When the trypanosomes
the intestines of insects with the adult stage are taken up by the tsetse fly, their life cycle
occurring in the vertebrate host. undergoes a further development in the
Pathogenic infections caused by proboscis of the fly. This normally takes 7 days
trypanosomes are as follows: in the case of T. vivax, 2 weeks for T. congolense
Tsetse fly-transmitted African trypanosomiasis and 3 or more weeks for T. brucei. Mature
(nagana): Caused by T. congolense, T. vivax, infective parasites, termed metacyclic
T. brucei, T. simiae, T. uniforme and T. suis trypanosomes, colonise the salivary glands and
Surra: T. evansi mouth parts of the tsetse, transfer of infection
Dourine: T. equiperdum being thus made a simple task. Once infected,
Chagas' disease: T. cruzi tsetse flies remain so for life.
Sleeping sickness in man: T. gambiense and T. Other biting flies (Tabanidae spp./ horse flies;
rhodesiense Stomoxuinae spp./ stable flies; and Hippoboscidae
spp./ forest flies) are capable of infecting
animals since trypanosomiasis occurs where
Tsetse fly-transmitted African
tsetse flies have been eliminated.
trypanosomiasis (nagana)
In this instance transmission is mechanical
I. An acute, peracute or chronic disease of all and non-cyclical when the flies feed on more
species of domestic animals and certain forms than one host within a short time.
 Infectious Diseases 631
On entry into the animal's bloodstream the Surra
organisms divide by binary fission. T. congolense
I. An acute, subacute or chronic
attaches to endothelial cells and localises in
trypanosomiasis of horses and camels in which
capillaries and arterioles. T. brucei and T. vivax
fever, oedema, emaciation and frequent high
invade tissue cells and damage different organs.
mortality are manifested. Dogs may also suffer
CF. Many different clinical signs are apparent infection.
depending on the species and strain of In endemic regions cattle and buffalo may be
trypanosome involved, the degree of dose, the affected subclinically with odd acute cases
breed and age of the animal and its simulating anthrax.
management, etc.
O. Surra has a limited occurrence in Africa
In the acute cases, after an incubation period
(Ethiopia, Niger and Sudan (high occurrence)),
of 1-3 weeks there is intermittent fever
India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Myanmar and
(coincident with the parasitaemia), dullness,
Panama. Several countries have managed to
inappetence, loss of condition, ocular
eradicate the disease - Oman (1990), Iran
discharge, anaemia and lymphadenitis. Small
(1991), Philippines, (1988), Yemen (1989),
localised swellings (chancres) appear at the site
Bolivia and Colombia (1990).
of inoculation. T. vivax is especially virulent for
cattle, T. brucei for horses and dogs and T. simiae lA. T. evansi and the closely related T.
for pigs. eouiperdum. (Some regard these two species as
The mortality rate in acute and peracute one - T. evansi.)
cases may be as high as 80% in cattle and even
R. Infected and carrier horses and camels and
higher in pigs.
biting flies. The carrier rate in wild animals is
Chronic trypanosomiasis occurs as an
believed to be low.
intermittent fever with progressive loss of
condition, anaemia, lymphadenitis, MT. Mechanical transmission of T. eoansi/T.
photophobia, debility, lachrymation, and equiperdum is performed by biting flies of the
oedema of the limbs, ventral abdomen, scrotum genera Tabanus, Stomoxys and Haematopota. It is
and vulva. also claimed that vampire bats may be involved
Animals which recover may take weeks or in transmitting infection. Dogs and other
months to regain initial weight. carnivores can be infected by eating the meat of
infected animals.
P. Anaemia, lymphadenitis, anasarca,
emaciation, enlargement of the liver and spleen, CF. Clinical signs in the more severe cases
widespread mucosal and serosal petechial include fever, progressive emaciation, anaemia,
haemorrhages, pulmonary congestion and oedema of lower limbs, ventral abdomen, chest
varying degrees of enteritis. Subcutaneous wall, prepuce and scrotum, and paralysis.
oedema, hydropericardium and hydrothorax Death may take place in a few days to several
are evident in chronic cases, especially in horses months. Chronic cases show mild symptoms
and dogs infected with T. brucei. Necrosis is which may persist for months and even years.
evident in many organs in cases of T. brucei P. Post-mortem lesions are ill-defined but
infection - heart, skeletal muscles, brain and resemble those associated with T. brucei
serosal membranes. infection. Skin necrosis may occur over the
D. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, oedematous areas. There is anaemia, ascites
geographical incidence of the disease and the and hydrothorax with petechiae on serosal
detection of trypanosomes in blood smears or surfaces and in the liver and kidney.
lymph node biopsies stained by Giemsa or D. As for nagana.
Leishman's stain. J. As for nagana.
Serology (fluorescent antibody, ELISA,
capillary agglutination, etc.) may be necessary
to confirm diagnosis. Dourine
J. Carcase and viscera:T, A, or Kh and D, I. A usually chronic venereal infection of
depending on extent of lesions and carcase horses and donkeys caused by the trypanosome
condition. T. equiperdum and transmitted by coitus.
632 Meat Hygiene
o. Dourine apparently only occurs in a poorly developed flagellum which is lost
southern Africa: Botswana (enzootic form), when the parasite enters cardiac muscle cells.
with low sporadic occurrence in Benin, The flagellum is regained when multiplication
Ethiopia, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa. to form a 'pseudocyst' takes place.
Most European countries managed to eradicate
dourine in the 1950s and 1960s, while Israel had R. The organism is found in numerous wild
its last case in 1952, Canada in 1921, USA in animals, especially armadillos, opossums,
1934, Mexico in 1973 and Syria in 1960. The wood rats and mice, all of which act as reservoir
United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Iceland hosts along with infected and carrier domestic
and Oceania never experienced the disease. animals, especially dogs, cats and pigs and
infected bugs.
R. Carrier breeding equidae.
MT. Chagas' disease is transmitted by blood-
MT. At coitus. Infected stallions can infect sucking bugs of the Reduviidae family.
numerous mares. Trypanosomes in blood ingested by bugs
CF. Fever, mucopurulent discharge from multiply as epimastigotes in the bug's hind-gut
prepuce/vagina, oedema of the genitalia, and are passed out in the faeces, defaecation
udder and ventral abdomen in the more acute occurring during feeding.
form. Characteristic plaques (2-10 cm in Animals and man are infected when bug
diameter) may appear on the skin in later faeces contaminate skin wounds and abrasions,
stages. Chronic dourine displays great loss of conjunctiva and mucous membranes.
condition and progressive paralysis. Mortality Transmission can also occur in human beings
is high (50-70%) in untreated cases. through the transfusion of blood from infected
donors, in which case the incubation period is
P. Anaemia and emaciation with oedema of long (30--40 days).
the subcutaneous tissues in the areas listed
above and hydrothorax, hydropericardium and CT. The incubation period is 1-2 weeks after
ascites. The urogenital tract shows the vector bite. In the acute form there is fever,
inflammatory changes. anaemia, progressive emaciation and oedema.
Death is often due to myocardial degeneration.
D. Clinical signs along with history make Chronic cases may persist for years and show
diagnosis reasonably straightforward. few, if any, symptoms, although some may
Trypanosomes, however, can be demonstrated demonstrate cardiac disorders with death
in urethral and vaginal discharges after occurring due to heart failure.
centrifugation. Complement fixation is only of In humans acute Chagas' disease usually
value in areas where T. eoansi and T. brucei do occurs in children, who show malaise, fever,
not exist because they exhibit common lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly
antigens. with oedema of the eyelids and at the site of
J. As for nagana and surra. Chronic cases infection. The chronic form in man takes place
probably merit more lenient judgement. in later life and often involves myocarditis and
meningoencephalitis. In some instances
infection is subclinical.
Chagas' disease (American P. Inflammation and subcutaneous oedema at
trypanosomiasis) the site of infection, oedema of eyelids,
I. A disease of domestic and wild animals and degenerative changes in heart and other
man transmitted by blood-sucking bugs in organs, enlargement of liver and spleen and
which cardiac complications are prominent. lymphadenopathy.
D. Acute cases: Demonstration of
O. The disease is confined to the western
hemisphere, being distributed in Central and trypanosomes in blood and lesion smears
South America, Mexico and the southern states stained by Leishman's or Giemsa stains after
of the USA. centrifugation.
Chronic cases: Serological tests (complement
lA. Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi, a fixation, immunofluorescence and haemag-
trypanosome with a prominent kinetoplast and glutination). Xenodiagnosis (feeding clean bugs
 Infectious Diseases 633
on the suspect animal and demonstrating the Like the bacteria and viruses, toxic algae
parasite in bug faeces 6-8 weeks later) may be produce exotoxins which are secreted into
utilised. water and endotoxins which either have to be
ingested by the animal or released for ingestion
J. Carcase and viscera: T.
when the organism dies. Algal toxin production
is at its optimum at about 25°C.
Sleeping sickness or African Strains of the genera Microcystis, Anabena,
trypanosomiasis Aphanizomenon, Chlorella, Nodularia, Oscillaioria
and others have been known to cause poisoning
In man this is caused by T. gambiense and T.
and deaths in livestock drinking water from
rhodesiense and transmitted by the bites of
stagnant ponds and lakes. Of the blue-green
infected tsetse flies (Glossina spp.). On occasions
infection can occur mechanically on the
algae the three most common toxin-producing
species are Microcystis aeruginosa, which
proboscis of other biting flies, e.g. horse flies.
produces an endotoxin termed micocystin;
The disease is confined to central Africa, its
Anabena ftoe-aqua (exogenous neurotoxin); and
occurrence corresponding to the distribution of
Aphanizomenon flos-aqua (endogenous
the tsetse fly. Wild animals, especially
neurotoxin).
bushbuck, antelopes, cattle and man act as
The toxin derived from M. aeruginosa is a
reservoir hosts.
cyclic decapeptide (the 'fast death factor'), and
Clinical signs in acute cases include fever,
that from /sphanizomenon is a saxitoxin. Blue-
anaemia, lymphadenopathy (which is painless),
green algae can also produce
headache, insomnia, oedema, skin rash and loss
lipopolysaccharides which can produce severe
of weight and sometimes CNS symptoms in
skin irritation and oral blisters. Some
later stages. Sleeping sickness is usually fatal
manufacture a photodynamic pigment,
without treatment.
phyocyan, which can cause photosensitisation in
animals and man.
Anabena fios-aqua is believed to be the cause
of the most severe forms of algal poisoning,
which can result in death from respiratory
DISEASES CAUSED BY paralysis.
ALGAE Algal poisoning usually occurs during
periods of dense bloom growths of blue-green
Algae are primitive plant-like organisms algae at times of high temperature, drought,
containing chlorophyll which live mostly in shallow water with high organic content, etc.
stagnant water and include the scums of ponds, Algal poisoning has been recorded in cattle,
the stains of rocks and tree trunks and the sheep, pigs, horses, fowls, turkeys, dogs and
seaweeds. They vary in size from being various forms of wildlife.
microscopic (3 pm) and unicellular to the large O. Algal poisoning occurs worldwide.
multicellular seaweeds 60 metres or more in
length. lA. Strains of Microcystis, Anabena,
Except for the blue-green forms Aphanizomenon, Chlorella, Nodularia, Oscillaioria
(Cyanophyta), which resemble the bacteria in and others.
structure, all algae possess a nucleus, MT. By ingestion and occasionally by direct
mitochondria and a chloroplast membrane and action on skin.
are classed as eukaryotes, as opposed to
prokaryotes which lack these structures. CF. The onset is rapid and appears within 1 h
Although most forms are responsible for of ingestion of the toxin. Death may occur in 1h.
providing food for aquatic life and for Symptoms include intense abdominal pain,
supplying oxygen to the atmosphere, there are vomiting, anorexia, muscular tremors,
some species which are extremely toxic for dyspnoea, salivation, diarrhoea, prostration
animals, birds, fish and man. Certain larger and convulsions. Photosensitisation occurs
algae are a source of human food, additives, with Microcystis.
etc., and some may be developed and utilised P. This varies according to the type of toxin
for the feeding of livestock. ingested. In peracute cases there is sudden
634 Meat Hygiene
death without any gross lesions, while other Gustafson, R. H. et al. (1976) Proe. Int. Pig. Vet. Soc.
cases are more chronic in nature. Cong.,M2.
Lesions range from congestion of the CNS Harrington, M. G. et al. (1996) N. Engl. J. Med. 315,
with pulmonary oedema hydroperitoneum and 279.
Heatherington, W. (1987) Meat Hygienist (March), 17,
hydrothorax in acute cases to hepatic necrosis, 18.
haemorrhagic gastroenteritis, widespread Henderson, J. A, Graham, D. A and Stewart, D.
petechiation} visceral congestion, ascites, (1995) Vet. Rec. 136} 555-557.
icterus and photosensitisation. Hill, A W. et al. (1997) The Lancet} 349, 99-100.
Ch/arellasis is an infection of mammals caused Hogg} R. A} White, V. J. and Smith, G. R. (1990) Vet.
by the ingestion of the chlorophyll-containing Rec. 126,476-479.
algae of the genus Chlorella, which has been Hunter, N. et al. (1997) Nature 386}137.
recorded in cattle, sheep, beaver and man. It has Lang, G. H. (1988) Vet. Rec. 123,582-583.
been encountered in sheep during meat Luria, S. E. and Darnell, J. C. (1967) General Virology,
inspection in Sudan, when the post-mortem 2nd edn.
MAFF. Quarterly Report. (1990) Vet. Rec. 127,416.
findings included a grossly enlarged liver and McCaughey, W. J. et al. (1970) Vet. Ree. 86,422-424.
hepatic lymph nodes with ecchymoses and MeIntyre, D. (1996) Vet. Rec. 135,338.
delineation of the hepatic lobules with bright [Link], M. F. et al. (1988) Vet. Rec. 122,579-581.
green pigment, giving the liver a honeycomb Morrison, P., Stanton, R. and Pilatti, R. (1986) Aust.
appearance (Zakia et al., 1989). Vet. J. 65, 97.
Nottingham, P. M. et al. (1972) NZ J. Agric. 15,
D. Diagnosis is based on the history of the 279-283.
incident(s), the presence of dense algae blooms} Okolo, M. 1. O. (1988) Vet. Rec. 122, 939.
clinical signs, PM findings} and Riley, M. G. 1. (1970) Aust. Vet. J. 46,40-43.
histopathological examination of liver to show Roberts, D. et al. (1975) J. Hyg. 75} 173-184.
centrilobular hepatic necrosis in Microcystis Seneviratna, P. and Ford, G. (1980) Meat Hygienist
poisoning. (Mav /June)} 21-24.
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Shreuder, B. E. C. et al. (1996) Nature 381}563.
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Suarez, D. L. et al. (1993) J. Virol. 67} 5051.
Surkiewicz, T. et al. (1972) Appl. Microbiol. 23,
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86. Vet. Rec. 125, 625-626.
 Chapter 18
Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod
Parasites

A parasite is usually defined as an organism that 2 By competing for food, especially where a
lives on another organism (the host), derives specific entity is involved, e.g. the
nutriment from it, but confers no benefit in return. competition for vitamin Bl , by
However, it would probably be more accu- Diphyllobothrium latum. This may lead to a
rate to regard parasitism as a state in which the depraved appetite and reduced food intake or
an increased passage of food through the
parasite is metabolically dependent on the host digestive tract.
since not all parasites are pathogenic; some
indeed are beneficial, for example, the forms of 3 By mechanical injury of the host's tissues, e.g.
protozoa called Ciliata which inhabit the rumen liver cirrhosis due to Fasciola hepaiica and
of ruminants and which, along with yeasts and Ascaris suutn caused by the migration of larval
bacteria, form the microflora which digests cel- stages through the parenchyma; the use of
lulose, ferments carbohydrates to volatile fatty destructive organs of attachment, e.g. spines
acids and converts nitrogenous substances to or teeth; pressure due to increasing size, e.g.
ammonia, amino acids and protein. This seems hydatid cysts, blockage of ducts and blood
to be consistent with the Greek derivation para- vessels to produce infarction (Strongylus), of
lymphatics causing oedema (Filaria) and of
sites, originally 'fellow guest' later 'parasite'; the intestinal canal to produce rupture and
para = (beside) + sitos, grain, food. On the other necrosis (ascarids).
hand, parasites such as Fasciola hepaiica are very Damage to the intestinal epithelium and
pathogenic organisms and are responsible for often the underlying submucosa is caused by
huge losses in cattle and sheep. several parasites, notably the oocysts of
Parasites, strictly speaking, include single- Coccidia.
celled and multicelled organisms - bacteria, Mechanical injury may permit the entry
fungi, yeasts, protozoa and even viruses. of pathogenic bacteria, e.g. Black disease
The most common use of the word 'parasite' in sheep is finally caused by Clostridium
nomii (oedematiens) inhabiting the areas of
refers to the multicellular helminths (worms), the liver damaged by young migrating
arachnids (ticks, mites, lice, etc.) and flukes.
arthropods (insects) and it is the parasitic forms In some instances there is an increased
of these organisms which will be treated here. proliferation of epithelium, e.g. an aneurysm
Although parasites of various forms can caused by Sirongulus, and of lymphoid tissue,
cause deaths in food animals, in many cases e.g. in leishmaniasis. Tissue damage may also
(e.g. with helminths), their deleterious effects be due to the immunological response of the
are more insidious, causing digestive or respi- host, being evident in cases of dermatitis in
ratory disturbance, retardation of growth and man due to schistosomes and oedema
loss of body weight, meat and wool. Indeed brought about by Dictyocaulus tntnparus in the
parasitic worms, in combination with malnutri- lungs of cattle.
tion, are probably the greatest single factor
4 By the continued excretion of toxic products.
influencing livestock production today. The systematic changes associated with
Parasites affect the animal host in several chronic fascioliasis of sheep and cattle are
ways: attributed by some authorities to the action of
1 By sucking blood and fluids, producing toxins secreted by the parasites. It is more
anaemia, e.g. Haemonchus coniorius in sheep likely, however, that these changes are caused
and blood-sucking flies and ticks. by a combination of factors.

,635
636 Meat Hygiene
The most important parasites in meat alongside the measures listed above and care
hygiene are those transmissible to man through must be taken to ensure correct dosage with
the consumption of infected meat and offal, e.g. usage at the proper time otherwise anthelmintic
Cysticercus bovis, C. cellulosae, Trichinella spiralis. resistance may result.
Other parasites, though not transmissible to Control by vaccination is limited to
man, may render the flesh repugnant and lungworm infestation in cattle, sheep and
therefore unmarketable, e.g. extensive goats.
muscular sarcosporidiosis. Nematodes or roundworms are elongated,
The parasitic helminths and arthropods of unsegmented, cylindrical in shape with both ends
importance in meat inspection may be pointed. They possess a mouth which usually
classified as follows: possesses two or three lips, an alimentary canal
Nemathelminthes - Nematodes (round which runs the length of the body, and a terminal
worms) anus. In most cases the sexes are separate and the
life cycle may be direct or indirect (including an
Platyhelminthes - Cestodes (flatworms) and
Trematodes (flukes) intermediate host, e.g. an earthworm in the case
of Metastrongylus elongatus). Males, which are
Protozoa normally smaller than the females have a testis, a
Arthropoda (joint-footed organisms) - insects, vas deferens, sometimes a seminal vesicle and an
lice, mites, bugs, linguatula ejaClllatory duct which opens into the cloaca at the
tail. Females possess an extensive uterus (which
may be subdivide), vagina, vulva, oviduct and
seminal receptacle in which spermatozoa are stored
and where fertilisation takes place.
HELMINTH (WORM) Egg shape and size vary in the different
PARASITES species and are important entities in diagnosis.
Several thousand eggs may be produced by one
The helminths (nematodes or roundworms, female in one day. Eggs are produced by division
cestodes or flatworms and irematodes or flukes) of the original egg cell, each eventually forming
constitute a large class of both parasitic and non- a larva which may undergo several stages before
parasitic forms. Included in these phyla are becoming infective for the definitive host.
organisms such as earthworms that are beneficial Cestodes or tapeworms are segmented, flat,
but which may act as intermediate hosts of hermaphrodite worms which may be small
parasitic helminths and leeches. (1 mm) or very long (15 m or more). Some 3000
The helminths are probably of more importance species, free-living and parasitic, are known to
in those areas where agriculture is more intensive occur worldwide. The parasitic forms are
and where large numbers of animals are internal parasites affecting the alimentary canal
concentrated together. But since the nutritional and liver of all vertebrates, including fish and
status of the animal is of vital importance in man. Some tapeworms involve a single host
parasitism, especially the gastrointestinal while others require one or two intermediate
pulmonary forms, nutritional deficiency is also of hosts as well as a final, or definitive, host to
consequence in poorly developed countries. complete their life cycle.
Many different factors determine the At the anterior end is a scolex or head. The
incidence of helminthiasis - stocking rates at scolex usually possesses four suckers which
pasture, type, strain and number of individual sometimes are armed with hooks. It is joined to
grasses, short ley or permanent pasture, the rest of the body or strobila by a short neck.
fertilisation methods, drainage, access to The strobila consists of several segments or
swampy areas, life cycle of the parasite and its proglottids, each of which contains one or two
control, immune status of the animals, grazing sets of reproductive organs (male and female).
management, handling of faecal contamination, These proglottids are formed from the neck and
use of anthelmintics, use of clean and safe when gravid contain hundreds of eggs.
grazing systems, etc. Respiratory, skeletal and circulatory systems
Strategic and tactical treatments with are absent and there is no coelom or body
anthelmintics are important measures in the cavity. But a primitive nervous system and
control of parasitic diseases. They must be used sense organs exist in the scolex. The female
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 637
organs consist of one or two ovaries, uterus, which develop scolices - Echinococcus
vagina, seminal receptacle and vitellaria or yolk granulosus.
gland. Plerocercoid: Solid, elongated body with a
The male organs, which develop first, scolex which develops from the procercoid
comprise a large number of testes, a vas deferens in the second intermediate host -
and a cirrus or penis. Female and male genital Diphyllobothrium latum.
pores lie close together on the ventral or lateral Strobilocercus: A single scolex, non-
side of the proglottid. invaginated, attached to a bladder by a
Self-fertilisation usually occurs, although segmented strobila. T. taeniaejormis.
cross-fertilisation takes place in some species.
The life cycle of the parasitic cestodes is very Trematodes or flukes are mostly flattened,
complex and is indirect in that it involves leaf-like worms which vary in size from 5 mm
several larval stages (metacestodes) in other to 100 mm. A few, like the amphistomes, have
intermediate hosts, which may be either thick, fleshy bodies while the schistosomes or
vertebrate or invertebrate. bloodflukes are long and worm-like. The 6000 or
Ripe segments are excreted from the intestine, so species occur worldwide and are parasitic in
either singly or in small groups. While the a wide range of animals, fish, turtles,
segments (containing eggs) survive for only a crustaceans and in man, in whom they cause
few days, the contained oncospheres can survive schistosomiasis (blood fluke infestation). Some
on pasture for months, even at temperatures as act as external parasites (ectoparasites) while
low as onc. Desiccation is the main factor in the others are endoparasites infesting internal
inactivation of cestode oncospheres. organs.
When passed from the animal host, eggs The fluke body is covered with a cuticle on
mayor may not contain embryos. If embruonaied which are muscular suckers, spines and hooks for
an egg contains an oncosphere within the attachment. Both sides of the fluke body are
external embryonic envelope (there are four in similar.
all) and is armed with six hooks. The A mouth at the anterior end or on the ventral
embryophore develops from the inner envelope surface leads into a pharynx after which there is
and assumes different forms and subsequent a branched digestive system but usually no anus.
activities in the various tapeworms. The digestive system, however, is followed by
On hatching in the intestine of the host, the an excretory system which possesses a posterior
oncosphere is liberated, penetrates the opening. There is no circulatory system but a
intestinal mucosa and migrates in the rudimentary nervous system typically consists of
bloodstream to its predilection site in the body two anterior ganglia and three pairs of long
where it forms a cyst or bladdenoonn (metacestode nerve cords.
or larval stage). When the infected flesh of the Most species are hermaphrodite, i.e. male
intermediate host is eaten, the metacestode is and female organs occur in the same fluke. The
transferred to the definitive host. male organs normally comprise two single,
The metacestodes of the parasitic cestodes lobed or branched testes, two vasa deferentia and
encountered in meat inspection are as follows: a terminal cirrus and genital pore. Female organs
Cysticercus: Possesses an outer membrane and include a lobed ovary, oviduct, receptaculum
scolex invaginated into vesicle containing seminis, paired vitelline gland, ootype, uterus and
fluid. When eaten this cyst gives rise to one genital pore.
tapeworm - T. saginata, T. solium, T. Life cycles may be direct or indirect. The
pisiformis, T. serialis, T. hudaiigena, T. avis. parasitic forms belong to the latter and require
Coenurus: A large bladder containing fluid and one, two or more intermediate hosts to complete
several invaginated scolices each of which the life cycle.
when ingested gives rise to a single Eggs are excreted in the faeces of the host
tapeworm - T. multiceps. animal and pass through five larval stages -
Cysticercoid: A non-invaginated scolex miracidium, sporocyst, redia, cercaria and
withdrawn into a small vesicle - metacercaria.
Thysanosoma aciinoides, Moniezia expansa. In the case of Fasciola hepaiica, the
Hydatid: A large bladder holding fluid- intermediate host is a mud snail, Limnaea
containing cysts termed brood capsules truncaiula, into whose respiratory cavity the
638 Meat Hygiene
miracidium enters and is transformed into an Bunostomum phlebotomum, the most important
oblong sac, the sporocyst. In the next 2-4 weeks hookworm of cattle, however, is a serious
the sporocyst gives rise to 6-8 rediae, which are pathogen in Africa, Australia and the USA and
elongated structures containing a sac-like Bunostomum trigonocephalum, which infests
intestine. In a further 4-6 weeks each redia sheep, goats and deer, also prefers warmer
becomes actively motile, migrates to the liver of climates. Mecistocirrus digitaius, found in the
the snail and eventually forms 15-20 cercariae abomasum of cattle, sheep, goats, the stomach
which have an oral and ventral sucker, a long of pigs and sometimes man, occurs in the Far
tail and bifurcated intestine. Millions of East and Central America. While many
cercariae can be produced from a single trichostrongyles are found in cattle and sheep
miracidium. The cercariae escape from the in Europe, others such as T. [alculaius and T.
rediae, leave the snail and find their way to a rugatus occur in Africa and Australia and T.
grass stalk or aquatic plant, completing a orientalis in Asia and the Middle East.
period of 6-10 weeks development in the snail. Parasitic gastroenteritis in cattle and sheep,
The cercariae may float on the surface of the associated as it is with profuse diarrhoea, is an all-
water or attach themselves to a blade of grass too-common cause of carcase-dressing problems in
and become encysted by the excretion of an meat plants.
adhesive substance, to appear like grains of
lA. The most common nematodes in cattle
sand. This encysted form undergoes further
and their main sites are as follows (SI, small
development into a metacarceria, which is the
intestine):
infective form. The period from egg to cercaria
takes 2-4 months and cercariae can remain Haemonchus placei (barber's
infective in waterlogged areas for up to 12 pole worm) Abomasum
months and in hay for several weeks. Ostertagia ostertagi Abomasum
When ingested by ruminants, the cysts are Trichostrongylus axei (small
dissolved in the intestine and the metacercariae stomach worm) Abomasum
migrate to their predilection site, the liver, in T. colubriformis, T. longispicularis SI
the bile ducts of which they reach their adult
stage.
Mecistocirrus digitatus Abomasum
Bunostomum phlebotomum
(hookworm) SI
Agriostomum vryburgi
GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES OF (hookworm) SI
RUMINANTS Chabertia ooina SI and colon
Parasitic gastroenteritis is responsible for great Cooperia punctaia,
economic losses (deaths and poor growth) in C. oncophora, C. peciinaia SI
sheep (in which wool is also lost), cattle and Nematodirus spathiger,
goats. Many of the cases of emaciation and N. battus. N. helueiianus SI
oedema encountered in these species at meat Nematodirus filicollis,
inspection are probably a combination of N. abnormalis SI
roundworm infestation accompanied by Oesophagostomum radiaium SI, caecum,
malnutrition, especially if there is no evidence colon
of concurrent disease. It often co-exists with Strongyloides papillosus SI
lungworm infestation. Toxocara vitulorum SI
Trichuris ovis, T. discolor,
Parasitic gastroenteritis of cattle T. globuloea (whipworm) Caecum
I. An infestation of the various parts of the Gongylonema oerrucosum Rumen
alimentary canal of young cattle with Gongylonema pulchrum Oesophagus
roundworms and associated with ill-thrift and
often profuse, watery diarrhoea and deaths. Haemonchus placei (barber's pole worm, large
stomach worm, wire worm) and Mecistocirrus
O. Most are worldwide in occurrence, digiunus are parasites in tropical areas, the
especially where livestock are kept intensively. remainder preferring more temperate regions.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 639

Although infestations of Trichostrongylus, several months are required for adult worms to
Ostertagia, Cooperia, Namatodirus and develop.
Haemonchus can be regarded as specific diseases
CF. Young cattle are most often affected,
they often occur as mixed infestations,
although adult animals which have not
sometimes with other species of worms.
previously experienced been exposed, may
Usually, however, one particular species
suffer severe infestations.
predominates.
Clinical signs of helminthiasis include
R. Young cattle are the principal sources of persistent watery diarrhoea (often dark green
these particular nematodes. Eggs and or yellowish in colour), weight loss, weakness,
preparasitic forms can survive under optimal rough coat and anorexia. In Haemonchus
conditions of temperature (-18-24°C) and infection there is a severe anaemia and oedema
moisture for several weeks. In the case of of the lower jaw (bottle jaw) and ventral
Nematodirus the larvae develop slowly within abdomen. Oedema may also be seen in
the eggs until the infective third larval stage Ostertagia and Trichostrongylus infections.
and only hatch after rain to produce heavy Similar signs are also evident in Trichuris and
infections on pasture. Nematodirus eggs are very Strongyloides infections.
resistant and are able to overwinter and In hookworm infections, penetrations of the
produce large numbers of larvae to infect calves skin by larvae produces uneasiness, stamping
the next season and are able to survive from one and licking of feet. There is initial constipation
year to the next. Haemonchus placei can also followed by attacks of diarrhoea and colic.
become dormant over the winter and resume Severe infestations cause pallor of the mucosae,
development when suitable conditions prevail anasarca, submandibular and ventral
in the spring. The eggs and larvae of many abdominal oedema, weakness and death in a
nematodes can survive reasonable winter few days.
conditions. Ostertagia, for example, can remain Infection with Oesophagostomum spp.
viable for 18 months or more. (nodular worm disease, pimply gut) produces
Egg production by the females of many of severe fetid diarrhoea, which may alternate
the nematodes is very prolific. In the case of with constipation, anorexia, anaemia and
Haemonchus contortus, the female can lay as emaciation. Intestinal nodules may be palpated
many as 10000 eggs a day for several months, per rectum.
causing extensive contamination of pasture,
P. In Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia, Cooperia and
foodstuffs and water. Desiccation, however, is
Nematodirus infections there may be no
the enemy of the progeny of most nematodes.
apparent lesions apart from some loss of
Thus reservoir infection is a combination of
condition, anaemia, dehydration and evidence
infected and carrier animals as well as voided
of scouring. More severe cases, however, reveal
eggs and larvae. a villous atrophy and catarrhal inflammation in
MT. Ingestion of infective larvae on pasture, the abomasum and duodenum. In ostertagiasis
food and water. The hookworm (Bunostomum) the mucosa assumes a morocco-leather
species, however, in addition to being ingested appearance with umbilicated nodules.
can penetrate the skin from where they migrate Haemonchus infection results in a severe
to the lungs. Skin penetration by infective anaemia, all the mucous membranes and the
larvae occurs in Strongyloides infection which conjunctiva being very pale. Anasarca
may also arise through the consumption of (generalised subcutaneous oedema) is present.
milk. Subsequent life cycles, predilection sites The abomasal mucosa may show congestion,
and organ damage vary in the different species. blood clots and small ulcerations with blood-
In the case of Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia, stained contents caused by the attachment of
Cooperia and Nematodirus the ingested third- the adult worms.
stage larvae undergo several moults in the The most diagnostic lesions occur in
mucosa and finally becoming an adult worm. Oesophagostomum spp. infestations, in which
The period from ingestion of infective larvae to there is a catarrhal enteritis with a thickened
development of adult worm is about 3 weeks, mucous membrane. Nodules of varying sizes
Nematodirus requiring 4 weeks. Where (some up to 6 mm in diameter) containing
hypobioisis (inhibited development) occurs/ greenish or yellowish-brown caseous or partly
640 Meat Hygiene
calcified material are present in the ileum and As with cattle, infection with most
colon in cases of repeated infection. alimentary helminths is most severe in the
The skin-penetrating larvae of Strongyloides young animal, weaner lambs and yearlings
spp. damage the skin of the lower limbs, being most commonly affected. In general the
causing lesions resembling early foot rot. same clinical signs of depression, anorexia,
The larger adult worms of Haemonchus, weakness, diarrhoea, lack of growth with
Bunostomum, Oesophagoetomum, Trichuris and anaemia in some infestations.
Chabertia are clearly visible at post-mortem The effects of many helminth infections, in
examination, but the smaller worms of addition to the production of anaemia in many
Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Ostertagia and cases, are the impairment of gastric digestion
Nematodirus are more difficult to detect, their and the non-utilisation of metabolisable energy
presence being shown by their movement in the and protein, these losses occurring across the
ingesta. damaged abomasal mucosa.
Total worm counts are sometimes taken as Trichostrongylus and Ostertagia infections in
measures of the degree of infestation. For cattle, lambs are similar to those in cattle in relation to
counts of 2000 or less as regarded as light clinical signs and post-mortem findings, which
burdens while counts of over 10000 are heavy. occur as villous atrophy of the mucous
But reliance must not be placed on light total membrane of the abomasum and upper
worm or egg counts, especially the latter. Much duodenum, which is often affected with
depends on the species of worm involved and fibrinocatarrhal gastritis.
the nutritional status of the animal. Haemonchosis may be peracute or chronic, the
peracute cases resulting in rapid onset of death
due to profound anaemia and anasarca. Death
Parasitic gastroenteritis of sheep and goats may actually be so sudden as to exclude
In general the infective agents, pathogenesis, premonitory symptoms. Anaemia is also
clinical signs, and post-mortem findings, etc.. present in chronic haemonchosis in which there
resemble those in cattle (q.v.). is also progressive emaciation.
The most important nematodes and their Bunostomum and Gaigeria spp., being hook-
main predilection sites in the alimentary tract of worms, are potent bloodsuckers, especially the
sheep and goats are as follows: latter, and require only a relatively small number
(~100) to cause clinical disease. Ingestion and
Abomasum - Haemonchus coniortus; Ostertagia skin penetration are the modes of transmission.
circumcincia, 0. irijurcaia; Trichopstrongylus The adult worms of Chabertia ooina cause
axei; Mecistocirrus digitatus inflammation, petechial haemorrhages, and
Oesophagus - Gongvlonema pulchrum ulceration in some instances, of the colon,
Small intestine - Trichosirongulus colubriformis, resulting in anaemia and ill-thrift.
T. lcngispicularis, T. capricola, T. rugaius, Oesophagostomum spp. are parasites in the
T. probolurus; Bunostomum trigonoceplutium, small and large intestine of cattle, sheep, pigs
Gaigeria pachyscelis, Cooperia curiicei, (q.v.) and primates.
C. punciaia, C. oncophora; Nematodirus
The worms are referred to as nodular worms
spathiger, N. baiius, N. ftlicollis, N. abnormalis;
Oesophagostomum colutnbianum, since several species cause nodule formation in
O. oenulosum, O. asperum, O. radiaium, the intestinal wall: O. columbianum and O.
O. multifoliatum, O. okapi, O. toalkeri; radiaium. O. oenulosum, which occurs in the
Strongyloides papillosus; Toxocara (Neoascaris) colon, however, rarely produces this effect and
uiiulorum; Trichuris ovis is relatively harmless.
Rumen - Gongylonema verrUCOSIlJ1Z, G. monnigi O. columbianum is a serious pathogen in
sheep, goats, camels and wild antelopes, in
Haemonchus is most prevalent in tropical and which it occurs in the small and large intestine.
subtropical regions, while Ostertagia and T. axei It is worldwide in distribution but more
are more common in temperate zones where common in tropical and subtropical regions. It
rainfall is greater. does not occur in Britain. The adult worms are
Caigeria pachyscelis occurs in Africa and stout white worms with a curved body at the
India, while AgriostoJ11uJ11 pachyscelis is anterior end. The male is 8-16 mm and the
prevalent in Southern Asia and South Africa. female 10-21 mm long.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 641
Life cycle Eggs are passed in the faeces and serious problem in parts of Africa, India,
reach the infective stage in 1 week. When Philippines and Sri Lanka. The ingestion of
ingested, the infective larvae lose their sheath embryonated eggs is followed by larvae
and bore into the intestinal wall creating cysts. passing through the intestinal wall and being
Two further moults take place and the larvae distributed to various organs, including the
return to the lumen of the gut where they moult mammary gland, by the bloodstream. In the
again to become adults. cow these larvae remain dormant until late
pregnancy, when they migrate to the placenta
Lesions Lambs and adult sheep experiencing and amniotic fluid, the fetus being infected by
first infection develop localised inflammation ingestion of larvae. Calves may also be infected
and eventually greyish-white fibrous nodules by the consumption of infected milk. Adult
round the larvae in the wall of the intestine. worms are produced in the small intestine of
These nodules vary in size from a pinhead to a calves.
pea and produce distinct elevations of the Clinical signs in more serious infections
mucosa. Caseation and calcification of nodules include diarrhoea with fetid faeces,
take place, resulting either in the death of the steatorrhoea, colic, emaciation and often death.
parasites or their evacuation of the nodules Lambs are occasionally affected with
through a small orifice. Penetration of the Trichuris whipworms which inhabit the caecum.
bowel wall may occur and result in peritonitis Large numbers are generally required in order
and death. The intestinal wall becomes to produce lesions and clinical signs which
thickened and covered with mucus. Repeated resemble those of helminthiasis in general. The
infections may result in extensive involvement species is so called because the adult worms
of the whole small intestine with secondary (2-5 cm long) have a long and very slender
infection of the nodules causing abscesses anterior part while the posterior portion is
containing greenish or yellowish pus. shorter and much thicker. In addition to cattle
Such severe lesions result in diarrhoea, and and sheep, dogs and pigs can be affected.
sometimes dysentery, weakness, anorexia,
anaemia, loss of wool and progressive emaciation
Diagnosis of gastroenteritis in ruminants
due to malabsorption and interference with
digestion. Severe cases often result in death. The d~fferential diagnoses include numerous
0. radiaium is found in the colon of cattle, conditions in which emaciation and diarrhoea
zebu and water buffalo and produces lesions occur such as Johne's disease, coccidiosis,
similar to those of O. columbianum. salmonellosis, chronic fascioliasis, secondary
Nematodirus infection is a very serious copper, cobalt or molybdenum deficiency, viral
disease in lambs in some parts of the world, diarrhoea, verminous pneumonia, shipping
notably the UK, New Zealand, Australia and fever, trypanosomiasis, babesiosis,
the USA. The ability of the very resistant eggs to anaplasmosis, East Coast Fever, etc.
overwinter and to hatch under very moist A presumptive diagnosis is based on clinical
conditions when large numbers of larvae are signs, epidemiology, season of occurrence,
produced are serious drawbacks to its control. weather conditions, post-mortem findings, etc.
A mild enteritis is usually present but this may The level of nutrition, stocking rates and other
be acute in more severe infestations. factors related to grazing are important as is the
Infection with Strongyloides spp. resembles response to the use of broad-spectrum
that of Trichostrongylus. The mode of anthelmintics.
transmission is similar to that of Bunostomum Laboratory examinations include faecal egg
and Gaigeria in that it can occur by either and total worm counts. The actual significance
ingestion or skin penetration. In lambs there is of results depends on the species of helminths
anorexia, loss of condition, anaemia, dermatitis present and the particular host involved. While
(due to the penetrating larvae) and lameness as few as 100 Haemonchus coniorius worms can
when the feet are involved. Most cases of cause clinical disease in lambs, it requires as
Strongyloides infection, however, are usually many as 5000-10000 Ostertagia worms.
mild, with lambs recovering quickly. Differentiation of the various ova is a task for a
Toxocara oiiulorum occurs in the small specialised laboratory. Serological diagnosis
intestine of cattle, zebu and buffalo and is a using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
642 Meat Hygiene
(ELISA) is utilised in some quarters for specific Stomach - Ascarops strongylina, A. dentata;
nematodes such as Ostertagia and Cooperia. Hyostrongylus rubidus (red stomach worm);
Physocephalus eexalaius, P. cristata; Simondsia
paradoxa
Judgement of parasitic gastroenteritis in Small intestine - Ascaris suum; Globocephalus
ruminants spp.; Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus
This depends on the degree of emaciation, (thorny-headed worm); Oesophagostomum
anaemia and oedema in the carcase as well as dentatum, O. breoicaudum, O. georgianum; O.
granaiensis, O. quadrispinulaium; Strongyloides
the extent of organ degeneration. Emaciation ransomi; Trichinella spiralis
associated with oedema is probably one of the
most difficult conditions with which the meat Large intestine - Metastrongylus elongatus (M.
apri), M. pudendotectus, M. salmi;
inspector has to contend, especially where Oesophagostomum deniaium, O. breoicaudum,
conditional approval/heat treatment is 0. georgianum, O. quadnspinulatum, O.
practised. granatensis; Trichuris suis
Carcase and viscera: A, T or Kh and D.
R. Infected and carrier pigs and intermediate
hosts, e.g. earthworms, dung beetles,
INTERNAL PARASITISM OF PIGS cockroaches, in indirect life cycles.

1. An infection of roundworms inhabiting the

stomach and intestine (small and large) of pigs Gongylonema pulchrum (gullet worm)
resulting in varying signs of loss of appetite, This tiny worm (males 30-62 mm, females
anaemia, lack of growth (due to reduced feed 80-145 mm) may be found coiled in the
conversion and organ damage) and diarrhoea. stratified squamous epithelium of the
Internal parasites in pigs continue to cause oesophagus and stomach, not only of the pig
much economic loss, which has been estimated but also of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. It
at up to $3 per pig in the USA because of loss of apparently does not cause any pathological
weight and meat plant condemnations. A changes. The eggs are ingested by cockroaches.
considerable number of affected organs such as
livers ('milk spots'), intestines ('pimply gut'),
stomachs (parasitic gastritis) and kidneys Ascarops strongylina and Physocephalus
(Stephanurus dentatus infection) are rejected. sexalatus
The occurrence of the serious zoonosis
trichinosis in many parts of the world lends These worms are found in swine in the USA,
further prominence to porcine helminthiasis. East Asia and Australia. They have indirect life
The factors which influence the prevalence cycles with intermediate hosts in dung beetles.
of helminthiasis in pigs are much the same as Both worms are capable of causing atrophy
those for cattle and sheep: overcrowding, lack of the glandular epithelium of the stomach with
of hygiene, housing defects, soil type and chronic catarrhal gastritis and sometimes
drainage and climate. superficial ulceration.
Although there had been a general decline in
the incidence of ascariasis in pigs in Northern
Ireland, recent studies there have shown that Hyostrongylus rubidus (red stomach worm)
the disease is on the increase, this being blamed This is a small, filiform red coloured worm
on inadequate cleansing and disinfection of 0.5-1.25 cm long. It is very common in pigs in
premises. Britain, Germany and North and South
O. Helminthiasis in pigs occurs throughout America.
the world. The worms appear as tiny red streaks in the
gastric mucosa, where they cause nodules and a
lA. The principal roundworms occurring in catarrhal or diphtheritic inflammation with
pigs are as follows: mucoid or sometimes dry, adherent deposits up
Oesophagus, tongue and oral cavity - to 4 cm in size surrounded by a bright red zone
Gongylonema pulchrum of mucosa.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 643
The life cycle is direct, eggs hatching in 1-2 wall, causing small haemorrhages in the
days and third-stage larvae ingested by pigs. duodenum and jejunum, and are conveyed to
These migrate to the stomach and enter the the liver by the portal vein. Many pass rapidly
gastric glands of the cardiac and fundic regions through the liver, forcing their way through the
where L4 larvae develop on the mucosa in a liver capillaries, but some are arrested and, by
further 2-3 days, adult worms emerging in 2-3 their irritation, give rise to chronic focal
weeks post-infection. interstitial hepatitis. Early lesions are
haemorrhagic but later become ill-defined
whitish foci in the parenchyma and on the
Simondsia paradoxa surface ('milk spots'). These attain their
This worm occurs in pigs in Europe and Asia maximum size in 2 weeks after infection. The
and is responsible for nodules on the stomach change from a haemorrhagic appearance to a
and chronic gastritis. whitish one is associated with an infiltration of
leukocytes and the formation of collagen in the
interlobular septa.
Ascaris suum In the liver the L2 larvae moult to become L3
A survey in the North of England (Pattison et al., larvae. These leave the liver via the hepatic vein
and posterior vena cava to reach the heart and
1980) recorded an incidence of 10% in pork and
bacon pigs and sows, which was lower than the subsequently the lungs. Some may lodge in the
infestations due to Hyostrongylus rubidus (28.5%) kidneys and other organs, where they cause
haemorrhage and necrosis, but most of the L3
and Oesophagostomum spp. (85%).
larvae break out of the lung capillaries into the
Recent surveys in Northern Ireland have
lung alveoli and moult to become L4 larvae.
shown that A. SUU11l has increased in
These migrate up the bronchioles, bronchi,
prevalence, this probably being accounted for
trachea and larynx to the pharynx and are then
by the high resistance of the eggs combined
swallowed, finally reaching the small intestine,
with the absence of effective cleansing and
where they grow rapidly and moult to become
disinfection procedures.
stage 5 larvae and eventually adult male and
Ascaris suum is the largest of the
female worms some 35-60 days after infection.
gastrointestinal parasites of pigs, smooth and
Egg laying begins 7-14 days later.
yellowish-white in colour with the larger
The passage of ascaris larvae through the
females 20-40 cm x 5 mm in size and the thinner
lungs causes considerable systemic disturbance
males 15-25 cm x 3 mm. Males have a hook-
('thumps') manifested by fever, coughing,
shaped posterior end surrounded by spicules.
dyspnoea and symptoms resembling
There is a short head with three smooth lips
pneumonia. This is due to the destruction of
arranged around the mouth, each lip bearing a
lung alveoli, resulting in haemorrhage, and
row of minute denticles.
sometimes oedema and emphysema, by the
~ Life cycle A. suum lives for some 55 weeks, migrating larvae. Should re-infection occur,
during which the female lays up to 1.4-2 ulcers with perivascular cuffing may develop in
million eggs daily. The fertilised eggs (zygotes) the oesophageal and gastric mucosae, a
are passed in the faeces and develop to the possible manifestation of an immune response.
infective stage (after a first moult) in 14 days. Pigs up to 4-5 months of age are most
There is some doubt as to whether the second- severely affected. On occasions diarrhoea, pot
or third-stage larva is the infective one. belly and unthriftiness occur.
The larvated eggs, which possess thick In recent years it has been suggested that
shells, are extremely resistant and can survive migrating larvae of A. suum have caused
for as long as 4 years. Desiccation and direct necrotic lesions in lambs' livers resulting in high
sunlight, however, can kill them in a few weeks. condemnation rates (Mitchell and Linklater,
Earthworms and dung beetles probably act as 1980; Gibson and Lanning, 1981; Borland et al.,
reservoirs of infection for larvated eggs. 1980; Crooks, 1980). While A. suum has been
After ingestion (in food contaminated with definitely encountered in naturally infected
faeces) the outer envelopes of the eggs is lambs, experimental work has shown that only
digested by the host's small intestinal juices. tiny liver lesions (up to 2 mm in diameter) are
The larvae are freed and penetrate the bowel produced (Brown et al., 1984).
644 Meat Hygiene
Judgement of ascariasis in pigs Dropsy and emaciation of the carcase may
Carcase and viscera: A and D, provided occur in severely infected cases, justifying total
condemnation. Most cases, however, are mild
condition is adequate.
infections warranting approval of the carcase
Livers affected with 'milk spot' are unfit for
with rejection of the small intestine.
human consumption and are utilised as
inedible by-products or utilised for
pharmaceutical purposes subject to negative
residue tests. Oesophagostomum spp.
The Oesophagostomum spp. occur in the caecum
and large intestine of pigs and have a life cycle
Globocephalus spp. similar to that of the species occurring in
Globocephalus longemucronatus (males 5 mm and ruminants.
females 8 mm long) and G. somoensis are found Oesophagostomum dentatum, probably the
in the small intestine of pigs in Africa, Far East most serious pathogen in pigs, is found
and North and South America, and along with worldwide, but the other species are restricted
other species are capable of causing anaemia in to southern USA and Puerto Rico.
severely affected animals. Pigs become infected through eating
contaminated food. It is possible that rodents,
sandflies and midges may act as carriers of
Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (thorny- infection.
headed worm of pigs) Lesions resemble in general those found in
The adult worms are long and flat with males up cattle and sheep and are found especially in the
to 10mm in length and females as long as 40mm caecum and anterior colon. The walls of these
or more. The worm is found in the small intestine parts become oedematous due to extensive
of the pig, mainly the jejunum, and sometimes in lymphatic thrombosis and may develop a
man. Superficially the worm resembles Ascaris, localised fibronecrotic membrane. Secondary
being a thick, cylindrical white worm, but it infection 'with Salmonella, Vibrio and Balantidium
increases in width towards its anterior end where mavensue.
it possesses a thorny proboscis composed of five
Judgement
or six rows of backwardly curving hooks. There
is no intestinal canal, food being absorbed As for Ascaris.
directly through the body surface. Intestines: Usually T.
It is common in Europe, Belorussia, North
and South America and Australia.
Life cycle The eggs are passed in the faeces
Strongyloides ransomi
and are ingested by the intermediate hosts, Strongyloides ransomi is an intestinal
dung and water beetles. The eggs hatch when threadworm (male 0.80-0.90 mm and female
ingested by the larvae of these beetles and 1.0-1.5 mm long) which occurs in the anterior
encyst in their body cavities. Pigs are infected small intestine of the pig. It is worldwide in
when they ingest the adult beetles or the distribution.
infective grubs. The larvae are freed and
Life cycle Both parasitic and free-living forma
develop into adult worms in the intestine.
of Strongyloides spp. can occur, unlike all other
Lesions The parasite attaches itself to the nematodes. Reproduction is asexual, eggs being
mucosa and bores deeply into the intestinal developed without fertilisation by the male
wall creating inflammation ('strawberry mark') (parthenogenesis). These are passed in the
and a granuloma and sometimes perforation faeces and hatch in 12-18 h and the parasitic
and ulcers with heaped-up edges. Peritonitis forms become infective (L3) in 2-3 days.
may ensue with rapid onset of death. Infection of the host occurs by either
ingestion or penetration of the skin. Those
Judgement
entering via the skin migrate to the lungs in the
Affected intestines are unfit for use as sausage blood. Transmission of infection may also occur
casings. in neonatal pigs via the colostrum.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 645
More severe infections result in diarhoea, ureters may produce hydronephrosis, with
anaemia, anorexia, emaciation and sometimes conversion of the kidneys into fibrous sacs
death. distended with urine. The walls of these sacs may
contain purulent cysts containing adult worms.
Lesions Focal inflammation with pus
formation may be evident at the site of Symptoms Most affected pigs display few, if
penetration of the larvae. Erosion of the any, symptoms except in severe infections when
intestinal mucosa and a catarrhal enteritis may there may be posterior paralysis (due to spinal
be present along with local haemorrhages in the cord involvement), anorexia and loss of weight.
lungs caused by laval migration.
Diagnosis Post-mortem changes are
Judgement diagnostic.
Judgement depends on the degree of infection, Judgement
which may be so severe as to justify total
Carcase and viscera: A, T, or Kh and D (affected
condemnation due to emaciation and anaemia.
organs).
In milder infections, carcases may be passed
with rejection of affected lungs and intestines.
Trichinellosis (Trichinosis, Trichiniasis)
I. A parasitic disease of great public health
Stephanurus dentatus (kidney worm of pigs) importance in which the larvae of the small
Stephanuriasis occurs mainly in pigs kept roundworm (Trichinella spiralis) of pigs, rats, man
outdoors in tropical and subtropical countries and other mammals migrate to and encyst in the
but is now decreasing in incidence owing to musculature, causing severe illness, even death,
sanitary control measures. in heavy infections in man but usually only
The adult male worms are 2-4 cm long and subclinical infection in domestic and wild
the females 3-5 cm. animals.
Zoonosis.
Life cycle From cysts in the kidneys, ureters
and perirenal fat, eggs are passed out in the O. The Animal Health Yearbook of 1992 gives
urine from the adult worms. Thev hatch and the incidences of trichinosis in pigs as follows:
reach infective stage in 3-5 days.~ Earthworms Exceptional occurrence: Norway (all carcases
serve as transfer hosts, infection of pigs tested at meat plant), Sweden.
occurring when the earthworms are ingested. Lou: sporadic occurrence: Austria, Bulgaria,
Transdermal infection may occur. Finland, Latvia, Poland, Romania,
Infective larvae migrate from the small Yugoslavia, Ukraine, Argentina, Egypt,
intestine via the mesenteric lymph nodes and Mexico, USA, Hong Kong, Myanmar.
portal vessels to the liver and some to the lungs, Enzootic occurrence: Costa Rica, Lebanon.
bronchial lymph nodes, spleen and pancreas.
After 2-4 months they break through the liver Several countries have eradicated the
capsule into the peritoneal cavity and migrate disease, notably Denmark (1930), Uruguay
to the kidney, ureters, perirenal and mesenteric (1932), Portugal (1951), New Zealand (1974),
fat depots. Hungary (1975), Britain (1977), N. Ireland
(1979) and Canada (1986, where trichinoscopic
Lesions In percutaneous infection there are
examinations of some 79000 pigs and horses
subcutaneous nodules with oedema and
are performed annually).
enlargement of the associated lymph nodes.
The liver is enlarged and cirrhotic and shows lA. Trichinella spiralis, a small roundworm
tracts, nodules and scars (probably healed (male 1.5 mm, female 3.5 mm long, possessing a
abscesses). Ascites and peritonitis may slender body and a round unarmed mouth. The
accompany the hepatic cirrhosis. The portal vein male has a pair of flaps on either side of the
may show fibrinous tracts. The ureters are cloaca (Fig. 18.1).
thickened and may even be obliterated. Fat round There are four species differentiated according
the kidneys and ureters is honeycombed with to their infectivity: Trichinella spiralis, the main
many chambers containing a creamy, greenish zoonotic form occurring in pigs, rats, mice, man
fluid and numerous parasites. Obliteration of the and many mammals; T. pseudospiralis (infects
646 Meat Hygiene
in size and are about 0.5-1.0 x 0.25 mm in size at
14 days after infection; they coil up within the
muscle fibre in a typical spiral form, cease to
grow and become surrounded by a capsule, the
process being completed in 4-5 weeks.
In addition to dilating the sarcolemmal
sheath, the larvae cause the muscle fibre to lose
its cross-striation, the fibre degenerating to
form a granular mass while the muscle nuclei
increase in size and number along with an
increase in the number of mitochondria.
The final muscle cyst is lemon-shaped with its
long axis parallel to the muscle fibres. It is not
b readily detected until 2-3 months have elapsed
and is only really evident at 6-8 months. The
poles of the cyst become infiltrated with fat
Fig. 18.1 Adult female Trichinella spiralis: a, oral globules and later with lime salts. Calcification
opening; b, oesophgus; c, newborn larva just in the pig may begin at 5 months after infection
expelled from vulva; d. larvae in anterior portion of and be complete in 9 months but the parasite
uterus; c, fertilised and developing ova; f, ovary; g, can remain viable if the process does not
rectum, xlOO. (By courtesy of Dr S. E. Gould) involve the actual worm. Even calcified
trichinae in man have been known to remain
alive for 31 years and for 12 years in pigs.
birds and mammals but does not produce a
muscle cyst - has been found in Tasmania,
Eastern Europe and India); T. nativa (Canada, Location of Trichinella cysts
USSR, Arctica); and T. nelsoni (Africa and
The predilection sites vary according to the host
Europe). All four species occur in wild
species. In pigs the skeletal muscles liable to
carnivores. All four species occur initially in the
invasion are those concerned with respiration
small intestine of the hosts.
and are, in order of frequency, the pillars of the
R. Swine, rats, mice, dogs, cats and numerous diaphragm, the costal area of the diaphragm,
wild animals including fox, wolf, raccoon. bear, the muscles of the tongue and larynx and the
polar bear, wild boar, hyaena, jackal, lion and abdominal and intercostal muscles. The
leopard. frequency of infestation of these muscles may
be associated with their constant activity and
Life cycle When encysted muscle larvae are
consequent abundant blood supply.
ingested, they are liberated in the small
Most larvae are found near the tendons and
intestine by the digestive juices and undergo
beneath the sarcolemmal sheath where there is
four moults to reach the adult stage in 4 days.
greatest resistance to their passage through the
Copulation occurs, after which the males die
capillaries. In rodents the muscles of
and the females penetrate into the mucosa,
mastication are most often affected.
where eggs hatch in the uterus to produce
500-1000 larvae during 2-6 weeks. MT. Infection results from the consumption of
The larvae (each 0.1 mm long) reach the raw or undercooked flesh of animals containing
bloodstream by way of the mesenteric lymph viable encysted larvae. In relation to human
stream, thoracic duct and the posterior vena beings, the usual meats are pork and pork
cava to reach all parts of the body. The larvae products and beefburgers containing raw pork,
encyst primarily in the voluntary skeletal but other meats such as bear, polar bear, wild
muscles, especially those poor in glycogen - boar and walrus have been implicated in
diaphragm, tongue, larynx, eye and the epidemics. Outbreaks of trichinosis in man
intercostal and masticatory muscles. have also been associated with the
Penetrating the capillary walls, the larvae consumption of horse flesh.
enter the muscle sarcolemma 7-8 days after The prevalence of trichinosis in pigs has been
infected meat is ingested. They increase greatly shown by American studies to be higher in
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 647
those animals fed on meat plant offal (0.5%) In Great Britain, currently free of trichinosis,
compared with pigs fed on grain (0.125%). The Presh Meat Hygiene and Inspection
Trichinosis in the pig is, therefore, most likely to Regulations 1995, Schedule 10, require that
be acquired from the flesh of another pig via 'fresh meat from horses shall be examined for
raw or unboiled garbage. The rat probably trichinellosis and shall be rejected as unfit for
obtains the infection from a similar source and human consumption if so affected; an OVS or
also via cannibalism. an inspector shall examine fresh meat from
Animal hosts remain infective for months swine for trichinellosis and shall reject as unfit
and meat from such animals stays dangerous for for human consumption fresh meat so affected;
considerable periods unless properly cooked or and fresh meat from swine not examined for
frozen. A temperature of at least 77°C (171°P) to trichinellosis shall be subjected to cold
reach all parts of the meat is required to destroy treatment in accordance with Annex 1 to
all larvae. A freezing temperature of - 15°C Directive 77/96/EEC'.
(+5°P) for 30 days or -25°C (_13°P) or lower for Pending agreement between EU Member
10 days is necessary to make the meat safe. States about the granting of derogations, all pig
Thicker pieces of pork must be held at the lower meat which is consigned to Germany and
temperature for at least 20 days. It is stressed Denmark must either be subjected to a specified
that these temperatures will not kill the T. nation treatment, e.g. cold treatment or, examined and
arctic strains found in walrus and bear meat. found to be free from trichinellosis.
Such examinations or treatments may have
CF. In domestic and wild animals most infections to be carried out on pig meat exported to
go undiagnosed. The intestinal worms may countries outside the European Union but only
create a degree of enteritis which may be marked if the importing Third Country so requires.
in severe infections, with diarrhoea. Larvae in Directive 77/96/EEC of 21 December 1976 as
muscle may give rise to fever, stiffness, muscle amended (and Directive 94 I 59 IEEC of 2
pain, dyspnoea, facial oedema and hoarseness. December 1994) 'on the examination for
Very severe infections can result in death due to trichinae iTrichinella spiralis) upon importation
failure of the respiratory muscles. from third countries of fresh meat derived from
In mall the incubation period is usually 1-2 domestic swine' specifies that the examination
weeks after ingestion of infected meat. Clinical of such meat must: (1) Be made under the
signs vary greatly and range from inapparent supervision of an official veterinary surgeon
infection to a fulminating, fatal disease. There is (Article 2.1) Be carried out in accordance with
muscle pain and oedema of upper eyelids in the one of the methods provided for in Annex 1
early stages, sometimes followed by conjunctival (Article 2.2). (2) Be undertaken in a
and retinal haemorrhages and photophobia. slaughterhouse approved in the exporting
Remittent fever, weakness, anorexia, sweating, country or in the importing country at an
chills, diarrhoea and prostration develop with approved inspection post (Articles 2.3 and 2.5).
cardiac and respiratory complications, death (3) Take place before the approved system of
being finally due to myocardial failure in either health marking (Article 2.4). (4) Be health
the first or second weeks or between the fourth marked in the approved manner (Article 2.6). (5)
and eighth weeks. Involve an approved method of freezing in lieu
P. See life cycle and location of cysts. of examination in the exporting country
(Articles 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 and Annex IV). (6) Be
D. Naked-eye examination of pork carcases carried out in authorised laboratories and by
cannot be regarded as reliable for the detection of qualified personnel and in approved boning,
trichinosis because, although cysts are just visible cutting and freezing premises (Article IV and
after they have undergone calcification, this does Annex IV).
not occur until after 8 months, sometimes one year.
Several immunodiagnostic tests have been used to
Quality control procedures in approved
diagnose trichinosis - complement fixation,
laboratories
haemagglutination, flocculation, intradermal and
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These may either involve running controls in
The latter is highly sensitive in detecting antibodies tandem with standard procedures - a costly
to T. spiralis in the mass screening of pigs. procedure - or the use of control indicators to
648 Meat Hygiene
determine whether the acid-digestion methods number of specimens and slide preparations, if
are within satisfactory limits. The digestion of necessary with the aid of higher magnifications,
the blue indicator and the retention of the red until the required information is obtained. The
indicator establishes that the process is within trichinoscopic examination must be carried out
satisfactory limits. Other approved QC testing for at least three minutes.
The trichinoscopic examination must be
methods may be used. carried out for at least six minutes in the case of
substitute specimens taken from the rib part or
breastbone part of the diaphragm pillars, the
lingual muscle or the jaw muscle or the
abdominal muscles.
APPROVED LABORATORY METHODS FOR THE The minimum time fixed for the
EXAMINATION FOR TRICHINAE (ANNEX 1) examination does not include the time
necessary for sample taking and for making the
METHODS FOR PIG MEAT preparations.
As a general rule, the trichinoscope
1. Examination of pig meat using a trichinoscope: examiner should not inspect more than 840
pieces a day. though by way of exception he
The following samples are required: may inspect up to 1050.
The trichinoscope cannot be used for the
In the case of whole carcases, at least one examination of horse meat.
specimen the size of a hazelnut must be taken
from each of the diaphragm pillars at the 2. Examination of pig meat by the artificial
transition of the sinewy part. If there is only one digestion method
diaphragm pillar, one specimen the size of two The following samples are required:
hazelnuts is to be taken. In the absence of both
diaphragm pillars, two specimens approximately In the case of whole carcases a sample of at
the size of a hazelnut are to be taken from one of least 20 g (3/4 oz) must be taken from a
the following sites: diaphragm pillar at the transition of the sinewy
part. In the absence of diaphragm pillars a
- the rib part or the breastbone part of specimen of at least 20 g must be taken from one
the diaphragm; of the sites listed under (1) above.
- the lingual muscle; If the samples above cannot be taken,
the jaw muscle; or another piece of meat of approx. 20 g and
containing as little fat as possible should be
- the abdominal muscles.
taken where possible from a site near to bones
(Samples are normally taken during or after or tendons.
post-mortem inspection. They must be
correlated with the carcases or cuts of meat 3. Pig meat for examination by the artificial
from which they came.) digestion of collective samples
If the samples above cannot be taken, three 4. Pig meatfor examination by the mechanically-
other pieces of meat the size of a hazelnut assisted pooled sample digestion
containing little fat should be taken from each method/sedimentation technique
cut of meat from points as near as possible to
bones or tendons. 5. Pig meatfor examination by the mechanically-
The trichinoscopic examination must be assisted pooled sample digestion method/on
carried out in such a manner that each filter isolation technique
preparation is scanned slowly and carefully. If
the trichinoscopic examination reveals suspect 6. Pig meat for examination by the magnetic
areas, the nature of which cannot be definitely stirrer methodfor pooled sample digestion
ascertained even with the most powerful
magnification of the trichinoscope, these must 7. Pig meat for examination by the automatic
be checked by microscope. digestion method for pooled samples of up to 35g
The microscopic examination should be
carried out in such a manner that each For methods 3-7 the following samples are
preparation is scanned slowly and carefully at required:
a magnification of 30 to 40 x. In the case of whole carcases, a specimen
In the case of an uncertain result, the approx. 2 g should be taken from a pillar of the
examination must be continued on a further diaphragm at the transition of the sinewy part.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 649
In the absence of diaphragm pillars a specimen the laboratory examinations are notified. This
of at least 2 g should be taken from one of the is particularly important if the oval or square
following: health mark has been applied to the carcases or
the cuts of meat labelled accordingly. Such
- rib part or the breastbone part of the
carcases and cuts of meat need not be kept in
diaphragm; the detained area of the abattoir.
- the lingual muscle;
- the jaw muscle; or
- the abdominal muscles. Post-mortem judgement and application of the
trichinelloeis health mark
If the above samples cannot be taken, a
sample of approx. 2g and containing as little fat If trichinae larvae or eggs have been or are
as possible should be taken from a site as near suspected of having been isolated from
as possible to bones or tendons. samples originating in pigs or horses, in any
approved laboratory, then the veterinarian
responsible for supervising that laboratory or
METHODS FOR HORSE MEAT other authorised person must notify the local
DVO (Divisional Veterinary Officer) of that
8. Examination of horse meat by the artificial finding. If notification is received that the
digestion of collective samples. laboratory examination has proved positive or
suspicious, it is essential that carcases or cuts of
9. Examination of horse meat blj the meat are detained pending confirmation of the
mechanicallv-ossisted pooled sample dIgestion disease or otherwise. Other carcases which
method/sedimen taiion iechn ique. have come from the same holding must be
detained pending further sampling. The local
10. Examination of horse meat blf the DVO must be advised accordingly.
mechanicnllu-assieted pooled sample dIgestion If trichinellosis is confirmed then the whole
method/onfilter isolation iechnique. carcase must be considered unfit for human
consumption and dealt with accordingly.
11. Examination of horse meat by the magnetic
stirrer methodfor pooled sample digestion.
12. Examination of horse meat by the automatic
MARKING OF MEAT WHICH HAS BEEN
digestion method for pooled samples of up to
35g. EXAMINED FOR TRICHINAE (ANNEX lIT OF
DIRECTIVE 77/96/EEC (AS AMENDED)
For methods 8-12 the following samples are
required: A specimen of at least 10 g is to be 1. Marking of the meat must be carried out
taken from the lingual muscle or the jaw under the responsibility of the official
muscle. In the absence of these a specimen of veterinarian. For this purpose, he shall
the same size with no fat or connective tissue keep and maintain:
attached must be taken from the pillar of the
diaphragm at the transition of the sinewy part. - the instruments intended for marking
Details of the apparatus and techniques of which he may hand over to the
examination for trichinae are given in Annex 1 of assistant staff only at the time of
Directive 94/59/EEC - 3rd Amendment. marking and for the length of time
required for this purpose,

Despatch of samples to approved laboratories - the tags mentioned in para. 5. These

tags shall be given to the assistant staff
Samples should be despatched to the approved at the time when they must be used
laboratory as soon as possible after taking. and in the required number.
They should not be batched together without
the agreement of the veterinary supervisor or
other designated person in the laboratory. 2. The mark must be round with a diameter
of 2.5 cm. The following information must
appear on the mark in perfectly legible
Holding meat pending receipt of results characters:
It is essential that carcases and cuts of meat are - towards the centre the capital 'T' with
kept under secure control until the results of arms 1 cm long and 0.2 cm wide,
650 Meat Hygiene
- under the letter 'T' one of the following rapidly and maintained in all parts of the
sets of initials; CEE, EEG, EWG, EOF, room and of the meat.
or EEC. The letters must be 0.4 cm
high. 3. Insulated packaging should be removed
before freezing, except for meat which has
3. Carcases must be marked in ink or hot- already reached throughout the
branded on the inside of the thighs, in temperature referred to under para. 6
accordance with para. 2. when it is brought into the refrigeration
room.
4. Heads must be marked in ink or hot-
branded with a mark meeting the 4. Consignments in the refrigeration room
requirements of para. 2. must be kept separately and under lock.
5. The date and time when each consignment
With the exception of cuts exempt from is brought into the refrigeration room must
health marking by virtue of Annex B, Chapter be recorded.
X(43) of Council Directive 72/462/EEC those
taken in cutting plants in accordance with the 6. The temperature in the refrigeration
rules must, where they bear no stamp, be room must be at least -25°C. It should be
marked in accordance with para. 2 before the measured with calibrated thermo-electric
health mark is affixed. instruments and continuouslv recorded.
The label provided for in the second It may not be measured directly in the
subparagraph of the above-mentioned para. 43 cold air flow. The instruments must be
must comply with the conditions of para. 6 kept under lock. The charts must include
below. the relevant numbers from the meat
inspection register on importation and
5. Marking may also be effected by means of the date and time of the commencement
a round tag. This tag, to be affixed to each and completion of freezing, and must be
piece or to each carcase must not be retained for one year after compilation.
reusable, must be made of strong materials
and must meet all hygiene requirements. 7. Meat with a diameter or thickness of up to
The following information must appear on 25 cm must be frozen for at least 240
the stamp seals in perfectly legible consecutive hours, and meat with a
characters: diameter or thickness of between 25 and 50
cm must be frozen for at least 480
- towards the centre of the capital letter consecutive hours. This freezing process
'T', may not be applied to meat which has a
larger diameter or is thicker.
- under the letter 'T' one of the following The freezing time shall be calculated
sets of initials: CEE, EEG, EWG, EOF or from the point when the temperature
EEC. The letters must be 0.2cm high. referred to in para. 6 is reached in the
freezing room.
6. The label provided for in Annex B, Chapter
X(44) of the Directive mentioned in para. 4
above must, in addition to the health mark,
bear a clearly legible mark identical to that Method 2
provided for in para. 2.
The general provlslOns of paras 1 to 5 of
Method 1 shall be complied with, and the
following time-temperature combinations
applied:
FREEZING OF MEAT (ANNEX IV)
1. Meat with a diameter or thickness of up to
Method 1 15 cm must be frozen according to one of
1. Meat brought in already frozen must be the following time-temperature combina-
kept in this condition. tions:
2. The technical equipment and energy - 20 days at - 15°C
supply of the refrigerating room must be
such as to ensure that the temperature - 10 days at - 23°C
referred to under para. 6 is reached very 6 days at - 29°C
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 651
2. Meat with a diameter or thickness of 6. The temperature should be measured with
between 15 cm and 50 cm must be frozen calibrated thermoelecric instruments and
according to one of the following continuously recorded. The probe of the
time-temperature combinations: thermometer has to be placed at the centre
- 30 days at - 15°C of a calibrated piece of meat of a size no
smaller than the thickest piece of meat to
- 20 days at - 25°C be frozen. The calibrated piece of meat
- 12 days at - 29°C should be placed at the least favourable
site in the freezing room, not close to the
The temperature of the refrigeration room cooling instruments or directly in the cold
must be no higher than the level of the selected air flow. The instruments must be kept
inactivation temperature. It should be measured under lock. The charts must include the
with calibrated thermoelectric instruments and relevant numbers from the meat inspection
continuously recorded. It may not be measured register on importation and the date and
directly in the cold air flow. The instruments must time of the commencement and
be kept under lock. The charts must include the completion of freezing, and must be
relevant numbers from the meat inspection retained for one year after compilation.
register on importation and the date and time of
the commencement and completion of freezing,
and must be retained for one year after
compilation. INSPECTION AND FREEZING OF HORSE MEAT
(ANNEX v)

1. Inspection
Method 3
The inspection of horse meat has to be
Control of the temperature at the centre of the performed according to a digestion method in
meat pieces. Annex 1 with the following modifications:
1. The following time-temperature combina-
tions shall be applied where the tempera- • Specimens of at least 10 g to be taken
ture is controlled at the centre of the meat from the lingual muscle or the jaw
pieces and the conditions in paras 2 to 6 are muscle. In the absence of lingual
fulfilled: muscle or jaw muscle a specimen of
the same size to be taken from a
- 106 hours at - 18°C pillar of the diaphragm at the
transition of the sinewy part. The
- 82 hours at - 21°C muscle should be clean of connective
- 63 hours at - 23.5°C tissue and fat.
- 48 hours at - 26°C • AS g sample is digested for inspection
if the artificial digestion of collective
- 35 hours at - 29°C samples according to Annex 1, Nos III
- 22 hours at - 32°C to VII is applied. For each digest, the
total weight of muscle under
- 8 hours at - 35°C examination must not exceed 100 g for
- 1/2 hour at - 37°C Methods III, IV, V and VI in Annex 1
or 35 g for Method VII in Annex 1.
2. Meat brought in already frozen must be
• In the case of a positive result a
kept in this condition. further 10 g specimen must be taken
3. Consignments in the refrigeration room for a subsequent independent
must be kept separately and under lock. examination.
4. The date and time when each consignment
is brought into the refrigeration room must
be recorded. 2. Freezing of horse meat
5. The technical equipment and energy supply To kill trichinae by freezing, horse meat must
of the refrigeration room must be such as to undergo cold treatment in accordance with one
ensure that the temperature referred to of the methods described in Annex IV.
under para 1 is reached very rapidly and (The above tests are being replaced by
maintained in all parts of the meat. irnmunodiagnosis with the ELISA test.)
652 Meat Hygime
Control oftricttineitoeis Life cycle This is an indirect one Involving
eartlnrorms as in terme dia te hosts. Eggs are laid
Since trea tmen t of affected ani mals is
in the lu ng s, co ug hed up and sw allowed.
impractical, control measures must be d irected
Earthworms ing es t eithe r ha tched o r unhatched
at pre venti ng the ingestion o f viab le Trichinella
eggs. Th e larvae devel op in the blood ves sels of
CYsts in mu scle bv animals or man . Treatmen t of
the oesophagus and proventriculus of th e
affected human ' beings is carri ed ou t w ith earthworms. Wh en infect ive (at 0.50 mm) after
thiabend azole for the intestin al worms and two mo ults as L3 larvae they are ingested by
mebendazolc for the mu scle cysts. p igs, in w h ich they pen etrat e th e small
Th e exa mina tion of meat for viable trichinae in testinal wall and en ter the mesenteric lym ph
as outlined abov e is effective in p reve nti ng nodes w here thev mou lt. The l 4 larvae are
infecti on in huma ns in those countries where conveyed to the right heart and then the lungs,
trichinellosis exists. This, however, must be where thcv become adult!' after another moult,
combined w ith other measures s uch as the
egg layin g commencing at about U d ays post-
hygie nic management of lives tock, the effective infection .
control of rodents, the proper cooking (a t least
30 min a t l 00"C) of swill fed to pigs, and the eF. Mos t cases appear to be asym p tomatic but
prevention of access to ca rcases, including severe infecti on s may ca use dyspnoea ,
wildlife carcases, e.g. those o f walrus, bear, seal, anorexia, poor feed convers ion, loss of weight
wild boar and other wild animals. and in freq uent coughing.
It is eq ually important that the public be P, There mav be no gross ch anges but
ed ucated to properly cook fresh pork and por k bronchitis, b ronchi olit is and pneumonia,
p roducts and meat from wild animals which have
especially of the di aphragmatic lobes may be
not been processed by heating. curing or freezing evident and sometimes at al ect as is. Xodular
to kill trichinae, so that all parts of the meat reach
lesions produced by disca rded cuticles and less
a temperature of at least 77C (l il"F) or until the than 2.5cm in diameter may be appa rent in the
meat changes colou r from pink to grey. lung substance or under the visceral pleura.
Pork sh ould be ground in a separate grinder
or the grinder thoroughly cleaned before and D. Post-mortem examination re ve als the
after use wit h oth er meats. presence of ad ult wo rm s w hen the
Ad opt the Freezi ng tem peratu res outlined in diaphragmatic lobes are incised at the
Direct ive 94/ 59/ EEC. These te mperature s, posteroventral bord er and the bronchioles are
however, will not kill the cold -resistan t Arctic squeezed .
strains of Trichinella :,pira/is natito foun d in wild The typical th ick-sh elled larvated eggs can
animals and sometimes in p igs. be d em onst rat ed in th e faeces.
Exp ose th e meat to low level ga m ma Immu nofluor escen ce ma y be used in
irrad iation. serodiagnosis. .
J. Carcas e and viscera : Usua lly A and D
(lungs).
Meta strongy lus elo ngatue (M . ap r i),
M , p/1/1elldotectl/s, M , eabn i
Metnstrollgylll:' sp p. of w orms, of which M . Oesophagostonuun delltatum,
O . breuicaudiun, O . qlladrispilw fatl/JII,
elollgnt/l5 is the most common, are found in pigs
(d omestic and wild) and occasiona lly sheep, O . georgianum
cattle, deer and other ru minants and occasionally sp p. infect the caecum and
Ol.'SOpllag ostO/ll llll1
man. They occur in the bronchi and bronchiole,; large intes tine of p igs, O. dentatum occurring
and in natural in fections there may be one, two or throughou t the world while O. breiicoudum and
all three species involved . The worms are slender O. georgimllllll are found in the USA, Ind ia and
in shape and white in colour, males up to 25mm Ce ntra l America and O. ql/adrispilllllatl/II/ infects
in length and females up to 60mm . pigs in North and South America, Eu rope and
the Philip pines.
O . M. eiongatus and M. pudendotectue -
worldwi de. M. salmi is confined to S. Africa, MT. Pigs acquire in fection thro ugh th e
S.E. Asia, S. America and USA. in gestion of L3 infect ive larvae on
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 653
contaminated pasture or feed. It is possible that bacterial invaders to become established and
infected larvae may be carried by adult cause a catarrhal enteritis and dysentery. Some
sandflies or owl flies or by infected rodents workers describe nodule formation, intestinal
which are eaten by pigs. oedema and necrotic erosion of the mucosa.
In severe infections there is anorexia,
CF. Cases are usually asymptomatic but some
weakness, anaemia, emaciation, dysentery,
loss of weight gain and diarrhoea may occur in
dehydration and loss of weight.
more severe infections.
P. See CF.
P. As in ruminants, the main lesions are
greyish-white nodules (2-8 mm in diameter) in D. Based on clinical signs, post-mortem
the caecum and large intestine caused by findings and demonstration of typical eggs in
encapsulated larvae in the muscularis mucosae faeces.
('pimply gut' or 'nodular pig disease'). These
nodules normally contain yellowish-black
J. Carcase and viscera: Usually A and D
(intestines).
necrotic material in the older nodules.
Petechiation may be present at the point of
entry of the larvae and there may be oedema of
the intestinal wall arising form thrombosis of MISCELLANEOUS NEMATODE
the lymphatics. INFECTIONS
D. Faecal examination of eggs may be carried
out, but the eggs of Oesophagostomum spp. are Onchocerciasis (worm nodule disease)
similar to those of Hyostrongylus. I. A parasitic infection of cattle, water buffalo,
Differentiation is made by larval culture. zebu, goats and horses caused by filarial worms
J. Carcase and viscera: Usually A and D of the Onchocerca spp. in which nodules
(intestines). containing microfilariae are found in the
connective tissue in various parts of the body.

Trichuris suis O. The disease is of great economic

importance in Australasia, Malay Peninsula, S.
The Trichuris spp. are usually termed Africa, USA and Central America but possibly
'iohipuiorms' because the anterior part is very less so in Europe. Documentation, however, is
long and slender while the posterior part is poor in many countries.
very much thicker. In the USA infection rates of 59% of horses
Trichuris suis infects pigs, wild boars, were recorded in surveys in Kentucky, 77% in
monkeys and humans throughout the world Ohio and 37% in Michigan. In France Collobert
and occurs in the caecum, colon and human et al. (1995) examined the ligamentum nuchae
appendix. and umbilical skin of 368 horses and found only
The adult male worm is 3-4 cm and the 4 (1.09%) affected. In two separate
female 6-8 cm. investigations in England, incidences of 14%
O. Worldwide. and 23% were recorded, but no lesions in 105
horses examined in the the Republic of Ireland
Life cycle The barrel-shaped eggs containing (Mellor, 1973).
Ll larvae are passed in the faeces and become
infective in 3 weeks. When ingested by pigs, lA. At least 15 species of Onchocerca are
they hatch in the small intestine and caecum, known, most of which are capable of causing
penetrate the mucosa and enter the cells of the nodules in various sites in animals.
crypts where they undergo four moults to The main species are as follows:
become adults in 6-7 weeks after infection. 0. gibsoni - produces nodules in the brisket
and hind limbs of cattle and zebu.
MT. Ingestion of embryonated eggs on
pasture or in feed. O. glltt1l1'OSa - ligamentum nuchae, scapular
cartilage, hip, shoulder and stifle of cattle
CF. In itself T. suis is probably not a serious and buffalo.
parasite but it can cause enough damage in 0. tmnillata - the aorta of cattle, buffalo, sheep
younger pigs (2-6 months of age) for secondary and goats.
654 Meat Hygiene
O. ochengi - flanks, ventral abdomen, udder poll evil and fistulous withers in equidae, this is
and scrotum of cattle. now known to be incorrect.
O. lienalis - gastrosplenic ligament, spleen The microfilariae of O. armillaia produce
capsule and xiphoid process area of cattle. thickening of the aortic wall with the formation
O. cervicalis - ligamentum nuchae of horses of nodules and tunnels.
and mules causing poll evil, fistulous CF. Clinical signs are normally absent in cases
withers, dermatitis and uveitis.
of onchocerciasis but occasionally lameness
0. reticulata - flexor tendons and suspensory may be noted where nodules occur on flexor
ligament of horses, mules and donkeys. tendons, etc.. of equidae. Periodic ophthalmia,
All the Onchocerca worms are essentially blindness and epileptiform fits have been
parasites of connective tissue. associated with infection due to O. crmiilaia.
The most important of the Onchocerca D. By detection of adult worms in the
parasites, O. gibeoni, is a long, slender filariform ligamentum nuchae, brisket, gastrosplenic
worm, the males of which are 30-50 mm long ligament, etc., at post-mortem. Alternatively, a
and the females 140-200 mm or more long. The skin biopsy (6 mm) is taken from the usual
larvae or microfilariae (260 urn) are found superficial predilection sites (brisket, ear,
chiefly in the briskets of cattle. umbilicus, etc.) and macerated in warm normal
Its developmental cycle involves a midge, saline solution and incubated for 6 h.
Culicoides pungens (nubeculosus). Microfilariae, if present, appear in the deposit.
They may be stained with New Methylene Blue
after removal of skin pieces.
Lesions of O. gibsoni (Plate 4, Fig. 19) J. Judgement of onchocerciasis due to O. gibsoni:
In Australian meat inspection the superficial
The worm nodules or 'worm nests' are found in
fascia on the lateral aspect of the stifle joint is
the briskets, in the ligaments at the junction of
incised and a hook and thin-bladed knife
the ribs and the costal cartilages, usually
inserted to remove as much connective tissue as
between the second and tenth ribs and on the
possible. The cavity is then palpated to ensure
external aspect of the stifle and other parts of
that all nodules have been removed and the
the hind limbs.
incision closed by a metal pin which is removed
In the early stages the affected ligaments
after chilling.
appear thickened and dotted with
Briskets and plates are removed from
haemorrhagic spots which may become
forequarters of beef to be exported to Britain and
caseous or calcified. Later the parasite becomes
examined by incisions into the intermuscular
encased in yellow swellings the size of a
tissue; those" free of nodules are utilised locally
pigeon's egg or larger. These consist of an outer
for canning. Removal of the brisket and plate is
wall of white fibrous tissue with a centre
not considered necessary for the Eastern trade.
composed of a soft, spongy network in which
The other forms of onchocerciasis usually
one or two microfilariae of O. gibsoni are
warrant only the rejection of affected parts.
intimately entangled. These tumours may be
flattened or irregular in shape, and are found in
the subcutaneous connective tissue or in the
Strongylosis (strongylidosis) of equidae
connective tissue between the muscles. They
(redworm infestation)
never involve the muscular tissue itself.
Lesions that are markedly fibrous generally I. An infestation of the caecum and colon of
contain numerous larvae, but nodules in which horses, asses and mules with large strongyle
the connective-tissue reaction is slight are worms (blood worms, red worms, palisade
usually sterile; the central spongy area, worms, sclerostomes) associated with anaemia,
however, shows little variation in diameter, colic, debility and sometimes verminous
even in nodules of different size. arteritis.
Those microfilariae which occur in the
O. Worldwide in occurrence.
ligamentum nuchae are present in tunnels and
nodules in the connective tissue. Although they lA. The most common strongyle worms are
were in the past believed to be associated with Strongylus vulgaris (the common or double-
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 655
toothed strongyle), S. edentaius (the toothless occur as dilated and sacculated segments of the
strongyle) and S. equinus (the triple-toothed artery whose wall may be either thick or thin.
strongyle). These are large, firm, dark-grey Other lesions include infarction of the kidney
worms which bear several leaf crowns at their due to occlusion of the renal artery by an
anterior end (hence the name 'palisade' worms) embolus.
and in the intestine suck blood (hence the name S. edeniatus has been associated with
'red worms') by means of well-developed buccal subserous nodules (3mm high and 5mm wide)
capsules with teeth in the buccal cavity. in the small and large intestine. At first these are
S. vulgaris is the smallest of the three, being bright-red in colour but later become yellowish-
about 15mm long in the male and 22 mm in the brown. They contain a central caseous core,
female, S. edeniaius and S. eouinus being twice oedema, connective tissue, red and white blood
as long. cells and sometimes a degenerated larva.
Life cycle The life cycle of S. I'ulgaris is direct. D. Diagnosis is based on the demonstration of
Its thin-shelled eggs are passed in the faeces eggs in the faeces. In the case of mixed
and under favourable conditions reach the infections, the individual infective larvae are
infective third-stage larva in 1-2 weeks. When identified after faecal culture.
ingested, these infective larvae penetrate the Verminous arteritis of the cranial mesenteric
intestinal wall and become L4 larvae in 8 days artery may be diagnosed per rectum in the live
after infection. These enter the submucosal animal, appearing as an enlargement at the root
arterioles and migrate to the cranial mesenteric of the mesentery.
artery, where after 14 days they cause thrombi
and aneurysms. In about 5 days the L4 larvae
J. Carcase and viscera: Normally A and D
(affected intestines and arteries), provided
migrate back to the caecum and colon to
condition is adequate.
become L5 larvae in 3 months PI. In the lumen
of the intestine eggs are laid after 7 months.
Mixed nematode infections in horses
MT. Via the faecal-oral route.
Infections of large strongyles are often mixed
CF. The worms are active feeders, ingesting
and combined with those of 'small strongyles'
plugs of mucosa and blood to produce
such as Triodontophorus spp., e.g. T. ienuicollis,
anaemia, enteritis, diarrhoea, weakness and
Cuathostomum spp., Oesophagodontus spp.,
loss of condition.
Culicostephanus spp., etc. (all of which are
S. vulgaris causes damage to the anterior
bloodsuckers) and other round worms.
mesenteric artery and its branches (thrombus
The small stomach worm of horses,
formation and aneurysms) with interference of
Trichostrongylus «xei (also found in ruminants),
blood flow to the large intestine. Colic, torsion
may occur in mixed infections. In a dominant
of the large intestine, intussusception and even
inf~ction it causes a chronic catarrhal gastritis
rupture of the bowel may ensue. Detachment of which may extend to nodular areas of
thrombi from the arteries and arterioles mav
result in sudden death from occlusion of a thickened mucosa with erosions and
ulcerations involving, on occasions, the whole
coronary artery or pulmonary embolism and
glandular stomach lining.
right ventricular failure.
Adult worms of the Habronema spp.
Thrombosis of the iliac artery may result in
(6-25 mm in length) produce large fibrous
hindleg lameness. nodules (up to 10 cm in diameter) in the
P. In addition to the lesions listed under CF, stomach wall of horses. These nodules contain
Strongylus spp. adult worms can cause necrotic material and large numbers of worms.
haemorrhagic ulcers which may coalesce to On occasion they rupture to cause a fatal
form large areas of desquamating epithelium. peritonitis.
While the arterial lesions due to S. vulgaris The life cycles of H. muscae, H. megastoma and
usually affect the cranial mesenteric artery, any H. microstonui are indirect, the eggs or larvae
part of the arterial system may be damaged by being ingested by the maggots of house (Musca
endarteritis, thickening of the arterial wall and domestica) or stable flies (Stomoxys calciiransi,
thrombus formation (verminous arteritis). horses acquiring infection through eating the
Verminous aneurysms are less common and adult flies containing the infective larvae or the
656 Meat Hygiene
actual larvae which have emerged from the lesions in the supplying arteries made by adult
flies. In addition to the nodules, the Habronema parasites.
spp. cause a catarrhal gastritis and abundant Filarial dermatitis may also be caused by
mucus formation. Parajilnria multipapillosa, P. booicola and
Oxyuris equi, a pinworm (male 10 mm long Stephanofilaria spp. Parafilaria muliipapillosa
and females up to 150 mm), is found mainly in occurs in horses in Africa, South America,
the large intestine (caecum and colon), where Europe and the Far East and causes focal skin
the egg-laying females produce yellowish or haemorrhages ('bleeding spots') on the
white crusty masses round the anus and cause forequarters which bleed for some time and
pruritus, restlessness, tail and buttock rubbing then dry and clot, matting the hair. P. booicola
and often loss of condition. and Stephanofilaria spp., on the other hand, are
The equine ascarid, Parascaris equorum, is a found in cattle and produce similar lesions.
large, thick worm, up to 30cm long, which may Chambers (1991) recorded the overall incidence
also infect cattle. Its life cycle is similar to that of of lesions in cattle caused by Parajilaria booicola
A. SUZl111. Foals are mainly affected, but adult in Zimbabwe to be 4.4%, with the highest
horses may occasionally acquire infection. The prevalence in bulls (17.36%).
migrating larvae cause respiratory symptoms
(coughing, dyspnoea, etc.) in addition to loss of
condition, colic and anorexia.
Gnathostomiasis
The diagnosis and judgement of these mixed Gnathostomiasis is an infection of the stomach
infections follow the same lines as for the of pigs in Europe and Asia in which adult
Strongylus spp. worms are found in the stomach, causing
gastritis, and the liver, causing hepatitis. The
main parasite is Gnathostoma hispidum, which
has an intermediate host in freshwater
MISCELLANEOUS NEMATODE
crustaceans or water fleas, Cyclops spp. Human
INFECTIONS
infection by G. spinigerum acquired by eating
raw or undercooked fish results in
Chabertiasis subcutaneous abscesses and tunnels and
Chabertiasis is an infection of the colon of sometimes meningitis due to invasion of the
sheep, goats, cattle and other ruminants with eye and brain.
the nematode Chabertia ooina. A mucoid
enteritis with oedema and punctiform
haemorrhages in the intestinal wall are Neurofilariasis
produced, resulting in dysentery, anaemia and Neurofilariasis is an infection of the brain,
loss of condition. Cattle appear to be fairly spinal cord and lungs of sheep and deer in
resistant to infection, the disease usually being Europe, Canada and New Zealand with
asymptomatic. nematodes of the genus Elaphostrongylus,
especially E. ienuis. The life cycle is indirect,
involving several snails and slugs. Affected
Elaeophoriaeie (filarial dermatitis of sheep, animals show lameness, incoordination,
sorehead, clear-eyed blindness) circling, blindness and paralysis.
Elaeophoriasis is responsible for a chronic
disease in sheep, mule deer and black-tailed
deer in the USA in which it causes dermatitis,
Rluibdiiiasis
arteritis, blindness, keratitis and rhinitis. The Rhabditiasis has been recorded in cattle and
causal nematode is Elaeophora schneideri, which horses but is most common in the dog. It is
has intermediate hosts in several horse flies. caused by the nematode Rhabditis (Pelodera)
The arteritis involves the common carotid, strongyloides, which invades the skin of the
internal maxillary and leptomeningeal arteries neck, flanks, ventral abdomen and udder,
in which there is inflammation and fibrosis of causing thickening and wrinkling with scurfing
the arterial wall with thrombosis. The filarial and pustule formation. The pustules contain
dermatitis occurs on the face and feet takes the thick yellowish caseous material and larvae or
form of a granulomatous inflammation due to adult worms.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 657

Thelaziasis (eyeworm disease) alveoli. Maturation takes place when the larvae
reach the bronchioles and bronchi about 1
Worms of the Thelazia spp., e.g. T. gulosa, T.
rhodesii, T. atforteneis and T. skriabini infest the month post-infection (PI) for D. oioiparus, 5
weeks PI for D. filaria and 4 months PI for D.
conjunctival sac of cattle in the USA to produce
amieldi.
conjunctivitis, keratitis, photophobia and
corneal ulceration. The parasite in horses is T. Protostrongylus rufescens is a slender, reddish
worm (male 20 mm and the female 30 mm long)
lacrymalis and that in sheep is T. calijorniensis.
Many other animals, including pigs, goats, which requires a snail intermediate host before
becoming infective. The definitive host is
deer, camels, dogs, rabbits, birds and man are
infected by eating the snails.
hosts to the various species of Thelazia. The
parasites have an indirect life cycle, various The life cycle of Muellerius cmnilaris involves
a snail or slug intermediate host into which the
species of muscid flies (e.g. Musca cutunuutliei
acting as intermediate hosts. larvae penetrate for further development.
A survey in France (Collobert et al., 1995) R. Infected animals and pastures and snails
found 10.3% of horses examined to be infected and slugs for P. rujescens and M. capiilaris.
by Thelazia lacrinuilis, animals of 6 months to 2
MT. Faecal-oral route.
years being most frequently involved.
CF. Muellerius capillaris and Protostrongylus
rujescens, although responsible for some lung
Verminous bronchitis/pneumonia of lesions, are not generally thought to cause
ruminants clinical signs unless the infestation is very
severe.
I. A parasitic infection of the lower respiratory
In the case of Dictyocaulus and
tract, chiefly of young cattle, resulting in
Protostrongylus infections, there is bronchitis,
bronchitis and/ or pneumonia.
coughing with abundant, clear, frothy mucus,
O. Verminous bronchitis/pneumonia occurs anorexia and weight loss. Complications such
in many countries of the world, especially in as interstitial emphysema, pulmonary oedema
temperate regions. and secondary infection and pneumonia often
ensue to cause death.
lA. The cattle lungworm Dictyocaulus
viviparus is responsible for the disease in cattle P. See CF. There is considerable damage to the
Choose or 'husk') and deer, while D. filaria, respiratory epithelium in the bronchioles and
Protostrongylusrufescens and Muellerius capillaris bronchi, which are blocked with frothy exudate.
(probably the most common lung parasite in Lung lobules may show consolidation and the
sheep and goats) are the parasites in the latter alveolar epithelium haemorrhages and hyaline
animals. (Dictyocaulus arnfeldi is the parasitic membrane development.
nematode causing the disease in horses, mules Section of the trachea, bronchi and
and donkeys.) bronchioles shows a greenish, frothy exudate
The adult worms, D. tiioiparus and D. filaria, containing numerous worms, which may be so
are about 5 cm (male) and 7 cm (female) long. numerous as to occlude the lumens. The
Both life cycles are similar and are direct. bronchial mucosa is oedematous and may show
Larvated eggs are laid by the females in the haemorrhagic streaks and patchy pneumonia
bronchi and the L1 larvae are coughed up and with the edges of the lungs consolidated.
swallowed. (Hatching may also occur in the Numerous shot-like foci, the size of a millet
intestine.) These L1 larvae are passed in the seed to a pea, and yellowish or yellowish-
faeces and reach the infective stage (L3 larvae) brown in colour, are evident in the lungs at a
in 1 week. later stage of infection.
The infective larvae are ingested by the hosts Changes in sheep due to Muellerius capillaris
and, in the intestine, penetrate the wall and are in the form of greyish-green, fibrous, sub-
enter the mesenteric lymph nodes and undergo pleural nodules up to 2cm in diameter in which
two further moults to become male and female there are eosinophils, eggs and perhaps a dead
worms. These enter the lymph and the blood worm. These nodules may calcify. In goats there
vessels and reach the lungs, where they is a diffuse infection quite distinct from the
penetrate the capillary walls and enter the nodular formation seen in sheep.
658 Meat Hygiene
D. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, and female organs. The male organs consist of a
epidemiology, post-mortem findings and the number of testes, united by ducts and leading to
demonstration of first-stage larvae and eggs in a vas deferens, along with a seminal vesicle and a
faecal samples. Larvae are not present in pre- cirrus or penis. The female organs comprise
patent, post-patent or early stages of infection ovaries, oviduct, uterus and vagina. The ducts of
and examination of bronchial mucus smears both male and female organs open at a common
may be necessary to confirm a diagnosis. genital pore which is usually situated at the
lateral margin of the proglottid.
J. Carcase and viscera: A - Kh, or T and D After fertilisation the ora are passed from the
(lungs).
host in ripe segments usually in small groups in
the faeces. At this stage they mayor may not
contain onchospheres (embryos with three pairs
CESTODES OR TAPEWORMS of hooks). Several envelopes are acquired by
each egg, the main one and most resistant one
Some 3000 species of tapeworms occur in being termed the embryophore. The stage when
virtuallv all forms of invertebrates and the embryophore contains an onchosphere is
vertebr~tes including fish and man. They vary called a coracidium. Although the actual
greatly in length, ranging from the tiny segments can survive for only a few days, the
Echinococcus granulosus (6 mm) to 12m or more, eggs are more resistant - under favourable
e.g. Diphyllobothrium laium. conditions the eggs of Taenia seginaia can
All tapeworms are flattened, elongated survive on pastures for 6 months while those of
worms devoid of an alimentary canal and a Echinococcus granulosus can remain viable for
body cavity, partly digested food being over one year, resisting temperatures as low as
absorbed through their integument. ODC for 4 months. Sunlight and desiccation are
Some tapeworms attack a single host while the main factors in the inactivation of Taenia
others require one or two intermediate hosts and eggs.
a final, definitive, host to complete their life cycle. On hatching (which occurs in the intestine
They are bilaterally-symmetrical worms, of the intermediate host in Taenia tapeworms)
both sides being similar. Each adult worm the released onchosphere penetrates into the
possesses a globular scolex or head and an intestinal wall bv means of its hooklets and
unsegmented, thin neck followed by a wider reaches its predilection site by the
strobila consisting of a number of wider and bloodstream. At the predilection site the
larger proglottids or segments which vary from onchosphere forms a meiacestode, cyst or
three to many hundreds (one Taenia saginaia bladdenoorm which is the larval or immature
tapeworm in a woman measured 90 feet!). The form of the tapeworm.
posteriorly-placed proglottids are gravid and The metacestode or cyst stage is transferred
contain fertile eggs. The head usually has four to the definitive host on ingestion of the
circular suckers for attachment to the intestinal infected intermediate host.
wall but some, e.g. Diphyllobothrium laium Metacestodes of parasitic cestodes in animals
possesses two elongated grooves (bothria) and man assume several different forms:
instead of suckers. In some cestodes hooks or Coenurus: A very large vesicle or bladder
hooklets are present on the suckers which are containing clear fluid with numerous
then said to be armed. These hooks are placed invaginated scolices attached to its wall.,
centrally to the suckers around a contractile e.g. Taenia multiceps.
organ termed the rostellum. Most of the Cysticercoid: A single scolex non-vaginated
tapeworms found in herbivores, however, are withdrawn into a small vesicle without
unarmed. fluid, e.g. D. caninum.
There is a rudimentary excretory system of CysticerClls: A single scolex invaginated into a
flame cells and efferent canals and a central large fluid-containing vesicle or bladder, e.g.
nervous system in the scolex consisting of a Taenia saginota.
nerve ring and two ganglia from which several Hydatid: A large bladder containing fluid and
nerve cords run posteriorly. smaller cysts termed brood capsules in
Most tapeworms are hermaphrodite, each which scolices develop, e.g. Echinococcus
proglottid containing one or two sets of male grm1ll1osus.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 659
Plerocercoid: An elongated metacestode with an Each cysticercoid develops into a single
adult scolex, e.g. D. latuni. tapeworm when the mite is eaten by the final,
Sirobilocercus: A single, uninvaginated scolex definitive, ruminant host.
attached to a bladder by a long strobila, e.g.
T. taeniaefonnis.
Tapeworms of horses, asses and mules
The importance of cestodes in animals is The main cestodes in equidae are Anoplocephala
associated with the presence of metacestodes in magna (Plate 3, Fig. 17), A. perfoliata and
suitable hosts where they may be injurious or Paranoplocephala mammilana, which occur
even fatal, e.g. Multiceps multiceps in sheep and mainly in the small intestine and more rarely in
hydatid disease in man. Adult worms in the the stomach.
intestine rarely cause problems in animals apart The life cycles are similar to that of M.
from some irritation, unless in very severe expanse, oribatid mites acting as intermediate
infections when they may exert deleterious effects hosts.
due to obstruction as well as diarrhoea and A. perfoluiia is probably the most common of
unthriftiness due to appropriation of the horse tapeworms and occurs throughout
nourishment and the excretion of toxic the world.
substances. Armed tapeworms, however, may A survey in the Republic of Ireland showed
give rise to inflammation of the intestinal mucosa. that of 363 horses examined 51% had A. pelfoliata
Young animals are more susceptible to attached to the mucosa of the ileo-caecal junction
tapeworm infestation, which is believed to and/ or to the caecal mucosa. The lesions
make the animals more prone to fly-strike. recorded included intestinal congestion,
Thuanosoma actinioides causes inflammatory diphtheresis, ulceration, mucosal thickening and
changes in the bile ducts of sheep and is fibroplasia. Age, breed and source of origin did
responsible for considerable losses due to not influence the degree of infestation and no
condemnations. clinical signs were reported before slaughter, but
these may have been overlooked since body
condition was adverselv affected because of the
high burdens of tapeworms and other helminths
Tapeworms of cattle, sheep and goats
(Fogarty et ai., 1994).
Moniezia expansa is probably the most common
Judgement of M. expansa and Anoplocephala
tapeworm of ruminants throughout the world,
but M. benedini and Thuanosoma aciinioides Carcase A. if condition good. Intestines D.
('fringed tapeworm') are occasionally found.
In the western parts of USA and Canada
some 40-50% of sheep are infested with M.
Tapeworms of the dog
expansa and T. actinioides.
M. expansa has a small scolex with four These tapeworms are a most important group,
prominent suckers without rostellum and not only in meat inspection but also in the
hooks. It can attain a length of 6 metres. causation of hydatid disease in animals and man.
The gravid segments of M. expmlsa are Seven tapeworms, which also occur in wild
passed out in the faeces on to pasture. From carnivores, e.g. foxes, wolves, coyotes, jackals
them the eggs escape and are ingested by free- and dingos, are included in this group -
living, non-parasitic oribatid mites of the genus Echinococcus granuloeus, E. muliilocularis, Taenia
Columna and others. The onchosphere or hydatigena, T. multiceps, T. avis, T. pisiformis and
hexacanth embryo is released in the T. serialis. T. pisifarmis is occasionally found in
arthropod's intestine and burrows into its body the cat.
cavity, where it develops into a cysticercoid in There are many other tapeworms occurring
3-6 months depending on environmental in dogs, cats, wild carnivores and rodents but
conditions. (These oribatid mites also act as which do not produce lesions in the food
intermediate hosts for other tapeworms, e.g. animals, e.g. Dipylidium caninum (probably the
Anoplocephala, Paranoplocephala, Avitellina spp.) most common tapeworm in dogs throughout
The intermediate hosts in the case of T. the world), T. taeniaefarm is (cats and wild
aciinioides are psocids or book lice. carnivores), T. krabbei (dogs and wild
660 Meat Hygielle
carnivo res). T. craeeicepe (wil d carnivores) and Spirometra manso ni and S. mans onoides
Mt.'SOCt'Stoide::. spp. These occur in dogs. ca ts and raccoons in the
Orient (japan, China, Vietnam, Korea) and haw
Dip llyllobt/lrilflll latusn a morphology similar to that of D. latum,
They possess two intermediate 1/(~ ts Cfn'sIIUYlter
This tapew orm occurs in the small intestine of crl/stacetlllS of the genus Cyclo,lS ) in which a
dogs, cats, man, polar bea r and other sea procercoid is formed . When these minute
mammals a nd causes lesio ns in the crustaceans are eaten by the second intermediate
musculature of several fres hwa ter fish . which hosls (water snakes and- other amphibia as well
ac t as inte rmediate hosts. as mammals. including pigs, poultry, and man )
Th e adult worms are yellowish-grey in plerocercoid s (spargan a) de velop. The life cycle
colour an d mav reach 20-2 3 m in length and is completed when the d efinit ive hosts (dogs.
2- 3cm in widt h: The worm is composed of some cats , raccoons) ea t the va rious amphibia.
300Q-..tOOO proglottid s with an oval or club- Men can be infected by consum ing either
shaped unarmed hea d 2.5 mm long. Two slit- first o r sec ond intermed iate hosts. Pork, pou ltry
like bothria (groove s) are p resent on the head an d sna kes are importa n t sources of in fection.
which has no suc kers. There is a rosette-sha ped The d rin king of untreated water con taining
ut erus situated cen trally in each segme nt. infected Cyclop:> s pp. can give rise to sparganosis.
D. fal l/ Ill is com mon round the lakes of italv, Infection in ma n is a disease of rural people,
Switze rland and Germany, Cen tra l Eu rope, man y of whom have stran ge eating habits.
Poland, Finland , Russia, Far East, L'SA and When ingested , the la rva e p enetrate th e
Ca na da. Th e re is a high incid en ce among abdomina l wa ll and reach various sites in the
Eskimos. su bcu taneous or muscular tissues o f th e
The life cycll' o f D. latuni Invol ve s two abdom inal wall. limbs, heart, b ra in, spinal
in termediate host s. Coracid ia from the ha tched canal. scrotum, etc., where inflammation and
eggs are ingested by minute CrIIstflct!mls su ch as haemorrhage occur and sometimes second ary
Cyelo}'S slrellll/ls and Eudiaptontus gracilis in in fection with ulceration and necrosis.
which a first larval stage or procercoid Diagnosi~ is usually based on the history of
develops. These in turn are ingested by the eating raw su spect food s. detectio n of a
second intermedia te hosts, freshwater fish such migrating mass of larvae and the recovery of
as p ike , turbo t, perch , etc., in which a worms at surgery.
plcrocerccld is formed . Human beings acquire
infection th ro ugh eating raw, inadequately Jud ge ment
cooked or p ickled fish or which con tain Infected meats. T.
infect ive ple roce rcoid s. TI,e p rac tices of eating
sliced raw fish, common in cou ntries like Japan
and Finland and of consuming raw pike roe in HYDAnO DISEASE
Russia and Jewish gefull tc fisch provid e an
opportunity for infection. Echinococcus grnllll!oslIs
In man , di phyllobot h riasis is us ua lly a
beni gn infection resulting in litt le discomfort, Occllrrmce of I/ydntid disease
bu t on occas ions th ere ma y be "ague abd ominal Hyd atid osis d ue to E. ~m ll lllosll:; is a serious
pain, ana em ia (d ue to B t~ deficiency), d iarrhoea :o(JIl():;i~ occurring thro ug hout the w orl d in
al ternating with constip ation, d izziness and which man is an accid en tal intermed iate host.
u rticaria. So me of these sy mptoms may be d ue Enzootic areas in Africa are Botsw ana. Cape
to toxi ns produced by the worms . Intestinal verde. Mozambique, Na m ibi a, So malia and
obs truction caused bv hea vy infesta tions is rare, Tunisia. while the re is a high occurrence in
as is the vom iting up o f worm s. Morocco. In Sou th America, Brazil, Chile and
Diagnosis is based mainly on epi demiology Uruguay have enzootic Inctdences, the las t
an d the demonstration of typical operculated country having p revalences of 63"" in cattle.
D. latum eggs in the faeces. 35"" in sheep and 31"" in pigs. In Asia the
disease is important in Bangladesh, Iran.
Ju dgem en t Lebanon and Syria, while in Greece, Alba nia
Infected fish . T. and Yugoslavia it is enzootic.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 661
Some countries have instituted national Life cycle Up to 30000 adult E. granulosus
hydatid control schemes and several have may be found in the small intestine of the dog,
managed to eradicate the disease, notably but the usual number is about 35. Eggs from the
Cyprus (1985), Korea (1989), Kuwait (1986), adult worms are passed out in the faeces and
New Zealand and Tasmania. Hydatid disease the infective onchospheres, when ingested by
has been eradicated from cattle in Iceland and is an ungulate, penetrate the intestinal wall and
now only of exceptional occurrence in sheep. reach the liver (by the portal vein) or lungs and
There is a low sporadic occurrence in Great other organs (via the lymphatic system) to form
Britain - 0.86% in sheep in 1960, which rose to metacesiodes, echinococci or hydatid cysts (Plate 3,
2.5% in 1977, the highest incidence being in Fig. 18).
Wales where it was up to 50% in some localities It has been demonstrated in New Zealand
(Edwards, 1982). Highly successful control that the eggs of E. granuiosus can be spread up
schemes have reduced these figures significantly. to 10 km by blowflies, dispersion being greatest
It is now known that there are strains of E. in winter. The possibility of birds being
granulosus with different host specificities. For involved - as they undoubtedly are in relation
example, no cases of horse infection have been to T. saginaia - needs to be investigated
recorded in New Zealand, where hydatid (Torgerson, 1992).
disease is endemic, whereas in the United The shape of the hydatid cyst is controlled to
Kingdom and parts of Europe horses are some extent by the organ in which it grows.
frequently infected. The horse strain apparently When uninfluenced by pressure, it is oval or
does not infect man, unlike the sheep strain. spherical, but in the liver, especially in sheep, it
The epidemiology of hydatidosis varies from may assume an irregular shape because of the
one country to another and so control measures presence of the bile ducts. In bone, it follows the
appropriate in one are not necessarily of value structure of the bony tissue and grows into the
in another. small crevices and channels.
The size of hydatid cysts in animals varies
R. The incidence of echinococcal infection in from that of a marble to a small football but
an area can be determined from its level in the they are usually about the size of a goose egg.
dog. A taeniacide such as praziquantel is They develop slowly, their longevity probably
administered to a representative sample of being limited by that of their host. Cysts in the
canines and the faeces are examined for E. liver and lungs grow very slowly. Early forms
gnmulosus worms. It is valuable also to examine appearing as white nodules, as yet containing
foxes, wolves, coyotes and other wild no fluid, may be seen in the liver 4 weeks after
carnivores and then to investigate the ripe eggs are ingested, while after another 4
management and feeding of dogs to determine weeks the cysts are 2.5 mm in size and contain
how the cycle of infection is maintained. Where fluid. In 6 months hydatid cysts are 15-20 mm
dogs are highly domesticated, fed on prepared in diameter and only then do they produce
foods and have no access to farmland, there is scolices and brood capsules and become
rarely a problem of hydatid disease. infective. An average-sized hydatid cyst may
Where, however, sheepdogs can eat sheep contain as many as 2 million protoscolices.
carcases - a common occurrence in Wales and In time, many hydatid cysts show
elsewhere - the cycle of infection is readily degenerative changes, becoming smaller with
maintained, the more so if the dogs receive little the fluid being replaced by caseous material,
protein in their diet at home and are not kept which may calcify. Such changes are frequent in
under control. In New Zealand, prior to the sheep and horses.
introduction of control measures, up to 25% of The hydatid cysts develop slowly, taking
dogs were affected in certain areas, but the months to increase in size to 5-10 cm although
incidence now is less than 1 %. some, especially in man, may reach 50 cm in
diameter. They are usually unilocular, although
lA. E. granuioeus is one of the smallest of the often multilocular in sheep, and contain clear or
tapeworms, the adult worms being about slightly turbid fluid inside the germinal layer of
3-9 mm long composed of an armed scolex with the thick outer membrane.
30-36 hooklets arranged in two rows and Brood capsules, which are infective, hollow or
usually three or four proglottids. bladder-like structures, become attached to the
662 Mea t Hygiene
germinal layer by a sho rt pedicle or stalk and infec tion usually occurs bv hand -to- mouth
develop 5-20 protoscolices or tapeworm heads transfer of tapeworm eggs from dog faeces and
about :; months after infection. The brood via con taminated food and water.
capsules may detach themselves from the
germ inal layer to form h ydatid sand . Incidence of (lfsts ill orgalls
Occaslonallv, hydatid cvs ts d o no t form brood
capsules and protoscollces and arc ste rile . In sheep the lungs are affected as often as the
H yd atid infection of the liner is always liver, the commonest form being the fertile
assoc iated wi th a marked fibro us tissue unilocular cyst. In the ox the lu ng is involved
reaction which may be up to 13 mm thick. more frequently than the liver, usually with the
Affected livers are enlarged in proportion to the s ma ll unilocular sterile cyst , though larger cysts
number and size of the cvsts. Bovine livers of occasionally occur. In pigs and horses the live r
91-113 kg and pig Ii Yef S ' of 50 kg hav e been is the most frequen t site of infection.
reco rd ed . Such livers, being markedly cirrhotic,
usually cause ascites.
Echi /lOCOCCUs multil ocularie (Fig . 18.2)
O . Distribution is limited to the northern
Types of hydatid cysts hemisphere - Europe, Russia, Japan, Alaska,
There arc two varieties of Cysts. The unitocutm, Canada and the northern states of the USA.
wh ich is the cys tic stage of "E. grmw!osus, is the l A. E. snultitocuume is sm aller tha n E.
more common form in the food animals. grnllltlosl/s, being abou t 1.5- 1.5 mm long. O ther
Although older un ilocu la r cysts ma y minor d ifferences in morphology are present in
sometimes form daughter cys ts, the p arent ad d ition to the multilocular Cysts in th e
cysts becoming distended with tense, spherical, different intermediate hosts. .
small cysts of various sizes, this is simply a
growth from of E. granukx ue though in cattle it Life cycle See E. gralll/loslIs .
is often classified as multilocular. R. The adult tapewor ms arc found in foxes,
The tnultilccular type originates from the wolves, dogs, coyotes, jackals and cats, the
tap ew orm E. muttilocuta ris. Cattle may intermediate hosts being sh rew s, field mic e,
sometimes harbour this alveolar CYst, w hich \'0Ie5, lemmings, ground squirrels, etc., an d
occurs on ly in certain parts o ( so ut hern sometimes ma n (w ho is an abnormal host). The
Germany, Switzerland and the Austrian Alps. food an ima ls are not affected .
Sometimes dnl/gllfe r cysfs are formed within MT. By the in ges tion of in fective eggs in
or outside the parent cyst (when ruptured) carnivore and small roden t faeces . Peecellv
eit her fro m shreds of detached germinal layer,
from brood capsu les or from protoscolices.
soiled food , including fruit and vegetables, is a
common source of infection for man.
R. Definitive hosts are dogs, wolves, dtngos, P. The multilocular Cysts are usually found in
coyotes, jackals and other Canidae infected the live r and less commonlv in the 'b rain and
with adult worms in the small intestine. The lungs of the intermedia te hos ts (rarely in man).
intermed iate s tage (m etaces tcde or hydati d
cyst ) occur s in a wide variety of ungulates -
sheep, cattle, hors es and pigs and man. Echin ococcus vogeIi
MT. The definitive ca rni vore host is infe cted lA. The adult worm is abou t the same size as
when it eat s the protoscolices. In the small E. gmnuloeus. It possesses up to to 36 large and
intestine they evaglnate and become attached to small rostellar hooks on th e scolex which
the mucosa of the intestinal villi. Eggs are able distinguish it from the other Edunococcue spp.
to S UT\' i\'(~ for several months on pasture.
O. Cases of polycystic hydatid d isease in man
Carnivores become infected by eating viscera
due to E. l'ogeli have been recorded in Cen tra l
containing hydatid cysts. The sheep-dog cycle
and Southern America (Ecuad or, Colombia,
is important in many areas, e.g. Great Britain , Brazil, Venezuela and Panama) .
while in other regi ons th e dog- cattle,
dog-horse, dog-camel. dog- pig, dog-moose or R. The main ttefinitioe Itosts are bush dogs an d
d og-kangaroo cycle predomi nates. In man domestic dogs, the principal intermediate hosts
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 663

[Link]~~6ccttt~tt16sus RUDOLPH[ 1805

Echinococcus multilocularis LEUCKA1l1' 1863

I
®

0)
r I
I
I
I

I b

E. multiIoculatis

II l!l

Fig. 18.2 Life cycle of Echinococcus mululocularie. (Courtesy of Prof. A. T. Trees.)

being pacas and spiny rats. Domestic hunting proliferates externally to form new cysts and
dogs act as serious sources of human infection. internally to create numerous microcysts by
MT. Via the faecal-oral route. means of septa. Brood capsules with
P. The hydatid cyst is a polycystic one and is numerous protoscolices are produced in the
unique in that the germinal membrane microcysts.
664 Meat Hygiene
Hydatid disease ill mall

The incidence of huma n hydatid disease

(associated mainly w ith E. grmmloslIs infection)
is closely rela ted to the prevalence of the disease
in domestic animals and is highest where there
is a large dog and sheep population.
In England an ave rage of 3.5 people die each
year from unilocular echinococcosis, the fatality
ra te in Wales being 3.5 and in Scotland 1.0.
Since the disease is not notifiable, the exact
incidence is not known. Serological surveys in
Wales in 1978 gave u p to 30% of as ymptomatic
.
- /
I
,
yo ung far mers (Clarkson, 1978).
The average annual incid ence of hos pi tal-
d iagnosed hyda tid di sease d uring 1974-1983
-. .- •. '..>
~ ~;,/
•. - . ...-~
,

was 0.4 per 100 000 people in Wales and 0.02 per
100 000 in Englan d. With in w ales. the cou nty of
Powys had the highest incid en ce (7 per 100000
people). Although the prevalence has d eclined,
there is still a need for in ten sive con tro l
meas ures (Palm er and Biffin, 1987).
As noted above, infection in man is acquired
throu gh the inges tion of ova from the d og
tapeworm. Co ntam ination of the hairs of the
dog's coat wit h ova from faeces is probably the
most common so urce of infection. Dogs may
also transfer ova from the anu s to humans bv
licking. In Lebanon it was shown that the
relative risk of hydatid infection was over 20 Fig.1 8.3 Large hydatid cyst (diameter 15 cm) in
times greater in dog owners than in persons right lobe of human her. A fibrous capsu le, partly
without dogs and tha t Lebanon Christians were calcified, surro unds the 1 mm thick acellular C\'S I
affec ted with hydati d d isease twice as o ften as wall ins ide which is the cellular germinalliniJ{g.
(By courtesy of the Editor, Wster Mtdical jOll nlal)
Lebanon Moslems, who are enjoined to wash
their hand s seven times after touching a dog.
Another less common source of human
abdominal organs 8%, cranial cav ity 7% and
infectio n is the hand-to-m outh transfer of
bon es 2%. Of 1802 patients in an Australian
tapeworm eggs following the hand ling of fleeces
Hyd atid Survey, the following d ist ribu tion was
of sheep contaminated by sheepdog faeces.
recorded : liver 3%, lu ngs 25%, muscle 25"/",
Rats, mice and cockroaches avidly consume
bon e 3% an d kidney 2%.
proglotnd s in do g faeces and elim ina te the
proglortid s within 24h. The ova remain viable in CF. Clinical signs in animals: There arc
this faecal ma tter for 3--1- mon ths and the gene rally few, if any, clinical signs associ ated
ingestion by man of food such as watercress, with the presence of cysts in anima ls despite
lettuce, etc., contamina ted by these pests may qui te severe levels of infection . If, ho wever, a
account for a number of hu man hvdatidosis cases. large cyst is p resent in the liver ascites ma y
The rarity of the d isease in the USA is related to result d ue to hepatic cirrhosis. Adult worms in
the fact that dogs are not \L~ to herd sheep, all the d og rarely cause p roblems excep t some
stray dogs are shot and sheep are confined by en teritis in heavy infes tations.
dog-proof and wolf-proof fencing. In addition, Clinical SigllS -i l l man: Symptoms in hu mans
the sheep population in the USA Ls relatively low. are related to the severity of the infection an d
Cases of human injection in Britain show the the site and size of the cysts (Fig. 18.3). Usually
ave rage distribution of cysts to be liver 65% both liver (especially the right lobe) and lungs
(Fig. 18.3), lungs 10%, kidneys 7%, other are affected, but cysts may be found in almost
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 665
any organ in the body, even in the pulmonary interrupting the life cycle of the parasite and
artery and the inferior vena cava. Many cases, lowering the incidence of the disease in animals
however, are asymptomatic and in some cases and man.
cyst growth is arrested with calcification. Some The above measures must be combined with
are picked up at post-mortem and others an educational programme to raise the level of
during chest X-rays, CT scanning and awareness of the public, especially farmers; in
sonography for unrelated conditions. relation to responsible dog ownership, with
In pulmonary cases there is often coughing, literature; media and school programmes. In
with or without haemoptysis (spitting of blood) Bulgaria an educational programme reduced the
with coughing up of membrane from a ruptured dog population from 1.5 million in 1960 to 75000
cyst. Liver lesions are sometimes painful and in 1970 and lowered the incidence of the adult E.
cranial cysts produce nervous symptoms. On granulosus worm in dogs from about 60% to 14%.
occasions cysts rupture to become secondarily It is vital that carcases of dead animals;
infected and/ or cause fatal anaphylaxis. especially sheep; are properly; and
D. Diagnosis in animals: In the food animals immediately; disposed of by deep burial or
diagnosis is normally made post moriem. incineration as is the control of environmental
Confirmation of diagnosis is made at PM or by contamination by dog faeces. The latter is also
the demonstration of adult E. granuiosus worms of importance in the control of toxocariasis.
in the faeces of dogs purged with praziquantel The control of stray dogs is considered
or other taeniacide. essential.
Efficient meat inspection procedures with
D. Diagnosis in humans: In human medicine, effective control of rejected meat and offal are a
Xvrays, computerised tomography and prerequisite in hydatid control.
ultrasound are used as aids to diagnosis.
Immunodiagnosis - immunoelectrophoresis
Taenia hydatigena (T. marginata)
(IEP) (the most specific test), complement
fixation, latex agglutination, indirect lA. The largest of the dog tapeworms, T.
haemagglutination, radioimmunoassay and hydatigena is 0.7-5 m long and possesses four
ELISA - are among the tests used. round suckers and a double row of 26-44
hooklets. The proglottids number about 400
J. Carcase and viscera: A or T and D (affected with the more posterior and sexually mature
organs); depending on carcase condition.
ones being oblong in shape (5 mm wide).
The adult tapeworm occurs in the small
Control of hydatidosis intestine of dogs; wolves, coyotes, lynx and
other wild carnivores and the intermediate
Some of the most successful disease eradication
stage (Cysticercus tenuicollis) in sheep; cattle and
programmes have been associated with hydatid
wild ruminants (rarely pigs; hares and rodents).
disease (see Occurrence). It is significant that
Iceland in the nineteenth century had the Life cycle Eggs in the faeces of the definitive
world's highest incidence in man, with a host are ingested by ruminants and hatch in the
quarter to one-third of all autopsies showing small intestine, liberating the onchospheres.
evidence of the disease. Today it is free of These penetrate the mucosa and reach the liver
hydatidosis and several other countries are in via the portal vessels. In the liver parenchyma
the process of being added to the list. they migrate for up to 4 weeks; causing
In New Zealand hydatid disease in both serpentine haemorrhagic tracts especially near
animals and man was a major public health the thin edge. At first these tracts are dark red in
problem prior to the introduction of a control colour but soon become brown or green and
campaign in 1959. This required the registration finally whitish due to fibrosis.
of all dogs and their periodic examination for Some of the developing cysticerci or
infestation bv three-monthly treatment with bladderworms pierce the liver capsule and
effective vermifuges. Other measures included migrate in the peritoneal cavity, become
the destruction of organs containing hydatid attached to the greater omentum, mesentery
cysts and the prevention of access of dogs to and visceral surface of the abdominal organs;
raw offal (on pasture and in meat plants), these especially the liver, where they reach maturity
two measures being the most important in in 5-8 weeks after infection. Mature
666 Meat Hygiene
bladderworms (c. tenuicollis) vary in size but bladderworms are adherent to serosal surfaces,
are commonly 2-6 cm round or elongated these only require removal.
structures with a single scolex invaginated into In cases where the omentum and/or
a long neck. Those parasites that fail to reach mesentery is extensively affected, these should
the surface rarely grow bigger than a pea, be condemned.
rapidly degenerate and undergo calcification, Livers affected with extensive haemorrhagic
appearing as whitish cauliflower-shaped foci. or degenerated tract formation merit
Severe infections may result in hepatitis. condemnation.
The rare cases in which oedema and
O. T. hydatigena has a worldwide distribution,
emaciation occur warrant total rejection of the
especially in farm dogs with access to sheep
carcase and viscera.
carcases.
Heavy condemnations of lambs' livers due
R. Domestic dogs (rarely cats) and wild to migrating T. hydatigel1a occur in many parts
carnivores for adult worms and domestic and of the world, especially New Zealand, Australia
wild ruminants for cysticerci. and the United Kingdom, 'where it probably
represents the chief cause of condemnation. A
MT. Intermediate hosts by ingestion of eggs recent Meat and Livestock Commission survey
in contaminated food and water and definitive in England showed an incidence of 8% in 70000
hosts by eating flesh containing cysticerci. slaughter lambs. At certain times of the year,
CF. Adult cestodes in dogs and other especially midsummer, the incidence may be
carnivores seldom cause trouble but heavy very much higher, one meat plant in SW
infestations may result in diarrhoea and England estimating that it lost £1100 ($1375) a
unthriftiness in young animals especially if week due to liver rejections because of C.
associated with roundworms. ienuicollis infestation.
Sheep in Britain are commonly affected with
cysticerci but rarely show any symptoms except T. multiceps
in severe cases in young lambs, which may lose
body weight and even die suddenly where O. T. multiceps occurs throughout the world.
there is extensive liver damage with hepatitis lA. Originally termed Multiceps multiceps, this
(Livesey et al., 1981). tapeworm is 40-100 cm long and possesses
P. See Life cycle. 22-32 large hooklets and four suckers on a
small scolex.
D. Usually based on post-mortem findings The adult worm occurs in dogs, foxes, jackals
which show the typical C. ienuicollis and other wild carnivores and sometimes man.
bladderworms. Since the ova of Taenia and A coenurus or bladderworm occurs in sheep,
Echinococcus spp. are similar, it is necessary to goats and other ungulates such as deer,
demonstrate the adult worms in affected dogs chamois and antelopes, hares, horses and less
(see E. granulosus). commonly cattle all of which act as
Some liver lesions due to C. ienuicollis may be intermediate hosts. Man sometimes develops
confused with tuberculosis in cattle and pigs. the coenurus.
However, the parasitic forms do not involve the
portallyrnph nodes and the degenerated material Life cycle Eggs passed out in carnivore faeces
within the cyst is readily removed, leaving a are ingested by the intermediate hosts, usually
white, folded membrane which is the cyst wall. from pasture. The contained onchospheres
C. tenuicollis in the liver can be distinguished hatch in the small intestine, penetrate the
from the hydatid cyst by its subserous position mucosa and reach the svstemic circulation via
and the presence of a single scolex and long, the liver, where many are arrested and die. The
thin neck. Ascaris spp. cause small, discrete, developing larvae have a predilection for the
pale foci in lambs' livers. brain and spinal cord (which they reach in 8-14
Histopathology may be necessary in cases days post-infection) but may also reach other
where lesions are confined to the liver. organs.
In the CNS the maturing larva at first
J. Most cases of C. tenuicollis infection are migrates, causing reddish or yellowish-grey
readily dealt with. Where only a few purulent tracts, and then develop into a large,
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 667
round, fluid-containing bladderworm or is anorexia and loss of weight. In some
coenurus (Coenurus cerebralis, Plate 3/ Fig. 16). instances there may be actual pressure atrophy
This varies in size from a pea to a hen's egg or of the frontal bone of the skull, providing a site
larger and is composed of a thin transparent for surgical excision of the cyst which is often
wall on the inner side of which are up to 400 or successful and is justified in valuable animals.
500 small, white, irregularly grouped spots/ Cysts located in the lumbar region are often
each of which represents an invaginated larval responsible for paralysis.
tapeworm head. The coenurus is infective after
P. See Life cycle.
6-8 months post infection. In the brain there is
usually only one large cyst/ which is found D. Coenurosis is usually diagnosed on clinical
most often on the convexity of the cerebrum signs. Demonstration of T. multiceps proglottids
and occasionally in the cerebellum, at the base in dog faeces. Post-mortem findings. The
of the brain or even in the spinal cord, disease has to be differentiated from other
especially in the lumbar region where it neurological conditions such as listeriosis.
becomes elongated in shape.
Infective larvae which become arrested in
J. In the early stages of coenurosis it is only
necessary to condemn the head. Advanced
other organs degenerate and either disappear
cases justify total condemnation because of
or become encapsulated foci 1-4 mm in
emaciation.
diameter containing a greenish pus-like
Carcase and viscera: A and D or T.
material which later becomes calcified. On rare
occasions viable cysts have been recorded in the
intermuscular tissues of sheep and goats. Taenia avis
R. Dogs and other carnivores for the adult O. Taenia ovis, formerly known as T. coenurus,
tapeworms, and a wide variety of ungulates as occurs worldwide, especially in Europe, North
intermediate hosts for infective bladderworms. America, New Zealand and Australia, where
the feral cat also harbours the adult worm.
MT. By the ingestion of ripe segments and The infection in sheep is not very common -
eggs passed in the faeces of carnivores, usually in 1988 in the USA the FSIS reported only 387
through grass or water contaminated with cases in 5 million sheep slaughtered. In the
infected dog faeces. Dogs and other carnivores past a considerable amount of Australian
acquire infection through eating infected boned mutton was refused entry to the USA
carcases, frequently sheep carcases, which because of C. ovis, but its incidence now is
contain the infective metacestodes. virtually nil.
C. avis in sheep in the United Kingdom is
CF. The infection in sheep (coenurosis,
only occasionally encountered, its incidence in
coenuriasis, sturdy, circling disease, gid, or
1960 being 0.2%.
turnsick) occurs most often in l-year-old sheep
and occasionally in goats and cattle, especially lA. Adult tapeworms are 1-2 cm long and
calves. Horses and other herbivores appear to possess a small head with up to 32-38 large
be fairly resistant. hooks on the rostellum. They are found in dogs
In some 20% of cases there are symptoms of and wild carnivores and less commonly in cats.
meningoencephalitis with nervousness and The cystic stage (Cysticercus avis) occurs in the
excitability. This primary acute stage is intermediate hosts - sheep and goats.
followed by a latent period of 4-6 months, Life cycle Mature proglottids are shed in
which is succeeded by the chronic phase dogs' faeces and eggs are ingested at pasture by
associated with the growth of the cyst and sheep and goats. In the small intestine of the
pressure atrophy of the brain substance. intermediate hosts the onchosphere is liberated,
Affected animals may squint/ hold the head to penetrates the mucosa and eventually reaches
one side, stagger or turn in circles, always the systemic circulation via the portal system
circling to the side on which the cyst is located and liver.
in the brain. Such animals are sometimes The predilection sites for these developing
termed 'pivoters', Blindness and hypermetria onchospheres are cardiac and skeletal muscles,
may be evident. Sometimes the head is held especially the heart, diaphragm and masseter
high with a jerky gait. In advanced cases there muscles. The cysticercus measures 3-9.5 mm in
668 Meat Hygiene
size and is ovoid in shape. It reaches these IA, Formerly known as T. serrata, this
predilection sites after some 3 months tapeworm measures 15-60 cm, even up to 2 m,
development from the ovum. in length and 5-6 mm maximum in width.
There are some 4000 proglottids, the posterior
R. Dogs and wild carnivores (less commonly
border of the ripe segments being broader
cats) for adult worms and sheep and goats for
than the anterior giving the worm a serrated
the infective metacestodes.
appearance.
MT. As for T. hydatigena. The small head has four suckers and a
rostellum of 34-48 large and small hooks in a
CF. Adult worms in dogs rarely produce
double row but no neck.
clinical signs unless in very heavy infestations,
The adult worms occur in the dog, cat, fox,
when unthriftiness and diarrhoea may be
lynx, coyote and several other wild carnivores.
evident.
It is especially common in farm and suburban
There is no record of illness in sheep and
dogs having access to rabbit and hare viscera.
goats affected with cysticerci.
The intermediate hosts are rabbits, hares and
P. The cysticerci are essentially parasites of the rarely squirrels and other rodents.
intermuscular connective tissues. In the heart
they are found under the epicardium and in the Life cycle Similar to that of T. hydatigena and
diaphragm under its pleural covering. They T. avis except for different intermediate hosts
may also be found in the masseter muscles, and eventual sites of Cysts in them.
tongue, oesophagus and flank. Young stages of developing onchospheres
Cysts in the heart tend to degenerate early after 2-4 weeks in the liver penetrate the liver
and may show well-marked degeneration in capsule, a few developing into a bladderworm
less than 3 months after infection. In later (Cysticercus pisifarmis) in the peritoneal cavity
stages, degenerating cysts appear as greenish attached to an organ. The cyst is elliptical in
blood-stained material which eventually shape and is about the size of a pea. The
calcifies. migrating larvae in the liver produce tortuous
Typical C. avis cysts are easily recognised tracts and sometimes hepatitis. The cysticerci
during meat inspection and are readily may occur free in the peritoneal cavity but are
distinguished from C. bonis, being much larger usually found within the layers of the omentum
with marked tissue reaction, making them or mesentery or beneath the serous capsule of
stand out from the surrounding tissue, at least the liver or kidneys. Usually only a few cysts
in the heart. are present but occasionally they are numerous
resembling a bunch of grapes.
D. Demonstration of specific proglottids in
dog faeces. Post-mortem findings.
R. See lA.
J. United States regulations prescribe that if
the total number of cysts in muscle and heart MT. As for T. avis, T. hydatigena, T. multiceps.
does not exceed 5, the cysts may be removed
and the carcase passed, otherwise the carcase CF. Normally light infections of the adult
must be condemned. worms in the definitive hosts produce no
The use of ultrasound and X-rays for symptoms but severe infestations can cause
deepseated lesions is being studied in some diarrhoea and unthriftiness. The intermediate
countries. hosts can suffer digestive disturbances and
Generalised cases of C. avis are rare, at least even serious loss of condition where there is
in the United Kingdom where usually only the liver damage.
heart is affected.
Carcase and viscera: A and D or 1, P. See Life cycle.
depending on local or generalised infection,
carcase condition, etc. D. As for T. hydatigena and T. avis.

Taenia pisiformis
J. Carcase and viscera: A and D or T,
depending on number of cysts and carcase
o. T. pisifarmis is found throughout the world. condition.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 669
Taenia serialis of the large beef tapeworm and cysticercosis is
the tissue infection in cattle with its larval or
O. T. serialis is distributed throughout the
cystic stage (Cysticercus bovis).
world. It is regarded by some authorities as not
Many cases of taeniasis in man are
being distinct from T. multiceps.
asymptomatic, except for some anal pruritus
IA. The adult worm is 2G-72cm long and 3-5 mm due to emerging tapeworm segments but with
wide and possesses a prominent rostellum with severe infections human beings may experience
one row of large and another of small hooks. loss of weight, anorexia, abdominal discomfort
The definitive hosts are the dog, fox and other and digestive upset.
wild canids and the intermediate hosts are
lagomorphs (rabbits, hares, squirrels, etc.) and O. Taeniasis and cysticercosis are common
rarely man, in which a coenurus (Coenurus where beef is eaten raw or imperfectly cooked.
serialis) is formed in the subcutaneous and (many people prefer to eat rare beef and some
intermuscular tissues (Plate 3, Fig. 15). consume raw sausages - a very dangerous
R. See lA. practice since they contain head meat). Where
cattle have access to human faeces due to poor
MT. As for T. multiceps and T. ovis. personal hygiene habits the conditions often
CF. In general there are no clinical signs in the occur.
definitive host, although severe infestations The incidence of C. bovis varies greatly
may cause unthriftiness and diarrhoea. between and within countries, and even
Subcutaneous cysts are palpable in the between meat plants, a possible reflection of the
intermediate host and are more common in competence and diligence of meat inspectors.
wild rabbits than in domestic ones. If The diseases in man and cattle are common
numerous, they result in emaciation and death. in Africa, especially in Zaire (high occurrence),
P. The cystic stage, which usually contains with enzootic levels in Angola, Botswana,
clear or turbid fluid, is termed Coenurus serialis Burkina Faso, Mozambique, Namibia (c. bovis
and may be found almost anywhere in the body -1.2% in slaughter cattle), Somalia, Sudan and
but most commonly in the intermuscular and Uganda. In the Matabeleland Province of
subcutaneous tissues of the back, loins, and Zimbabwe, C. bovis was detected in 2.16% of
hind limbs. On occasions they involve the 100000 bovine carcases during a period of 11
external muscles of mastication, forming a months. Lightly-infested carcases accounted
prominent swelling at the angle of the jaw. for 95% of all positive cases, with live cysts
Cysts may even be found in the CNS. In 45 days occurring most commonly in older cattle and
post-infection the cysts are about the size of a dead cysts in young stock, a reversal of the
cherry, but they can grow to 4 cm or more. European situation (Pugh and Chambers,
Older cysts may contain pus. 1989).
Examination of unskinned rabbits should be Cuba and Guatemala also have enzootic
made by firmly drawing the hand over the levels but the diseases have been eradicated in
body from head to tail, when cystic elevations Honduras (1986), Haiti and Colombia (1989),
will be noted. If cysts have been punctured a Peru (1988) and Haiti and Colombia (1989). In
depression in the muscle will be present. Uruguay the incidence of C. bovis is 0.25%.
Apart from Yemen and Lebanon, where T.
D. As for T. hydatigena and other Taenia spp. saginata infection is enzootic, Asia does not
J. Carcase and viscera: A - with removal of a appear to be seriously affected and the
few cysts and if condition is good. T - if cysts Philippines (1988), Kuwait (1986), Israel and Sri
are numerous and/ or condition is poor. Lanka (1991) are free.
In Oceania, the diseases are constantly
present in Fiji and New Zealand but have been
TAENIASIS DUE TO TAENIA SAGINATA eradicated from Samoa.
(BEEF TAPEWORM) AND BOVINE T. saginata infection has been eradicated from
CYSTICERCOSIS Cermanv and Greece (1988) and from
Czechoslovakia in 1990.
I. Taeniasis due to T. saginata is an infection of Canada has a C. bovis incidence of 0.0018% in
the small intestine of man with the adult stage 2Ye million cattle slaughtered annually.
670 Meat Hygiene
At Belfast Meat Plant (N. Ireland) in 1989, the The intermediate cystic stage Cc. bovis) is found
incidence of C. bovis was 0.4%, viable cysts mainly in cattle, although other ruminants such
accounting for 15% of the total. Degenerated as deer, reindeer, llama, buffalo, giraffe and
and viable cysts usually occur singly or in very antelope may harbour cysts.
small numbers at this particular centre and
generalised cases are rare, a situation which Life cycle This is similar to that of T. solium
obtains throughout the British Isles. In 1989 in except that the cysticercus stage of T. saginaia
Northern Ireland, out of a total kill of 475987 occurs in cattle and some wild ruminants while
cattle there were 3 cases of generalised C. botns, the chief intermediate hosts of T. solium are
a percentage of 0.0006 or 0.39% of all bovine pigs, wild boars and less commonly man (Fig.
carcases condemned. 18.4).
T. saginata in man is more common than T. A small number of proglottids are passed out
solium. In Europe the human infection rate is daily in the faeces of affected humans. Eggs are
probably less than 1%, but in Africa there are an released in the process and are very resistant,
estimated 12 million carriers with a 30% remaining viable for months in grassland,
incidence in some African stockmen. In the rivers and sewage plants. The ova from a
USSR there are an estimated 49 million carriers. relatively few human carriers can be widely
A survey in Northern Ireland in 1967-68 distributed in a wide variety of ways.
revealed that 30 human cases of T. saginata Indiscriminate defaecation by humans can
taeniasis were treated in hospitals and 90 at distribute gravid segments or ova and the latter
home. In addition, a small number were found can be disseminated via rivers and sewage
coincidentally, especially in maternity wards. sludge.
The overall incidence in Northern Ireland is Most of the conventional sewage treatment
8.16 per 100000 of the population, although this procedures have not proved effective in
does not include those individuals who do not eliminating tapeworm ova. Cattle grazing on
seek treatment or in whom previous treatment land fertilised with either sewage sludge or
was unsuccessful. Females were found to be farmyard manure may become infected,
more often affected than males in a ratio of at especially if no steps are taken to keep stock off
least 2:1. such treated ground for at least 3 months, if left
In England, 82 cases of T. saginata infection unploughed. The sensible practice of the deep
were reported in 1976, 98 in 1977 and 58 in the injection of sewage sludge and slurry directly
first 32 weeks of 1978. All reported cases, into the ground serves to reduce the risk of
however, only represent a very small infecting cattle. The flood water of polluted
proportion of the actual incidence. streams may also disseminate ova onto pasture.
In Britain, human infection due to T. saginaia The resistant ova can remain infective on
and bovine cysticercosis were virtually grassland for at least 8 weeks and in liquid
unknown before the Second World War, but the manure for 71 days. It has been shown in
parasite appears to have become more Australia that T. saginata eggs can remain viable
prevalent since then. Some of this is on dry pastures for 14 weeks, even up to 6
undoubtedly due to the existence of antiquated months if conditions are favourable.
sewage systems, the absence in many localities It is also known that dissemination of ova
of sewage treatment, the increase in population takes place through the agency of insects and
movement and camping activities as well as the birds, especially seagulls, starlings and feral
unhygienic habits of certain human beings. pigeons, which regularly feed at sewage plants,
sewage outfalls on fore shores and refuse tips.
lA. Taenia saginata lives exclusively in the As many as 150 eggs have been recovered from
small intestine of man. It averages 3.5-6 m in the intestine of a naturally infected seagull. T.
length but can reach lengths of 30 m or more. It saginaia eggs have regularly been demonstrated
possesses a scolex with four elliptical suckers in gull and starling droppings at such sites.
but no rostellum or hooks (Plate 4, Fig. 20). The These particular species of birds (which have
proglottids number up to 2000 and the uterus in increased greatly in numbers in recent years)
each gravid segment possesses 15-35 delicate have now developed a habit of roosting inland,
lateral branches and contains about 100000 making them a menace in the dissemination of
eggs. Taenia eggs as well as other pathogens such as
 Diseases Ca used by Helminth GIl d Arthropod Parasites 671

Taenia solicm L. 175R · Taenia sagina ta GOEZE 1782

~ @
~.

." ® ,
, """
i'"
i
0 l --
4 ..
•

(3)
;
~

•
•
f •
i
I

BL
. @ ®
CD
Fig. 18.4 Life cycle of
Tnl'llin SiJsillnln!Tnrllin
(Courtesy of
" '" W!iWlI.
Prof. A. J. Trees.)

sal monella, carnpylo bacter, ornithosis virus, Cystic stage On ingestion by catt le and o ther
etc. ruminants such as llama, buffalo, gazelle,
These various agencies are responsible for antelope and gira ffe, the ova ha tch in the
diluting the initial infection . thus producing intestine and the oncbosphercs pe netrate the
only a few cysts in cattle. However, if cattle, in testinal mucosa to reach the portal system
especially calves. ingest a large n umbe r of ova . and are then di ssemi nated by the arterial
generalised cases ma y ensue. sys tem to develop into cysticerci (e. bovis) in
672 Meat Hygiene
skeletal and cardiac muscles. The main to separate from the surrounding tissue and
predilection sites are the masseter muscles, contains a yellowish-green caseous material. A
heart, diaphragm and tongue, but other sites dead cysticercus, usually with scolex
may be involved. evaginated, may be found in this material.
The cystic stage is infective in about 10 (b) Completely calcified cysts in which the cyst
weeks post-infection and can remain viable for structure has been replaced by mortar-like
up to 9 months. However, many begin to concretions in the intermuscular connective
degenerate under the influence of tissue fluids tissue.
and become caseous and eventually calcified. Cysts in bovine muscle may remain viable
C. bovis, the beef measle, is round or oval in for up to 14 days after the death of the host.
shape and when fully developed consists of a The relatively large size of cysts in calves has
scolex invaginated into a small fluid-filled in the past suggested prenatal infection but it is
vesicle (tail bladder). Surrounding this is an now known that calves are only infected after
adventitious connective-tissue capsule formed birth and that the metacestodes grow rapidly in
by the reaction of the tissues of the host. The the young animal. Infection in calves can occur
cysticerci present the following macroscopic by the ingestion of food contaminated with
appearance, according to their stage of human faeces and by the licking of faecally
development: soiled hands.
1 Very small cysts, about the size of a pinhead,
with no scolex visible and surrounded bv a Location of cysts In general, C. bovis cysts are
delicate connective-tissue capsule. 0
usually encountered singly, or in small
numbers at meat inspection. Most are
2 Pinkish, oval cysts up to 1 cm x 0.5 cm in size,
surrounded by a delicate, translucent capsule degenerated forms, viable cysts accounting for
through which the scolex can be seen as a some 15% of the total. Generalised cases are
white spot. relatively rare.
3 At a later stage the capsule of the cyst C. bovis cysts are most commonly found in
becomes thickened, opaque and greyish- the muscles of mastication, especially the
white in colour, the typical cysticercus being masseter muscles, the heart, tongue,
enclosed within. C. bovis is fully developed at diaphragm, oesophagus, shoulder and
about 18 weeks after infection but can be occasionally in fatty tissues, lungs, liver and
readily diagnosed at 6 weeks. lymph nodes.
In cattle throughout Africa, important
Degenerative changes often occur and cysts in predilection sites are the muscles of the shoulder
the first stages of degeneration have been (musculus triceps brachii), a reason advanced
recorded as early as 6 weeks after infection, for the frequent involvement of these muscles
though such changes may not take place until 7 being the increased blood supply due to the
months. The onset of degeneration appears to long journeys undertaken by these animals.
be directly influenced by the supply of arterial In Zimbabwe, a survey of 100 000 bovine
blood to the muscle in which the cyst is lodged. carcases showed that the head was the only
For example, cysts in cardiac muscle are usually organ affected in 58.4% of the positive cases, the
the earliest to undergo caseation and shoulder in 20.1 % and the heart in 7.9%. In the
calcification. In endemic areas, degenerative more heavily infested (condemned) cases,
changes may be considerably delayed and in an 81.1 % had at least three sites involved (Pugh
animal that becomes infected during the first 3 and Chambers, 1989).
weeks of life cysts may remain viable for 30
months or even the entire life of the host. R. The definitive host for T. saginata is man and
However, in Australia experiments have the intermediate hosts are cattle, buffalo, deer,
shown that 9 months is the maximum longevity reindeer and wild ruminants such as
for C. bovis in cases of adult infection. wildebeest, giraffe and antelope.
Cysts in varying stages of degeneration from MT. Infection in man follows the ingestion of
caseation to calcification are frequently seen. raw or undercooked beef ('measly beef')
Thus it is not uncommon to find the following: containing the cysticerci, while cattle and other
(a) Oval cysts with a thick connective-tissue ruminants are infected by consuming the eggs
capsule which is formed by the host, is diHicult of T. saginata.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 673

Only fresh, viable C. bovis cysts are infective and examined microscopically. Serodiagnosis
for man. can be used to confirm the diagnosis.
CF. In cattleand otheranimals, cases of taeniasis
are usually asymptomatic except when severe Efficiency of post-mortem inspection and
infestations occur when there may be diarrhoea treatment procedures
and some loss of condition. .
There is a practical limit to the number of
Most cases of bovine cysticercosis are
incisions permissible because gross mutilation
acquired in early calfhood, particularly from
lowers the marketability of the carcase and also
birth to 28 days. In most European countries
introduces contamination. As a result, many
there is a seasonal incidence of cvsticercosis,
light infestations go undetected.
cysts being found most often at meat inspection
This has been confirmed by comparing
during the late summer and autumn months,
detailed dissection of carcases with routine
cattle having picked up the infection when put
inspection procedures (Walther and Koske,
out to grass in the spring, the occurrence of the
1980). In this experiment, 79 calves from a
cysts coinciding with the 4-5 months required
known T. eaginata endemic area were
for development.
slaughtered and the carcases were subjected to
In man, there are usually no clinical
routine meat inspection procedures and
disturbances except for pruritus ani, the patient
subsequently to detailed dissection. While only
being aware of discomfort in the perianal
38.3% of infected carcases were detected at
region. However, in more serious infestations
meat inspection, this figure was almost doubled
loss of weight, gastrointestinal effects, nausea
on dissection, to 75.9%. Of these, 21.7% had
and nervousness may be evident.
cysts in the triceps brachii muscle only. During
P. See Life cycle. dissection, 34 (56.7%) of the animals were
negative for C. bovis in the so-called
D. In cattle, demonstration of viable C. bovis predilection sites - masseter muscles, tongue,
cysts in predilection sites at post-mortem is heart, oesophagus and diaphragm. Since the
relatively easy but care has to be taken to triceps incision is not used universally, this
differentiate minute forms from other entities finding may be an indication for its adoption.
such as fat globules and lesions of However, this would probably meet with trade
actinobacillosis (especially in the tongue). resistance, at least in the British Isles.
The viability of cysts can be ascertained by Although routine meat inspection measures
placing them in normal saline solution with 30% may not be an absolute control for T. saginata
ox bile or 5% sodium taurocholate and infection in man, generalised infestations and
incubating at 37°C. Evagination of the unarmed many light ones will be detected.
scolex in viable cysts normally takes place The occurrence of a single degenerated cyst
within 1-2 h. Microscopic examination of the presents a problem. It is now considered that
viable cyst will show the thin bladder wall and since live and dead cysts may co-exist in the
the scolex with four suckers but no rostellum same carcase, there is justification in subjecting
or hooks. such a carcase to freezing. A survey in Prague
Caseous and calcified degenerated cysts are on lightly infested carcases showed co-existing
more difficult to diagnose with accuracy. live and dead cysts in 9.7% of positive cases.
In man, infection with the adult tapeworm is The value of additional cuts in assessing the
diagnosed by the demonstration of proglottids degree of infestation is questionable. Although
or eggs in the faeces or faecal swabs. The eggs these incisions may outdo the initial ones in the
of T. eaginata and T. solium, however, cannot be number of cysts found, the primary cut remains
differentiated morphologically and so reliance the most important for the detection of light
must be placed on the structure of the scolex infestations. It is certain that the shoulder cut
(unarmed in the former and armed in the latter) should be insisted on in any of the African
and on certain other anatomical differences. countries where C. bovis is prevalent. In Kenya,
Subcutaneous cysticerci in man are often a modification of the shoulder cut is advocated
palpable and can also be recognised by - three incisions are made into the triceps brachii
ultrasound, computerised axial tomography along with a further cut into the gracilis muscle
(CAT) or X-rays. Palpable cysts can be excised parallel to the pubic symphysis.
674 Meat Hygiene
Recent work on the efficiency of cold storage 91 1495 IEEC on public health and animal
in killing C. bovis has thrown doubt on current health problems affecting the production and
techniques. Cartons (30 kg) of affected meat placing on the market of farmed game meat;
were exposed in a blast freezing tunnel with a Council Directive 92/45/EEC on public health
conveyor cycle of 24 h and an average and animal health problems relating to the
temperature of -30.9°C. A single cycle did not killing of wild game and the placing on the
cause scolex death even if followed by 24h cold market of wild game meat.
storage. A double cycle caused scolex death if
followed by 72h cold storage. It was concluded
Inspection procedure (for bovines not less than
that such a tunnel at a maximum temperature
6 weeks old)
of -30°C would effectively kill cysticerci in
boxed beef after a 48 h cycle followed by 72 h The procedure includes:
cold storage at -23.3°C. Visual inspection of the slaughtered animal
Good eyesight is required for the efficient and the organs belonging to it.
detection of C. bovis. The vast differences in The external (masseter) muscles, in which
detection rates, even among inspectors in the two incisions must be made parallel to the
same meat plant, can only be explained by mandible, and the internal masseters (internal
differences in vision, expertise and diligence. pterygoid muscles) which must be incised
The development of an efficient, rapid ELISA test along one plane, must be examined.
or other serodiagnostic test in the live animal would The tongue, having been freed to permit a
obviate much unnecessary mutilation and detailed visual inspection of the mouth and
contamination and transform current meatinspection fauces, must be visually inspected and
palpated.
procedures. Visual inspection of the pericardium and
the heart, the latter being incised lengthwise
Losses due to C. bovis so as to open the ventricles and to cut through
the interventricular septum;
Losses of meat due to bovine cvsticercosis are Visual inspection of the diaphragm.
occasioned by the total co~demnation of The cut muscles of the split carcase and the
carcases with generalised infestation, the oesophagus should also be examined.
reduced value of carcases subjected to
refrigeration, the cost of refrigeration, extra Judgement
handling, transport, etc. It is reckoned that in Generalised [Link]: Whole carcase, offal and
Great Britain these losses amount to £100 per blood unfit for human consumption.
carcase or £4.0 million annually. Localised C. bocis: (a) Infected parts of carcase
and offal removed - unfit for human
Routine inspection procedures and consumption.
judgements for bovine cysticercosis Remainder of carcase and offal to be kept in
Throughout the world the inspection cold storage at a temperature not exceeding
techniques adopted and the final judgements -7°C for a period of not less than 3 weeks or at
exercised vary greatly. Only a small sample is a temperature of not less than -10°C for a
given here. period of not less than 2 weeks.
(Generalised and localised C. bovis are not
defined.)
MEMBER COUNTRIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

In Great Britain the relevant inspection

procedures are contained in The Fresh Meat CANADA
(Hygiene and Inspection) Regs. 1995 (Schedule
10, Part 1). These Regulations give effect to Inspection procedure
Council Directive 91 1497 IEEC, which 1 Inspection of carcass, cut surfaces and organs.
amended and updated Directive 64/433 IEEC 2 Incisions shall be made through the centre of
on health problems affecting intra-Community the internal pterygoid and external masseter
trade in fresh meat; Council Directive muscles. Such incisions should be made
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 675
parallel to the mandible and extend right lesions and will consist of one of three possible
through the muscles. options:
3 Hearts shall be prepared for inspection by one (i) The lesion was not caused by C. bovis. The
of the following methods: pathologist will describe the lesion observed,
(i) Following visual examination of the adding the statement that the aetiology of the
exterior surface, the heart is incised bv a lesion was not C. boois.
longitudinal incision extending from its base In this case, the carcase(s) from which the
to the apex through the wall of the left lesion originated may be considered not to be
ventricle and the interventricular septum. The infested and should therefore be released
inner surfaces of the heart, including valves, without further treatment.
shall be examined and the septum and left (ii) The lesion was caused by C. bovis. The
ventricular wall are incised by at least four pathologist will describe the lesion adding a
deep incisions. All cut surfaces are examined statement which indicates that the aetiology
for parasitic lesions. of the lesion was C. bovis.
(ii) A visual examination is made of the (iii) C. bovis cannot be ruled out as a possible
oesophagus. \i\Thenever lesions suspicious of cause of the lesion. In this case, the
cysticercus infestation are found elsewhere in pathologist will describe the lesion observed,
the carcase, the oesophagus shall be subjected adding a statement which indicates that the
to a thorough examination. lesion is consistent with that caused by C.
boois.
Judgement
In the case of (ii) and (iii) above, the
(a) Index case If on routine examination, one
carcase(s) shall be considered infested and
or more carcases are found to be affected with
disposed of accordingly.
lesions suggestive of C. bonis, all affected
The laboratory will telephone the results of
carcases and their offal shall be held pending
the examination directly to the Regional Office.
laboratory confirmation. As bovine
The Regional Office will be responsible for
cysticercosis is a reportable disease under the
transmitting this information to the
Animal Disease and Protection Act, the identity
Veterinarian-in-Charge.
of the owner and the origin of the cattle must be
When at least one carcase from a lot of cattle
established. To assist in this endeavour, as soon
is considered to be infested, all carcases which
as a probable lesion is detected, the inspector
originate from that lot and which exhibit gross
should record all pertinent information which
lesions suggestive of C. bonis shall also be
would assist in identifying the origin of the
considered to be infested.
carcase(s), e.g. ear tags, brands, etc.
The Regional Office shall be informed that a (c) Disposition Infestation shall be considered
suspect C. boots lesion was detected and exiensioe where cysts are found in at least two of
submitted for laboratory examination. the following sites during routine primary
inspection (heart, tongue, muscles of
(b) Laboratory confirmation Appropriate
mastication, diaphragm and its pillars,
lesions from affected carcases shall be excised
oesophagus and musculature that is exposed
with surrounding tissues, preserved in
during dressing operations) and in at least two
formalin, and forwarded to the Health of
of the sites exposed by incision into the rounds
Animals Laboratory, Sackville, N.B., St.
and forelimbs.
Hyacinthe, Quebec or Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
If on examination an inspector finds one or
or to ADRI/Nepean or ADRI/Lethbridge, for
more lesions of C. bovis but the infestation is
confirmation of the diagnosis. (Indicate on the
found to be of a lesser degree than that
laboratory submission form that the sample
described above, the carcase shall be considered
originates from an index case and therefore the
slightly infested. Carcases considered to be
carcase is being held pending laboratory
slightly infested shall be treated as follows:
confirmation. Also provide the phone number
of the Regional Office for laboratory personnel (i) the cysts and surrounding tissues shall be
to report their findings.) removed and condemned; and
Laboratory reports will reflect the results of (ii) the carcase or the meat derived therefrom
histological examination of the submitted shall be held in a freezer under inspectional
676 Meat Hygim e
control at a tem perature no t exceeding - 10''C Mlell C. bot'is is detected during the routine
for no l less tha n 10 days; or examination, the filial inspection is as follows:
(iii) the meat is heated th rougho ut, under 1 The exte rnal and intern al mu scles of
inspectional control, to a tem perature of at mastica tion , Ihe hea r t and the m uscular
least 6O'C. portion of the d iaphragm, includi ng its
pillars, are thorou ghly incised and examined ,
(d) Subsequent lots fro m th e sa me p re mises the peri toneum ha ving first been removed
Subsequent lots o f cattle wh ich originate from from the d iaphragm.
infected premises and w hich a re se nt to sla ughter 2 Th e tongu e is thoroughly incised a nd
under licence shall be subjected to a more examined"
d etailed examina tio n, including tho rough 3 The mu scles of the oesophagus and all the cut
slicing of the heart, the external and in ternal muscular surfaces of the split carcase are
musc les of mastication, th e muscular portio n of examined .
the d ia phragm, the to ngue a nd the oesophagus .J When CYsts arc found in tw o or more of the
and musculature exposed d uring the dressing above Sites, one transverse cut is made into
op era tions of the ca rcase. All carcas es each shoulder 5-7.5 cm above the olecranon
exhibit ing gross lesions sugges tive of C. ooris process and down to the humerus and an
shall be considered infested and disposed of incision is made into each rou nd so that the
accordingly. Laboratory confirma tion is not muscles a re exposed in cross-section .
required for this action.
Wllt'1I Ollt' beef carcase ill a lot contains a
(e )Co m pensa tion Under the An imal Disease tnpeuorm cyst, the fo llow ing p rocedure is
an d Protection Ac t, com pe nsa tion is pa id for required for all carcases in that lot :
carcases which are licenced to slaughter and
subsequently condemned or trea ted due to 1 Multip le inci sing of the in terventricula r
cys ticercosis. septurn and interna l musc les of mastication.
The oesophagus and cut surfaces of muscles
exposed during the dress ing operation a re
closelyobserved.
e X ITED STATES OF A:\IERJCA 2 If available. and identified as part of the
affected lot. hea rts and cheeks from carcases
Inspection procedure w hich had passed inspection prior to findi ng
the infected carcases arc incised as above.
1 Incise and observe la ter al and medial
mesttca tor v mu scles (chee ks) after tongue Inspec tors a re required to collect all iin> cysts
dropping. ' from the hea rt and mas tica tory m uscle s, place
2 Observe and palpa te tong ue . th em in formal in a n d send them to the
3 Incise hea rt from base to apex or vice ve rsa Veterinary Se rvi ces Labora tor y in Ames, Iow a
through in tervent ricular septum an d observe accompani ed by full details of the ca rcases, tag
cut and inner surfaces. numbers a nd ow ne r's na me a nd add ress.
4 As a n alte rna tive , a t plant mana geme nt's Th e inspe ction fo r C. /'ot'is ma y be omi tte d in
request, the hear t ma y also be inspec ted as the case of calves under 6 w eeks' of age.
follow s: Af te r the inspector examines the
hear t's outer sur face, a plant em ployee must
completely eve rt it, after cutting through the Jud gem en t
interventricula r se ptum and other tissu es. 1 Carca ses of cattle d isp laying lesions of C. bovis
Th e inspector then exam ines the inn er shall be condemned if the injt'sfation is
sur faces and makes nol more than four dee p, cxtensirc or if tilt' musculature is caematous or
lengthw ise incisions into the sep tu m and discoloured" Car cases shou ld be cons ide red
ventricula r wa ll. If cysticercosis is suspected, t'xtensi.'t.'ly inft'Sled if in addi tion to finding
more incisions shall be ma de" Cutting lesions in at least tw o of the us ual inspec tion
throu gh the heart's walls should be avo ided. sites, namely the heart, di aphragm and its
If necessarv, ca rcases and hearts sha ll be pillars , muscles of mastication, oesophagus,
identified with consec utively numbered tags. tongue and m usculature exposed d u rin g
5 Observe the oeso phagus and cu t surfaces of normal dressing operations, they a re foun d in
m uscles and pillars of dia ph ragm. at least tw o of the sites exposed by (i) an
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 677
incision made into each round exposing the two further incisions parallel to the original
musculature in cross-section, and (ii) a ones are made.
transverse incision into each forelimb
commencing 2 or 3 inches above the point of
the olecranon process and extending to the Judgement
humerus. When one or two cysts are found on the
2 Carcases of cattle showing oneor moretapeworm majority of the cut surfaces, the carcase, meat
lesions of C. bovis but not so extensive as in (1) and viscera are condemned. Otherwise, the
above, may be passed for human food after carcase, meat and viscera are passed after
removal and condemnation of the lesions with treatment by: freezing at -lOOC for 10 days;
surrounding tissues. Provided that the carcases, pickling in salt solution for 21 days at 8-12°C;
appropriately identified by retained tags, are
held in cold storage under positive control of a steaming under moderate pressure
Program Inspector at a temperature not higher (0.49 kg/ cm-) in an autoclave for 1 h; boiling at
than 15°F (-9.4°C) continuously for a period of 95-100°C for 2Y2h; or heating to a temperature of
not less than 10 days, or in the case of boned 95-100°C for 30 min.
meat derived from such carcases, the meat,
when in boxes, tierces or other containers, is
held under positive control at a temperature of
not higher than 15°F(-9.4°C) continuously for a
period of not less than 20 days. As an AUSTRALIA
alternative to cold storage, such carcases and
meat may be heated throughout to a temperature Inspection procedure
of at least 140°F (60°C).
Under the Export Meat Regulations the
Edible viscera and offal shall be disposed of following tissues of cattle over 32kg of dressed
in the same manner as the rest of the carcase weight are examined visually:
from which they were derived, unless any
lesion of C. bovis is found in these by-products, 1 Tongue (also examined by palpation).
in which case they shall be condemned. 2 External and internal masseter muscles, after
making two incisions into each masseter
parallel to the plane of the lower jaw.
3 Heart, after making an incision through the
SOUTH AFRICA interventricular septum and further incisions
into the wall of the LV.
Inspection procedure 4 Diaphragm, after removal of the peritoneum.
Visual examination of the following tissues of When cysticercosis is found during the
all bovine animals is carried out for evidence of routine examination, further incisions are made
C. bovis: into the predilection sites and the carcase
1 Tongue (surface and substance palpated). musculature to determine the extent of
2 Masseter muscle, after making two deep infestation.
linear incisions.
3 Pterygoideus medialis muscle, after making a Judgement
linear incision parallel to the lower jaw. Carcases showing one or more cysts in most of
4 The viscera, lungs and oesophagus. the incised muscles and oedematous or
5 The heart, after making a single incision discoloured carcases are condemned, Carcases
through the LV and further incisions into the showing lesser infestation may be passed for
muscle if necessary. food after removal of the affected parts and
6 The muscular diaphragm after removal of the treatment of the carcase and its edible offal.
peritoneum and making two incisions. Treatment involves refrigeration at -95°C for 10
7 The cut surfaces of the carcase after splitting days or, in the case of boned meat at -95°C for
and incised if necessary. a period of not less than 20 days.
8 Triceps brachii muscle, after making a deep No carcase, including the head or viscera,
transverse incision 5-7.5 cm above the point may be exported if C. bovis is found in any
of the elbow. If C. bovis is found in this muscle, organ or part.
678 Meat Hygiene
NEW ZEALAND South America (Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras
and Peru). Oceania is free except for East Timor,
Inspection procedure which has a high prevalence. Except for
Cambodia and Lebanon, Asia is relatively free.
The following tissues are examined visually:
The tapeworm has been eradicated from many
1 Masseter muscles, after making several countries - Czechoslovakia (1990), Finland
incisions into each masseter muscle. (1947), Greece (1989), Lithuania (1991),
2 Tongue, after making an incision into the base Australia (1988), Philippines (1988), Canada
of the organ. (1985), Mauritius (1986), Namibia (1989), Cuba
3 Oesophagus (also examined by palpation). (1985), Haiti (1989) and Uruguay (1987).
4 Heart, after making an incision through the In Mexico City, some 10% of street dogs
LV and the ventricular septum from the base harbour cysts, while in Madras about 1% of
to the apex and making four further incisions dogs are affected.
into the muscle from the inside of the heart.
l A. The adult worm ('anned tapeworm') is
Judgement 1.8-4.8 m in length and possesses 800-900
segments which are distinguished from those of
A carcase with more than two cysts in the T. saginata by the gravid uterus, which has only
muscles, excluding the heart, is condemned. 7-12 tree-like lateral branches while that of T.
When no more than two cysts are found in the solium has 15-35. Each gravid proglottid
carcase musculature, the cysts are removed and contains some 40000 eggs which are spherical
the carcase is passed for treatment by in shape, those of T. saginata being oval.
DC
refrigeration at -10 for 10 days. If freezing The scolex is globular in shape and less than
facilities are not available, the carcase, heart and 1 mm in diameter. The rostellum possesses a
the tongue are condemned. double crown of 26-28 hooks. The neck is long
No carcases in which C. bonis is found can be and slender.
exported except in canned form. It usually occurs singly in man's intestine but
in endemic areas, there may be several (as
many as 25) tapeworms present.
The life cycle is similar to that of T. soliunt
except that the pig usually acts as the
TAENIASIS DUE TO TAENIA SOLIUM
intermediate host, although the cystic stage
(PORK TAPEWORM) AND SWINE
(Cysticercus cellulosae) may also occur less
CYSTICERCOSIS
commonly in rats, cats, monkeys, sheep, cattle,
deer, dogs and human beings.
I. Taeniasis due to T. solium is an infection of
Intermediate hosts are infected through the
the small intestine of man with the adult stage
consumption of eggs in contaminated food or
of the pork tapeworm and cysticercosis the
water. The onchospheres hatch in the intestine
tissue reaction with its larval or cystic stage
under the influence of gastric and intestinal
(Cysticercus cellulosae) which occurs most
juices, penetrate the intestinal wall into blood
commonly in the musculature of the pig but
vessels or lymphatics, and are disseminated
also less commonly in other intermediate hosts
throughout the body to predilection muscle sites.
such as man, dogs, rats and other mammals.
Intestinal infection in man (taeniasis due to
Zoonosis.
T. solium) follows the ingestion of raw or
T. solium taeniasis and cysticercosis are of
undercooked infected ('measly') pork, the adult
great public health and eco~omic importance,
worm developing in the small intestine.
the latter occasioned by the condemnation of
However, cysticercosis in man can also be
pig carcases.
acquired by the direct transfer of T. solium ova
O. Although of only sporadic occurrence in from the faeces of an individual harbouring an
Europe (Spain, Sweden, former Yugoslavia and adult worm. Auto-infection due to reverse
Slovenia), T. solium has a high prevalence in peristalsis of the intestine, once considered
many African countries (Tanzania, Angola, possible, is now known not to occur.
Burkina Faso, Chad, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, The fully developed cysticercus (c. cellulosae)
Mauritius and Mozambique), in Mexico and in is infective some 9-10 weeks after infection and
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 679

Fig. 18.5 Measles of pork

showing extensive invasion of
muscle by Cy.;tj,~rcus celudosoe.

is about 20 x 10 mm in size, a delicate infestation. This is explained by the fact tha t a

translucent structure with an invaginated head person harbouring T. solium excre tes 7-10 ripe
appearing as a small white spot. The sue of C. segments daily, ea ch segment containing so me
cellulosae varies with its stage of d evclopment c- 30000 ova which can be ingested by scavenging
at 20 days the cyst is the size of a pinhead, at 60 pigs. As with T. saginata. the unhygienic habits
days the size of a pea with the head visible, of some members of the human race perpetuate
while at 110 days all cysts arc of equal size , a serious disease.
elliptical in shape, with the scolex developed
and invaginated . CF. Cysticercosis in pigs is us ually
asymptomatic but heavy infestations ca n
Predilection sitl'$ are the heart, diaphragm and
in tern al masset ers, to ngue, nec k, shoulder, produce m uscular stiffness and possible loss of
condition.
intercostal and abdomi nal muscles. The liver,
lun gs, kidney, eye and brain are less often In m all, clinical symptoms associated with the
affected , although 150 cysticerci ha ve been
adult worm in the small intestine can inclu de
abd omi nal pa in , digestive d istu rba nces,
fou nd in the brain cortex. The deep mu scles of
d iarrhoea / constipation, nervous ness and loss
the th igh are often involved, so that freedom
of weight b ut most cases arc asymptomatic
from infec tio n of the us ual si tes does not
except for the irritation ass ociated seg men ts
necessarily indicate the abse nce of cys ts in th e
emerg ing from the anus, eggs a ppear in the
carcase muscu latu re. The cys ts in pig mu scle
faeces 8-12 weeks after in fection w ith the ad ult
(' measly pork') may be sca ttered and few in
tape worm .
n umber bu t one case is recorded in wh ich some
In cases of cysticercosis in //lall, sy mp tom s
3000 cysts were pr esent in 453 g of muscle . C.
ma y appea r da ys o r yea rs after infection.
cetlutoeae cys ts can remain a live for seve ral
Cysticerci ar c for med in th e subcu taneous
years b ut casea ted an d calcified cys ts are non-
tissues, stria ted mu scles such as those of the
viable (fig . 18.5).
sh oulder, thigh or calf and other vital organs
R. Ma ll is the dejinitiL'f' host for T. eotium and s uch as the brai n, hea rt, liver, lun gs and eye.
pigs the main intermediate uoets with ra ts, cats, Wh ile routine inspection of p ig carcases and the
d ogs, sh eep , cattle, deer, monkeys and man adoption of other con trol measures have done
act ing as lesser intermed iate hos ts. mu ch to reduce the incid ence of T. sotium,
Human s infected with T. solill nl excret e eggs serious infections still occur in endemic areas .
in to the env ironmen t as long as the wo rm is Suspect brain tumou rs often turn o ut to be C.
active in the intestine, a period which can last as cetlutoeae cysts, and epilep tiform convu lsions
long as 30 years. The eggs can remain viable a nd d ea th are frequen tly associa ted. w ith
outside the body for several mo n ths. neu rocysti ccrcosis. The prog nosi s is grave
In cou ntries {v'here po rk measles is en demic, when cysticerci localise in the bra in, heart and
the ma jority of infec ted p igs have a heavy eye in p arti cu lar.
680 Meat Hygiene
P. See Life cycle. with 'heavy infestations' be totally
condemned, the designation of 'heavy
Carcase inspection Suspect carcases should
infestation' to be prescribed by the controlling
be split and exposed muscular surfaces
authority. Cases of 'moderate or light infesta-
examined, especially those of the diaphragm,
tion or small numbers of dead/degenerated
abdomen, thigh and shoulder. The heart,
cysticerci' are to be subjected to freezing or
tongue and larynx should also be included. In
heat treatment (q.v.).
Africa the shoulder muscles are often infected
United States regulations state that lightly
and regulations in many African countries
affected pig carcases may be passed for cooking
require that the triceps brachii muscle be incised
but those heavily infested must be condemned.
by a cut about 2.5 cm above the elbow joint. This
In Germany, lightly infested carcases may be
is claimed to detect infection in some 13% of
cooked or pickled, though not frozen; such
carcases which would otherwise be missed.
meat is classified as conditionally fit and may
Diagnosis of adult tapeworm infection in man is
only be sold on the Freibank.
based on the morphology of gravid proglottids In South Africa, lightly infested carcases may
and the scolex in the faeces or on anal swabs.
be frozen.
The scolex of each tapeworm has four suckers,
but only T. solium is armed with hooks. (The
ova of T. solium and T. saginata cannot be
differentiated morphologically.) Recovery of Methods of prevention and control (T.
the scolex after treatment ensures elimination of saginata and T. solium)
the worm. 1 Education of public in personal hygiene -
Subcutaneous cysticerci in man may be visible handwashing after defaecation and before
or palpable. Microscopic examination of an eating; prevention of contamination of soil,
excised cysticercus confirms the diagnosis. water and food by use of proper toilet
Cysticerci in visceral organs or the brain and facilities; adoption of strict sanitation
spinal cord can be detected by X-rays, measures.
computerised axial tomography (CAT) or 2 Prohibition of use of sewage effluent for soil
ultrasound. irrigation or fertilisation. Alternatively,
The detection of products of T. solium in the immediate ploughing in or direct deep
serum of infected pigs can be made using a injection of sewage into soil. (See also Control
double homologous monoclonal antibody- of Salmonellosis.)
based enzyme immunoassay (Rodriguez-del- Prevention of access of livestock to human
Rosal et al., 1989). These authors suggest that the faeces, latrines, etc.
ante-mortem diagnosis of swine cysticercosis is 3 Effective pet and pest control.
possible and useful in potentially preventing 4 Identification and immediate treatment of
carcase condemnation losses, since as many as infected persons with effective taenicides
80% of cysticercotic pigs could be detected and such as praziquantel, niclosamide, etc.
treated (praziquantel at 50 mg/kg per day for 15 Encouragement of persons with suspect
days) before despatch for slaughter. infection to seek proper medical treatment.
S Effective meat inspection, condemnation and
J. EC Council Directive 64/433/EEC (as rendering procedures.
amended) requires that meat from animals in 6 Efficient freezing and heating of meat (q.v.).
which generalised cysticercosis has been
7 Thorough home cooking of beef and pork.
diagnosed must be declared unfit for human
consumption. 8 Investigation of contacts and source of
The Great Britain Fresh Meat (Hygiene and infection.
Inspection) Regulations 1995 prescribe that the
whole carcase and all the offal and blood shall
be condemned if found to be affected with
Cysticercus cellulosae. No distinction is made TREMATODES OR FLUKES
between light and heavy infestations, nor is
freezing advocated for localised infestations. These are flattened, leaf-like, unsegmented
Codex Alimentarius (Alinorm 93/16A) parasites of which there are some 6000 species
prescribes that carcases and viscera affected worldwide. They range in size from about 5mm
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 681
to several centimetres and can parasitise most lA. Fasciola hepaiica (Distomum hepaiicum), the
vertebrates. They are found most commonly in common liver fluke, is approximately 30 mm
fish, frogs and turtles but can also cause serious long and 12mm wide. It is pale brown in colour,
disease in ungulates, birds and sometimes man flattened and oval in shape, being broadest
(especially the schistosomes or blood flukes). anteriorly where it terminates in an oral sucker
Some occur in invertebrates such as molluscs which surrounds the mouth and a ventral
and crustaceans. sucker situated about 2.5 mm behind the
Most are endoparasites, but some are found mouth. The cuticle is studded with numerous
externally. The majority of trematodes are backwardly-directed spines which play an
hermaphroditic, but in some the reproductive important part in the production of liver
organs are separate. cirrhosis.
Like all flukes, F. hepaiica is bilaterally
symmetrical, both sides being similar. The
digestive system consists of a pharynx,
Fascioliasis (distomatosis) or liver fluke oesophagus, branched intestinal caeca and
disease cloaca. The nervous system is composed of a pair
of anterior ganglia and usually three pairs of
I. Liver fluke disease is an acute, subacute or
nerve cords.
chronic disease of the bile ducts and liver of
The parasite is hermaphrodite, the female
mammals, especially ungulates (cattle, sheep,
organs comprising an ovary, oviduct, paired
goats, buffaloes, deer, elk, moose and equidae)
vitelline or yolk glands and uterus, while the
and sometimes man, caused by members of the
male organs consist of two branched testes, vas
genera Fasciola, Fascioloides and Dicrocoelium.
deferens, seminal vesicle and armed cirrus. The
O. Worldwide, where cattle and sheep in eggs are brown in colour, oval and provided
particular are husbanded. Fasciola hepaiica is with an operculum or lid.
common in the British Isles and Europe, while Excretion of waste products is achieved by a
F. gigoniica occurs in Africa, Middle East and bladder and flame cells.
Asia and Fascioloides magna in North America
and Europe. Fasciola giganiica (Giant liver fluke) This
The disease is of great economic importance trematode resembles F. hepaiica in shape but is
in many countries. In England and Wales about larger, being up to 75 mm long and 12 mm
one million sheep livers are condemned broad. Its morphology is similar to that of F.
annually. Chronic fascioliasis is the most hepniica except that the anterior end possesses
common form of the disease in cattle, less defined shoulders. The life cycle involves
accounting for a 29% condemnation rate different intermediate snail hosts, the most
costing over £2 million in liver losses and a important of which are Lymnaea auricularia, L.
further £5 million in reduced liveweight gain rujescens and L. acuminata. F. gigantica occurs in
and carcase quality. cattle, sheep and buffaloes in Africa and Asia,
In Northern Ireland the situation is relatively causing acute and chronic disease in sheep but
worse, the total weight of cattle and sheep only chronic fascioliasis in cattle and buffaloes.
livers condemned being greater than all the Fascioloides magna (Large American liver
condemnations of carcase meat of cattle, sheep fluke) This fluke measures up to 100 mm in
and pigs combined. Most recent figures show length and is thick and oval in shape. It infests
an incidence of 51% in cattle and 10% in sheep cattle, sheep, horses and pigs in North America
slaughtered. The annual loss of some 1000 and cattle, sheep and deer in Europe. Wild
tonnes of cattle and sheep liver amounts to ruminants are affected in both continents. Deer
£750000, the overall losses due to fascioliasis in are believed to be the normal hosts. A wide
Northern Ireland being estimated at £4.5 variety of snails, different from those of F.
million annually (Tavlor, 1975). hepaiica and F. gigantica act as intermediate
German authoriti~s have estimated that the hosts.
parasite may reduce beef production by up to
10 per cent, milk production by 16% and be Life cycle of Fasciola hepaiica Eggs laid by
reponsible for loss of flesh in affected sheep by the adult worms in the bile ducts are excreted
25 per cent. via the bile into the duodenum and passed out
682 Meat Hygiene
in the faeces. A single worm may lay over on e owing to th e fact that ma ny snai ls d ie d uring
million eggs during its lifetime. The rate of the winter months. L truuauuta beg ins to be
ha tching depends mainly on temperature but active in March or April and lays eggs which
this usually occurs in about 10 days when an give rise to a generation of snails, th ese
embryo or'miracidiulII is produced . ' prod ucing marc eggs 3-4 months late r, Several
For fu rther development and multiplication, generations of snails a re produced be tween
the miracidium requires an intermediate host in March and October. Summer infection results in
the form of an amphibious mud snail, of which disease in livestock from October onwards.
the most common is Lymnaea truncatula. Other Development of infection in snails is inhibited
intermediate snail hosts are L buiimoidee and L. during the winter but recommences in the
humilie (N. America), L. tomm tosa (Au stralia) spring, with infection on herbage appearing in
and L. oiator and L. diapheno (5. America). The late spring and early summer and disease in
actively motile miracidium must enter the mud animals occurring in July to October.
snail within a few hours, otherwise it dies.
Ecology of L t runcatula The mud snail
The optimum temperature for the miracidium
occurs most comrnonlv on wet, badlv drained
to enter the snail is 15-24''C. It reaches the
land which has a slightly add pH. This is
respiratory cavity of the mud sna il and develops
especially true of L. truncatuia and L. blllimoides,
into a 1 mm long sporocyst which completes the
but others such as L. tomf'lItosa are well adapted
final penetration into the snail. In the next -l-8
to an aquatic life and can drift long distances.
weeks the sporocyst gives rise to 6-8 rediae, each
Land which is frequently irrigated and where
of which is 1-3 mm in length. In a further -1-6
small springs and streams exist is also suitable
weeks each redia becomes activelv motile.
for snail life.
migrates to the liver of the snail and' produces
15--20 cercariae. each of which has a body R. See Life eycle, Fascioliasis is maintained in
0.25-0.35 mm in length with a long tail. ventral nature in a cvcle between various vertebrate
and oral sucker and a bifurcated intestine, and snails of the genus Lymllaea.
Development in the snail takes about 6-10 weeks.
MT. See Life eycle,
The cercariae eventually escape from the
rediae. leave the snail, lose their tails and either CE Liver fluke disease occurs as an acute,
float in water or become encysted on grass subacute or chronic infection, the acu te and
sta lks or aquatic pla nts on which the y resemble subacute forms being evident mostly in sheep,
grains of sand . The period of development from while the chronic form in cattle is o ften
egg to cncysted and infective cercariae takes asymptomatic.
2-1 months. Cerca riae mev remai n alive on In s1Jet'P the acute form occurs seasona lly in
pastu re for up to 12 months" and in d ry hay for the late summer and autumn, its timing being
several weeks. A heavily waterlogged pasture determined bv the invasion of the liver bv
enables cercariae to encyst far ther up the blades numerous young flukes in particular di stricts.
of g rass where they are more likely to be Experi men tally, it has been shown that if 5000
ingested by herb ivores. Cerca riae can, however, or more cerca riae invad e the live r pa renchyma,
live in wa ter an d be swa llowed bv the fina l sudd en dea th due to extensive he pa tic
hos t. . haemorrhage may occur without any
In the final defi nitive host, the cercariae premonitory sym p toms. It takes place w ithin 3
excyst in the sma ll in testine owing to the acti on weeks o f infecti on. mos tly in younger anima ls.
of the int esti na l juices an d in few davs after Usu all v, however, th ere is we akness,
infection pe netrate the small int estine fo reach d ullness. anorexia, anaem ia with oedema of the
the peri toneal cavity from which they bore conjunctivae a nd abdom inal pain. Death
th rough the liver capsule to migrate in the liver normally takes p lace w ith in a few days of the
parenchyma . onset of symptoms. which may be accompanied
In 7 weeks afte r in fection, the im matu re by dysentery and bloody epistaxis.
flu kes enter the bile ducts to reach sexual The subacute form differs from the acute type
matu rit y and commence egg-laying. in that symptoms a re mo re protracted. cercariae
In fection of mud snails occurs on two being ingested ove r a longer period. Loss of
occasions during the year - summer and winter. weight and anaemia arc evident and sometimes
the forme r being the more important, probably submandibular oedema .
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 683
The chronic form of the disease, however, is (acute parenchymatous hepatitis) in which the
the type most commonly encountered in sheep liver capsule is usually covered with fine
and cattle and is consistent with the ingestion of fibrinous strands which may also occur in the
small numbers of cercariae over a long period peritoneal cavity. The liver itself assumes a
of time. Infection occurs much later than in the paler colour than normal and is friable. Its
previous two forms and symptoms, if they parenchyma is extensively damaged with
become evident, develop over a longer period. haemorrhagic tracts on the surface and in the
Should resistance be low, affected animals lose substance. Immature flukes (1-2 mm) can be
weight and develop anaemia with pallor of the seen in the haemorrhagic tracts.
mucosae. Animals on a high plane of nutrition Rupture of the liver capsule occurs in very
can tolerate a higher fluke burden than those on heavy infestations, with haemorrhage into the
a low plane. peritoneal cavity. The carcase presents a fevered
In sheep there is submandibular oedema appearance.
('bottle jaw'), with oedematous swellings of the The acute type of the disease in sheep is
eyelids, throat, brisket and sometimes a sometimes associated with Black disease (q.v.)
pendulous appearance of the abdomen with in which Clostridium oedenuiiiens (Cl. 110Vyi)
diarrhoea. Loss of wool is marked, a feature proliferates in necrotic lesions caused by the
which is especially evident in pregnant ewes. immature flukes.
Some animals may die after 2-3 months, but The subacute form of fascioliasis in sheep
survivors are emaciated for long periods and shows some degree of fibrosis as well as
rarely recover weight. It is remarkable that migratory tracts on the surface and in the
some sheep survive despite the fact that parenchyma.
virtually all liver tissue is destroyed and Chronicfascioliasis is by far the most common
replaced by cirrhosis. form of the disease in all animals, including
Susceptible cattle, after a slight initial weight man. The presence of adult flukes in the bile
gain, show loss of condition and milk yield and ducts gives rise to mechanical irritation of these
develop anaemia and chronic diarrhoea, passages and results in a chronic,
especially if there is a superimposed pregnancy. pericanalicular atrophying cirrhosis with the
Death, however, is relatively rare in the bovine, formation of fibrous tissue in the walls of the
unless there is an associated disease. In contrast bile ducts and surrounding liver tissue,
to the disease in sheep, most cattle show little including the portal canals. The fibrinous
impairment of health and well-nourished deposit on the liver capsule becomes organised
animals at slaughter are often encountered with and gives rise to a chronic perihepatitis which is
markedly cirrhotic livers. It has been shown often manifested in cattle and sheep by
that while 50 adult flukes can cause clinical adhesion of the diaphragm to the anterior
disease in sheep, some 250 are necessary in surface of the liver or by adhesion of the liver to
cattle. the omentum. Fibrosis is usually greatest where
Infection with F. gigantica produces much the immature fluke migration is most marked in
same symptoms as those due to F. hepaiica, the left lobe (ventral in position), but can occur
while Fascioloides magna is of low pathogenicity elsewhere, e.g. in the portal canals and hepatic
in cattle, losses being due to liver arteries, which become thickened. The walls of
condemnations as a result of extensive liver the bile ducts become very thickened owing to
damage from thick-walled encapsulations. In fibrosis and partial or complete occlusion is a
sheep and goats, however, F. magna, even in frequent sequel. Flukes which fail to reach a bile
light infestations, can cause acute symptoms duct become encapsulated in the liver
and death due to hepatic haemorrhage caused parenchyma, especially in the left lobe, and
by massive invasion of the liver with immature form large rounded nodules with brown,
flukes. greasy contents.
In cattle the thickened bile ducts eventually
P. The main lesions in fascioliasis occur in the become calcified or 'pipey' (,pipe-stem liver') and
liver parenchyma and bile ducts. casts of calcium are sometimes encountered
In the acute disease, in sheep large numbers blocking the bile ducts, making them difficult to
of immature flukes invade the liver to produce cut with a knife. Such calcification does not
acute swelling and congestion of the liver occur in sheep and goats. The progress of
684 Meat Hygiene
fibrosis and scar tissue eventually results in the migration and high levels of precipitating
destruction of liver tissue with gross distortion antibodies to F. hepaiica.
of the organ, which becomes thickened and
shortened, this being most apparent in sheep.
In cattle, flukes migrating through the liver
HU111an fascioliasis
may penetrate a radicle of the hepatic vein and This has occasionally been described, man
be transported to the lung via the posterior being an accidental host for F. hepaiica and F.
vena cava, heart and pulmonary vein. In the gigantica. Cases have been reported in Europe
base of the lungs they produce round cyst-like (especially France), Middle East, Australia,
nodules varying in size from a hazel nut to a USA, South America and the Caribbean.
tennis ball. These initially contain coagulated Infection is acquired by the ingestion of
blood and immature parasites and later become uncooked aquatic plants, especially watercress,
encapsulated with calcium and contain a thick, contaminated with free-swimming cercariae.
dark brown slime. In Britain some 20% of cattle In most instances only a few flukes are
with affected livers have accompanying lung present in the livers of infected persons,
lesions, but lung lesions rarely occur in sheep. sufficient, however, to produce liver damage
Immature flukes may also be found in the and enlargement along with abdominal pain,
mesenteric lymph nodes of cattle and sheep, liver dysfunction with loss of weight, dullness
appearing as millet seed to pea-sized nodules, and sometimes obstructive jaundice. On
at first yellow and pus-like but later greenish in occasions, migrant larvae cause inflammation
colour and firm in consistency, with of the skin on the body and legs.
calcification in some cases. More rarely, Infection in man with Fasciolopsis bush, when
encapsulated immature liver flukes may be present in large numbers in the small intestine
found in the spleen, kidney, myocardium, (but not the liver), produces symptoms
subcutaneous tissues, under the parietal associated with intestinal ulceration and
peritoneum and in the diaphragm. toxaemia - anorexia, vomiting, diarrhoea or
The pathology of F. gigantica is essentially the constipation, oedema of the face, abdominal
same as that of F. hepaiica but is less marked. wall and legs and sometimes ascites. Light
Fascioloides magna produces a severe reaction infections, however, are frequently
in bovine livers resulting in thick-walled asymptomatic. In malnourished individuals,
encapsulations which do not communicate symptoms are more severe.
with the bile ducts. These, however, do not Humans in the Far East may also be infected
occur in sheep. In both species' infected livers with the flukes Clonorchis sinensis (also occurs in
there are black, tortuous tracts formed by pigs), Opisthorcis ienuicollis (0. [elineus) and O.
migrating flukes. viverrini, which have two intermediate hosts -
Fasciolopsis bush is found in the small intestine snails and cyprinid fish (carp, tench, bream,
of pigs, dogs and man in eastern Asia, especially chub, goldfish, etc.). Infection is acquired by
China, Thailand and parts of India. It is a large eating raw infected fish.
trematode, measuring up to 7 cm in length and
10-20 mm wide. Intermediate hosts are pond
snails of the genera Planorbis and Segmentina into
Dicrocoelium dendriiicum (D. lanceolatum)
which the miracidia penetrate with the eventual A member of the family Dicrocoelidae, this
liberation of infective cercariae. These encyst on trematode is found in' North and South
aquatic plants such as the water chestnut (grown America, North Africa, Asia and Europe
in enclosed ponds) and cause infection when (especially Yugoslavia, Spain, Switzerland) and
eaten raw. Infections in pigs are restricted to the certain parts of the British Isles - west coast of
small intestine, where there is enteritis, and on Scotland, Hebrides, north of England and
occasion, ulceration. Most cases, however, are western Ireland.
asymptomatic. It occurs in a wide variety of animals -
Fascioliasis due to F. hepaiica may occur in sheep, goats, cattle, deer, pigs, donkeys, elk,
pigs at pasture without apparent symptoms. hares, rabbits and, occasionally, man.
The difference in susceptibility is explained by It is 5-10 mm x 1.5 to 2.5 mm in size and
the relatively large amount of fibrous tissue in lance-shaped, the body being widest at its
the pig's liver, which acts as a barrier to fluke middle. There are no cuticular spines.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 685
Life cycle Two intermediate hosts - a snail and larger and transparent. Serological tests,
an ant - are required to complete its life history. especially the ELISA, may be used.
The main snails are Zebrina deirita in Europe Differential diagnoses include the above-
and Cionella lubrica in North America but the mentioned parasitic entities, Johne's disease,
fluke can utilise a host of other species. deficiencies of copper and cobalt and infectious
A feature of the life cycle is the formation of necrotic hepatitis (Black disease),
slime balls of cercariae in the snail. When eperythrozoonosis and anthrax in acute cases.
expelled, these adhere to aquatic plants and are
eaten by ants, mainly of the genus Formica, in
Judgement
which metacercariae are produced. The
definitive hosts are infected by ingesting these Cases of acutefascioliasis are rarely encountered
metacercariae. at meat inspection. They must be condemned as
Infection with D. dendriiicum is generally less fevered carcases.
severe than with F. hepaiica but marked liver Chronic fascioliasis. Markedly cirrhotic livers
cirrhosis can occur with anaemia, oedema and warrant condemnation but lightly affected
emaciation. organs can be trimmed provided lesions are
well circumscribed.
Even in severely affected cases, the carcases
Eurytrema pancreaticum <pancreatic fluke) are generally in good condition. But
oedematous and emaciated carcases demand
This worm also belongs to the family
total condemnation.
Dicrocoelidae and is found in the pancreatic
Condemned livers may be consigned as
ducts and duodenum of sheep, goats, cattle,
inedible by-products or for petfood or
buffalo and man in Eastern Asia and parts of
pharmaceutical purposes.
South America, especially Brazil.
It measures up to 19 mm x 9 mm and
possesses the extensive, brown posterior uterus
characteristic of the Dicrocoelidae. Control of fascioliasis
Two intermediate hosts are required to
Control measures are directed at disrupting the
complete the life cycle - land snails and
life cycle of the fluke by land drainage, snail
grasshoppers or tree crickets.
control using molluscicides on pasture and ani-
Lesions include catarrhal inflammation of
mal treatment with flukicides. Molluscicides
the pancreatic ducts and occasionally fibrosis
include 0.5% copper sulphate solution (applied
resulting in duct blockage, atrophy of the
at a rate of 22.5 kg/ha), copper pentachlorphen-
pancreas and poor condition of the animal.
ate (11.2 kg/ha as a high volume spray of
The infection is usually diagnosed post-
4500 litres/ha) and N-tritylmorpholene. Care
mortem but can also be confirmed bv
must be taken with copper sulphate because
demonstration of the small, brown eggs in th~
chronic copper poisoning in sheep has resulted
faeces. from its use.
Many modern anthelmintics - triclabenda-
zole, rafoxanide, clorsulon, netobimin, ricoben-
Diagnosis of fascioliasis dazole, closantel, etc. - are effective against F.
Fascioliasis should always be considered as a hepatica, some of them against immature flukes.
possible cause of ill-thrift in sheep and cattle, Biological control of fascioliasis has been
especially the former. It is frequently associated mooted following the discovery of developing
with parasitic gastroenteritis and verminous forms of Echinostomatidae (flukes similar to F.
bronchitis. hepatica) in which no developing forms of F.
Post-mortem examination will show the hepatica were detected, suggesting some form of
characteristic acute and chronic hepatic lesions. antagonism between the two species (Gordon
In the live animal the presence of the oval, and Boray, 1970). Further work along these
operculated, brownish eggs of F. hepaiica in lines has shown the presence of other forms of
faecal samples confirms the diagnosis but they trematodes - Kiphidiocercariae in mud snails
must be distinguished from those of (Lymnaea iruncatulai and adult lung flukes
Paramphistomum (stomach flukes), which are iHaplometra cylindracea) in the lungs of frogs -
686 Meat Hygiene
but as yet no antagonistic mechanisms have o. The disease is widely distributed in Africa
been pro ved (White law and Fawcett, 1982). (induding Madagascar and Mau ritius), the
In some regions, notably Northern Ireland, M iddle East, the Arabian Peninsula, China,
climatic data are utilised toforecast the emergence Japan, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia,
of cercariae and the severity of the following Brazil, Venezuela, Surinam, the Caribbean, the
year 's incid ence of fascioliasis, enabling the Great Lakes area and California, USA.
strategic use of flukicides. These are usually
l A. The schistosomes are thin, elongated (up
administered to cattle an d sheep towards the
to 30 mm long), unisexual flukes existing as
end of winter (to remove egg-laying flukes and
separate male and female forms. The female is
reduce ground contamination), with another
very slender and longer than the male and lies,
treatmen t in the spring (to kill overwinterlng
especially during copulation, in a longi tudinal
cerca riae ) and a further autu mn treatment to groove on the ventral su rface of the male.
remove flu kes fro m stock to prevent
contamination. Life cycle In their predilection sites the
To prevent human infection, education is females lay spincd eggs which pass through the
necessary to persuade people to absta in from intestinal wall, ctc. , and leave the host in the
eating suspect watercress and other aquatic faeces or urine. An aberran t predilection site is
plants of unknown or igin. the nasal mucosa of ruminants and horses, in
Treatmen t of inf ected persons with which Schistosoma Ilasale is fou nd. Various water
dlhydroemerlne and blthionol, along with snails of the genera Buliuus, Oncomelania,
investigation of contacts and source of infection Planorbis and lsmmaea act as intermediate !Josts
is necessary. and are invaded bv miracidia hatched from the
eggs in water, Tn' the snail th e miracidia are
followed by 1'NO generations of sporocysts to
become cercariae. when mature. the cercariae
Sch istoso m ia sis (b ilharziasis, bl ood fl u ke leave the snail and invade th e final host
infestation, s nail fever) th rou gh the sk in or mucous membranes.
During penetration, the cercaria develop into
immature schistosomula which are transported
I. An infection of blood vessels, especially the
via the systemic circulation to the lungs in 1
mesenteric and portal veins, kidneys and other
week, and then to the portal and mesenteric
organs of a wide variety of animals and man by
vessels where pairing and egg-laying take place
adult male and female worms of the family
Schistosomatidae, often associated with severe (Fig. 18.6).
systemic symptoms. R. Cattle, sheep, goats, water buffalo, horses,
pigs and wild rodents are the principa l

Fig. 18.6 Adult male and female

Schistosoma matheei in the mesenteric
veins of an ox. In the newly
slaughtered animal the parasites
display active movement.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 687
reservoirs for S. maitheei, S. bonis, S. spindale, S. At post-mortem examination the adult flukes
turkestanicum, S. iaponicum and S. nasale, while may be seen in the mesenteric veins if these are
man is the main reservoir for S. iniercalatum, S. stretched and the blood is not clotted.
haemaiobium and S. japonicum. Identification of the specific schistosome is
The various snail intermediate hosts are also based on the shape and size of the eggs and the
reservoirs of schistosoma infection. presence/ absence of spines and their location
on the eggs.
MT. Infection is acquired from water
In man, serological tests (circumoval
containing free-living cercariae which have
precipitin, indirect immunofluorescent
developed in the snails. Animals become
antibody, ELISA, radioimmunoassay) are used
infected when standing in water containing the
and are now being applied in animals.
infective cercariae. Occasionally, oral infection
may take place. These cercariae penetrate the J. As for F. hepaiica.
skin of the final host and are transported to
their predilection sites via the blood and lymph.
CF. The main symptoms, which are associated Paramphistomiasis
with the intestinal and hepatic forms of
I. An infection of ruminants (cattle, sheep,
schistomiasis, consist of a haemorrhagic
goats and buffalo) with paramphisiomes
enteritis with blood and mucus in the faeces,
(amphistomes, conical flukes, rumen flukes)
anaemia, ascites and emaciation. Severe
which cause rumenitis, reticulitis and
infections result in death within a few weeks,
abomasitis, diarrhoea, emaciation and death in
especially in sheep, goats and calves. More
severe cases over several weeks.
chronic cases develop egg granulomas with
fibrous thickening of the intestinal wall and O. Worldwide, especially Paramphistomum
hepatic cirrhosis, while S. nasale cause a ceroi, while P. hibemiae occurs in cattle in
mucopurulent coryza and dyspnoea due to Ireland, Scotland and The Netherlands; P.
granulomatous lesions in the nasal cavities. scoiiae in cattle in Scotland and Ireland; P.
While acute and chronic forms occur, the niicrobothrium in Africa and Europe; P. gotoi in
disease in mild cases is often asymptomatic. India.
Gastrodiscoides aegyptiacus has a conical
P. Infection with S. maitheei produces
anterior and a discoid posterior and is up to 18
characteristic greyish-white granulomas or
mm long. It occurs in the large, and sometimes
'pseudotubercles' in the intestinal mucosa,
the small, intestine of equidae and pigs in Asia
especially the small intestine. These form
and Africa, causing a mild enteritis but on
around the eggs and vary in size from 1 mm in
occasion, an acute, even, fatal colitis in horses
diameter to elongated lesions as long as 200 mm
due to the immature parasites.
and are accompanied by petechiae and
Other genera such as Calicophoron (East Asia
ecchymoses. The intestinal lumen may contain and Australia), Cotylophoron (Africa and other
large amounts of discoloured blood. There is
tropical and subtropical regions) and
fibrous thickening of the portal vessels and a
Carmuerius (Africa, Middle East and Pakistan)
grey, almost black discoloration of the liver in
act like the paramphistomes.
which granulomas, 1 mm in size, are scattered
in the parenchyma. Similar granulomas are lA. The adult worms are reddish in colour,
usually present in the bladder and in the nasal pear-shaped and up to 15 mm long and 2-5 mm
cavities (in S. nasale infection). wide.
In both forms of schistosomiasis, adult flukes Life cycle The operculated eggs, laid by the
are found in the mesenteric, portal and
adult worms in the 'stomachs', are passed in the
intestinal veins, which are often dilated and
faeces, hatch in water and infect snails similar
tortuous. Similar lesions may also occur in the
to those which host schistosomes. Development
lungs, bladder and pancreas in severely
in the snail is similar to that of F. hepaiica
infected animals.
(miracidium, sporocyst, rediae, cercariae).
D. Clinical signs, history and prevalence of Cercariae encyst on herbage, are ingested by
the disease are suggestive of schistosomiasis the final host, and excyst in the intestine where
but may be insufficient to confirm a diagnosis. they remain for 3-5 weeks before migrating
688 Meat Hygiene
forward through the reticulum to the rumen. specialised sense organs, a blood vascular
Eggs are laid by the adult worms 7-14 weeks system containing spaces (haemocoeles),
after infection. bilateral symmetry and separate sexes.
Arthropods are of great economic
R. The definitive and intermediate hosts. importance worldwide, being responsible for
MT. Infection is acquired by the ingestion of transmitting pathogens, e.g. protozoa and
infective cercariae on herbage or in water. viruses, to man and animals - African horse
sickness, Rift Valley fever, bluetongue, lumpy
CE Acute symptoms include severe skin disease, malaria, plague, trypanosomiasis,
diarrhoea, anorexia, anaemia, oedema, filariasis, yellow fever, etc.
weakness, loss of condition with recumbency The adult flies cause harm by their stings
and death in a few days to several weeks. and bites, while the larvae of certain members
Mortality can be very heavy, especially in act as scavengers causing 'strike' in sheep and
young cattle and sheep, older animals being contamination of meat (blow fly larvae). Ticks
more resistant. These symptoms are associated are involved in causing babesiosis, theileriasis,
with the action of the immature worms in the tick paralysis, etc., and mites, the smallest of the
small intestine (mainly duodenum and ileum) members of the phylum (0.25 mm), cause
where their adhesion to the mucosa causes mange and sheep scab.
haemorrhage and necrosis.
In contrast, the adult worms in the rumen
and reticulum are non-pathogenic except for Gasterophilus spp. infestation (bot fly)
Carmverius dollfusi, which is a bloodsucker and 1. An infestation of the stomach and
causes anaemia. Less severe infestations result
subcutaneous tissues of equidae, and less
in some loss of condition with eventual
commonly, pigs, dogs, birds and man, by the
recovery.
larvae (bots) of the bot flies.
P. The adult flukes attached to the lining of O. Worldwide.
the rumen and reticulum do not cause
significant clinical disease, even when present lA. The adult flies (Gasterophilus intesiinalis, G.
in large numbers, but the immature forms luiemorrhoidalis, G. inermis and G. pecorumi
embedded in the mucosa of the duodenum and resemble bees, are active in late summer,
ileum are responsible for severe enteritis, especially August, and lay their yellow eggs on
haemorrhage and necrosis. the hairs of the forelegs, shoulders and breast.
The eggs hatch in 5-10 days and the larvae,
D. Diagnosis is commonly made at post- after being ingested, bore through the buccal
mortem which reveals an intense necrotic mucosa and wander in the tongue (G.
enteritis with numerous parasites in the intestinalis and G. huemorrhoidalisi and
intestinal mucous membrane. Diagnosis can submucosa, eventually reaching the stomach
also be made by demonstrating the large, clear after several months. The bots are thick,
operculated eggs in the faeces which may also segmented, pink or red in colour and 15-25 mm
contain immature and adult worms. long.
J. As for F. hepaiica. They attach themselves mainly to the cardiac
area of the stomach, although" some may be
found in the pharynx, duodenum, upper
portion of the oesophagus and rectum. Two
ARTHROPOD PARASITES ecdyses are made and in 10-12 months the bots
lea\;e the host in the spring to pupate on the
The Arthropoda, so-called because of their ground for 3-5 weeks, when adult flies emerge.
jointed limbs, constitute the largest phylum in
the animal world and include the insects, R. Infected equidae.
crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes, scorpions,
MT. See lA.
spiders and mites.
Other distinguishing features are the CE The adult flies act like warble flies,
protective outer cuticle (which is shed at a frightening animals when ovipositing by their
moult or ecdysis), a segmented body and head, hovering and darting flight. Infestation results
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 689
in unthriftiness, colic and anorexia in cases of (buffalo louse) (Asia, Australia and
heavy infestations. Oceania); Solenopotes capillaius (long-nosed
sucking louse)
P. Lesions are most severe with G. iniestinalis.
Sheep - Damalinia ouis (biting louse);
Inflammation, thickening, abscessation and Linognathus ajricanus (also affects goats), L.
ulceration of the gastric mucosa are evident ouillus (sucking face louse) (Australia, NZ,
where the larvae adhere. The attachment points Scotland); L. pedalis (sucking foot louse), L.
are pitted. In some cases perforation may occur. stenopsis (sucking goat louse)
Other lesions include stomatitis and pleurisy. Goats - Damalinia caprae (biting louse), D.
Death may ensue in very heavy infestations. Up crassiceps, D. limbata; Bovicola painei
to 500 bots have been recorded in the stomach,
but the usual number is about 30. Pigs - Haematopinus suis (sucking louse)
Horses - Damalinia equi (biting louse);
D. The activity of the flies, the presence of Haematopinus asini (sucking louse)
botfly eggs on the coat and stomatitis, ill thrift,
etc., may suggest a tentative diagnosis. Poultry - Chelopistes meleagridis (large turkey
louse); Cuclotogaster heterographus (head
Pharyngeal larvae can be detected. Stomach louse); Goniocoies gallinae (fluff louse);
bots are often encountered at post-mortem. Lipeurus caponis (wing louse); lvienacantnus
J. Carcase and viscera: A and D (stomach and stramineus (body louse); Holomenopon
leucoxanihum ('wet feather' in ducks)
other affected organs), provided carcase
condition satisfactory. Man - Pediculus humanus capitis (head); P.
humanus corporis (body); Phthirus pubis
(genital area)
Lice infestation (pediculosis)
R. Affected livestock and people. Outbreaks
I. Infestation of the skin of all domestic of head lice are common in school children and
animals, poultry and man with adult lice, institutions.
larvae and eggs.
O. Worldwide. MT. Direct contact with infested animals and
indirect contact with contaminated blankets,
lA. Lice are small, flattened, wingless insects harness, grooming equipment, etc. In man, the
varying in size from 0.3 mm to 11mm. They are body louse Pediculus huntanus corporis is the
white, brown, yellow or black in colour and vector of epidemic typhus, trench fever and
possess a head with modified parts for chewing louse-borne relapsing fever
or sucking and segmented antennae, a thorax
which may be segmented or unsegmented, a CF. Lice are most prevalent on livestock
large segmented body and three pairs of well during the winter months. The irritant effects of
developed legs. these ectoparasites produce scratching,
There are two main groups - Mallophaga rubbing, licking and restlessness. The coat
(chewing or biting lice) and Siplionculata becomes rough and matted. In sheep the wool
(sucking lice). is damaged, assumes a yellowish colour and is
soiled by lice faeces. Lameness accompanies the
Life cycle Most spend their whole life cycle
activity of the foot louse (L. pedalis). Milk and
on the host. Eggs are laid on hairs or feathers
egg production may be reduced. In pigs the
and hatch to produce nymphs. These undergo
constant scratching produces an allergic
three moults to become adults, the whole
dermatitis.
process lasting 2-4 weeks. Breeding
All lice are host-specific, but people handling
commences in the autumn, the greatest
infested stock, especially poultry, frequently
numbers being attained in the spring.
acquire lice from them and suffer temporary
Important tick species in animals and
irritation.
poultry are the following
Cattle - Damaiinia boois (biting louse); P. See CF.
Haematopinus eurfsiernus (short-nosed
sucking louse), H. ouadriperiusus (tail louse) D. Examination of body coat and feathers
(N. America and Oceania), H. tuberculatus readily reveals lice or eggs ('nits').
690 Meat Hygiene
J. Carcase and viscera: Usually A, provided Psoroptes spp. - Psoroptic mange in sheep
carcase condition is satisfactory and no other (sheep scab), goats and horses.
lesions are present. Sarcoptes spp. - Sarcoptic mange in sheep,
goats, cattle, horses, rabbits and man
(scabies).
Mites (order Acarina) Trombicula spp. (Harvest mites) - Pests of
grain and dermatitis in horses, cattle and
The mites are close relatives of the ticks, pigs.
scorpions and spiders.
They are tiny parasites and range in size Important mites in poultry (see Disease of
from less than 0.5 mm to about 6 mm in length. Poultry) include:
Their shape varies from round to elongated,
Cnemidocopies gnllinae (depluming itch mite).
with bodies which may be soft or hard like the
ticks' and flattened or bulbous. They possess a Cnemidocoptes muians ('scaly leg' mite).
head, thorax and body which may be covered Dermanyssus goilinae (red mite).
partly or wholly with spines. Nymphs and adults Laminosiopies cysticola (subcutaneous mite).
generally have four pairs of legs, while larvae Magninia cubiialis (depluming mite).
have three pairs. Orniihonussus (Liponussus) sylvarium (northern
They occur throughout the world in different mite).
habitats. While most are free-living, others are
Ornithonuseus bursa (tropical mite).
of considerable economic importance, living
usually as ectoparasites on, but sometimes in,
animals, birds, plants and insects. Some act as
intermediate hosts of diseases transmissible to Mange (acariasis)
man, animals and crops while others are pests I. A contagious disease caused by mites in
of stored grain and food products, even cheese. which there is skin irritation, loss of hair and
An important cause of house-dust allergy in wool, pruritus and sometimes debility leading
man are the mites Dermatophagoides pteronyssi- to death.
nus in Europe and D. [arinae in the USA.
The importance of mites in meat inspection O. Mange occurs worldwide.
is associated with the damage to hides and lA. Mites of the genera Chorioptes, Demodex,
fleeces, possible loss of condition in hosts, and Notoedres, Psoroptes and Sarcoptes.
their nuisance value to the handlers of animals,
especially poultry. R. Larvae, nymphs and adult mites and
Mites are host-specific but on occasions they infested animals.
may temporarily infest other host species. MT. Transfer of parasites by direct contact
The sexes are separate and the life cycle and indirectly through contaminated inert
(completed in 2-3 weeks) is similar to that of materials. Mange can co-exist with ringworm
ticks - egg, larval, nymphal (one or two) and and lice infestation.
adult stages, the latter three stages staying on
the host and feeding on epidermis, serum, etc., CF and P. Chorioptic mange - severe skin
and in some cases burrowing into the skins, e.g. irritation with stamping of the feet, biting and
Cnemidocoptes mu tans which causes 'scaly leg' in rubbing of pasterns ('itchy leg') and tail in
poultry and Sarcoptes scabiei causing sarcoptic horses and cattle ('leg mange', 'barn itch'), loss
mange in sheep, goats, cattle, equidae and other of hair and allergic dermatitis in sheep. Cattle
animals. often unaffected. Lesions takes the form of an
Important mites in farm livestock are as exudative dermatitis with formation of papules
follows: and scabs. Scrotum of rams may be affected.
Chorioptes spp. - Chorioptic mange in horses, Demodectic mange (follicular mange) This
sheep, goats, cattle and rabbits. rarely produces clinical signs in animals despite
Demodex spp. - Follicular mange in cattle, the formation of microscopic nodules and
sheep, goats, pigs, horses and dogs. papules on the neck, face, shoulder, brisket and
Notoedres spp. - Notoedric mange in rabbits sometimes the whole body of animals,
and cats. especially cattle. These lesions are so small as to
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 691
be overlooked. These are usually white in becomes rough, thickened and wrinkled owing
colour and contain a thick, whitish material to connective-tissue formation and wool and
containing numerous mites. On rare occasions, hair are lost. Pruritus is evident with loss of
larger abscesses may develop from the papules condition in the more severe cases.
with thickening of the skin into folds. Hypersensitivity to the mites develops in
some cases and is probably responsible for the
Notoedric mange Cats are most often affected pruritus which occurs after 3 weeks.
with notoedric mange and rabbits less often.
The mites are burrowers and create a D. Differential diagnoses include parakeratosis,
thickening of the skin with a yellowish crust, infectious dermatitis, pityriasis rosea,
especially on the ears, face and neck. ringworm and infestation with lice and
Tyroglyphus mites.
Psoroptic mange (sheep scab, body mange, ear Diagnosis is confirmed by the examination
mange) This occurs mainly in sheep (Psoroptes of skin scrapings taken from areas with
oois) but also affects cattle (P. natalensis and P. crusting/ erythematous papules, i.e. active
bovis), P. caprae and rabbits (P. cuniculi). areas, clearing the sample with 10% NaOH or
Psoroptic mange is a disease of great KOH and examining under low power (x40)
economic importance throughout the world microscope. The use of a small amount of
and, along with sarcoptic mange, is a notifiable mineral oil on the scalpel blade facilitates the
disease in many countries. It has been largely collection of scrapings.
brought under control in many regions,
although pockets of infestation still persist in J. Judgement in mange depends on the
many areas, probably owing to inefficient severitv of the infestation, condition of carcase,
dipping/ treatment measures. Losses are absenc~/presence of pesticide residues, etc.
associated with damaged fleeces, loss of wool
and condition in sheep, weight loss in other Screwworm infestation
species due to intense skin irritation and
itchiness, and even death in goats and rabbits This condition is a myiasis, an invasion of the
(from septic meningitis) in severe cases. animal body with larvae of the blow-flies
The mites, unlike Sarcoptes, are host-specific (screwflies) Callitroga hominioorax and
and in all species puncture the skin to cause a Chrusomia bezziana.
dermatitis with serum formation. The animals O. C. hominioorax (New World screwworm) is
scratch and bite at the affected areas, which found in North and South America and
may cover the whole body. In sheep the areas ChnjS0111ia bezziana (Old World screwworm) in
most commonly affected are the woolly parts of Africa, southern Asia and Papua New Guinea.
the body - shoulders, back, breast and base of Screwworm infestation occurs in all species
tail - while the ears, face and neck of other of farm livestock, birds and wildlife as well as
species are predilection sites. The lesions man. So serious has been the situation in North
commence as small papules which increase in Africa that FAO introduced an eradication
size as bare crusty patches. programme in 1989 using the sterile insect
Psoroptic mange in cattle ('barn itch') in the technique. This involves the artificial breeding
USA assumes a chronic form and is a notifiable of millions of adult flies which are sterilised as
disease which must be treated by government pupae by gamma rays and released as sterile
officials. males (40 million a week) to mate with normal
females to produce sterile eggs. The final result
Sarcoptic mange Sarcoptic mange is caused
is the eradication of screwworm flies, which has
by variants of Sarcoptes scabiei, the cause of
been achieved in Libya (1991) and Mexico
scabies in man, e.g. S. scabiei var. boots, S. scabiei
(1991) and most of the USA (1976).
var. suis.
Sarcoptic mange is most common in pigs, lA. The adult flies are bluish-green in colour,
horses, dogs and rabbits but is less common in 10-15 mm long, slightly larger than the house
sheep, goats and cattle. fly, Musca domestica, and are similar in
The mites pierce the skin and create burrows appearance to other blow flies.
to produce an intense exudative dermatitis, the The females lay 200-400 eggs in rows on
serum coagulating to form crusts. The skin wounds, cuts, bites (e.g. tick bites), navels and
692 Meat Hygiene
other parts of the body. In 10-18 h the larvae Losses due to deaths, loss of body weight,
(which resemble wood screws) hatch and fleece damage, cost of treatment/control, etc.
burrow into the flesh, feeding on fluids and can be considerable.
tissues. In 7 days the larvae emerge, fall to the Control measures include dipping of sheep
ground and pupate in the soil and after 1-8 with appropriate insecticides, selective
weeks (depending on temperature) adult flies breeding to produce narrow breeches, 'mules'
emerge to breed in 1 week. operation to remove breech wrinkles, docking
of tails at fourth coccygeal joint, crutching or
R. Infested livestock, birds and man. dagging (removal of wool round tail and
MT. See lA. breech).

CF. and P. Infested wounds show cavitation,

haemorrhage, necrosis and liquefaction with a Sheep ked (Melophagus ovinus)
fetid reddish-brown liquid staining the hair or An ubiquitous wingless fly, about 7 mm long,
wool in the vicinity. Unattended wounds and brownish in colour. The female flv lives on
become very large owing to multiple infestation the sheep for several months and produces 10
and may result in the death of the animal due to or so larvae over this period. These adhere to
septicaemia. There is intense irritation and the wool, pierce the skin with their mouth parts
restlessness. and suck blood causing irritation, permanent
staining of wool, rubbing and scratching by the
D. The nature of the wound and the presence sheep and loss of condition.
of the characteristic larvae (screwworms) Control is as for 'fly strike'.
confirm the diagnosis.
J. As for mange cases. Sheep nostril or nasal fly (Oestrus avis)
While Oestrus ovis appears to have decreased in
Europe, it is still an important parasite in South
Sheep blowfly strike (Cutaneous myiasis) Africa, Mediterranean region and Brazil.
In addition to infesting sheep, it is sometimes
I. An invasion of the skin of sheep with larvae found in camels, dogs, and man.
of the following blow flies: The adult fly is hairy, greyish-brown in
Lucilia sericata (Britain, New Zealand, USA, colour and about 12 mm long. It lays its whitish
Canada) larvae around the nostrils without alighting.
Lucilia cuprina (Australia, New Zealand, South These migrate into the nasal cavities and
Africa) paranasal sinuses, e.g. frontal sinus, where they
Lucilia illustris, Phormia regina, Proiophormia cause a mucoid, and later a mucopurulent and
ierraenooae, Cochliomyia macellari (USA, sometimes haemorrhagic, catarrh with nasal
Canada) discharge.
Larvae in sinuses may die and calcify, but
These blow flies, like the screwworms and occasionally erosion of bone may ensue with
Sarcophaga spp. have larvae which are septic sinusitis and symptoms resembling
sarcophagous, i.e. they eat flesh. Eggs are laid infection with Coenurus cerebralis ('false gid').
below the fleece tip, especially in the breech and Such cases usually die.
tail, to which the flies are attracted by faeces Affected animals display dyspnoea,
and urine. The eggs hatch in I-to 3 days, sneezing and loss of condition.
depending on temperature, to produce first- Judgement of fly strike, ked and nostril fly
and second-stage larvae or maggots. The latter, infestation cases is as for mange.
some species of which bear mouth hooks and
body spines, burrow into and devour the flesh
to produce large wounds. Any part of the body
may suffer 'fly strike'. TICKS
The animal is irritated and restless, loses
condition and may die owing to Ticks, of which there are some 850 species occur
toxaemia/ septicaemia. worldwide, are ectoparasites which act as
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 693
reservoirs and vectors in the transmission of Several species of Argas (and ixodid) ticks are
major diseases (viral, rickettsial and protozoal) involved in transmitting the neurotoxin of tick
in animals and man such as African tick typhus, paralysis in calves, lambs, goats, dogs, cats and
anaplasmosis, babesiosis, cowdriosis, man.
ehrlichiosis, louping ill, Lyme disease, Nairobi Some species of Ornithodoros ticks act as
sheep disease, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted vectors of the African swine fever virus, of the
fever, theileriasis, tick-borne encephalitis, tick Borrelia spirochaetes of relapsing fever (tick or
paralysis, tick pyaemia and tularaemia. recurrent fever) in man.
In addition to farm livestock and man, ticks
Ixodidae This more important genus of ticks
also parasitise birds and wildlife such as small
parasitises many animals and human beings.
carnivores, bats, beetles and lizards.
Their life cycles involve one-host, two-host or
Classification Ticks belong to the class three-host cycles, the females extracting more
Arachnida, order Acarina, sub-order Ixodoidea blood than males and dying after ovipositing.
(hard and soft ticks), family Argasidae (soft ticks- Most ixodids have a three-host cycle in which
fowl ticks and tampans) and family Ixodidae (hard larvae, nymphs and adults feed on three
or true ticks), which is the most important group. different hosts. Two-host ticks have larvae and
nymphs feeding on one host and adults on
Structure Most ticks are 15 mm or less in size another while in one-host ticks all three stages
but some reach 30 mm. Adult ticks consist of a feed on the same host.
round or oval body with four pairs of legs. The
Amblyomma spp. are involved in transmitting
ventral aspect of the body bears mouth parts
heartwater, tularaemia, Rockv Mountain
and on its dorsal surface a hard plate or scutum
spotted fever, Q fever, Lyme dis~ase and tick
(complete in the male ixodid but only an
typhus in man besides creating serious
anterior half in females, nymphs and larvae) is
wounds which may become infected with
present in hard but not in soft ticks. Adult ticks
screwworms.
possess distinct genital and anal pores on their
ventral surface and possess four pairs of legs Boophilus spp. All five members are one-host
(three pairs in nymphs). A unique sensory ticks and act as vectors in anaplasmosis,
organ, Hailer's organ, is present on the foreleg babesiosis (piroplasmosis, Texas fever) and
tarsi of all ticks. theileriasis. B. annulaius (North American tick)
has been eradicated (along with B. microplus)
Life cycles This is fairly straightforward with from the USA but is active in central America
four developmental stages: egg, larva, nymph, and Africa and causes great losses due to Texas
adult male and female. With a few exceptions fever. B. decoloraius (blue tick) transmits
all feed on blood, the number of hosts utilised anaplasmosis and babesiosis in Central Africa,
varying with individual species. There are two while B. tnicroplus (tropical cattle tick) occurs in
main genera of veterinary importance: tropical and subtropical Asia, Australia, Central
Argasidae (soft ticks) and Ixodidae (hard ticks). America and Mexico.
Argasidae These occur most frequently in Dermacentor spp. are mainly three-host ticks,
arid tropical and subtropical areas, but recently except for D. niiens and D. albipicius, which are
Argas persicus, an important tick in poultry, has one-host forms. They are mostly confined to N.
become established in more temperate regions. America, Europe and Asia and transmit
Its larvae feed for 7-10 days while nymphs feed numerous viruses in addition to rickettsiae,
and moult twice and adult ticks as often as 5 or Franciseila tularensis, Anaplasma marginale,
6 times, laying eggs between each meal, the life Babesia, Coxiella burnetii and Theileria ovis.
cycle taking some 4 months to complete using
Haemaphysalis spp. All have a three-host
multiple hosts. Argas persicus, which causes
cycle and are involved in tick paralysis besides
death through blood loss, also transmits the
acting as transmitting the agents of Q fever,
spirochaete Borrelia anserina, the cause of avian
tularaemia, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, tick-
spirochaetosis, and the rickettsial parasite
borne encephalitis, theileriasis and brucellosis.
Aegyptianella pullorum, which is responsible for
aegyptianellosis (anaemia and diarrhoea) in all Hyalomma spp. Most are three-host but some
the domestic fowls. are two-host and one-host ticks. Involved as
694 Meat Hygiene
vectors in theileriasis, babesiosis, anaplasmosis, is an important parasite of cattle, sheep, goats,
Q fever, tick typhus, tick paralysis, Crimean- pigs, buffaloes, dogs, cats, rabbits, man and
Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) in man and many wild animals.
animals and bovine sweating sickness. The adult fly is about the same size as
Ixodes spp. Largest genus of the family Hypoderma - 12-15 mm long with a life span of
Ixodidae. All are three-host ticks and inhabit 4 days.
temperate and tropical forest and grassland Life cycle Eggs are laid on numerous insects
regions parasitising animals, birds and man. 1. (mainly mosquitoes and bloodsucking flies)
ricinus (castor bean tick, sheep tick) occurs in and then carried to the various hosts. The
Europe, British Isles, N. Africa and parts of Asia larvae penetrate the skin and remain in the
and transmits babesiosis, louping ill, tick-borne subcutaneous tissue for 5-10 weeks. Painful
fever, tick pyaemia, Q fever, Lyme disease, swellings are produced by the larvae, which
anaplasmosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever breathe through a pore. Infection often ensues
and Russian spring-summer encephalitis in through the activity of muscid flies and
various parts of the world. screwworms,
Rhipicephalus spp. occur in Europe, Asia and The larvae eventually escape, fall to the
Africa and parasitise domestic and wild animals. ground and pupate for up to 10 weeks when the
Most are three-host ticks but R. bursa, R. eoerisi adult fly emerges. The complete cycle takes
and R. glabroscutatum have two-host cycles. 80-120 days.
Like many other ticks rhipicephalids act as Losses due to Dermatobia These resemble
vectors for babesia, anaplasma, theileria, those due to Hypoderma - damage to hides and
ehrlichia, rickettsia and leishmania and skins, skin irritation and reduced performance.
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (Congo
virus disease) in man.
Hypoderma spp.
Economic losses due to ticks Distribution The four main species, H. boois,
H. lineatutn, H. diana and H. aeratum are
These are mainly occasioned by deaths from distributed over Europe, Asia, Africa (mainly
anaemia due to blood loss, secondary bacterial Morocco and Tunisia) and the Americas
infection and toxaemia. In other instances there (mainly USA, Brazil, Ecuador and Guyana).
is reduced performance and damage to hides Warble fly infestation has been eradicated
and fleeces caused by bites, the damage taking from Cyprus (1952), Denmark (1966), Isle of
the form of small rounded areas of necrosis Man (1964), N. Ireland (1990), Channel Isles
which is often followed by secondary fly attack (1987), Czechoslovakia (1971), Malaysia (1986),
resulting in serious skin infection. Oman (1991), Namibia (1974), Chile (1962) and
All species of ticks act as severe skin irritants Colombia (1988). In Great Britain no clinical
and some can cause febrile illness in animals cases were reported in 1996.
and man through the injection of salivary toxins In the United Kingdom, Warble Fly is a
and arboviruses. Notifiable Disease under the Warble Fly Order of
1982. A testing service (based on the ELISA test)
is now available whereby farmers who have
cattle that may have been exposed to infestation
HYPODERMA SPP. (WARBLE can have blood samples taken for examination.
FLIES, HYPODERMOSIS, In addition, the State Veterinary Service and
CATTLE GRUBS) Meat Hygiene Service have mounted a market
and abattoir surveillance scheme to identify
There are two main genera - Dermatobia and affected animals. Treatment of herds in which
Hypoderma. positive cases are found is mandatory and
movement restrictions are imposed except for
cattle destined for slaughter and calves under
Dermatobia hominis
12 weeks of age. Farmers are urged to be on the
This is the tropical warble fly or iorsalo and occurs look-out for signs of warbles and encouraged to
in central America from Mexico to Argentina. It treat their cattle in the autumn as a
 Diseases Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites 695
precautionary measure. Imported animals must from around mid-February until May (warble
be treated on arrival, while infested animals are stage). At this stage the mature third-stage
sent back to the country of origin. larvae are about 28 mm long and segmented
Preliminary results from the GB 1994/95 with spines, yellowish in colour at first and
blood serum survey involving some 300 000 brownish later.
samples show that warbles are present in After a second resting period of 28-35 days,
indigenous cattle, albeit in small numbers. the larvae emerge from the back and fall to the
ground to pupate. In about 1 month the adult
fly escapes from the black pupal case through
Hypoderma bovis (common European warble fly, the operculum.
northern cattle grub)
The entire life cycle of H. bovis takes about 1
The adult flies are hairy (greenish-yellow and year. Infested animals may show no evidence of
black in colour) and measure 15 mm in length. grubs.
They are an important parasite of cattle and
bison and less commonly horses and man.
Hypoderma lineatum (heel fly, common cattle
Life cycle The adult flies are active from the grub)
beginning of summer until autumn (mainly The adult fly is smaller than H. bovis, measuring
June to August). Warm weather favours their about 13 mm. H. lineaiurn appears about one
activity, but cattle may be attacked during low month earlier than H. bovis.
temperatures. The flight of flies is limited,
Life cycle Eggs are laid chiefly on those parts
rarely exceeding 5 km. Individual flies live only
of the body in contact with the ground when
2-7 days, during which time the female
the animal is lying. The favourite location is the
attaches as many as 370 eggs to the roots of the
heel. The eggs are about 1 mm long and are laid
hairs of the host, mostly on the outer aspect of
in rows of 6-14 on a single hair.
the lower limbs and on the belly. The eggs are
The life cycle resembles that of H. bovis except
laid singly. H. bovis does not suck blood.
that the first-stage larvae find their way to the
In 3-7 days the 1 mm long larva hatches,
oesophagus, where they are found in the
enters the skin through a hair follicle by means
submucous tissue and oriented along the long
of its cutting mouth hooks and wanders in the
axis of the gullet. The pale, translucent larvae are
subcutaneous tissue. Muscle is not invaded, but
easily demonstrated if the external connective
larvae utilise its intermuscular connective
tissue is removed and the oesophagus is inflated
tissue. Movement is facilitated bv means of
and finally dried. These oesophageal larvae are
proteolytic enzymes which dissolve tissue.
5-13 mm in length and are found in this location
Migration to the back is made by way of the
from December to mid-February (period of peak
crura of the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles
incidence) after which they migrate towards the
at about the ninth rib or the spinal canal. First-
skin of the back.
stage larvae (5-13 mm in size) are often found in
The presence of larvae in the oesophageal
'winter resting sites' in the epidural fat of the wall is sometimes manifested by an
spinal canal between December and March.
inflammatory exudate which extends to the
First-stage larvae may also be found in other
mediastinum and gives rise to a yellow
parts of the body, including the surface of
gelatinous condition of the mediastinal fat.
organs.
H. lineaium is never found in the spinal canal
From the spinal canal the larvae migrate
but its general pathological effects are similar to
towards the skin of the back through the
those of H. bovis.
intervertebral foramina. On the back they form
swellings (2-3 cm in diameter) from just behind
the shoulders to the angle of the haunch and
extending some 18-20 cm on either side of the
Hypoderma diana
vertebral column. Small holes in the skin are This species is found in Scotland and Europe
produced by a dermatolytic toxin, enabling the infesting red and roe deer and sometimes sheep
larvae to breathe the oxygen necessary for (Dempsey, 1983). Its life cycle and effects are
further development. Larvae (which may similar to those of H. lineaium, deaths in deer
number 1 to 200 or more) are visible on the back often occurring in severe infestations.
696 Meat Hygiene
Hypoderma aeraium affects goats and sheep in constituent for sausage. In the USA, 'grubby
the Middle East and India. gullets' are commonly encountered in packing
houses in autumn and winter.
Larvae under the skin of the back cause soft,
Clinical signs painful swellings about 3 cm in diameter. They
Warbles affect young animals more often than damage the subcutaneous and muscular
adults. The activity of the adult female flies is tissues, especially the sirloin. This condition is
associated with the condition known as known as 'licked beef or 'butcher's jelly' and is
'gadding' in which the animal rushes about revealed when the hide is removed as a diffuse,
violently with the tail held high. On occasions, haemorrhagic oedema.
kicking at the belly is evident. This nervousness Various estimates have been made of the
is believed to be caused by the ovipositing losses of meat from condemnations, weights of
female fly and her unusual flight sound. There up to 1.8 kg being quoted in Britain in the past.
is a variable loss of condition and milk yield An investigation in Canada in 1970 showed that
consistent with the degree of infestation. 1-5 larvae resulted in a trimming of 0.4 kg of
Injuries may ensue from the uncontrolled meat, 6-10 larvae 0.7kg and 11 or more a loss of
rushing around. 1.2 kg of meat. Trimming of carcases reduces
The swellings on the back are soft and their overall value.
painful to the touch. There may be as many as It is customary to grade hides according to
300 present. Should the spinal canal be the number of warble holes present. In the USA,
involved, posterior paralysis may ensue, a hides with 5 or more holes are Grade 2, but a
condition which can occur in horses as well as hide with numerous holes is rejected for
cattle. tanning and converted into inedible by-
In H. lineaium infestation where the products. In the USA in 1960 it was estimated
oesophagus contains larvae, bloat may occur that one-third of all cattle hides showed warble
because of the inability to orally eject gas from damage, the percentage in Germany in 1969
the rumen. being 2.6%.
Where countries have undertaken
eradication schemes, losses due to meat
Pathological changes and losses due to warbles condemnation and hide damage are non-
The incidence of warbles in cattle varies froin existent.
year to year. If flies are active in a particular While the assessment of losses due to hide
summer, the incidence of warbled hides will be damage is relatively easy those associated with
high in the following year. Fly activity results in reduced weight gain and milk yield are difficult
lowered milk production in dairy cows and to estimate with accuracy. A cost-benefit
occasional injuries from gadding. analysis of warble fly eradication was carried
A survey carried out by the UK Meat and out by the UK Ministry of Agriculture in 1975/6.
Livestock Commission in May 1985 showed a This showed that the benefits of eradication
hide infestation rate of 0.01%, the incidence in nationally would be $12 million, taking into
1978 when the eradication programme began account losses in value caused by direct damage
being 38.0%, a remarkable reduction in to meat ($4.6 million) and hides ($5.8 million).
incidence. An eradication scheme commenced Slower growth rate, loss of milk yield and
in Northern Ireland in 1967 reduced the injuries were not included in the study.
prevalence from 50% to 0.01% in 10 years.
H. bovis larvae in the epidural fat cause fat
necrosis, connective-tissue autolysis, oedema Judgement of warble cases
and inflammatory changes which may extend Usually only trimming of meat is necessary, at
to bone, producing a periostitis and the most.
osteomyelitis. Such changes can result in
nervous symptoms and even paralysis. H.
lineaium larvae in the oesophagus produce REFERENCES
inflammation and oedema which may interfere
with swallowing and eructation. The Borland, E. D., Keymer, 1. F. and Counter D. (1980)
oesophagus itself is rendered unfit as a Vet. Rec. 106, 265.
 Diseases Caused by Helminth alld Arthropod Parasites 697
Brown, D., Hinton. M. H . and Wright, A. I. (198-1) Vet. Pattison, H . D., Thomas, It J. and Smith, W. C. (1980)
Rrc. 115, 300. Vet. Ree. 107, 415.
Clarkson, M. J. (1978) Vet. Rre. 102, 259. Pugh, K. E. and Chambers, P. C. (1989) Vel. Rrc. 125,
Chambers, P. G. (1991) Vet . Rt'c. 129, -l31--I32. -l8(}--4.84-.
Collobert, et Ill. (1995) Vet. Ree. 136, 0163-465. Rodrfg ucz-dol-Rose l, E., Co rrea, D. and Flisser, A.
Crooks, J. L (1980) Vet. Rec. 106, 466. (1989) Vet. Ree. 124, 488.
Dempsey, J. (1983) Meat Hygimist (May/June). 15. Taylor, S. M . (1975) AgriCldture ill Northern lrelrl!ld,
Edwards, G. T. (1982) Vt'I. Rec. 110, 511. Vo!. 49, No. 8.
Fogarty, U. M. G. (1994) Vet. Rrc. 134, 515-518. Torgcrson, I~ It (1992) Vet. Ree. 131, 218-219.
Gibson, MeM. an d Lannin g. O. G. (1981) Vet. Rce. 107, walther, M . and Koskc, J. K. (1980) Vet. Rec. 106, 401,
165. whitelaw, A. and Fawceft, A. R. (1982) Vet. Ree. 110,
Cordon, 11. Me L and Bora y, J. C. (1970) Vel. Rcc. 86, SOD-50 ].
288.
Livesev; C. 1., Herber t. I. v., Willis, J. M. and Evans.
W. r. (1981) Vet. Rre. 109, 217. FURTHER READI NG
Meat a nd Live stoc k Commission (1985) Repo r t.
Melior, P. S. (1973) j . Hctminih, 47, 97. Soulsby, E. J. L. (1982) Helminths, Arthropods and
Mi tchel), G. B. B. and Linkluter; K. A. (1980) Vet . Rec. Protozoa of Domesticaled Animals, 7th edn. Lond on:
106, 466. Balliere-Tindal!.
Palme r; S. R. and Biffin, H. B. (1987) [Link]~fecf,
99. 693.
 Chapter 19
Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies

METABOLIC DISORDERS the overall cost of which is reckoned by many

to be greater than that due to specific infective
While in general most of these conditions will diseases. The quest for increased production
be treated on the farm, those not responding to has created a situation in which the animal is
therapy will inevitably find their way to the unable to sustain normal physiological
meat plant as casualties. A special category is concentrations of specific nutrients. This
the so-called 'downer cow syndrome' (q.v.) which situation is exemplified in particular by milk
is most commonly a sequel to parturient paresis fever in cows in which the secretion of calcium
(milk fever) in cows but may be associated with is greater than that supplied by the diet or
metritis, dystocia, septic mastitis, ketosis, bones. In other forms of metabolic disease, e.g.
arthritis, hypomagnesaemic tetany, hindquarter pregnancy toxaemia in ewes and beef cows/ fat
injury or similar conditions. cow syndrome, the onset of disease, and often
It is not uncommon for cases of death, is occasioned by a sudden reduction of
hypomagnesaemic tetany in cows to occur in intake of a nutrient or nutrients.
the meat plant lairage - cases of sudden death Associated with the prevalence of some of
in high-yielding cows suddenly deprived of the metabolic diseases has been the
feed under cold conditions and necessitating development of intensive systems of grassland
differentiation from anthrax. management, with an emphasis being placed
Metabolic diseases (hypocalcaemia, on the use of simple seed mixtures and heavy
hypomagnesaemia, hypophosphataemia, applications of fertiliser, especially nitrogen.
hypoglycaemia, etc.) represent the 'diseases of The philosophy of Stapleton (1949) that 'the
production' and are associated with an technique of grassland improvement consists
imbalance or deficiency in uptake of nutrients first of establishing wild white clover and then
(including major minerals and trace elements) the better grasses, and always arranging
and the requirements of the animals for matters that edible herbs are within reach of the
maintenance, production of milk and meat and grazing animal' is not always adhered to, often
reproduction. with dire results. The essential homeostasis of
A few of the metabolic diseases are inherited, the animal, because of the high demands placed
e.g. mannosidosis in Aberdeen-Angus, upon it, frequently exacerbated by pregnancy,
Galloway and Murray Grey cattle in which lactation, adverse environmental conditions
there is a deficiency of the enzyme and other forms of stress, is upset and the
mannosidase resulting in nervous symptoms, mineral and energy balances of the body are
ataxia, abortion and neonatal death. Other thrown out of gear.
examples are ceroid lipofuscinosis of sheep The principal acquired metabolic disorders in
(q.v.), porcine syndrome in pigs (q.v.), the food animals are as follows:
photosensitisation in sheep (q.v.) and
osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone) in cattle. Hypomagnesaemic tetany (grass tetany, grass
Most, however, are acquired and result from staggers, lactation tetany, Hereford disease)
the influence of defective systems of breeding, - cattle and sheep.
feeding and management for optimum results Pregnancy toxaemia - ewes and cows (fat cow
in terms of milk, meat, fertility and prolificacy. syndrome).
All too often these entail ill health and deaths, Parturient paresis (milk fever) - cows and ewes.

699
700 Meat Hygiene
Ketosis (acetonaemia, ketonaemia) - cattle. Post-mortem lesions Apart from extravasa-
Porcine stress syndrome (malignant tions of blood in the pericardial sac, subendo-
hyperthermia, PSE, back muscle necrosis, cardial, pleural, peritoneal and intestinal
transport myopathy) - pigs (q.v.). mucosal haemorrhages, there are few signifi-
Dark, firm, dry meat (DFD) (q.v.) - cattle and cant findings. Bruising of prominent parts
pigs. caused by the animal's erratic behaviour is usu-
Post-parturient haemoglobinuria - cows. ally evident.
Azoturia (paralytic myoglobinuria) - horses. Differential diagnoses include BSE, anthrax,
listeriosis, lead poisoning, nervous form of
Transit tetany (recumbency) of cows, ewes and ketosis in ewes, rabies and virtually all
mares.
conditions in which nervous symptoms are
Equine hyperlipaemia. displayed.
Congenital porphyria of cattle and pigs (q.v.).
Downer cow syndrome (q.v.).
Pregnancy toxaemia of ewes/acetonaemia
Hypomagnesaemic tetany in cows
This is probably the major metabolic disorder Both these conditions represent disorders of
and occurs in cows and ewes, being responsible energy metabolism at a time when the demand
for great losses in many parts of the world for increased carbohydrate intake is greatest, in
where it is also the most common cause of which fatty acids are incompletely metabolised
sudden death in bovines. with the production in the blood and urine of
High-producing dairy cows (the condition keiones along with hypoglycaemia (low blood
sometimes occurs in pregnant beef cows) and sugar). Both conditions are essentially the same
ewes grazing lush pastures, those that are except that twin-lamb disease occurs in the
undernourished and animals in good condition latter third of pregnancy in ewes carrying twins
subjected to a check in feeding, are especially or triplets while acetonaemia in cows affects
liable. Stress and concurrent low levels of those in early post-calving lactation. The
calcium may also act to trigger off the disease. increased need for glucose is for the two or
Magnesium levels may be satisfactory in grass, more fetuses in the ewe and for milk in the cow.
forage and feedingstuff but the uptake by the
Pregnancy toxaemia of ewes is usually a highly
animal is inadequate, the exact reason being
fatal disease and is associated with nervous
unknown, and when serum magnesium levels
symptoms (twitching of ears, periorbital
fall below 1.8 mg/ dl hypomagnesaemic tetany
muscles, head and leg muscles), stargazing,
is liable to occur.
apparent blindness, ataxia, teeth grinding,
The condition is characterised by low serum
coma and death. If the ewes lamb or abort,
levels of magnesium and sometimes of calcium.
many will recover. Any factor which causes a
Clinical signs in the acute form comprise sudden reduction in feed intake during the last
convulsions, twitching of muscles and ears, third of pregnancy in ewes carrying multiple
bellowing, incoordination, galloping, lambs is liable to precipitate the disease.
salivation, retraction of eyelids in between
Lesions of pregnancy toxaemia Fatty degen-
periods of quiescence. Affected animals are
eration of the liver, which is pale yellow or
hyperaesthetic, i.e. abnormally sensitive to
greyish in colour. Two or more dead lambs
stimuli. Death usually occurs within 2 hours.
which may show decomposition.
The subacute form may last up to 4-S days, after
which recovery may take place, with or without Acetonaemia of cows has causes and biochem-
treatment. Such cases display similar ical changes similar to those of twin-lamb dis-
symptoms along with opisthotonus of the head, ease but the disease is not as serious. The
trismus (lockjaw), frequent urination and demand for glucose in early heavy lactation is
defaecation and straddling gait. The chronic great and, if there is insufficient glycogen in the
form of hypomagnesaemic tetany includes liver, fat stores become involved with the even-
dullness, inappetence, ataxia, reduced milk tual production of volatile fatty acids and
yield and vague nervous symptoms. Sudden ketones. Two types of the disease are evident -
death may also occur in the chronic form. wastingform in which there is anorexia, reduced
 Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies 701

milk yield, rapid loss of condition, lethargy, dis- Transit tetany (transport tetany, railroad
inclination to move and the odour of ketones in disease, staggers)
the breath and milk, and nervous form which
Prolonged transport, especially during hot
involves incoordination, circling, hyperaesthe-
weather, is sometimes responsible for a highly
sia, bellowing, chewing and licking.
fatal condition of nervousness, muscular
Acetonaemia may be an accompaniment
tremors, posterior paresis and recumbency in
with other diseases such as metritis, acute
well-fed cows and ewes in advanced pregnancy
mastitis and traumatic pericarditis.
and also in non-pregnant ruminants.
Post-mortem changes in bovine acetonaemia While long journeys are usually involved,
are similar to those of twin-lamb disease in other predisposing factors include overcrowding
relation to liver changes. Marked loss of and inadequate ventilation during transit, heavy
condition attends the wasting form, while pre-transport feeding, deprivation of food
bruising of parts of the body may be evident in during shipment, free access to water and
the nervous type. exercise after transport. There appears to be no
In fat ww syndrome (fatty infiltration of the consistent serum mineral deficiency with
liver) which occurs in high-producing cows hypocalcaemia, hypophosphataemia,
just before and after calving, the liver is hypoglycaemia and hypomagnesaemia being
grossly enlarged, yellowish in colour, friable recorded in different cases.
and greasy to the touch. Such hepatic changes
Lesions As for 'downer cow syndrome'.
may also accompany peracute mastitis and
metritis.
Post-parturient haemoglobinuria
A condition of low incidence and high mortality
Parturient paresis (milk fever) in high-yielding dairy cows in which there is
This non-febrile metabolic condition is anaemia and haemoglobinuria occurring 2-4
characterised by acute hypocalcaemia weeks after parturition. The exact cause is
occurring at or soon after parturition in mature unknown, but the condition may be associated
dairy cows and in pregnant and lactating ewes, with a hypophosphataemia since feeding on
goats and mares. low-phosphorus diets can precipitate the
In all species the onset is sudden with the disease. On the other hand, feeds low in copper
development of excitability, ataxia, paralysis and selenium have been incriminated as well as
and frequently coma and death. Although the haemolytic agents in certain plants such as rape,
exact aetiology is not clear, there appears to turnips and kale. Predisposing factors include
be an inability to mobilise calcium, especially prolonged housing and cold weather.
in older animals. Like other metabolic
Symptoms of anaemia are evidenced by the
diseases, milk fever is often associated with
pallor of the conjunctivae and other mucous
certain precipitating factors such as
membranes at the outset of the disease. Later
excitement, fatigue and reduction in food
stages display jaundice, inappetence, reduced
intake and, as with hypomagnesaemic tetany,
milk yield and weakness.
there may be an inherited predisposition to
the disease. Lesions Icterus, anaemia, fatty infiltration of
liver, dark reddish coloured urine.
Symptoms include ataxia, recumbency, head
turned to one side, inappetence, constipation,
coma and death without treatment or Azoturia (paralytic myoglobinuria,
unsuccessful treatment. exertional rhabdomyolysis)
Post-mortem findings Nil, except for the This disease of equidae occurs during forced
presence of coincident disease. In some cases exercise, usually after a period of inactivity on
changes associated with the 'downer cow full feed. It is associated with the rapid
syndrome' (q.v.) are evident. formation of large amounts of lactic acid from
The aetiology, epidemiology, symptoms and muscle glycogen and results in degenerative
PM findings, etc., are similar in ewes, goats and changes in muscles, especially of the
mares. hindquarters.
702 Meat Hygiene
Excessive feeding on grain predisposes to The lesions are confined to the white
the condition as does poor management with unpigmented areas of the skin of the face and
regard to exercise. ears in the large farm animals. These areas
become reddened and oedematous with serum
Symptoms Stiff gait, posterior paralysis,
exudation. There is a tendency for necrosis to
recumbency, haemglobinuria.
develop. In many instances, especially in the
Lesions The muscles of the hindquarters secondary form, there are associated jaundice,
(gluteal, quadriceps) are dark and moist with pale gastroenteritis and other clinical signs.
areas indicative of Zenker's coagulative necrosis.
Congenital photosensitisation This is due to a
The myocardium, larynx and diaphragm may be
simple recessive gene and occurs in mutant
similarly affected. The kidneys are swollen and
Southdown and Corriedale lambs in New
show brownish-red streaks in the medulla with
Zealand and the USA. Excess phylloerythrin and
dark brown urine in the bladder.
bilirubin are present in the blood owing to hepatic
insufficiency and may lead to progressive skin
damage and death. There is an accompanying
Equine hyperlipaemia kidney dysfunction. The condition is similar to
A metabolic disease of high mortality in pony congenital porphyria (pink tooth) in certain breeds of
mares in late pregnancy or early lactation in cattle (Ayrshire, Holstein, Shorthorn, Danish) and
which fatty changes occur in most viscera and pigs (q.v.) in which defective haemoglobin
associated with undernutrition and fatty acid metabolism results in large amounts of
mobilisation and esterification (esters are porphyrins being present in the blood, with
compounds formed by combination of acid deposits of these pigments in the bones and teeth,
with an alcohol with loss of water). which are stained amber or reddish-brown.
Photosensitisation may be primary or
Symptoms Depression, twitching of muscles,
secondary, the latter being the more common
inappetence, loss of weight, ventral oedema,
form in animals. In primary photosensitisation the
coma and death in most cases.
photodynamic agent is absorbed directly
Lesions The liver is very enlarged, yellow or through the skin or the gastrointestinal mucosa
orange in colour, and may be ruptured with and reaches the skin in an unchanged form.
extensive haemorrhage. Similar changes occur Fairly large amounts of the plant have to be
in the kidneys, adrenal gland and skeletal eaten in order to cause a reaction.
muscle. Substances and plants associated with
primary photosensitisation include:
Judgement of metabolic diseases. Each case
requires careful assessment A, T or D, Hypericin (Hypericum, St John's Wort)
depending on overall condition. Fagopyrin (Fagopyrum esculenium, Buckwheat)
8-Methoxypsoralen (furocoumarin) (Ammi
Photosensitisation maius, Ammi tnsnaga, Cymopterus toaisoniii
Perloline iLoiium perenne, perennial ryegrass),
In this condition photodynamic agents - in combination with the mould Pithonujces
hypericin, fagopyrin, saponin, psoralen, chartarum causes facial eczema in sheep
phylloerythrin, etc. - in the blood causes the Saponin Medicago saiioa, alfalfa, lucerne
skin of animals to be hypersensitive to light,
? Trifolium hybridum (Alsike clover)
especially sunlight, resulting in dermatitis and
oedema. Such substances are mainly derived
from plants, but certain chemicals, e.g. Secondary or hepatogenous photosensitisation
phenothiazine, tetracyclines, corticosteroids occurs when liver cells are damaged by
and carbon tetrachloride, can act as direct ingested hepatoxins and phylloerythrin (a
photodynamic substances. porphyrin and end-product of chlorophyll
The disease is encountered most often in metabolism) is liberated into the bloodstream.
sheep and cattle, although it can affect any These hepatoxins include sporidesmin,
species. Poultry have been severely affected by phomopsin and saponin in plants while others
the ingestion of species of the plants Ammi. It is are found in fungi, e.g. Pithomyces chariarum
worldwide in distribution. and Periconia spp. on Bermuda grass, and in
 Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies 703
certain bacteria, e.g. cyanobacteria on blue- Multifactorial causes of production loss: 37%
green algae (q.v.). . .. Inorganic an d orgamc
orvani agents: 17°I(10
Phylloerythrin is a photosensitising agent that Nutritional deficiencies: 15%
is normallv excreted in the bile, but when liver
P h ysica 1 agents: 12°I(10
damaze is' present it accumulates in the tissues
and ~kin, where it absorbs light energy to Genetic diseases: 8%
produce the typical lesions ~f photose~itisati~n. Metabolic diseases, diseases of unknown
The liver damage is essentially associated WIth
aetiology and neoplasias made up the balance
an inability to excrete bile and may be due to bile
of citations. Female reproductive disorders
duct obstruction or some other interference with
(50%) and neonatal mortality (37%) were the
bile excretion, e.g. in fascioliasis.
two largest sub categories under the
Judgement of photosensitisation A, T, D, K, I, multifactorial causes of production loss.
L depending on severity of body condition. Nutritional deficiencies and metabolic diseases
obviously assume major importance
throughout the world.
NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES They pose problems for the meat inspector in
relation to carcase condition and judgement,
In many parts of the world, even in advanc~d especially where there is a concurrent
agricultural areas, livestock ~re often f~ced WIth oedematous condition in the carcase. In
an inadequate intake of vanous nutrients. The general, however, they are not serious public
most frequent nutritional deficiency is that of health entities.
energy and protein starvation, which occurs m~inly Emaciation with cenerolised oedema - cachexia -
during winter and times of drought, especially 6
indicative of starvation, is usually accompame 'd
where supplementary feeding is not carried out. by a heavy worm burden in the alimentary and
In addition to a lack of feed intake, the provision respiratory tracts and is a principal reason for
of food of poor quality can result in malnutrition, total carcase condemnation in most meat
especially in calves given inferior milk replacers. inspection protocols a reasonably
Sudden deficiencies in energy supply can lead to straightforward procedure. But where
starvation ketosis and pregnancy toxaemia in fat subclinical disease conditions complicate the
cattle and pregnant ewes. Adverse weather situation, the task of judgement is made more
conditions may also play a part in precipitating difficult, especially in those countries where t~e
nutritional deficiencies. category of 'conditional approval' does not exist
In addition to energy and protein, the major and carcase and offal judgement is an 'all or
minerals calcium, phosphorus, sodium/chlorine nothing' affair. Where heat treatment is
and potassium, and the microminerals (trace available, carcase judgement is less of a problem.
elements) cobalt, copper/molybdenum, iodine, While true deficiencies of some minerals and
iron, magnesium, manganese, selenium, sulp~ur trace elements exist in certain parts of the
and zinc are required for optimum metabolism world certain fertiliser treatments may make
of most species. Deficiencies of many of these partic~lar elements unavailable for the g:-azir:g
elements occur throughout the world, some in animal. For example, the level of selemum IS
specific geographical rei?[Link].s, and r~sult in poor low in new clover pasture, but is rendered even
condition, severe parasitic infestations, mamly lower by the undue application of
parasitic gastroenteritis and bronchitis, and superphosphate. Excessive application of
huge losses from reduced body weight, nitrogen has on occasion led to ?utb~eaks of
lowered reproductive performance. and [Link]. nitrite and nitrate poisoning, especially m cattle
Susceptibility to various types of disease IS also and sheep.
enhanced. Vitamin deficiency, chiefly of A, D, E While deficiencies of these essential elements
and K, invariably accompanies malnutrition. can occur, excesses result in poisoning.
An inventory of scientific papers on the
frequency and financial impact of non-
infectious and production diseases carried out Calcium (Ca)
by FAO/orE/WHO (1995) in 1970-1989
showed the following rankings based on Calcium is essential for the proper formation of
literature citations: bones and teeth, for satisfactory nerve, heart
704 Meat Hygiene
and muscle function and the clotting of blood. Post-mortem changes Extreme emaciation
Vitamin D is essential for the adequate uptake with brown deposits of the pigment
and utilisation of calcium. haemosiderin in the liver and spleen. It is also
An inadequate supply in the diet results in responsible for 'white liver disease' in sheep in
poor growth and ossification of bone, which New Zealand, Australia, Norway and the
becomes brittle and liable to spontaneous United Kingdom in which liver cells are
fracture, general growth and development damaged, the liver assuming a greyish-white
being retarded. Rickets in the young animal in appearance.
conjunction with phosphorus deficiency and
osteomalacia in the mature animal may result
Copper (Cu)/molybdenum (Mol/sulphur
from a calcium deficiency. The need for calcium
(5)
is greatest in high-yielding dairy cows in early
lactation. Copper is required for the mobilisation of iron in
the synthesis of haemoglobin. Besides being a
constituent of many body enzymes, copper is
Sodium chloride (NaCl) essential for the maintenance of bone
osteoblasts and the synthesis of melanin and
This essential compound is required for the
keratin.
acid-base mechanisms of the body and for the
Molybdenum is an essential component of the
proper functioning of osmosis. Diets low in salt,
enzymes xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase
especially those based on cereal grains, in
and nitrate reductase, while sulphur is a
regions where pasture is naturally deficient and
constituent of the amino acids methionine,
where soils are heavily treated with potash,
cystine and cysteine, the anticoagulant heparin,
eventually cause pica with loss of body weight
the hormone insulin, vitamin B] (thiamin),
and milk Yield. Affected animals tend to chew
keratin and several enzymes.
various solid objects (wood, metal, dirt, etc.)
A deficiency of copper per se results in retarded
and show incoordination and cardiac
growth, diarrhoea, anaemia, loss of hair and
insufficiency with frequent high death rates.
wool pigmentation, bone fragility myocardial
Salt deficiency is more liable to affect young
fibrosis, infertility and, in many cases,
growing animals, females in heavy lactation
incoordination in ~ cattle. The coat ~becomes
and animals suffering loss in sweat through
rough and changed in colour - from black and
exercise. Hot environmental conditions are also
red to rustv red and - in some cases, coat
prone to cause a deficiency.
licking, ataxia and paresis occur.
The deficiency can be corrected by providing
Shortage of copper in soils and forage is a serious
salt licks or loose salt containing trace elements.
problem in many parts of the world, especially
Australia, New Zealand, USA and Europe. It is
responsible for 'swayback' (enzootic ataxia) in sheep
Cobalt (Co)
and goats (q.v.), falling disease of cattle in
Cobalt is a component of vitamin Bl , Australia, licking disease in cattle in Holland and
(cyanocobalamin), which is essential for the anaemia in sucking pigs. Falling and licking
formation of red blood cells and for the diseases are associated with various nervous
maturation of the nuclei and division of all symptoms, pivoting on forelegs, bellowing, coat
body cells. In ruminants, B12 is synthesised in licking, etc., and often sudden death.
the rumen by microorganisms. Combined with a deficiency of cobalt, it is
Cobalt deficiency occurs in regions where involved in coast sickness in Australia and salt
the soils are deficient in cobalt, leading to an sickness in the USA, both of which display the
unavailability in forages. Those containing less typical symptoms of copper deficiency.
than 0.07 ppm of cobalt are considered cobalt- Where copper deficiency is associated with
deficient and are found in parts of North an excess of molybdenum and sulphate (secondary
America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand copper deficiency), the typical syndromes of
and Scotland. unthriftiness and/or diarrhoea occur and are
Lack of dietary cobalt results in inappetence, referred to as Teart or peat scours in cattle and
emaciation, reduced reproductive performance, sheep and pine in calves (Britain, New Zealand
reduction of milk yield and retarded growth. and Canada).
 Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies 705

Post-mortem lesions in copper deficiency include exchange. It is necessary for normal nerve
anaemia, emaciation and bone fragility function. It is present in small amounts in all
(osteoporosis), sometimes with enlarged joints. tissues, mostly in bone in combination with
In swayback there is hydrocephalus with an phosphate and bicarbonate.
increase in cerebrospinal fluid and occasionally A deficiency in the diet leads to low blood
cerebral oedema. magnesium which, however, does not always
result in hypomagnesaemic tetany (q.v.), a
highly fatal disease of recently calved cows and
Iodine (I) lambed ewes. Although cases treated early
Small traces of iodine are required for the proper respond to magnesium therapy, the deficiency
functioning of the thyroid gland in growth and is not a straightforward one of magnesium,
metabolism, iodine being a component of since many other factors complicate its
thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These absorption and metabolism.
hormones act along with calcitonin, which is
Post-mortem lesions There may be pericar-
concerned with plasma calcium homeostasis.
dial, endocardial, peritoneal, and subcutaneous
Deficiency of iodine results in thyroid gland haemorrhages in some cases.
enlargement (goitre) (Plate 2, Fig. 10), which
occurs in certain regions worldwide where
iodine is lacking in the soil and water supplies, Manganese (Mn)
e.g. around the Great Lakes in North America. Manganese is found in all cell mitochondria and
Certain plants - e.g. kale, cabbage, Brussels in melanin besides being an important element
sprouts, turnips, soybeans - and linamarin in in many enzyme systems, e.g. liver arginase. It
linseed meal contain goitrogens which inhibit is involved in glucose utilisation and in the
the action of thyroxin, thus producing goitre. formation of cartilage and bone matrix and the
Along with a deficient secretion of thyroxine, rigidity of connective tissue.
cretinism (dwarfism) and myxoedema A deficiency leads to bone deformities,
(mucinous thickening of the skin) may result, enlarged joints, fetlock knuckling in neonates
the former mainly in foals but possibly in all and retarded growth and infertility in cows and
species, and the latter in neonate piglets. ewes.
Post-mortem lesions include enlargement of
the thyroid gland, myxoedema, alopecia and Phosphorus (P)
deficient bone formation. Phosphorus is an essential body element, being
involved in almost all metabolic processes; its
Iron (Fe) action is controlled by calcium and vitamin D.
(Vitamin D is necessary for the absorption and
Iron is the main constituent of the haem utilisation of phosphorus and calcium.) It is
molecule of haemoglobin, the colouring matter essential for cell metabolism, being a
of red blood cells, and is thus vital for the constituent of nucleic acids and phosphatides,
transport of oxygen in the body. It also occurs in and as phosphate forms some 70% of bone and
other respiratory enzyme systems. teeth. It also provides the energy for muscles in
A deficiency produces anaemia in newborn the form of adenosine triphosphate and
piglets and sometimes calves and lambs creatine phosphate.
without access to iron. In many parts of the world, e.g. South Africa,
Lesions Anaemia, pallor of mucosae, Australia and North America, soils and forages
subcutaneous oedema of carcase, thin watery are deficient in phosphorus.
blood, hypertrophy of heart and of the liver, A deficiency in the diet culminates in retarded
which shows fatty changes. growth, pica, infertility and osteodystrophy -
failure of bones to develop in calves (rickets) or
distortion of bones with enlargement of joints,
Magnesium (Mg) fragility and associated incoordination of
Magnesium is essential for all mammals, being posture and gait in adult cattle (osteomalacia).
involved in many different enzyme systems, Post-parturient haemoglobinuria may be a
especially those concerned with energy sequel to phosphorus deficiency in cows.
706 Meat Hygiene
Potassium (K) Nutritional muscular dystrophy (NMD)
Potassium is an essential chemical element in
(nutritional myopathy, white muscle
disease, stiff lamb disease)
the maintenance of acid-base and water
balance in the body and, with sodium and This myopathy (degeneration of muscle) occurs
calcium, in the proper functioning of the heart. most often in calves but may affect lambs, goat
Deficiency is rare since most diets have kids, foals, poultry and pigs (in which it usually
adequate supplies of the chemical. However, P- accompanies other diseases such as mulberry
deficient soils may be responsible for low heart disease and hepatosis dietetica).
dietary levels which can cause inappetence, It is encountered in areas where soils and
poor growth, anaemia and diarrhoea. associated forage and grain crops contain
inadequate amounts of selenium, e.g. USA,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Europe,
Selenium (Se) and vitamin E especially the United Kingdom and
Selenium is an essential mineral nutrient which Scandinavia. Marginal deficiencies probably
protects body tissues, especially the heart, liver occur throughout the world in specified
and skeletal muscle. It is a component of regions. Along with a lack of vitamin E there
glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), an enzyme may also be an interference with the uptake of
which acts in conjunction with vitamin E to selenium due to an excess of sulphur. Diets
protect cellular membranes and lipid cells from high in unsaturated fatty acids may produce
attack by endogenous peroxides, which cause NMD, hepatosis dietetica and exudative
degeneration and necrosis. Selenium is also a diathesis.
constituent of several proteins and enzymes A congenital form of NMD in which the
and plays an important part in detoxifying heart is affected usually results in death in very
metals like arsenic, copper, cadmium, lead, young animals a few days after birth.
mercury and silver. Young growing animals affected with NMD
Several diseases of livestock are associated show stiffness of gait, diarrhoea, dyspnoea and
with selenium and vitamin E deficiency and often an inabilitv to feed because of muscular
include the following: rigidity. -
Enzootic (nutritional) muscular dystrophy - Lesions Groups of muscles, bilaterally
all species affected, are paler in colour than normal and
Susceptibility to infectious and parasitic may show longitudinal whitish or greyish
diseases - all species striations of degeneration or even a
pronounced general whiteness. Damaged areas
Exudative diathesis
Iron hypersensitivity
Hepatosis dietetica
I pigs
are oedematous and friable. Similar lesions may
be present in the diaphragm, and heart
(especially under the endocardium).
Mulberry heart disease
Weakly neonates
Mulberry heart disease (MHD)
Retained fetal membranes - cattle
Bone marrow defects and anaemia - all This highly fatal condition usually affects
species young rapidly growing pigs, 6-16 weeks of age,
but can occur in older pigs. The diets fed are
III thrift - all species
mainly soybean, barley and other grains
Infertility - sheep, cattle, pigs deficient in selenium and vitamin E but high in
Exudative diathesis } unsaturated fatty acids.
Nutritional muscular dystrophy poultry
Symptoms may be absent because of the
Encephalomalacia rapidity of death, but in animals seen alive
there is anorexia, muscular stiffness, apathy
Although an indispensable element at a level
and depression with vague nervous symptoms
of 0.30 ppm in the diet, an excess (3 ppm and
because of CNS involvement.
above) of selenium can cause serious disease
and death, as indeed can any mineral or Lesions Multiple linear epicardial and
vitamin. endocardial haemorrhages and necrosis with
 Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Deficiencies 707
hydropericardium, the fluid being straw- and K are synthesised by ruminants and so are
coloured, gelatinous and containing fibrin. not required in the diet except where a
Lesions of muscular dystrophy are also present, thiaminase is active in the feed which destroys
although sometimes overlooked. Carcases are thiamin. This can occur in certain maize silages
in good condition. or wet maize gluten feed which contain
The enlarged liver has a nutmeg appearance sulphate or sulphite.
due to acute haemorrhagic necrosis and there is Apart from vitamin E (and selenium) and
evidence of interlobular oedema in the lungs vitamin D deficiency (Plate 2, Fig. 12), which
and marked gastric mucosal congestion. Older are only encountered occasionally, vitamin
pigs may show oedema of the subcutaneous deficiencies are rarely met with in meat
tissues and spiral colon resembling that in inspection, even as casualties. They do, of
oedema disease. Advanced cases may show course, accompany cases of malnutrition.
areas of focal necrosis in the brain. " Vitamin A is required by all species to
The basic lesion common to the maintain the integrity of all epithelial tissues. A
haemorrhagic changes is a microangiopathy in deficiency in cattle and sheep may be
the form of hyalinisation of the walls of manifested by lachrymation, conjunctivitis and
arterioles. diarrhoea, which may be accompanied by
(Mulberry heart disease, hepatosis dietetica, respiratory involvement including coughing
exudative diathesis and NMD in pigs are and nasal discharge. Night blindness,
sometimes referred to as the VESD (vitamin E associated with opacity of the cornea, and
and selenium deficiency) syndrome because of xerophthalmia may occur in cattle and sheep,
a common aetiology.) and sterility in young bulls is occasionally
connected with aspermatogenesis. Vitamin A
deficiency may be due to an inadequate intake
Hepatosis dietetica of carotene (provitamin A), which is converted
This is a degenerative disease of the liver into vitamin A in the small intestine or to a lack
associated with sudden death in which there is of preformed vitamin A. An extremely rare
extensive hepatic necrosis. It is similar to MHD condition in young finishing cattle is
except for some variations in symptoms and subcutaneous oedema or anasarca, believed to
post-mortem findings. be caused by vitamin A deficiency, which can
also be associated with stillbirths in cattle,
Lesions Extensive subcutaneous oedema and sheep and pigs.
mottling of the liver with attached fibrinous
strands, the mottling being related to foci of
necrosis and haemorrhage which may also be Judgement of nutritional deficiencies
present in the heart and skeletal muscles. The Many of the conditions described will not be
body cavities often contain straw-coloured presented at meat inspection because they
fluid. occur in neonates or are associated with sudden
death.
Exudative diathesis Total condemnation (T) Cases associated
As with MHD and hepatosis dietetica, this with emaciation and with generalised oedema.
condition is seen in young growing pigs but Approved as fit (A) Less severe cases with
also occurs in chicks and broilers. satisfactory body condition. Or D, K, I, L.
It is an extensive oedema of the
subcutaneous tissues and body cavities. In
poultry the accumulation of fluid occurs over
the breast and thighs, under the wings, in the
pericardial sac and intermuscular tissues. REFERENCES

FAO/OlE/WHO (1995) Animal Health Yearbook 1995.

Vitamin deficiencies Rome: Animal Production and Health Division,
FAO.
The requirements for vitamins vary greatly in Stapleton, R. G. (1949) The Land Now and Tomorrow.
the different species. For example, vitamins B, C London: Faber and Faber.
 Chapter 20
Diseases Caused by Environmen tal Pollu tants
(Sec also Chapter 13.)

Man and anima ls ar e increasingly be ing operations; chemical waste discharges into
exposed to pollutants in the environment, rivers and the atmosphere ; the increasingly
some of which pose direct threats to life whil e soph isticated, and often negative an d
oth ers find their way into the food ch ain an d p roductional , practi ces in agriculture and the
thence into the tissues of both man and beast food indus try; the litter problem; th e
(Fig. 20.1). Ma n 's greed in th e exploitation o f p rob lems of human and an ima l sewage and
the earth's resources ; the worst featu res o f now o f radioactivity - all are harmful and
urbanisation; oil spillages at sea; the problems dem an d immediate and rational control
associated with in dus trial and mining measures.

I===~ r,.....c""" .
·1>

'1,,'1.
Mlldieal lrealment~

. -
-:~
'M,-"
.-
~

~'- .

f nte, ic
bact er ia
.......... ...... .
~

.' E.,-..,!,
.. Salmo""rr" " Crosl,Nl"
l'ransla' al.>1fI drug

.... ..' '\..

r esistan ce>

.......•.......; .",
Food poisoning '-~~ 1 Fig. 20.1 Chemica l and bacterial
residues in animals and man. (From J.
SystemIC ,ntac100ns
• Lucas, Our Polluled Food, 1975, by
lntan llla gaSl ,o,enla,,11S
courtesy of Charles Knight & Co.,
London)

709
 710 Meat Hygiene
HappilYt and not before time, the seriousness the exact cause of the losses (200 cows and
and complexity of the situation is being realised calves) is uncertain.
and measures are afoot to deal with at least the The proximity of a factory to grazing
major pollutants. livestock has been a hazard in several parts of
The changes produced by bacteria, viruses, the world, with elevated levels of poison, e.g.
protozoa, rickettsiae, etc.) are mainly sodium fluoride dusts and gases, falling on
occasioned by specific toxins, the organisms grass and forage crops. Fluorosis, or chronic
entering the body via the digestive, respiratory fluorine poisoning, has occurred in cattle
and urogenital tracts and by the skin and grazing adjacent to factories producing acid
conjunctivae. In the case of staphylococcal food phosphate from rock phosphate, or engaged in
poisoning and botulism, however, toxin is the production of aluminium and the
ingested with the food in which it is formed, manufacture of bricks from fluorine-bearing
except in infant botulism, in which toxin is clays.
formed by Cl. botulinum in the intestinal tract.
The exact mode of action of the so-called rogue
'prim?' of BSE in the eNS is as yet unknown. POISONING (INORGANIC AND
The resulting lesions in the animal body may ORGANIC)
be well- or ill-defined depending on the causal
organism, a situation which also applies to the Toxic substances ingested directly or in a
chemical and plant poisons. feedingstuff may cause damage depending on a
While it is unlikely that acute cases of variety of factors - initial dose of poison,
poisoning in livestock will be encountered at the solubility in water, quantity and quality of food
meat plant where an adequate system of ingested, rate of elimination from body,
casualty certification is in force, although the metabolic pathway, concentration in tissues,
extreme possibility always exists, it may be that sensitivity of tissues to poison, etc.
some cases may be presented in which there are Should the substance be insoluble, it will
elevated levels of chemicals - e.g. fluorine, normally be unabsorbed and will pass through
antimicrobials, pesticides and bacterial toxins - the gastrointestinal tract and be eliminated in
in their tissues. the faeces, usually without ill-effect. Soluble
Poisoning should always be suspected where substances are absorbed from the small or large
a number of animals, previously in good health, intestine. Some then reach the liver via the
suddenly develop clinical signs. This is portal vein, where they are detoxified (if of low
especially so if the symptoms appear after mass toxicity), and thence the bloodstream and body
treatment, e.g. spraying or dipping for tissues or kidneys, with elimination in the
ectoparasites, dressing for warbles using urine. Some mav leave the liver by the bile duct
systemic organophosphorus compounds, the to be excreted in the faeces. Poi;ons of simple
laying down of rodenticides or molluscicides chemical structure are more easily and directly
containing copper; the careless disposal of tins absorbed from the intestine into the blood and
of paint and other lead-containing items; and lymphatic systems and tissues. Another route
the grazing of certain pastures containing of absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is
poisonous plants. via the lymphatics and bloodstream.
While most cases of poisoning are accidental, The gastromtestinal tract is the organ most
some are malicious, often perpetrated by frequently damaged directly by toxic chemicals
grudge-holding individuals. and plant poisons. Ingested radioactive
Again, poisoning and deaths in animals may elements like strontium-90 and caesium-137
take place as a result of proximity to a factory produce changes in the gut similar to those
explosion, such as occurred at Seveso in Italy in produced by external radiation - haemorrhagic
1974 and at Bhopal in India in December 1984, and/ or ulcerative gastroenteritis.
when almost 2000 people died and 200000 were In the tissues, poisons may interfere directly
rendered ill from the toxic effects of dioxin, with enzyme action or indirectly through action
deaths and sickness also occurring in animals. on DNA and RNA. Pathological changes ensue
Traces of dioxin have been detected in milk if adequate amounts are ingested, these
from cows grazing near a chemical waste including necrosis and various other
disposal plant in Scotland (December 1984) but degenerative effects. More seriously, there may
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 711

be alterations in nucleic acids resulting in A particular concern for the practising

teratogenicity or tumour formation. Certain veterinarian is the animal injured shortly after
substances ingested over a long period of time treatment with chlorinated hydrocarbons and
may cause teratogenicity. carbamates, etc., for warble fly infestation or
Severe restrictions were imposed on the any other treatment where a withdrawal period
Dutch dairy industry in mid-1989 following the is necessary before slaughter. Animals in which
finding of dioxin in milk samples. The source chemical residues are believed to exist must not be
was believed to be two of the large incinerators certified for slaughter for humanfood.
for burning Holland's industrial waste, there
being failure to reach the required temperature Collection of samples
of 1200°F.
As with all cases in which a microbiological
examination is warranted, specimens of several
Factors influencing the action of poisons organs in addition to intestinal contents, should
Such factors include the dose, physical and be carefully collected for forensic tests, even if
chemical form of the poison and the species, the lesions dictate total condemnation of the
age, size and condition of the animal. The dose carcase and offal. Specimens should be packed
of the poison, its amount, duration and individually, preferably in plastic containers,
frequency of exposure are important factors in and properly labelled. If the specimens have to
determining the severity of the poisoning, as is travel some distance, they should be packed in
the solubility of the poison - the more soluble ice or solid carbon dioxide, ensuring that each
the greater the amount absorbed. Poisons container is tightly sealed.
contained in vegetable oils are more dangerous The principal organs to be tested are the liver
than those in aqueous solutions. Cattle, because (in all cases) and kidney (where arsenic, lead,
of their inquisitive nature, appear in general to copper, mercury and phosphorus are
be more prone to poisoning than other species, suspected). In the case of fluorine, samples of
although the large size of the rumen with its bone, teeth and urine are collected; bone and
microfloral synthesising ability tends to have a blood samples are also required if lead
protective effect. Young animals are more often poisoning is suspected. Blood is also useful for
affected, probably because their detoxifying examination where copper and strychnine are
efficiency is underdeveloped and also because under suspicion.
they are less discerning. The amount of the
poison ingested in relation to the body weight Poisons involved
of an animal largely determines detoxifying
These comprise organic and inorganic
ability, while hungry animals in poor condition
substances, poisonous plants, mycotoxins and
are more liable to ingest harmful substances.
radioactive materials. Only a few of the more
Variations in susceptiblity occur, sheep, for
common substances are discussed here, the
example, being especially prone to copper
reader being referred to specialist texts such as
poisoning, although the same species is
that by Humphreys (1988).
resistant to poisoning by ragwort (Senecio
jacobaea).
Lead
Diagnosis of poisoning Sources
A particular problem for the veterinarian at Lead is an important constituent of the earth's
ante-mortem inspection is that of differential crust, from which it is mined for industrial
diagnosis. Some cases of poisoning, e.g. lead purposes, being used as an alloy in solders,
toxicity, produce nervous symptoms which bearing metals, as white lead and chrome
may be confused with those in some infective yellow in paints, as red lead in anti-rust agents,
diseases such as listeriosis. as lead glazes for earthenware and as an
A full record of the history of the animal(s) additive in petrol. Some of its previous uses are
presented for slaughter, clinical signs and now discontinued or are being abandoned, e.g.
lesions are essential in addition to a complete in water pipes, petrol, paints and lead arsenate
veterinary certificate. in insecticidal sprays.
712 Meat Hygiene
However, many potential sources of lead for discoloration and normocytic anaemia. The
livestock still remain - old lead-containing author (J.F.e.) has noted very fine petechiation of
paints on woodwork and other structures, and the thymus gland as a very constant finding in
in putty, linoleum, tarpaulins, roofing felt, chronic lead poisoning in calves.
batteries, lead weights for angling, grease and
lubricating oils. Differential diagnosis
Lead poisoning is generally regarded as the Listeria meningoencephalitis, BSE, Aujeszky's
most common form of poisoning in the United disease, brain abscess, hypomagnesaemic
Kingdom and probably in the world, occurring tetany, polioencephalomalacia, Cl. perfringens
especially in young cattle. The inquisitive Type D enterotoxaemia, sporadic bovine
nature of cattle and their licking and chewing encephalitis, mercury poisoning, Haemophilus
habits cause them to ingest lead and other meningoencephalitis, rabies, hypovitaminosis
noxious substances. A and all conditions with acute onset of
Besides these sources, lead may also be found nervous symptoms without previous history.
in feedingstuffs. A novel and serious outbreak of
lead poisoning in cattle (dairy cows, beef cattle
and calves) occurred in south-west England and Acids and alkalis
Wales in 1989 through the consumption of feed
contaminated with maize gluten imported from Strong acids (e.g. sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
Holland. Some 1700 farms had been supplied phenolic) and alkalis (e.g. sodium, potassium
with the noxious feed, which caused illness in and calcium hydroxides) are corrosive
numerous animals and a total of 35 deaths. In substances that are very destructive to tissues.
order to safeguard public health, strict controls The phenols and cresols are used extensively
were placed on the movement and slaughter of as disinfectants (e.g. at 2.5%), hydrochloric and
animals and a testing programme covering milk, sulphuric acids (e.g. 5%) less so. Various forms
dairy products, beef and beef offals "vas of alkalis, e.g. caustic soda (sodium hydroxide)
instituted under the Food Protection (Emergency and calcium hvdroxide (hvdrated lime) are
Prohibitions) (Contamination of Feedingstuffs) used as 2% dilutions, while- sodium carbonate
Order 1989. Derestriction of controls was subject (washing soda) is frequently used as a
to negative results of blood samples. cleansing agent as a 4% w Iv solution for
washing vehicles prior to disinfection. On
occasions, grain and roughage are treated with
Clinical signs caustic to improve digestibility.
There may be sudden death without
premonitory symptoms. Nervous symptoms Lesions
predominate, with bellowing, head pressing Corrosive action on all mucous membranes -
and other forms of abnormal behaviour. stomatitis, oesophagitis, gastroenteritis with
Dullness, apparent blindness and excitability hyperaemia, oedema and thickening of the
may occur in addition to diarrhoea, mucosae.
constipation, muscular spasms, etc.

Ammonia (NH) compounds and urea

Lesions
Ammonium compounds, e.g. ammonium
Only some 2% of the lead ingested is absorbed -
sulphate and nitrate, are used as fertilisers, urea
always in an inorganic form - the remainder on occasion being added to feed for cattle.
being excreted in the faeces. It binds with proteins
Ammonia gas is frequently generated in badly
in the same way as mercury, cadmium and zinc ventilated animal houses and can be harmful in
and is thus easily transported to various parts of
concentrations above 100ppm.
the body, where it exerts special effects on the
kidneys, liver, RBCs and the CNS. Acute poisoning:
gastroenteritis, epicardial and endocardial Lesions
haemorrhages, pulmonary congestion, liver and Pulmonary congestion and oedema with
kidney degeneration. Chronic poisoning: softening petechial haemorrhages, catarrhal bronchitis
and cavitation of the CNS with yellowish and gastroenteritis.
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 713
Arsenic (As) Chemical pesticides
Arsenic is still available in many different These chemicals include the herbicides,
situations, although less commonly today - fungicides and insecticides.
dips for controlling ectoparasites, rodenticides,
wood preservatives, weed killers, defoliants, The herbicides are used to destroy noxious
etc. weeds as general weedkillers in particular areas
or as selective herbicides, large volumes of
which are used for the protection of crops. The
Lesions wide variety includes the organic carbamate
Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis, degenerative and thiocarbamate compounds (see insecticides
changes in liver, kidney, heart and adrenal below), amides (diphenamide, propanil,
glands. Endocardial haemorrhages. Chronic bensulide), chlorophenoxy compounds (2,4,5-T,
cases may show fatty degeneration of liver and 2,4-D, dalapon, MCPA, silvex, etc.), dinitro
kidneys. compounds (dinoseb, dinitrocresol,
dinitrophenol, etc.), dipyridyl compounds
(paraquat, diquat), glyphosphate, triazine
Cadmium (Cd) compounds (propazine, atrazine, simazine,
etc.) as well as the inorganic arsenicals, sodium
Cadmium occurs as a contaminant in zinc chlorate and borax.
mining and sewage sludge but is no longer a Most cases of poisoning are due to the
constituent in anthelmintics for pigs, being accidental ingestion of fairly large amounts of
considered too toxic. It is used in fungicides the herbicides or access to contaminated
and is currently of interest as an environmental grazing. Spray drift from booms used for
pollutant. applying herbicides can cause problems for
A measure of its widespread occurrence is grazing animals. The palatability as well as the
shown bv the fact that the National Surveillance toxicity of some poisonous plants are increased
Scheme Ofor Residues in meat (NSS) detected with the use of certain hormone weedkillers.
cadmium in one sheep sample and in 28 out of 29 Depending on the compound the clinical
samples of horse kidneys during 1985. Horses signs of toxicity include salivation, ataxia,
are more often affected, being older than other depression, dyspnoea, bloat, muscular spasms
species at slaughter. In the UK voluntary hyperaesthesia and the necropsy findings
agreement exists with horse slaughterhouses include gastroenteritis, liver, kidney and lung
whereby all offals are discarded from animals congestion. In the case of the very toxic diquat
destined for human consumption. and paraquat, there is severe stomatitis, colic,
Poisoning is rare, most cases occurring from enteritis, pulmonary oedema and
aerial pollution of pastures near mining haemorrhage.
operations and by accidental ingestion of farm
chemicals. The fungicides consist of inorganic compounds
of copper, arsenic, mercury and sulphur as well
as organic compounds (dinitrocresol,
Lesions pentachlorphenol (PCP), dithiocarbamate and
Many of the adverse effects of cadmium have derivatives). Post-mortem findings include
been determined in experimental animals. generalised congestion, anaemia, enlargement
Cadmium accumulates in the liver, kidney, of the liver, nephritis and cystitis.
bone and pancreas. Its appearance in muscle The insecticides include the carbamates (car-
appears to vary with the different species, but it baryl, propoxur), chlorinated hydrocarbons
can cause nutritional myopathy in herbivores (aldrin, benzene hexachloride (BHC), chlor-
and pigs, especially where dietary calcium and dane, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane),
phosphorus are deficient. The metal is a potent DDD, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, organophos-
kidney toxin causing acute tubular necrosis and phates (dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, malathion,
renal failure, mainly in pigs and horses. In diazinon, phosmet, coumaphos, fenthion, etc.),
poultry, cadmium poisoning leads to nephritis, benzyl benzoate, pyrethrin, rotenone and the
enteritis, myocardial haemorrhages and insect growth regulators - methoprene, phe-
hydropericardium. noxycarb and pyriproxyfen.
714 Meat Hygiene
The carbamaies are moderately toxic and act poisoning, especially in sheep, probably
in a similar way to the organophosphates (OP) by because of the wide use of the metal in
inactivation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). agriculture - in fungicides, seed dressings,
With both compounds there is salivation, parasiticides, mineral mixtures (used where
vomiting, hypermobility of the gastrointestinal molybdenum and sulphate are lacking in the
tract, diarrhoea, urination, bronchial diet), and feed additives for growth promotion.
constriction, muscle twitching and paralysis. Copper is often used to prevent copper
The organophosphates have multiple use as deficiency in cattle and sheep.
animal and plant insecticides, fungicides, Poisoning by copper results in a haemolytic
defoliants, rodenticides and insect repellents. crisis and is influenced by many different stress
Poisoning by organophosphaies may occur factors as well as by the ingestion of certain
through consumption of contaminated feeds hepatotoxic plants. The alkaloids of
and feed crops, overdosing, or swallowing of subterranean clover (Trifolium subierraneuini,
OP dip or contaminated water. OP compounds Heliotrope (H. europaeumi and Ragwort (Senecio
vary greatly in toxicity, which can be enhanced spp.) ingested over a long period cause
by isomerisation during storage and by higher retention of copper in the liver.
temperatures (e.g. malathion, fenthion,
diazinon). Toxicity also varies in different
species, cattle being more sensitive than sheep
Lesions
to phosmet, ronnel, dimethoate and crufomate, Acute poisoning: haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
more sensitive than pigs to phorate, but more with ulceration and rupture of the abomasum
resistant than other species to fenthion. in some cases.
Inhibition of AChE results in the accumula-
Chronic poisoning: Enlarged yellowish liver,
tion of acetylcholine (ACh) at neuromuscular
icterus, haemoglobinuria, enlarged gunmetal-
junctions, death in severe cases being due to
coloured kidneys.
neurotoxicity - asphyxia from respiratory
depression, paralysis of respiratory muscles,
bronchoconstriction, bradycardia and cyanosis.
Dioxins (tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, TCDD)
Poisoning by these insecticides has been
recorded in all species of animals, although less Dioxins are extremely toxic teratogens which
commonly today. can occur as contaminants during the
In man, nausea, vomiting, colic, salivation, manufacture of certain auxin herbicides
blurred vision, mental confusion, dyspnoea and (chlorophenoxy acids), the so-called 'hormone'
coma have been recorded. Reported adverse weedkillers, e.g. 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, and the
effects following sheep dipping operations fungicides trichlorophenol, pentachlorophenol
using OPs is currently being investigated in the and their derivatives. TCDD is one of the most
UK. poisonous substances known.
These compounds are widely used in
Lesions of incecticide toxicity These
agriculture - the chlorophenols as fungicides,
insecticides are general CNS stimulants causing
mainly in the preservation of timber, and the
congestion and oedema of the brain and spinal
auxin herbicides for the destruction of weeds in
cord. There is congestion of most organs, with
grain crops. Formulations of the latter were
epicardial haemorrhages, pulmonary oedema
used extensively in the early 1960s by the
with blood-tinged froth in the trachea and
American forces in Vietnam to defoliate jungle
larynx. Chronic cases may show focal
areas, the local diets being seriously
centrilobular necrosis of the liver. Chlordane
contaminated at the same time.
causes vascular damage with subcutaneous
The presence of dioxins as contaminants in
petechiae and intestinal and myocardial
herbicides and fungicides can have serious
ecchymoses.
consequences for grazing livestock. They may
also be present in by-products from plants
manufacturing the chlorophenols and the
Copper auxin herbicides. They are also sometimes
Copper poisoning (acute and chronic) is one of present as contaminants in chlorinated
the more common forms of farm animal biphenyl products.
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 715
Lesions from diarrhoea, thinning of intestinal wall and
gastrointestinal haemorrhage to neuromuscular
Dioxin is fairly rapidly absorbed and produces
damage and aspergillosis, depending on the
centrilobular changes in the liver and kidneys.
particular antimicrobial used.
In poultry the lesions are similar to those of
chick oedema disease - accumulation of clear
yellowish fluid in subcutaneous tissues and Urea
body cavities.
Urea and other forms of organic (e.g. biuret)
and inorganic (e.g. ammonium phosphate)
Feed additives sources of nitrogen are sometimes added to
A wide variety of pharmaceutical or nutritional feeds for ruminants. Toxic amounts can result
substances (antimicrobials, fungicides, in sudden death and in less severe cases, severe
colic, bloat, aspiration of rumen contents and
anthelmintics, arsenicals, oestrogens,
convulsions.
coccidiostats, urea, animal and poultry wastes,
copper, etc.) are added to livestock feeds to
improve growth and feed utilisation. Improperly Animal and poultry wastes
used they can cause illness and death.
The ever-constant tendency to utilise low-cost
materials for feeding to livestock often has
Oestrogens adverse results. While making a contribution to
the reduction of pollution, the practice of
Administered oestrogenic substances (oestradiol,
feeding hydrolysed poultry feathers, poultry
oestriol, oestrone, diethylstilboestrol, zearalanol,
by-product meal, boiler litter, dehydrated
etc.) are banned in some countries and strictly
paunch products, meat meal tankage, blood
controlled in others. They can lead to excessive
meal, etc., has to be related to their possible
sexual activity in cattle - mounting, head butting,
content of antibiotics, arsenicals, bacteria,
roaring and pawing of the ground by steers -
coccidiostats, heavy metals, hormones,
while larger doses can produce preputial, vaginal
mycotoxins, sulphona-mides and so on.
and rectal prolapse, raising of the tail head,
Serious bacterial disease in the form of
nymphomaniac behaviour in females, with
injuries in both sexes. Infertility in males and
botulism (q.v.) following the feeding of waste
materials has occurred in addition to poisoning
females is common, with abortion, swelling of
in sheep from the use of poultry litter
the vulva and vagina, relaxation of pelvic liga-
containing high levels of copper sulphate.
ments, and endometritis also occurring. Sheep
Although cattle and other species are less
may also be similarly affected, an added symp-
susceptible to copper toxicity, there remains the
tom being urethral obstruction due to calculi.
serious question of copper residues in meat and
Oestrogenic substances are also found
milk. Chicken litter containing dinoestrol
naturally in certain plants - subterranean clover
diaceiaie has been responsible for abortions in a
(Trifolium subterraneunii, perennial ryegrass
beef herd.
(Lolium perenney, lucerne (Medicago sativa), red
Because of the possible sequelae of toxicity
clover (Trifolium pratense), white clover
and undue tissues levels in livestock fed
(Trifolium repens). recycled animal wastes, a withdrawal period of
Lesions caused by oestrogens In addition to 30 days is necessary before slaughter of the fed
the clinical signs, chronic cervicitis, enlarged animals. The use of sewage sludge is dangerous
clitoris and cystic endometritis are observed in because of the possible bacterial, viral and
cattle and sheep. In pigs rectal inflammation, parasitic (e.g. T. eaginata eggs) content.
necrosis and prolapse, nephritis and ureteritis,
prostatitis and enlargement of the seminal
vesicles occur.
Fluorine (F)
Fluorine is present in many natural minerals
Antimicrobials such as fluorite (fluorspar), cryolite and
Although most are of low toxicity, improper use fluorapatite and in many soils and water
of antimicrobials can cause changes varying sources.
716 Meat Hygiene
Poisoning (fluorosis) is rare and though it mercuric nitrate) and as a parasiticide, diuretic
has occurred in the acute form owing to the and purgative. Beside its pharmaceutical use,
accidental ingestion of sodium fluoride, it mercury is utilised as an agricultural and
occurs more as a chronic entity from the industrial fungicide and in dental fillings.
grazing of pastures and forages and the Mercury poisoning is rare but can occur
inhalation of air contaminated with fluorine through the ingestion of soluble compounds
dusts and hydrofluoric acid from factories (e.g. by the licking of skin dressings and
engaged in aluminium and calcine ironstone ointments or the eating of mercurial seed
mining, phosphate fertiliser and feed dressings and contaminated feeds), via the skin
manufacture, brick manufacture from fluorine- or by inhalation of vapour.
containing clays, etc.
Lesions
Lesions Acute cases: Gastroenteritis with petechiation of
Acute poisoning: Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis, mucosae.
liver and kidney congestion have been reported Chronic cases: Enlargement and congestion of
in pigs. liver and kidneys. Pulmonary congestion with
Chronic poisoning: Mottling, staining and haemorrhages. Petechiation of kidneys, liver
excessive wear of teeth, softening and and nasal mucosa.
thickening of bones, which become whitish in
colour with the appearance of exostoses. Molybdenum (Mo)
An essential trace element in plants,
Hydrocyanic (prussic) acid (HeN) and molubdenum, can, however, occur in soil in
cyanides. sufficient amounts to cause chronic
The most common source of the extremely toxic molybdenum poisoning (molybdenosis) or
HCN is cyanogenetic glucosides in certain 'teart' (q.v.) through the ingestion of herbage
plants, e.g. Acacia, Eucalyptus, Lotus, Pauicum, containing 20-100 ppm of molybdenum. Other
Prunus, Sorghum spp., but poisoning can also sources of poisoning include the contamination
occur from the ingestion of contaminated of pasture from industrial operations
effluent from mining operations (gold mining) (molybdenum is used as an alloying agent in
and the plating of chrome and nickel and from the production of various alloys and in the
the careless use of HCN-containing hardening of steel) and the treatment of
rodenticides. grassland for growth.

Lesions
Lesions
Acute: Marked gastroenteritis with ulceration.
The quick-acting HCN causes rapid death due Icterus.
to CNS anoxia. There is widespread carcase and
organ congestion with bright red, unclotted Chronic: Yellowish enlarged liver. Icterus.
blood, haemorrhage in the lungs and trachea Enlarged kidneys and spleen.
and petechiation in the abomasum and small
intestine. Subepicardial and subendocardial Nitrate (N03)/nitrite (NO)
haemorrhages are evident, along with the smell
Both salts are used in curing brines, machine
of bitter almonds on opening the abdomen.
oils, fertilisers and explosives, nitrite being the
more poisonous entity. Certain plants (Brassica
spp. (rape, turnips, etc), Lolium spp.
Mercury (Hg)
(ryegrasses), Amaranthus spp. (redroot), Beta
Mercury occurs in both inorganic and organic vulgaris (sugar beet), Avena saiiua (oats)) contain
forms and has been used variously as an high amounts of nitrates and can be toxic, as
antiseptic, e.g. mercuric chloride (corrosive can high levels of nitrates in water (ponds,
sublimate), in counter-irritant ointments wells, etc.) affected by fertiliser and feedlot run-
(yellow mercuric oxide, red mercuric iodide, off.
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 717
Lesions Strychnine stimulates the spinal cord and
medullary centres by blocking the action of the
Gastroenteritis. Chocolate-coloured blood due
inhibitory neurotransmitter amino acid glycine.
to methaemoglobinaemia. General congestion
Clinical signs of toxicity show initial muscle
of carcase. Cardiac, tracheal and serous
stiffness and tremor followed by tetanic
membrane petechiation. Poor clotting of blood.
convulsions with marked extensor muscle
rigidity and extension with opisthotonus. These
signs can be activated by sudden sounds, light
Phosphorus (P)
or touch and last for 1--4 minutest after which
White or yellow phosphorus is rarely used today there is a period of relaxation which gradually
as a rodenticide, making phosphorus poisoning lessens as the condition worsens. Post-mortem
relatively uncommon. Pigs and poultry are lesions are consistent with asphyxia - venous
especially susceptible to the accidental congestion of lungs and meninges.
ingestion of rat/rabbit baits or the poisoned Thallium sulphate and acetate are cellular
pests. In some instances poisoning by malicious poisons which have been banned as
intent occurs. rodenticides. Poisoning results in
gastroenteritis, which may be haemorrhagic,
ulcerated and necrotic extending to the mouth
Lesions and gums, dermatitis, alopecia and
hyperkeratosis in chronic cases.
Severe haemorrhagic gastroenteritis. Enlarged,
yellowish liver with evidence of haemorrhages
Wmfarin is an anticoagulant derived from
coumarin, the substance responsible for the
and necrosis.
smell of new-mown hay, which is converted to
dicoumarol, the active principle produced
when sweet clover (Melilotus alba and M.
Other rodenticides officinalis) spoils. Warfarin has been responsible
Aniu (o-naphthylthiourea) causes pulmonary for numerous poisonings in domestic animals
oedema, hydrothorax, congestion of trachea as well as causing fetal death and abortion by
and kidneys. depressing plasma prothrombin and other
Bromeihalin is a neurotoxin which produces coagulation factors, mainly VII, IX and X.
muscle tremors, hyperaesthesia, paraplegia and Sweet clover (dicoumarol) poisoning is
depression with CNS oedema. caused by the ingestion of large quantities of
Cholecalciferol causes hypercalcaemia and spoiled sweet clover hay or silage. The normal
hyperphosphataemia, kidney failure with constituents of coumarin and melilotin are
mottling of the kidneys, diffuse haemorrhagic converted into dicoumarol by the action of
gastroenteritis and plaques on the large moulds.
abdominal vessels and viscera.
Red squill (Urginea maritima) is a plant
containing a glycoside rarely used today.
Post-mortemfindings
Poisoning is rare because of its unpalatability These include extensive internal haemorrhage
and the fact that large doses are required. and extravasations of blood in the
Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis is a prominent subcutaneous and connective tissues.
post-mortem lesion.
Sodium fluoroacetate/fluoroacetamide is very
Selenium (Se)
toxic, inducing cardiac depression and CNS
stimulation with convulsions. Post-mortem Selenium is an essential trace element necessary
lesions include generalised carcase congestion, to prevent nutritional myopathy in cattle and
cyanosis, subepicardial haemorrhages and sheep, hepatosis dietetica in pigs and exudative
dilated heart. diathesis in chicks. Excess amounts, however,
Strychnine is the alkaloid in the trees result in acute, subacute or chronic selenosis in
Strychnos nux-vomica and Strychnos ignatii and areas where soils contain significant amounts of
was once used in rodenticides as a tonic, in feral organic and inorganic selenium. Soluble forms
animal bait and for the malicious poisoning of of these compounds are taken up by certain
dogs and cats. plants, e.g. Acacia, Aster spp./ Astragalus spp./
718 Meat Hygiene
Gutierrezia spp/ Pentstemon spp./ which are Poisonous plants
consumed by cattle and sheep.
The flora responsible for poisoning in livestock
Acute selenosis results in fairly rapid death
in different parts of the world are extremely
and causes post-mortem changes in the form of
numerous and only a few are mentioned here.
generalised haemorrhages and ascites.
Some of these - Brassica spp./ Trifolium spp./
Subacute and chronic selenosis Calkali disease'
Hypericum spp., and perennial ryegmss - are
or 'blind staggers') results in general necrotic
treated elsewhere.
and cirrhotic changes, especially in the liver
Common poisonous plants in the UK include
and spleen, ascites, congestion, haemorrhage
the blue-green algae; bracken fern iPieridium
and cerebral oedema. aquilina); Brassica spp. (rape, kale, turnips,
charlock); buttercup (Ranunculus spp.); clovers
Sodium chloride (NaCl) - alsike, ladino, red, strawberry, subterranean
(Trifolium spp.); (deadly nightshade (Atropa
Deaths from the consumption of excessive
belladonna); horse tail (Equisetaceae spp.);
quantities of salt have occurred in all species,
HyperiCllm spp. (St John's Wort, etc.); laburnum
including poultry, where there has been an
(Cystissus laburnum); larkspur (Delphinium
accompanying deprivation of water. Poisoning
spp.); oak (Quercus spp.); perennial ryegrass
may be' associated with salt hunger in cattle and tLolium perennei; ragwort (Senecio jacobea);
contaminated feed and drinking water in all
rhododendron (Ericaceae spp.); Solanum spp.
species. The toxic dose for ruminants is very
(woody and garden nightshade, Japanese
high, but poultry are susceptible to relatively
cherry, potato); and yew (Taxus baccata).
small amounts.

Lesions
Poisonous fungi
Gastroenteritis with blood-stained fluid faeces,
(See Fungi and Mycotoxicosis.)
watery blood and cerebral oedema in
ruminants and pigs. Poultry show anasarca and
ascites, nephritis, myocardial haemorrhages,
cardiac hypertrophy and hydropericardium.
Poisonous algae
Algae are primitive plant-like organisms living
Zinc (Zn)
in water and varying in size from microscopic
The pharmaceutical sources of zinc include the cells to large seaweeds several metres in length.
sulphate (emetic and ophthalmic astringent), Although they are normally responsible for
acetate and benzoate (internal astringents), providing food for aquatic life (and may
oxide, stearate and gelatin (protectants) and eventually be used for feeding livestock), there
undecylenate (fungicide). Zinc phosphide is are some species which are extremely toxic for
used as a rodenticide, while compounds of zinc animals, birds, fish and man.
have various uses in industry - galvanising of Strains of the genera Anabena,
metal, plumbing and paints. Aphanizomenon, Chlorella, Microcystis, Nodularia,
Poisoning with zinc is rare but has occurred Oscillaioria and others have caused poisoning
from the careless use of zinc-containing prod- and deaths in stock drinking water from
ucts and from the contamination of pasture in stagnant ponds, lakes, etc. Such events have
the vicinity of mines and factories utilising zinc. occurred during periods of heavy growth (algal
bloom) of these blue-green algae at times of
high temperature, drought, shallow water with
Lesions
high organic content, etc.. and have been most
Acute cases: pulmonary emphysema; kidney common in North America, South Africa and
haemorrhages; hepatic degeneration; pale Australia, but also in the UK.
flabby myocardium. The three most common species of blue-
Chronic cases: Catarrhal gastritis and green algae known to produce potent toxins in
enteritis, internal haemorrhages especially in fresh water are /snabena floe-aqua (exogenous
axillary spaces. neurotoxin), Aphanizomenon floe-aqua
 Diseases Caused by Enuironmental Pollutants 719

(endogenous saxitoxin) and Microcystis JUDGEMENT OF INORGANIC AND

aeruginosa (~-peptide toxin). Blue-green algae can ORGANIC ONC. PLANT AND ALGAL)
also produce polysaccharides which cause POISONING
severe skin irritation and oral blisters, while
some elaborate a photodynamic pigment, Total condemnation.
phyocyan, which is responsible for
photosensitisa tion.
Exotoxins are secreted by the algae into the RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION
water; endotoxins remain within the
organisms, and either the algae have to be Radioactive contamination arises from both
consumed by the animal or the toxin has to be natural and artificial sources, the latter having
released into the water on the death of the assumed greater importance since the Second
algae. The optimum temperature for toxin War World. Natural sources of radioactive
production is about 25°C. materials include the presence of radium,
Anabena jloe-aqua is believed to be the cause uranium, polonium, rubidium, thorium,
of the most serious incidents of algal poisoning, potassium, radio carbon and the gas radon (a
causing death by paralysis of the CNS and daughter product of radium) in soil, rocks and
respiratory arrest. Ruminants, especially sheep, waters and the constant interactions of cosmic
have been most often affected but cases have rays, infrared, light (visible and ultraviolet),
occurred in dogs. radio and X-rays in the atmosphere. As a result
Chlorellosis is an infection of mammals due to there have always been tiny amounts of these
the ingestion of chlorophyll-containing algae of radioactive substances in the food of man (Fig.
the genus Chlorella and has been recorded in 20.2).
cattle, sheep, beaver and man. It has been Artificial forms in varying amounts originate
encountered in sheep during meat inspection in from many different sources. While harmful
the Sudan (Zakia, 1989). forms of ionising radiation were once limited to
high-energy X-rays for diagnosis and therapy,
hazards now include nuclear reactors,
cyclotrons, linear accelerators, chemical
Lesions industries, laboratories, etc. The testing of
These vary according to the species involved, atomic weapons and the waste discharges from
the severity of the condition and the toxins nuclear power stations and other sources have
ingested. While some cases are peracute with further added to the problem of safety from
sudden death, others are more chronic in radioisotopes. Discharges of radioactive wastes
character. Lesions range from congestion of the from industry, hospitals and laboratories,
CNS with pulmonary oedema and hydrothorax however, are not generally regarded as sources
in peracute cases to hepatic necrosis, of contamination of food.
haemorrhagic gastroenteritis, widespread In recent times, accidental escapes of radiation
petechiation, visceral congestion, ascites, from nuclear reactors have occurred, the most
jaundice and photosensitisation. notable being the Three Mile Island reactor in
Done and Bain (1993) describe an outbreak in Pennsylvania, USA in March 1979 where,
which 20 sheep and 15 dogs were affected in happily, major radiation exposure did not occur
Rutland, England in 1989. Post-mortem lesions because of the lower doses of radiation.
in the sheep revealed dark, congested livers with However, the explosion at the Chernobyl power
coagulative necrosis and haemorrhage. In the complex in the Ukraine in April 1986 resulted in
dogs there were widespread petechial extremely high radiation doses, with 20 deaths
haemorrhages, dark congestion of the liver and and numerous injuries as well as extensive
haemorrhagic lesions in the liver, kidney, radiation fallout throughout western Europe,
stomach and small intestine. Asia and the USA (Fig. 20.3).
The post-mortem findings in chlorellosis
include a grossly enlarged liver and hepatic
lymph nodes with delineation of the hepatic Radiation damage
lobules, with a bright green pigment giving it a Ionising radiation consists of X-rays, neutrons,
honeycomb appearance. protons, alpha, beta and gamma rays emitted
720 Meat Hygielle

_.
Fig. 20.2 Radioactive food chains.

~
-
_ 5~'"
.....
- 90 C. 0 7
(From J. Lucas, Our Pollutrd food , 1975,
by courtesy of Charles Knight & Co.,
London)

Fa ll -o ut Ro ut es to Man

'j - -..,_.. -
'-I-
: ....
: _ C- ') '

III \.\
~.-
•
-- Fig. 20.3 Fall-out routes 10 man
and animals. (From J. Lucas, Our
[10111111',1 Food, 1975, bv courtesy of
Charles Knigh t & Co:, London)

by certain radioa ctive substan ces (see ab ove). wh ile low do ses can cause d elayed somatic and
Rad ioactive nuclei emit two form s of rad iation genetic effects. .
- electromagnetic radiati on (gamma rays) and Other fac tors involved include the body area
particulate radiation, e.g. beta p articles . All can exposed , the di stribution of the dose and the
cau se damage to the living tiss ues of animal s tar get tissu es, the more activ e cells bein g most
an d ma n either d ircctlv as somatic effects whic h sensi tive . Th e lym phoid cells arc da maged first,
occu r w ith in d ays, or ind irectly by crea tin g followed by the testes an d ov aries, bo ne
ch anges in the DN A o f pro liferating cell s ma rrow cells, epithelial cells of the a limen tary
(genetic effects) - changes which may not tract, skin , liver, lungs, biliary tr act, kidneys,
become evi de nt un til vears later. Somatic and pleura and peritoneu m, nerve cells, bone,
genetic effects are det~rmined by the total dose muscle and connective tissue. H igh d oses
and th e dose rate o f rad iation. Im mediate produce cell necrosis while sublethal d oses
somatic lesions are prod uced by la rge doses, cause d is tu rbances in cell metabolism -
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 721
decreased mitosis and DNA synthesis, etc. - animals were eligible for slaughter and which
resulting in organ hypoplasia, atrophy and were ineligible. Random sampling of sheep
eventual fibrosis with a wide variety of meat at selected meat plants showed the
conditions such as decreased fertility, anaemia, highest level in 1991 to be 533 Bq/kg compared
leukopenia, skin ulceration, cataracts, with 335 Bq/kg in 1995. Mean figures in 1995 of
squamous cell carcinoma, leukaemia and all samples were 30-50 Bq/kg.
genetic defects. The total number of animals failing the test
Such effects can be produced by direct action has been verv small - the failure rate in 28000
on the animal body or by the ingestion of sheep monit~red in Cumbria in 1986 being 12%,
herbage contaminated by fallout, which with no failures in 1995 in 43000 sheep tested.
introduces beta and gamma radiation to the Similar results were obtained in Wales and
alimentary tract. Scotland. Consistent with these results has been
a gradual reduction of caesium contamination
in vegetation in these areas, making it possible
UK Chernobyl mark and release scheme
to gradually reduce the areas under restriction.
Although the Chernobyl reactor plant Final removal of restrictions on the
explosion caused serious radioactivity fall-out, movement and slaughter in parts of Cumbria
no apparent abnormality was noted in any took place on 12 January 1996, but restrictions
grazing livestock. However, concern was still continue in upland areas of Wales, southern
expressed about possible levels of Scotland and Northern Ireland. Acid, peaty
contamination in the environment and the food soils allow radioactivity to remain soluble and
chain following the passage of the plume across thus available for uptake into the vegetation.
Britain in May 1986. The overall effect of the 'Mark and Release'
A survey carried out by the Ministry of monitoring programme in the United Kingdom
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) found has been the effective protection of the public,
high levels of radiocaesium in upland areas in no appreciable reduction in the consumption of
England (Cumbria), north Wales and Scotland sheepmeat and no interference with the sheep
where rainfall had coincided with the passage farming industry as a result of the Chernobyl
of the radioactive plume. Monitoring of the reactor plant explosion.
sheep grazing these areas showed serious
contamination, many being above the limit
recommended by the European Commission of
UK Terrestrial Radioactivity Monitoring
Programme (TRAMP); UK Food and
1000 becquerels of caesium per kilogram
Agriculture Monitoring Programme
(Bq/kg).
(FARM)
The only other type of radioactivity
encountered was iodine but this decayed The UK Ministry of Agriculture has been
quickly owing to its short-lived property. monitoring radionuclides in foodstuffs and in
A system of live monitoring ('Mark and agricultural and marine materials since the
Release') was devised by the UK Ministry of 1950s. Since 1986 its Science Division has
Agriculture which placed movement and undertaken a comprehensive monitoring
slaughter restrictions on those areas where programme for radioactivity in terrestrial
sheep showed levels of caesium above foodstuffs to confirm the effectiveness of the
1000 Bq/kg while allowing the marketing of controls for the routine release of low-level
sheep below this figure. Individual monitoring radioactive waste from 23 licensed nuclear sites
using a portable hand-held instrument was in England and Wales. Similar arrangements
carried out before any animal was allowed to apply in Scotland. The programmes are also
leave the farm. Sheep with levels above designed to check on possible accidental
1000 Bq/kg were marked with a special paint releases of radioactivity from nuclear sites. In
(changed every 3 months), enabling them to be mid-1996 cracks were detected in pipe welds in
moved under licence but not slaughtered. the nuclear reactors at Hinkley Point B in
Sheep moved to clean pasture reduced their Somerset and Hunsterton B in Ayrshire, but
caesium levels in a few weeks, the caesium without any leakage of radioactivity.
being excreted naturally. Close collaboration Immediate shut-down was ordered, this taking
with meat plants established which marked place in all such instances.
722 Meat Hygiene
Releases of low-level wastes can only be members of the population are exposed
made with the authority of the Chief Inspector should not, except in extreme accident
of HM Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) and situations, exceed the following:
the Minister of Agriculture under the
• Primary Intervention Level I: 5 mSv
Radioactive Substances Act of 1993. (millisieverts) as a result of dietary intake
Strict regulations also apply to the standards during the first 30 days following a
of construction and operation of nuclear power radioactive fall-out.
generators and other establishments where • Primary Intervention Level II: 5 mSv as a
radioactivity is generated, the protection of the result of dietary intake during the
public and the food chain being of paramount remaining part of the first year following
importance. a radioactive fall-out.
Results of the TRAMP and FARM • Primary Intervention Level HI: 1mSv per
programmes for 1997 showed that public year as a result of dietary intake during
exposure from anthropogenic radioactivity the second and subsequent years
due to consumption of milk and foodstuffs following a radioactive fall-out,
grown around licensed nuclear sites was well calculated as an average over several
within acceptable UK and EU limits, which years.
confirmed the adequacy of regulatory controls 3 There should be a set of common Nordic
applied to radioactive emissions from licensed Permanent DILs (Derived Intervention Levels)
nuclear sites. Sampling of milk, crops and for radionuc1ides in food, valid for normal,
animals was carried out for the nuclides of i.e. non-accident situations and identical to
tritium, carbon-14, sulphur-35, strontium-90, the Guideline levels laid down bv the Codex
caesium-137, plutonium-238, plutonium- Alimentarius Commission for foods in
239+240, plutonium-241 and americium-241. international trade as follows:
• 1 Bq/kg for the sum of plutonium-239,
Nordic model on food safety after nuclear americium-241 and corresponding
radionuclides (actinides) in milk and
accidents infant foods.
In 1988 a group of officials from the five Nordic • 10 Bq/kg for the sum of plutonium-239,
countries (Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark americium-241 and corresponding
and Iceland) designed a model for response to radionuclides (actinides) in all other
nuclear accidents which included foods.
recommendations on intervention levels in • 100Bq/kg for the sum of strontium-90,
food, their final report being made in April iodine-131 and corresponding
1991. radionuclides in milk and infant foods.
The Nordic Model was concerned with the • 100Bq/kg for the sum of strontium-90
protection of the individual and society at large and corresponding radionuclides in all
by the management of food supplies and food other foods.
safety after nuclear accidents through the • 1000Bq/kg for the sum of caesium-134,
production, distribution, sale and consumption caesium-137 and corresponding
of food and drink. The overriding aim was to radionuclides in milk and infant foods.
keep the radiation dose for the population as • 1000Bq/kg for the sum of iodine-131,
low as reasonably possible by the institution of caesium-134, caesium-137 and
appropriate countermeasures. corresponding radionuclides in all other
foods.
Recommendations A set of Nordic Emergency DILs for
1 Radiation doses to the population should be radionuclides should be set to come into effect
kept as low as reasonably possible. The when a country experiences a nuclear accident.
introduction of countermeasures should be These should apply for 30 days and replaced
optimised to ensure that the net result is within a maximum of 30 days by appropriate
beneficial to individuals and society. Intervention Levels.
2 The dose from all radionuclides in all Primary Intervention Levels (PIL): Maximum
foodstuffs in the diet to which individual upper levels of radiation doses which should
 Diseases Caused by Environmental Pollutants 723

not be exceeded. A reasonable maximum dose Nuclide: A species of atom defined by the charge,
level resulting from intake of food over a one- mass, number and quantum state of its
year period would be 1 mSv, the starting point nucleus.
of the Nordic Model. Radiation: Energy emitted by radionuclides as
The Primary Intervention Level for the first waves or streams of particles through space
30 days immediately following a nuclear or materials.
accident is set at 5 mSv, for the remainder of the Radionuclide: Unstable nuclide emitting ionising
first year after an accident the level is 5mSv and radiation.
in subsequent years 1 mSv as an average over
several years.
PILs provide a reasonable margin of safety. Units for the measure of radiation
Derived Intervention Levels (DILs): Maximum Bq (becquerel): SI unit of radioactivity - the
levels of radioactive substances in foodstuffs, quantity of a radionuclide that undergoes one
expressed in Bq/kg. Conversion of mSv per decay or transformation per second.
year to Bq/kg involves factors such as the C (coulomb): SI unit of exposure to radiation. 1
composition of the diet, the degree and coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) = 3876
distribution of radioactive contamination in the roentgen.
various types of foodstuffs. Gy (gray): SI unit of energy absorbed by a tissue
or substance, equal to the transfer of a joule of
energy per kg (1 J/kg) of absorbing material.
Glossary R (roentgen): Quantity of X or gamma ionising
Anthropogenic: Man-made. radiation in air. Superseded by coulomb.
Absorbed dose: Amount of energy given off by Sv (sievert): SI unit of radiation absorbed dose
ionising radiation to unit mass of material, equivalent, equal to the same biological effect
e.g. tissue. SI unit is gray (Gy). as 1 gray of high energy X and gamma
Activity: Amount or quantity of a radionuclide. radiation.
Describes the rate at which radioactive decay
takes place.
Cosmic rays: Ionising radiation from outer space
acting on the earth. REFERENCES
Dose: Amount of radiation received by materials
and tissues. Done, S. H. and Bain, M. (1993) Vet. Rec. 133, 600.
Dose equivalent: Quantity obtained by Humphries. D. J. (1988) Veterinary Toxicology, 3rd
multiplying the absorbed dose by a factor to edn. London: Balliere-Tindall.
allow for the different effectiveness of the Zakia, A. M., Osheik, A. A. and Halima, M. O. (1989)
various ionising radiations in causing harm to Vet. Rec. 125, 625-626.
living tissue. SI unit is sievert.
Fall-out: The radioactive fission products settling
on earth after the testing of nuclear weapons
or explosion at a nuclear plant. FURTHER READING
Isotope: Nuclide having the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons, Lucas, J. (1975) Our Polluted Food. London: Charles
that is, a different atomic mass. Knight.
 Chapter 21
Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback

The slaughter and inspection of large numbers Northern Ireland, this valuable source of
of food animals and poultry, besides providing information is, regrettably, not being fully
wholesome meat and offal for human exploited worldwide. Among the reasons for
consumption, can, through accurate diagnosis this deficiency are lack of coordination between
and recording, also contribute to the following those in charge of meat inspection, the
desiderata: traditional 'iron curtain' which exists between
1 Reduction of losses due to disease and injury the livestock production and slaughter/meat
through feedback to livestock producers and inspection in many countries, practical
practising veterinary surgeons. difficulties in slaughter line recording (e.g. fast
2 Demonstration of trends and variations in rail speeds, inadequate inspector manning
animal disease incidence due to husbandrv levels), traditional marketing systems and the
methods, season, geographical location, etc. - absence of a foolproof, efficient animal
3 Tracing of affected herds as part of national identification system - a major stumbling block.
disease control programmes.
4 Extent, cost and reasons for condemnations
due to disease and injury.
MEAT INSPECTION RECORDING
SYSTEMS
5 Use of information regarding animal housing
and husbandry, including breeding data, to
improve standards on the farm, including Many variations are in existence. Those
those of animal hygiene. countries which possess cooperative livestock/
meat systems, e.g. the Scandinavian countries,
6 Demonstration of certain subclinical
are better placed to organise an efficient
conditions.
recording and feedback of information to
7 Forecasting of disease outbreaks in producers.
conjunction with meteorological data.
Skovgaard (1990) has provided the ideal
8 Enhancement of the clinical competence of arrangement for an integrated meat hygiene
the practising veterinary surgeon regarding service in which data collection is an important
data on client's slaughtered stock, especially
function (Fig. 21.1).
casualty animals.
Information from the farm which would be
9 Provision for research investigations. of value to the meat inspectorate would include
10 Quality control check on inspection disease incidences; mortality and morbidity
standards. rates in livestock; use of antibiotics, hormones,
etc.; details of feed consumption; and results of
The meat plant has, therefore, an important laboratory investigations (microbiological,
role to play in epidemiology and preventive serological, chemical for residues).
veterinary medicine, not only in relation to Proper use of the data emanating from ante-
post-mortem findings but also following mortem inspection at thefarms of origin combined
examination of the live animal prior to with thefeedback of disease data from the meat plant
slaughter. to the farms is an essential part of a modern meat
Except for a few countries with efficient meat inspection service and the safety assurance of the
inspection services such as Sweden, Denmark, final product. Systems devoid of these essentials
Holland, Australia, New Zealand, USA and are basing carcase and offal judgements on

725
726 Meat Hygiene

- Central or
regional lab. -
Healthy
animals
Farm Slaughter house ~ 1. Special
Less stringent trading
Ante-mortem Ante-mortem control
farm inspection f-----+-j inspection Meat
Laboratory screening
for, e.g., antibiotics
inspection
Diseased
animals
I--
-- 2. Normal
trading

--
Normal or or
intensified control 1. Special
use
Central animal
health service
Data collection
and retrieval

Fig. 21.1 Flowsheet for an integrated 'meat hygiene' service. Investigations on, e.g. (1) death and disease
rate during rearing; (2) use of antibiotics, hormones, etc.; (3) feed consumption; (4) laboratory findings-
serological (bacteria, parasites), microbiological (pathogenic bacteria), chemical (residues). (After Skovgaard,
1990)

flimsy evidence and, by concentrating solely on visits by practising veterinary surgeons (who
visual procedures, are missing diseases of should also be informed of the disease
zoonotic importance, e.g. salmonellosis, findings), it is likely that preventive measures
campylobacteriosis, yersiniosis, giardiasis, liste- would be much more effective.
riosis.
Inherent in any scheme for the utilisation of
abattoir data is the need for precise diagnoses,
New Zealand
standard nomenclature for the diseases In 1974 the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture
encountered, and recognised forms of and Fisheries (NZMAF) commenced a
presentation of the disease data. There is no computerised system of meat inspection data
point in referring back vague or inaccurate recording as a quality control check on meat
information to livestock producers. Equally inspection procedures and to monitor 18
important is efficient identification of live conditions in cattle, sheep, pigs and goats
animals as well as of their carcases and offal, (Christiansen and Hellstrom, 1979). This
which must be correlated. The system in the programme ('Diseases and Defects' system)
abattoir must include full details of the carcase records the incidence of actinoform lesions,
and species, disease condition, part of carcase arthritis, bruises and wounds, caseous
affected, weight of meat and offal condemned lymphadenitis, contamination, C. boois, C. avis,
and, if necessary, be supplemented by the emaciation, pleurisy, facial eczema, faulty
results of laboratory examinations. The disease castration, neoplasms, pyogenic lesions,
conditions to be recorded should be of a type sarcocysts, septicaemic-like lesions, skin
that are readily identified, of economic lesions, tuberculosis and xanthoses.
importance in the animal health and/ or public Coloured tickets with the disease/defect in
health sphere and easily controllable. It is abbreviated form in consecutive numbers are
essential for the meat inspectorate to cooperate attached to the carcase from a dispenser.
fully in such a scheme. Condemned tickets are used for condemned
If the occurrence of abnormalities on post- whole carcases along with the disease/defect
mortem examination and the reference back to ticket. The total number of tickets in each class
producers were combined with subsequent is then recorded by a clerk.
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 727
Monthly returns of the number of cases and facilities for veterinary, food and water
condemnations in each disease category are investigations.
made by each plant to the NZMAF together
with the weekly kill figures. The disease/ defect
data are then punched on cards and the data are Canada
afterwards transferred to a master magnetic In the Food Production and Inspection Branch
tape for storage. of Agriculture Canada, all parts of carcases
Monthly reports are produced giving the condemned are recorded (with reason for
number of animals, by species and rejection) by direct computer data entry on the
geographical location, affected with each kill floor. All carcase condemnations, with the
condition, in addition to the number of total reason for seizure, are reported to the livestock
condemnations. producer concerned (Clarke 1989, personal
communication).
Some 73 disease conditions are currently
Sweden
being reported. Each meat plant submits
The Swedish Meat Hygiene Service has an monthly reports to headquarters in Ottowa for
extremely close liaison between meat entry into a data bank, summary sheets of
inspection, regional laboratories, livestock condemnation statistics being sent back to each
production and field veterinarians. Meat plant along with information for the region and
inspection is divided into primary and Canada as a whole in order to detect differences
secondary sections, the former dealing with in condemnation rates (which could be ascribed
control for human consumption and the latter to regional variations and/ or suspect
with the diagnosis of animal disease, its inspection standards). The data bank is also
feedback to the farmer and its utilisation in used to answer queries from producer groups,
disease prevention. The findings in meat research organisations, universities, etc. Several
inspection do not always involve forms in English and French are utilised to
condemnation of the carcase or parts of it; some provide extensive information on disease
serve to identify herds infected with respiratory entities. These include a Certificate of
diseases, mastitis, Salmonella, etc., so that Condemnation (whole and part carcases), a
eradication programmes can be initiated. In this copy of which is sent to the owner of the
way, healthier stock can be raised and the animal, one being retained on file; an Ante-
public can be protected from food poisoning. It mortem Screening Record (to record lots of
has been found that very small lesions in animals examined live); an Ante-mortem
certain organs, e.g. kidney and liver, may Veterinary Inspection Report (to transfer
indicate that toxins or other substances are information gained on ante-mortem inspection
present on the farm without the knowledge of to the meat inspection staff); and an Ante-
the farmer or the practising veterinary surgeon. mortem and Post-mortem Disposition Report
The Swedish Meat Inspection Service (to record pathological changes encountered at
cooperates very closely with the organised AM and PM).
Animal Health Service, which is established Codes are assigned to 130 disease conditions,
under the supervision of the Swedish Board of 48 carcase sites, 11 provinces and 24 species of
Agriculture and the National Food livestock which, in addition to cattle, sheep,
Administration. All diagnoses and information pigs, poultry and horses, include buffalo, deer,
from meat inspection are reported to the elk, moose, wild Russian boars, yaks, reindeer,
Animal Health Service and to the farmers. musk oxen and caribou.
-. Veterinary pathologists have been employed Specific instructions to meat inspection staff
since 1977 to work exclusively in the meat are provided for form completion to ensure
inspection sphere and 37 of the official uniformity of recording and to detect any major
microbiological control laboratories are headed differences in condemnation rates as well as to
by veterinarians, these laboratories being assess trends in disease incidence and to
distinct from the meat plant laboratories. establish any necessary disease control
During the last 10 years a special group of 11 measures.
laboratories has been established (the Swedish An overall picture of disease incidence as
Laboratory Service Ltd) which provides revealed by meat inspection is obtained by
728 Meat Hygiene
Canada's centralised service, which inspects ways, for example, although lung and pleura
some 97% of all meat products produced in lesions comprise about two-thirds of all
Canada, the remainder being the responsibility diagnoses and were increasing from 1964 to
of the Provincial Meat Inspection Service. All 1972, there has since been a steady fall in their
meat plants registered under the Federal Meat incidence and in the overall disease rate at
Inspection Act have a full-time veterinarian on slaughter.
site during operations. Zachrau (1992) has given details of three ID
systems (barcodes, 'vision' system using
slaughter numbers, and radiofrequency (RF)
tags) successfully used in Danish bacon
Denmark factories, all being based on pig ear marks.
Data banks containing meat inspection findings Computer-based on-line data capture systems
have been in operation in Denmark since 1964 have been used on slaughterlines since 1977 in
and in Sweden since 1970, similar arrange- almost all Danish bacon factories, the final data
ments applying in both countries. being conveyed to the Danish Agriculture EDP
The Danish Swine Slaughter Inspection centre for statistical production control and
System's aim is to create a method for the payment to the producer. The information
surveillance of health and disease in bacon pigs collected comprises meat inspection findings,
and to establish disease-control programmes. skatole content of entire male pigs, carcase
The system is facilitated by a direct form of classification and weights.
marketing through national farmers'
Barcode system Instead of marking
cooperative associations and uses slap marks
individual pigs (applies also to vision system
coded for individual farms on the pigs. A
and RP tags), each gambrel on which the pig is
centralised computer-based recording scheme
hung is permanently marked with an easily
for bacon factories utilises a uniform code of
read barcode label (2 to 5) printed on an
diagnoses to identify lesions causing partial
aluminium foil in a two-coloured serigraphy or
and total condemnation. These diagnoses are in
made as a laser-engraved aluminium plate in
the form of two-digit numbers which can be
two colours, both types protected by a heat-,
grouped into 20-25 disease categories made by
cold- and chemical-resistant enamel.
veterinarians.
The barcodes are read as they pass
Data from almost all the 12 million bacon
helium/neon laser scanners with a scanning
pigs slaughtered annually are stored and
frequency of 400 scans/second and with a built-
processed on the central computer, which
in fast microprocessor and specially developed
summarises the weekly data by herd at each
software. These scanners are located at eight
factory, monthly and yearly disease statistics by
specific points inspection, weighing,
bacon factory being provided by the Danish
sampling from entire pigs, classification,
Meat Research Institute at Roskilde.
sorting, dispatch, cutting/bacon. Should
Analysis of the disease data with the
reading quality of the codes fall below a certain
institution of control measures (herd health
limit, an alarm is activated. Gambrels after use
programmes, genetic selection, clinical trials,
are washed in an automatic washing machine
etc.) have proved very successful. It is accepted
and those with codes of poor reading quality
that in all abattoir disease data collection, the
are replaced. This system has the lowest overall
nature of the lesions detected is that of gross
cost but highest maintenance cost.
pathology resulting in partial or total
condemnation. Since diseases responsible for 'Vision' system Earlier trials with reading
high mortality are obviously not included, this stamp or brand marks on the actual carcases
limits this form of disease survey, making were unsatisfactory because bite and scrape
concurrent farm surveys essential for an overall marks interfered with readings, so a stainless
estimation of national disease incidence to be steel plate with a laser-cut ID number is welded
gained. on to the lower side of each gambrel. This
All the information from the Danish Swine number is illuminated by a special light and
Slaughter Inspection Data System is made recorded by a vision camera at each reading
available to the producers involved. They have station. An associated multiplexer control unit
benefited from control programmes in several converts the numbers into data signals for
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 729
transmission to the external computer system. Australian Bureau of Animal Health. This latter
The overall cost is high, but maintenance cost is maintains consolidated records on magnetic
low. tape for all regions, analysing the database and
providing printouts of herd histories and
RF-tags RF-tags or microchips (small
disease eradication activities.
radiotransmitters) are fitted in a hole in each
It is recognised in Australia that, although
gambrel and protected so as to withstand the
150°C of the singeing machine and the -40°C of meat plants and laboratories cannot provide a
true picture of national animal disease
refrigeration. This system has medium overall
incidence, they are of value in disease
cost and low maintenance cost.
All three systems are suitable for meat plant conditions not materially affected by sample
bias and as indicators of certain emerging,
use, although some differences exist between
them (Table 21.1) disease trends (Roe, 1979).
Using these systems, Danish bacon factories
are able to compile detailed statistics on carcase Northern Ireland
classification and meat inspection and relay this
The collection of meat inspection data was
information back to the producers. For cattle, a
instituted in 1969 following a survey in 1954-55
database has been established from which data
of mortality and morbidity on 623 farms and of
for individual animals from birth up to and
condemnations in 18 abattoirs (Gracey, 1960).
including slaughter can be obtained.
It is generally recognised that many specific
Quality control and traceability with certification
diseases are responsible for much economic
of meat plants and livestock producers will
loss in livestock and that accurate recording in
undoubtedly become essential requirements for the
the meat plant is an inexpensive method of
future as a result of supermarket and consumer
monitoring these. A computerised retrieval
demands.
system has been devised which links abattoir,
meteorological and economic data relating to
specific disease conditions since 1969 and
Australia
enables an ongoing assessment of important
A major part of the National Animal Disease production diseases to be made. For example,
Information Service is associated with the since 1976 there has been an overall increase in
collection of abattoir data, information also pig liver condemnations due to hepatic
being obtained from 18 veterinary diagnostic cirrhosis mainly caused by migrating Ascaris
laboratories, each of which has a minicomputer. suum larvae, despite the fact that this disease
Records are maintained on floppy disks at each was thought to be adequately controlled by
laboratory for all farms served by the laboratory, management and the fairly Widespread use of
with a central computer being located at the anthelmintics.

Table 21.1 Comparison of three ID systems according to Zachrau.

Barcode Vision RFtag

Resistance to dirt Low Medium High

Reading distance <lm <4m <15mm
Temperature stability Good Very good Good
Speed/ reading Medium Low Low-medium

Alphanumerical info.
Code 2 of 5 No. No Yes Yes
Resistance to chemicals Good Very good Good
Resistance to rime Fair Good Very good
Visually readable Yes Yes No
730 Meat Hygiene
Use of abattoir data has been made in for combatting animal disease and improving
relating disease incidence to weather conditions animal health'. This Committee also stated that
and in the forecasting of outbreaks. For information resulting from meat inspection
example, the incidence of pneumonia and records could provide valuable evidence of the
pleurisy in sheep has been shown to have incidence of disease in particular herds, in
statistically significant correlations with several particular areas, or in the country as a whole.
lagged weather variables, the most important Standardisation and increased accuracy of
being wind chill with a lag of 2 months (P records would enable comparisons to be made
<0.001) (McIlroy et al., 1989). Fascioliasis, a with individual abattoirs.
serious parasitic disease of great economic In a report to the UK Humane Slaughter
importance in many parts of the world, Association and Council of Justice to Animals,
including Northern Ireland, has been made the Rimmer (1989) found numerous anomalies in
subject of accurate forecasts, enabling the the recording of disease data in British
effective operation of control measures, by abattoirs. The paucity, inaccuracy and
integrating liver condemnations due to liver incompleteness of information was ascribed to
fluke with a concurrent meteorological inadequate meat inspector manning levels, fast
database (McIlroy, 1990). slaughter rates and substandard inspector
McIlroy and colleagues (1988) have also training. In addition to the economic effects, it
reported the development of an integrated was concluded that accurate meat inspection
computerised data analysis system for the records, properly applied at produce; level,
evaluation of diseases in food animals. This could also improve the welfare of food animals.
system combines databases containing abattoir It was found, however, that livestock owners
pathology, meteorological and economic data rarely utilised these records, believing them not
and allows the monitoring of economically to be cost-effective. This was considered to be
important diseases in cattle, sheep and pigs in associated with the provision of doubtful
Northern Ireland. Data have been held since diagnoses. Rimmer also reported on the causes
January 1969 and reports are available in both of condemnations at a poultry plant and found
tabular and graphical formats. Figures are that half the birds were rejected for 'oedematous
available on some 20 diseases and oviduct', a condition of rare occurrence and a
contamination in relation to partial and total doubtful cause of total condemnation.
carcase seizures as well as all types of offal. It has to be recognised that, in the United
These authors indicate that accurate abattoir Kingdom, the feedback of disease data from
pathology data can provide an effective and meat plants to farms of origin is as yet a rare
inexpensive method of disease surveillance in occurrence, but it is beginning to be applied in
livestock. the poultry sector in which ante-mortem farm
A national meat inspection recording system inspection is now taking place.
has been devised utilising forms for each In Great Britain no national meat inspection
abattoir from which weekly return is made, all records are as yet available. Only limited
the resulting data being analysed at the information is on hand from the annual records
Department of Agriculture's headquarters in of Community Health Officers on the weight of
Belfast. Detailed disease data are available on meat and offal rejected as unfit for human
the incidence of several major diseases and the consumption and the percentage of carcases
main reasons for condemnations of carcases totally or partially condemned for various
and offal in the various species of livestock in diseases. With the setting up of the Meat
nine abattoirs (slaughtering cattle and sheep), Hygiene Service on 1 April 1995, this situation
five bacon factories and nine poultry plants. will undoubtedly change.
A valuable review of some animal diseases,
encountered at meat inspection in England and
Meat plant statistics
Wales during 1969-78 was provided by Blamire
In 1951 the Oake Interdepartmental Committee et al. (1980). During this period there was a
on Meat Inspection in Great Britain reported significant decrease in condemnations due to
that 'abattoirs can and should play a part in fascioliasis, an increase in losses caused by
disseminating knowledge about animal disease bruising, with abscesses in livers responsible for
and also provide assistance to those responsible considerable losses in cattle and sheep.
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 731
Ascariasis and hydatidosis continued to be Tuberculosis was not correlated with any
important reasons for lung and liver rejection, other disease condition, but scabies was
while pneumonia and pleurisy had a high positively correlated with white spot liver.
incidence in pigs and adult cattle. In a previous Examples of diseases currently being
paper, Blamire et al. (1970) suggested that an monitored on selected farms supplying
efficient meat inspection service had an livestock to several abattoirs in England and
important contribution to make in the Scotland by the Meat and Livestock
monitoring of animal disease, especially of Commission include (for sheep) liver fluke,
chronic and ill-defined conditions which are not abscess (liver, lung, thoracic cavity), bruising, C.
apparent to the farmer but are of considerable ienuicollis, hydatid cysts and yellow
economic and public health importance. discoloration; (for cattle) liver fluke, abscess
Loss of liver in lambs due to the presence of (carcase and offal), C. bovis, bruising and warble
liver fluke and taeniasis (mainly C. ienuicolliss fly; (for pigs) ascariasis, abscess (carcase),
have been reported to be costing a meat plant at arthritis, bruising and pneumonia (Pratt, 1979).
Cullompton in Devon, England, in the region of Accurate diagnoses, standardisation of
£1000 a week (11 pence a lamb). The average disease nomenclature, adequate inspection
annual throughput of this plant is 450000 lambs manning levels, suitable methods of on-line
and the incidence of tapeworm cysts is about recording, proper meat inspector training and a
8%. This particular company took action by centralised veterinary meat inspection service
informing its suppliers of these findings. Advice are essential components of an efficient disease
offered on the control of tapeworms in dogs has data retrieval and feedback system.
shown good results (Farmer's Weekly 1984). Hill (1988) detected major differences in
In Scotland, Cuthbertson (1983) carried out a condemnation rates and causes of rejection in
sheep disease surveillance based on different parts of the United Kingdom, many of
condemnations at three abattoirs over a period these being occasioned by a lack of these
of 3 years. Carcase condemnations were mainly requisites. This author examined pig abattoir
due to arthritis, abscesses and emaciation, with records from four regions in the UK and found
percentages (of the total kill) of 0.7%, 0.2% and them inadequate for the following reasons:
0.1 %, respectively, as averages for the whole 1 Lack of standardised reasons for carcase
period. Viscera condemned were condemnations.
predominantly livers (5.5%) because of
2 Weight of condemned meat and offal not
abscesses, liver fluke and 'other parasitism' included.
(mainly C. tenuicollis) and lungs (2.2%) due to
pneumonia, pleurisy and parasitism. Muellerius 3 Comparison between abattoirs impossible.
capillaris was the main cause of lung parasitism. 4 Ante-mortem data not available.
In Norway, Flesja and Ulvesaeter (1980) 5 Unnecessary restriction of availability of
analysed the post-mortem data from 254342 records for interested parties.
bacon pigs. The following conditions were
found to be of importance: It was concluded that the whole system of
meat inspection recording and transmission of
1 Pyaemia and abscesses with tail lesions, information required urgent attention if it was
severe pneumonia and anaemia. to contribute to pig production, abattoir
2 Pyaemia with polyarthritis and claw lesions. operations and animal welfare. Not only could
3 Atrophic rhinitis with all recorded chest such information form the basis of animal
lesions and perihepatitis. health/zoonoses preventive schemes, it would
4 Severe pneumonia accompanied by pleurisy, also enable research to be directed along
pericarditis and numerous 'whitish spots' in practical lines and thereby reduce the huge
the liver. losses incurred in animal disease and injury.
5 Marked pneumonia with polyarthritis and
other liver lesions.
6 Pleurisy with pericarditis, peritonitis and
Northern Ireland
other liver lesions. The main reasons (in order of importance) for
7 Lesions of the tail with anaemia, marked condemnations in cattle, sheep and pigs are
pneumonia, polyarthritis and arthritis. given in Tables 21.2, 21.3 and 21.4.
732 Meat Hygiene
Ta ble 21.2 CATTLE. Reasons for carcase condemnations, N . Irela nd , 1995.
Bovine kill: 45 1780.
Condemnations : Total: 4205 (0.93% of kill)
Carcases: 873 (20.8% of total condemn ations; 0.19"·:' of kill)
Pa rts: 3332 (79.2"/0 of tota l condemn ations; 0.74% of kill)

Reaso n Carcases % of tota l Parts '}" of total

1 Oedema 199 4.7 32 0.8

2 Feve r/ sep ticae mia 169 <.0
3 Abscesses /pyaemia 112 2.7 <83 11.3
< Gastritis/ peri tonitis 58 lA 19 05
5 Pneumonia / pleu risy 36 0.9 2 0.05
6 Tumours 35 0.8 10 0.2
0.8 1.0
7
8
9
Tuberculosis
Emacia tio n
Imperfect bleeding
32
30
18
0.7
0..
"
10 Arthritis 17 0.. m 11..,\
11 Bruising 12 0.3 1316 31.3
12 Nephritis/nephrosis 12 0.3
13 Uraemia 10 0.2
1< Actinobacillosis 2 0.05 3 0.07
15 Pa rasitic diseases 2 0.05
16 Pericarditis 2 0.05
17 Miscellaneous 127 30.20
Tot als 873 20.8 (3332) (79.2)
Per cen t of total kill 0.19 0.7

Tab le 21.3 SH EEP. Reasons for carcase condemnations, N . Ireland, 1995.

Sheep kill: 637356
Condemnations: Total: 4107 (0.64%, of kill)
Carcases: 813 (19.8% of total condemnations; 0.13% of kill )
Pa rts: 3294 (80.2% of total condemnations; 0.32% of kill )

Reason Carcases % of tota l Parts % of total

Oed ema 118 2.9 11 0.3

Pneumonia/ pl e urisy 118 2.9 11 0.3
2 Em aciation 11< 2.8
3 Arthriti s 113 2.8 2086 50.8
< Fever/septicaemia 111 2.7
5 Abscesses /pyaemia 66 1.6 605 14.7
6 Imperfect bleeding 21 0.3 157 3.8
7 Peritonitis 19 0.5
Contamination 19 0.3 .8 1.2
8 Ncphritis/nephrosis 12 0.3
Uraemia 12 0.3
10 Bru ising 9 0.2 273 6.6
11 Parasitic diseases 6 0.15
Tumours 6 0.15
12 Decomposition 6 0.15 5 0.1
13 Miscellaneous 63 13.3 38 0.9
Totals: 813 19.80 (3294) 80.2
Per cent of tota l kill 0.13 0.52
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 733
Table 21.4 PIGS. Reasons for carcase condemnations, N. Ireland, 1995.
Total kill 1040888
Condemnations: Total: 15288 (1.50% of kill)
Carcases: 6766 (44.3% of total condemnations; 0.7% of kill)
Parts: 8522 (55.7% of total condemnations; 0.8% of kill)

Reason Carcases % of total Parts % of total

1 Abscesses / pyaemia 2485 16.3 2259 14.8

2 Arthritis 1086 7.1 5115 3.50
3 Pneumonia / pleurisy 617 4.0
4 Fever / septicaemia 514 3.4
5 Peritonitis 390 2.6
6 Imperfect bleeding 122 0.8
7 Bruising 42 0.3 894 5.8
8 Oedema 38 0.2
9 Emaciation 37 0.2
10 Contamination 26 0.2 60 0.4
11 Pericarditis 21 0.1
12 N ep hritis / nephrosis 15 0.1
13 Uraemia 15 0.1
14 Tumours 13 0.09
15 Miscellaneous 1345 8.80 213 1.4

Totals 6766 44.30 (8522) 55.7

Per cent of total kill 0.65 0.82

Cattle Sheep
Generalised oedema, fever/septicaemia and Oedema, pneumonia/pleurisy, emaciation,
abscesses/pyaemia continued to be a major cause arthritis, fever/septicaemia and abscesses/
of total carcase condemnations with bruising the pyaemia caused most condemnation.
main reason for seizure of parts of carcases.
Contamination did not result in total carcase
condemnations but was a significant cause of
Pigs
partial condemnation and even more so of offal, In terms of whole-carcase condemnations,
an indication that the standard of cleanliness of oedema, pneumonia/pleurisy, emaciation,
livestock presented for slaughter leaves a lot to arthritis and fever/septicaemia are the major
be desired. causes of pigmeat loss. But when partial
Fascioliasis, affecting 31.6% of the total kill, is condemnations are taken into account, the most
still a serious source of loss of edible liver, as serious condition is undoubtedly arthritis.
well as of loss of condition, deaths and Abscesses and pyaemia, resulting from wounds
abortions in cattle. If the liver condemnations of various types with resulting infection, are an
classed as 'cirrhosis' are added, the incidence of indication that attention should be paid to
liver fluke becomes 34.2%. proper handling and sterile injection methods.
Neoplasia, mainly as enzootic bovine When compared with the condemnations
leukosis, was responsible for the seizure of 35 recorded in Northern Ireland in 1954-55 (Graceu,
carcases and numerous organs, revealing an 1960), the causes, apart from tuberculosis - an
incidence of 0.04 of the total animals important disease in cattle and pigs at that time -
slaughtered. are virtually the same today.
Tuberculosis was responsible for the seizure Faecal contamination was responsible for
of 36 carcases and 76 parts besides being considerable loss of offal, resulting from
encountered in many organs - an indication of transference of dirt from hides / fleeces / skins
the difficulty experienced in its total and the possible rupture of stomachs and
eradication. intestines during evisceration.
734 Meat Hygiene
It is interesting to note that the highest rate of The high rate of birds found dead on arrival
carcase meat condemnation takes place in pigs, was ascribed to severe stress occasioned by
with the least in sheep, and cattle assuming an rough methods of catching and transportation.
intermediate position, surely a reflection of The use of mechanical harvesters for catching
respective husbandry methods. and modular systems for transport have been
shown to reduce this high rate and subsequent
downgrading of carcases. Mechanical
Poultry disease statistics harvesters, however, are only suitable for use in
Yogaratnam (1995) analysed the causes of relatively large poultry houses.
carcase rejection at a poultry processing plant in Coli septicaemia, which includes peri-
England receiving approximately 3,365 million carditis, perihepatitis and air sacculitis, the
birds from 87 broiler units in 1992. Carcase most common cause of condemnation,
rejection rates of 3% or more were recorded in accounted for almost 43%.
birds from 13.2% of the rearing houses Diseases of the musculoskeletal system are
distributed among 48% of the growing units. an important economic and welfare problem in
Higher rejection rates occurred in the units with broilers, as evidenced by the percentage of joint
an average flock size of over 100000 birds and lesions (0.31%) and emaciation (19.45%) due to
from rearing houses of more than 30000 birds. inability to feed. Leg weakness probably also
The main causes of condemnation were dead contributes to the development of hock burn
on arrival, disease and miscellaneous condi- and breast blisters.
tions, the most common disease being coli septi- Fluid pericarditis (1.01%) is a septicaemia
caemia (Tables 21.5, 21.6). which may be caused by a variety of
microorganisms, including S. enteritidis.
Table 21.5 Reasons for rejection of broiler carcases Yogaratnam estimates, based on these
(Yogaratnam, 1995). findings, that the British broiler industry is
currently losing £16.5 million annually because
Cause % of total slaughter of disease.
Dead on arrival 0.24
Disease conditions 1.57 Use of abattoir data in epidemiology
Miscellaneous conditions 0.28 The use of pathological data from meat plants
Total 2.09
can be used to evaluate the epidemiological
aspects of certain diseases (see above).
In Northern Ireland, a recent study (Goodall
et al., 1993) examined the monthly percentage
Table 21.6 Reasons for rejection of broiler carcases condemnations in slaughter pigs due to
from farms with high rejection rates. (Yogaratnam, pneumonia and pleurisy for each of the 21
1995). years since 1969. Combining the data with a
0/
meteorological database, it was shown that
'0

Disease of total rejects

while there was no consistent seasonal pattern
in the percentage of lung condemnations, in
Pericarditis / perihepatitis / air sacculitis 42.80 general maximum levels occurred in
Septicaemia/ toxaemia 29.63
midsummer and minimum levels in midwinter.
Predictable seasonal patterns were found for all
Emaciation 19.45 the major weather variables. The average
Ascites 5.91 monthly air temperature correlated in most of
H ydropericardium/ pericarditis 1.01 the 21 years with the percentage of lung
Skin lesions 0.62 condemnations, this being possibly due to the
Joint lesions 0.31 increased levels of ammonia and dust in pig
houses. A decrease in lung condemnations
Jaundice 0.16
between 1979 and 1984 may have been due to
Tumours 0.11 the introduction of new antibiotics. Between
1985 and 1989, however, there was a significant
Total 100.00 increase in lung condemnations which
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 735
corresponded with the increased identifications • To be applied before animals leave holding.
of Actinobacillus (Haemophilus) pleuropneumoniae • Must not be removed or replaced without
in Northern Ireland, a situation which also competent authority permission.
obtained elsewhere in the United Kingdom. • Illegible or lost marks must be replaced with
new approved marks and so recorded in
register.
• Ear tags to be approved, tamper-proof, easy
IDENTIFICATION AND REGISTRATION to read, incapable of re-use and animal-
OF ANIMALS welfare-friendly.

In the European Union, the minimum Cattle All cattle born after 1 October 1994
requirements for the identification and must have a tag in the right ear within 36 hours
registration of animals are contained in Council of birth for dairy calves and 30 days for other
Directive 92j102jEEC of 27 November 1992 for calves or when the calf is moved off the holding
the purposes of: of origin if earlier.
The code consists of a country code, e.g.
1 Veterinary and zootechnical checks in intra-
Community trade in certain live animals and UK for United Kingdom, herd mark and a
products. five-digit individual number for each animal.
The total number of characters must not
2 Veterinary checks on animals entering the
Community from Third Countries. exceed 14.
3 Management of certain Community Aid Cattle records Information required: date of
agriculture schemes. birth, death, movement or ear tag loss, ear tag
4 Rapid and efficient exchange of information number, breed, age, sex, dam's official
between Member States. identification. Replacement ear tag number (if
5 Keeping of records of animals on holdings necessary). Premises from which moved with
and records of dealings. name and address of person from whom
6 Rapidand accurate tracing of animals. delivery was taken. Premises to which moved
with name and address of person taking
The Directive refers primarily to cattle, the delivery.
marking of sheep, pigs, goats and buffalo being Records to be kept for 10 years and made
left to a later date. available to authorised inspectors on request.
(The relevant legislation for Great Britain is For movements to a market or
the Bovine Animals (Records, Identification slaughterhouse, a movement document (to
and Movement) Order 1995.) travel with the animals) must be completed
containing the farmer's name and address,
address of destination, date of movement and
Registration and identification each animal's ear tag number.
requirements
Pigs Pigs require some form of identification,
ARTICLE 3 Up-to-date list of all holdings with e.g. a paint mark, a tattoo (including slapmark
details of species of animals, keepers and tattoos) or an ear tag for every movement. This
marks. Exceptions: Holdings with only 3 sheep mark must be recorded in the on-farm
or 3 goats or 1 pig kept for own use or movement record and on the movement
consumption. document. Pigs for export require an ear tag or
Holdings include farms, markets, tattoo bearing the country code and the herd
slaughterhouses, showgrounds, zoos and city mark as well as an individual number.
farms. Pig Records All off-farm movements require
a movement document which in the UK will act
ARTICLE 4 Register of all cattle and pigs with
as a licence under the Movement and Sale of
records of all births, deaths (except for pigs)
Pigs Order. Details of the health status of the
and movements.
pigs is required along with the number to be
Register of all sheep and goats and their
moved, their description, ID marks and
movements.
addresses of premises from which and to which
ARTICLE 5 Identification marks: moved.
736 Meat Hygiene
Sheep and goats All holdings with sheep and Purposes of identification
goats are now registered on a central record.
1. Disease control
They must be marked in such a way that
holding of origin can be traced. On export they The present system of ID of cattle was
must be marked with a tag or tattoo indicating introduced for this specific purpose, mainly in
country of origin and flock of origin. relation to the eradication of bovine
Although EC Directive 92/102 requires all tuberculosis and brucellosis.
sheep and goats to be permanently marked An essential element in the control of any
with an ear tag or tattoo for movements within animal disease is the need to quickly identify
Great Britain, a national system of identification the origin of the animalts), in-contacts and any
is allowed as an alternative to permanent premises through which it (they) may have
marking. passed. Foot-and-mouth disease and classical
swine fever are two conditions of importance in
Information required Total number of sheep this connection.
and goats on holding to be recorded annually, Efficient animal identification allows tracing
the number of female sheep and goats over 12 forwards and backwards in establishing the
months of age or which have given birth and all origin of disease outbreaks and their
movements of sheep or goats, stating the dissemination. Systematic screening using
holding of origin, destination, identifying mark laboratory tests is made possible.
and date of movement. Animals which have been vaccinated in
national programmes can quickly be identified.
Marking of sheep and goats It is not Animal identification is necessary where
necessary to mark sheep and goats until they import controls operate to prevent the
leave the holding of origin, except for export introduction of exotic diseases. This becomes
when ear tags or tattoos are necessary. These
even more important with the advent of the
require the country code, e.g. UK for United European Single Market and the abolition of
Kingdom, and the flock mark allocated by the border controls, the latter being regarded by
local Animal Health Office, e.g. UK AH 1234.
many experts as an unduly hasty decision. A
For tags and individual numbers, a P must be
measure of the amazing spread of certain exotic
inserted between the flock mark and the
diseases is the current presence in Europe of
individual number to avoid confusion with
rabies, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia,
cattle which carry a similar code.
African horse sickness and African swine fever
For a national system of identification for
- diseases which were previously confined to
movements within GB, it is proposed that
Africa or Asia.
sheep and goats be marked with an ear tag,
tattoo, horn brand, paint mark or combination.
A movement document giving details of date of
movement, address from and to which the 2. Individual herd health and petjormance
animals are moving, number of animals and
A reliable system of recording histories of
identifying marks has been proposed subject to
animals and groups of animals is essential for a
approval by the European Commission.
successful herd health programme.
Sheep and goat records Information required: At present most breeding programmes in all
Annual stock take, e.g. at tupping, dipping or species are carried out in a haphazard manner.
shearing. Number of sheep eligible for premium Selection of sires is mainly based on production
payments. Records must be kept for 3 years, and performance, e.g. 2000 gallons (10000 litres) in
following permanent movement off the holding, first lactations of dams and daughters for dairy
for a further 3 years. bulls. In all species there is an emphasis on
phenotype rather than genotype. Yet many
animal diseases are known to be hereditary in
ARTICLE 10 origin and it is likely that more will be added to
The possibility of introducing electronic the list in the future.
identification to be decided by the European Animal health and production data
Commission not later than 31 December 1996 in considered necessary to assess herd
the light of progress achieved by the ISO. performance can be collected with an efficient
 Disease Data Retrieval and Feedback 737

ID system linked to a computer-based zoonoses, meat inspection findings, etc.,

recording system. otherwise any subsequent legal action could be
A proper tamper-proof system of jeopardised.
identification which would overcome current
defects was recommended by the Wilson
Committee in 1990, set up to review existing 4. Meat inspection
systems of cattle identification, milk recording An important source for the promotion of
and genetic evaluation in the United Kingdom. public health and animal health is the meat
They reported as follows: plant where accurate diagnoses are made.
The unique identification of every (bovine) Disease and injury in the food animals cause
animal in the United Kingdom is fundamental huge economic losses throughout the world
to livestock improvement. The identity of the besides being responsible for serious food-
animal is the primary source of information for poisoning outbreaks in man.
all subsequent records. At the farm level, this Information on the extent of many of these
unique identification is vital for management losses is provided in many countries, e.g.
and disease control purposes, but at the genetic Australia, Canada, Denmark, Holland, New
level animal identification is required to enable Zealand, Northern Ireland, Sweden and the USA.
the data from all related cattle to be assembled As yet, however, full use is not being made of
and collated so that breeding values can be disease data retrieval and feedback to
ascribed to cows and bulls alike.
The ability to identify every animal uniquely producers to control animal disease and
in the country would have enormous benefits for prevent zoonoses. Still less information is
the cattle industry. It would enable a 'log book' to available from the farm to assist the meat
be maintained for every animal so that each time inspectorate in the diagnosis of disease and
an event occurred (such as sale to another carcase judgement.
farmer) the database could be updated. Such a
procedure would enable the protection of the
industry from adverse criticism to disease 5. Animal welfare
outbreak or potential human health risk. Such a Animal welfare violations of whatever form
methodology would provide the industry with would be more conclusively dealt with were
an unprecedented tool for animal management,
animal health and animal movement control. In efficient animal ID available.
the wider EEC context it would reduce fraud. For
this reason, we consider it probable that a 6. Trade, consumer confidence and fraud
harmonised system of animal identification and
animal travel documentation will become Efficient animal identification can be considered
mandatory by EEC regulations. as the key to unlocking all the information
For the reasons stated above, a database required for a successful and profitable
containing all information on all UK cattle producer-retailer-consumer relationship.
would be a national asset and would perform It can be utilised by the producer to improve
many functions 'for the public good'; it would his efficiency, by the marketeer to enhance his
contain information of value not only for
individual farmers but also for the whole of the business, by the retailer as part of his quality
cattle industry and the consuming public. assurance and by the statutory bodies that
(See Wilson Committee Report 1991, below.) oversee the whole marketing cycle.
Fraud, which is rife in certain parts of the
animal and food industry, not least in the
European Union, should be reduced, along
3. Public health with the trade in unfit meat, with the
EC Council Directive 86/469 concerning the introduction of tamper-proof ID linked to bar
examination of animals and fresh meat for the coding and trace-back systems.
presence of residues and EC Directive 85/358
which deals with substances having a
hormonal and thyrostatic action provide for
Current systems of identification and
sampling at the farm and the abattoir.
limitations
The need for efficient identification is These vary to some extent in the different
obvious in this area and in others such as species and include metal and plastic ear tags,
738 Meat Hygiene
plastic leg and tail bands, freeze marks and The essential components of an electronic ID
hoof brands, sketch cards and passports (cattle), system are a means of encoding the required
marking aerosols and paints, horn branding information on a microchip and applying it (in
and ear notching (sheep), ear tags, slap imprints this case to an animal), and a reader/scanner and
and tattoos (pigs). software to feed the data to a computer. In the
All these methods are considered case of live identification, it is envisaged for
unsatisfactory for the following reasons: practical purposes that with an implanted
microchip or transponder, a hand-held
1 Liability to damage.
reader / scanner with a visual display unit
2 Ease of removal, either accidental or (VDU) will be adequate, except where
malicious.
specialised information is required.
3 Difficulty of reading, especially when The reader/scanner is applied to, or
damaged or dirty. reasonably close to, the encoded microchip,
4 Limitation to a single number, or number plus which is usually implanted subcutaneously in
letter. the animal. Where a greater distance from the
S Confusion liable between digits, e.g. 3 and 8, animal is necessary, a RF tag is used. In this case
4 and 6. the tag contains a transponder as a tiny
6 Exclusive use on the farm - of limited value transmitter/receiver which sends out signals
when animal leaves the farm. automatically when the correct interrogation is
7 Liability to infection, especially with metal received. These RF tags have many applications
ear tags. in industry, healthcare and farming, for
8 Possible welfare problem with insertion of tag example, for automatic feeding of cattle,
into sensitive appendage, with or without poultry and pigs.
subsequent infection. The injectable microchip (semiconductor
9 Use of ear contraindicated because of transponder) consists of a tiny transmitter and
resistance by animal. antenna. When the scanner or read-out unit is
10 Being currently under producer control, liable brought close to the transponder, the latter is
to misuse. charged with energy and transmits its ID
number on the scanner's display unit. For the
implanted chip to function properly it must be
hermetically-sealed and cause no reaction in the
Electronic identification of livestock
tissues or discomfort to the animal. It is vital
The development of an efficient, tamper-proof that the transponder does not migrate or break
electronic system of animal identification in the tissues. It is also essential that all
(envisaged in Directive 92/102/EEC) providing microchips are retrieved from the carcases on
positive identification with name of owner and completion of recording.
address, and (for cattle) number of animal, HB
number, date of birth, sex, breed, name of dam
and sire is considered essential for disease Cattle databases and passports
control and genetic improvement purposes as
well as the prevention of fraud. Several countries, notably Denmark and
Such a system must be combined with a Northern Ireland, already possess systems of
record of animal movements. bovine identification with details of movements
Automatic identification technology has (passports) recorded on a central government
made great strides in less than 20 years and is computerised database. Any deficiency lies in
utilised in many different industries, e.g. the actual identification of the individual
retailing, warehousing and distribution. The animal.
bar code used for the pricing of individual retail In the UK, the Wilson Committee advocated
items is the main technology, but many other in 1991 that a central Cattle Data Centre (CDC)
techniques are available such as magnetic be established in the United Kingdom with the
stripe, radiofrequency (RF) tagging, machine purpose of linking together and coordinating:
vision, smart cards and voice recognition. All (a) All existing cattle databases.
these systems are capable of feeding (b) Cattle identification on a unique number
information from a microchip into a computer. basis.
 Disease Data Reirieool and Feedback 739
(e) Ca ttle ancestry an d its valida tion . H ill, J. R. (1988) MMt Inspection Records and Their USl'.
(d) All milk reco rding to the In te rn ationa l A Need for Chal/ge? Potters Bar, Herts: H um ane
Com m ittee fo r Animal Record ing (lCA R) Slaughter Association.
standards, including DIY reco rding. Mcllroy, S. G . t! al. (1988) Computers and Electrollies ill
AgriCllltllrt, Vol. 3, p. 147. Ams terdam: Elsevter
(e) Beef recording. Science.
(0 Cenettc evalua tion of cattle . Mcllrov, S.G. et al. (1989) Vet. Rec. 125, 79.
(g) Linear assessment of cattle. ~kllrov, S. G. et al. (1990). P m 't'l l t . Vtt. Mtd. 9. 27.
Pratt, f H. (1979) Mm! Hygienist 16, 25.
Rimmer, 11. (1989) Mm t Inspection RLrords. Their US("
ill Promoti"g A uimal Wt1fa rt'. Potters Bar. Humane
REFERENCES Slaughter Association.
Roe, R. T. (1979) Proc. l nd lilt. Synrp. Veterinary
Blamire. R. V. t'l al. (1970) Yet. Rec. 97, 2-13. Epidemiology and Economics, pp. 26-34.
Blamire, R. V. et al. (1980) Vet. Ree. 106, 195. Sko vga a rd . N . (1990) Proc. Round Table COIlf.. World
Chnstiansc n, K. H. and Hellstrc m. }. S. (1979). Proc. A ssociatioll f or Yetrrillary Food HYKit'lIe. TIlt'
211d 1"1 . Symp. Yeterintlry Epidemiology and Scienlific Basis for Harmonising Trade ill Red Meat
Economics, p. -17. {Hannan, J. and Co llins, J. D., cds), Dublin .
Cuthberts on, J. C. (1983) Vet. Rec. 112, 219. The Wilso n Comm ittee Report (1990) Sub m itted
Farmer's Wt'i'kly (198-1) 3 Au gust, p. -16. January 1991. Professor P.N. Wilson, Chairman.
Flesja , K. I. and Ulvesacter. H. O . (1980) Acta Vel . Yogara tnam , V. (1995) Yt't. Roe. 137, 215-217.
Set/lid. 74 (Su p pl. 7-1). Zachrau, R. (1992) Danish Meat Resea rch Instit ute
Goodall, E. et al. (1993) Yet. Rec. 132, 11- 1-1. Manuscript no. I0 16E.
C recc y, J. F. (1960) SlInry of Lil.'I.'stllck DiSt'a~ ill
Northern lreland. Belfast: HM SO.
 Appendix I
By-products of th e UK Meat Industry

Raw by-products

Edible raw blood Plasma and red cells Adhesive for sausages, esc, blood
sausages o r pudding
Inedible raw blood Blood meal Adhesive for hvestcc k and poultry feed ,
pertocd , fertili~r. glues. fodm fire
f'lCtinguishe rs
Blood albumen leather prepa ration, mo rdant
Edible raw fat Ed ib le fat Fryi ng purposes (s ue t, Lard)
Oleo oil Shortening
Oleostearin Candy. chewing gum
C racklings Petfood, meae meal
Inedible raw fat Inedible fat Adhesives for livestock and poultry feed,
lubricants, soap candles, g lycer in,
biodegradable oi ls. liquid detergen ts
Inedible raw mat eri al, mixed Inedible fat 5,,,,-
Condemne..... material and whole ~I e<lt and bone meal L ivestock a nd poultry feed
condemned carcases
Raw bone class ified as edible Edible fat Shol'tt'[Link]
Bone pieces Bone gelatin, bone meal, tallow, pe tfood
Raw bo ne clas sified as inedible Ined ible fa t St'I"<lbtJl'f'
Bone pieces Bone g lue, bo ne me al, buttons, handles
Cattle fed :-<'eaKfool oil Fine lubricant s
Peet a nd meal Bone rnealIallow, gl ut's, gelati n, 'd o g
chews /, buttul1s, cow -heel j<'lly
Mea l Tallow
Peer Possible edible use
Pig feet reel Edible use
Meal Fe rtilisers, ~]Ul'S, gelatin
Horns and hooves Extrac ted protein Foam fire extmg utshers
Mea l Mixed with live stock feed, fertilisers
H orns, hooves Buttons, handles, d c.
Stomach ((011111')
Rumen Edible tripe Edi ble use
[Rende red] Pet fcod, mea l meal
Reticulum Edibl e tripe Edible use
Perfood . meat meal
Omasum Petfood , meat meal
Abomasum Pet food , mea l meal, rennet (from s uckling
calves)

741
742 Meat Hygiene

Raw by-products Processed by-prod ucts Use

Stomach (sheep)
Ru m en Edible tripe Edible use, haggis casings
Reticulum, omasum, abomasum Petfood, meal meal
Stom ach (pig) Processing and manufacture, pelfood,
pepsin, haggis casings, ch itterlings
Hide (cattle) Prewashed hide leather goods, collagen casings
Ha ir Felt, upholstery
Trimmings (inedible) Fertilisers
Hide (sheep) Pelt Woo lskins, rug s, clothing, chamois leat hers
Wool Textiles, upholstery
Hide (pigl Tanned skin Leath er goods
Gelatin Jellied food products
Large in testines (catt le and sheep) Rendered \leat meal
Colon, caecum, rectum (pig) Edible use Chi tterlings
Rendered Meat meal
Small intestines (cattle) Casings, surgical sutures, heparin
Small intes tines (sheep) Me a t meal, casings, surgical sutures, tenn is
racket strings
Rend ered Meat meal
Small intestines (pig) Casings, heparin
Oesophagus Casings, meal meal
Trach ea :\ Ieal meal
Mammary gland (cattle) Meat me al, petfood, pharmaceuticals
Mamma ry gland (pig) :\ leat meal
Chee k and head trimmings Meat products, sa u sages
(cattle an d pigs )
Lungs Pctfood, heparin
Tongue As tongue, processing
Brains Edible
Heart Edible
Live r Edible, p ha rmaceuticals
Diaphragm (cattle) (thic k Edible, processing
and thin skirt)
Spleen As spleen, pet food, processing
Tall As tail
Kid ney (cattle) As kidney, processing
Kid ney (sheep] As kidney
Kidn ey (pig) As kidney
Bl"dder \ leat meal, tallow (not pig)
Gall Cleani ng agent in leather manufacture,
paints, dyes, pharmaceuticals
Gallstones Pharmaceuticals
Spinal cord (catt le) Meal meal, pharmaceuticals
Gen ital o rgans M t'i11 meal, pharmaceuticab
Pancreas (cattle and pigs) Insulin
Pitu itary, th ym us. thyroid (cattle) Pharmaceuticals
 Index

~ ol ~ : r.g<' nu m"",,.,;in bo ld l)"p" ....ter to Afric.n SW""" let .... (ASF). 555-6 ..[Link] "'''l~ >« " ';bte; "·[Link] di"f'OWl
lN in ref\·I\"fI<....... African lr)'P"nosomiasis, 633 llnim .1 ,,·[Link]", 171-2. 737
. gar c on~ o r impres..mn. 360 .ni......l ...elfarists, 4
agar rl are Anim.l. (Scien tific rrocedun ..' Ad l W16,
.hdn,",hn, 3 1S m..thod s. 357
ahdltvir, 5, 1116
admi»ivn of di .... -.:J I" inju,,-'<l an i ma l~,
.In'.king with spores . -W3
.g.u plAt.. cou ot< (Arcs), 357
'"
A nilN l. (Sea [Link] por! ) Qrd .... 1930, 177
anuft"tia, 459
1<J2-3 'g~r ""lboOge, 3-12 an t....mOrlem [Link]<:lion. M . IH9-'l2, 2H---4
animals a rrivioK J "ad, 195 ~g.u slo p" Or .[Link] cult ures. .364 ptlUltrv, 272-3
data, <'P1d,'miolo)i;}', 734- 5 All" d~t .. rn,i,,"lion bl' denti tioo. 5 1-3 records, 192
emerg.. ucy sl "u~h ter, 194 al';e ll;uide, II . an tl' rior medl... tin., t nodl'S. 38
fewr, 416, 1>(J/> l) ag.-iog of n"'~ l. 126 ant~rior nodes• .ID
ma""gelTlt"r'I. 181-2 A)i;riculture Act 1970, 263 an tht-Imintics. 31 ~ -16
~mall unit>, 82- 3 Agricultu .... \ MisceU..neous Pro..-i. io n. ) Act m aximum resid ut' 1('''''1•• 31S
a~vm''''' lUl<I.-s, 3lI-'l 1<168, 16,171 anlhrax.195.U9.41l,507-9
abomasal ulcerd iw......, 460 "l'\rocht-mkal~. 313 in man, 509
..bo lN,um. U,.u...~ . ' r(h ill....., m pl'OCt.'duJ\", 509
.abortion, .j{, I. -lll'l, 532, 600, 6O'l a ir circulation ratt-s. 110 .olhra:< blood /tr.. nsudare sm ..a rs. 372-3
o1I:>r..sions , .;0<1 air ....,boli, -1-.13 .n!ibacteriitls, 309
..bsceso., 27l!. 453-5. 4W. 500 ai r w m pli0S- 362 I't"Sidu.-s. -W2
fornuonon. 4:!7 ala "" ft""""0tI. 185 .nhbiotks, 305. 306, soe
judg""'''''t.. 455 AIOIligm.-s, J..I6 ft"Soidurs• .ID:!:
alp<!'. 6JJ...4. 711>-19 nosisla oa, 331
.[Link]""
.... _"25J
. 6'10- 1 .b............ n · trdct. -I64-70 a n tibodies. 310, 423
ac<:[Link] COI'ICUS6ion. 20:! tu!>n'ruloii... 547 .nn~ 423
~hw d.. ily intak (ADI" 300. m 30J .l [Link]. 712 antimi<:robWls, 299.305-8.715
attidt"l'lts, 410 a lk.o ('lon uril. 438 ",.NIOn· SW'\-n' resull!l, 3QI
BSE. 57:"'>-6 a lkyl ~ t"thox~-la tt-s (A rEOs). 161 It"sts . 307--8 •
"'O'!~ in cmo,.•• 700- 1 al~ 4 1~1l .o.n [Link]. 125
~." allolriophall;ia. 4:;</ M 'TU.717
.ocet\kholirws""'"..... lAChE). 7 14 Alr~,H .aphagia. 459
A.:hioordllLltr, J..I6 Al'..".....I06 .phlhotr. k-\.ft", 5SJ.-7
acid t.....lTI'In'Ib. 237 aluminium. 145 .apLui.l, "4-1-1
acid .. 712 A",/II'" ",,,,,,, spp., 693 .poplOSlS, H~
Acintflllt«ttr. 106• .w. Amt.-rican tn'P"llO!IOtI1iasis, 633-1 .af'F'C">dicuLu s kek-ton . 21
Acintf"",",-·t"..;,r. IN A ",~I<ISIomu,;, allS<ris, :!8-1 apramycin, 306
acnt.'. 42/1 dmmOnl1l. 109, 1-10 .712 dpmn ol ct...",·mai l. 410
actio,t>.lcilk",i, 0« a<."tin<>mvn><;'; .moebi..is, 616--17 ar achnoid INIe r, 45
Acli"oNcill" •• J8<I - ampicillin, 306 Al)I;asidae. 693
Adi"ororill,,~ (1IMm<tpl,il"sJ .n""I,,i,J... is, H<i-W .rg()fl, 212- 13
,~ttlml"'I'r, ,,,,mtlk', 735 dnab.'fla no s ·aqua. 719 dn....!h... ia. 205
Adi"OIIu"t< pyvg.......'S, 253,25-1. 45-1 .""bomc, 3O'l ari,w nusis, turl<evs, 281
A,-'",,,,,,1iCt< ' r p·. )!!Q a nAI'mla, oUO-l, 47'l " ...""ic. 316. 713'
actinom cosi•• 493,506--7 an.",.. >bic digl'Stion, 141 drlt'ri"sderosi., 441- 2
acti"oll l sluJg., p roc...., 141 an.' ~.th<'Sia , 205-6 "rI" rit is, .J.l.1
acrom l,[Link], 61 c1l'Clric shoc k, 208 Mlh nl<lj1;Y. 20-3
..ddili'·..... JOO et..... trlc al, 209 arthriti$, 25-1, 4'l3-l
ad""'<lSine lrirhosrhate (ATr), 61. liD. 115. lidS c<>r't « 'n tr,l tion, 208 Arthropod p.1ra,ites, 688-92
15'1. 160. IM. 377 anaph\·Ia, is. -tzz A rth\l.~ .... cmm, 410
biolumil\l"'it·.......·... 377--8 anarla'sid , H~ a". rid WO"",. 247
d...."'tion s,"stt'm, 37'l ,mdrIA'lll<>!<i•• 6lJ.l-5 .......llri~ ~"""', 94.6013
m<mitorioi J77 anatif'"tif..,. inf""tion, V9 A«amps sl,r;>ltgy/i,,,,. b-I2
.Idh.-si \'~ Lol-""". ).12 .""tun\\; 19-55 .....:it.-s, 285 •
Mlren.d cotlt"~. 47 d~rti< ~!E't'mS. N -20 aseptic canrung,. 116
Mlrftlal (w p r. n...... I) bOO;..,.. 47-8 .t'\drogen. 7.309 A..<;!'CA ....trainer pen. 218
.[Link],,__. 7,47 a nd.""",~ , 67 ;bpergilw..is. 283.610
aJ t'l'M<'"Ortl«>k hvrmooe lACTH1. 1115 a......l"o... m. -1-11 ~ill.. s, 94. 106
~ CJ/"'~"" 606 aninwl-t>-od pn>lf'ins.. 58 A;~l<SfLn'IIs. 318.351.61 0
.MIn li_/~"is, 596 .[Link]",," 1 bdw",,,ur. ll-I ~lll5fu""K"'''s, 283,610
aoerobic d ;~ 141 Art; ",,"1 Di.....- ard Prokction Act. 676 I'bptfJill"" "it". 610
.....-obM;- ......,milk rounl (A Me), 357 Arti",,"1 tk,olth Act 1981, 173. 195 .4sprorl1J... pPllSiIK"", 318
.I<"fOb;c pLo,," count (AI'C), 357 ani",,"1 idmtification. 191.245.735-9 ."", ta~"OtttlS, 65'l
. !blo tio>sts. 351 Ani",,"l Prod ucn (fu mination for ~urs ~ma. 410
a!blotiN. 318 and Mnimwn R.-.id .... l1mits l ,tht-rosc~, -1-.12
Afric horsto skknns (A HS). 55-1---5 Rtogularions 1997. »'"'9 atomic ~ spedrorrk'lr:y, lIt>
Afric pi g d _, 555-6 ani",,"l n.-gistr. non. 735-9 , trophic rtmum. 5l»-- 10

743
744 Meat Hygiene
atrophy, ~ bilinlbin, ~35 ins~on pnxN\l....... 67~
Au~Jr.y's [Link], 556--7 1nl. <198 farcv. 523-1
Australia blocMmk.1Olll'g<"I'l demand tBOO) , foetUs. +!
ClISticlnltS /Iwis [Link] p roced u re, 139-40, 161 t....rpes,irus I (BHY-I). 586
. 67' t>iochEmic.1 teslS. 366 hide,;, 135
m...t in!<pc'ction IKOfds. m biocid.l.l.m"ecompont'f't5, 1<19 ......[Link] \'irus (8l l/). 579
iutoimmww d ~. U 3 biocide, 150,166 IYlTlpror..om>mo, 57S-.'II
autolY"~' ~ biological - . 56-7 [Link] (B\ IO. »8
automltlC pelt M11O\'~ 92 biologicallreatment S\...mm. 1 ~ 1 [Link]. 5B-1
au [Link] otwlnlng df'\~ 212
autonomic: Mr\'OUS S\"'tem, 45-6
a \ ~ 31"
a'-w.~lremor. 15
,. .Un Infl"""'.... m
. ......
bio:wCwitv 15
blnh. muodn. 50

bow mar"'. 188

. Off.~ (Prohib ition) ~tions 198'1.
papular stolTIatitlS.
pett'dtial t....-..... 605-6
p......~.521 -3
55S-9

,;:raJ d....rrho.-. (8 \'0). 5lb-7

56-l

.- "
black d~.ue. 517
axi.>l [Link]. 21 black pith. <In \'iral k-ukosis. 578-80
[Link] nod". 38 black spot. 351 "",."" _""""" ...............'·IBS"
b....khNd, 2SI 75. 2tl244. 246, 2~7, ~lo. 5~76
azoturi.l. ;101 -2 blackleg. 515 acOdents. 57>-6
bladd«. n ,-l86-7 a(lI ; son' notes for farmers. 575-6
bla~lom,'alS';". 611-12 b.....[Link]. 576
B 1\"Il'lphocylt"S. 42.1 bleb . US <;ah-ing. 576
BabNia, 397,618,625 bleeding. 199,209,212, 213 checks. 56-l
b.1btosiosis. 617-1 8 al'l"a. 88 chronology, 565-7~
bilciJlarv ""emoglobinu ria, 51+..15 ca Ule, 21.1-15 handling of suspect [Link], 576
bilci ll<irJ: ",hi lt' d iarrho<>a (B\ VD), 279 effio""'}', 21 ~17 h\·giene. 576
&dll,,5, l Ob. 328, 345 hY.l:if'nk. 88 initial e [Link] o f S\lspect C<l..-5, 564
8",m"5 ",, /brads. 389, 411.308 i"'perf,,,t, ~56-7 number of cases. 560
Bacillus ({/'fllS, 335-6,31'll ins u ffki f'nl. 287 pos t-mor lem examination s. 564- 75
IlIIdJll.5 SUblilis. 307 tro\lgh, 88 p!'<"Cau tions 10 be takell b}' mea t plant
back bl....'<lin'" 214 bl" ph ariti s, 502 personnel, 575
hack-up sh ,nner, 211 b ligh l, 5JO p recautions 10 be ta ken by persons
bacon bl iste•• 428 handl ing know n or s"5 ",,,I,,d ca..-s.
fat. 34l'I Blonde d ' Aqu itAine, 5 56-l--75
n....... dTV ( ure, 106 blood, 32-3,362, 363, .f7'0-80 n'S<"<lrch. 576
production. ICH-O <lgaT. 364 t ..... alrnents, 576
smolUng.. 106 by-products tre atment 133-4 bern'eloedema, 520
traditional drv CUn', 1<5-6 collection. 216 brachial nod.... 38
bact" .. ......i .., I'i-I, Ht d~._, +41)-.1 br adsot, 515-16
[Link]. uo. >10, "21, .j.6l, 464 edible. 133-1 Btahman. 6
cu~ product. 106 trotdible, 13.f brain. ~5. 500
in amwd foods. 121-2 blood l1\lke, ~5, 1>86-7 bru,'. 515-16
~ I d.-M"S, .165. #>7 blood InN!. dning. 13<1 ~bfu,!l'I"S. 285
hKtm..J.l poultn· di.w~. 277-83 blood pLowll'ts: 33 brftding strakg:o·. 189
bactl'NI residue.
~ blood smea rs, 36O• .wo British ttamrshfre . 12
t..[Link]~ , U2 blood "..-.Is. ~78-9 Bntish \ l..al Sun.....· (B\I5). 3001
~ examination, Z-t7, J39-H . =~, 542-3 British Saddlri>«k; 12
",... Bl'IldIothrix /"""'NlO5pIIIk tll"'. 3-l8
~ moniroring, 256 l>I~ pi ll d~. 557 broiler. 26-1, 265 . 266 , 268 . 285
[Link] swwiards. 343-1 blue~. , 57-8 27-l
....,
C"IUSO,'.
NclmologiaJ t~ :m bl\lish-green mould... 352 rejection. 734
halancinJii tanks. HI definition. 15
[Link]",l d\~lo:rv. 618-19
bl=~>~61
uru.... 5-1
[Link]~ 1>l8-1li definition. 13
&IMllldiulft cv/i, 9-l odour. DJ b~717
s..u..an ~[Link]"', 416 ""inl. 13 [Link] nodes. 37 , <11
Balkan n,fluenza. 416 bad... t ..... perature, 456 b ronchi o litis, ~71
[Link] s ubo.t..".,..,., 303 boiling l~l, 66 bronchitis, ~i1
bolrb<:lnE', 537 boil ......Iocin· check. 204 bronchopneu monia. 179.4n
harrod.. svslt'm, 728 bonn. 20-). -l91_3 brown fat d i...a.... 65
ba rking, zse by-prod ucts tre atm e nt. 135 Bro w n Swiss, .5
bed d ing, 166 can:ase, 22 IHown mll;, 106
..." classification , 21 Br"ulln. 389,489
d ~d,,,,i ng, 237 ma rrow. +H 8",,,,llnn/l(lrl ll'. ~ 1I - 1 2
musl ~, en prol~in. 58 BrI,ull" "'ehlm , ;,. 412
p rod UL1ion $Vste ms . ~7 laint. 3.( 9 8'''CIIIII . "is, 412
rif'<'n i"l'>- 71' tu ben:ulos is, >IS bru cellosis. 411- 12. 510- 11
sidn, !t'nd~...tl\'lch m,-Ihud of han gin g. Boc>lmilus. 617 in [Link], 511
12 Bociphrl"'Q",,"Lll"~. 617 brui\ing. 187-9 . 254, -l97-8
slaughte., cutting and p.1cking. 91 BocpIrilll5 s pp. , 693 and mixing o f animals. 188
tapeworm. 669-7<1 boolwash /apronwash facilities . 92 incen tive,; and l."ducation. 189
B.-l~n Blue, 5 bootwashing tlqui pmen!. ~ in ll'TTl<ll ham, 216
[Link] lheileriosis of catt le, 6Z7 Ilorder·[Link]:>ter, 9 poulh)'. 2&l--5
bmzylp""io llin, 306 lJo;drltllll , 3119 ra bbits. 290
B<[Link],o, 12 &mkttll.. lmmchistptia. 510 BSE_ ho,in<> spongiform """'''J'[Link] thy
&->itilr "PP" :N7 Born.o di......., 580 (IlSE)
besnoitiows. 619 llonrlilrh<'fdotfrri. n5 Bulwl," !>Idulis. 2. 5
t>nt b<"fo~ dlle. 35J-4 8<lI inJlt;J4$, 6 . bubonic plague. 55-1
bet.o~~ blocking .gents, 7 8<lI tall';lhIiou. 6
·
[Link]. 2. 6"
b<"[Link]. 7,3OO.311-12 8<lI t.f1l1US. 6 BWJding ~fiono, 1991, 78
312 bot n,·, b88J) bukoses. ~~
bi
2 in ,arM , 515
bo ~.u ..........ancf', 215
bikoKids. <135
botulism. 518,715
bo\'w
congftlit.&1 t'f)1hrop<:riEotic [Link] phpla
bull , 6,7
bori, ,
uruse. 53
biko pi~R, ~3<I (BeEP). ~36 definition. 8
bilharzIaSis, 1>86-7 " ..~ . &6'lo-7<1 \'isocera, 25
 Index 745
bulla, ~28 urea... "'Sistration. m
buUock, 6 bac~uI [Link]. 3YJ-l -l. slaughto:r, 226
ca~. 35.S3 stunning. 21-1-\5
ddinilion. 8
""".....
nttll!.233
boar. 54

....... "
broiln. 27-1. 7.34
~, 545,5-16, S-I8
" "'"
Cattle Data C..., tre (COO, 731:1
techniq~, 254-5 bull 53 c..ttIe ltlUbs, 69-1-6
B.."osu"WIIf p,,,.
f lot_II"'. b38 buUock 35 53
calf. 54' ,
cattle rungworm. 657
fl"-'-"IIII~ ..",. 638 c..ttle plague, 5%--8
bursiti>., i~ c..ttlf', 53, 250 c.. ttIe tick feo.-ee, 617-18
button ~ 5-12. /iOO <:ondcmnod, 191. +49 CBrP 5« ronug>ous bovirw
b\ '-producb tr«tm<'f>l. l :N-11 [Link], 223. 253 pleu~iII (CBm
"b lood. 133-1 row, 54 CaP 5« contagious caprine
~.I35 <Wr. 17 pWuropr>e'Ull'OOia (CO'I')
edil>~, 129 ......... 54 cdquinone. J06
fato., 130-1 Ie-·....-d, W
hidt-s. 135-t>
ir>ediblfo, 12'iI
frftling. 108
g ill. 5> """,.,
injury and d eath. 42'1-32
<'ftltrar nervous s\"Stl"Ill (C!'.'S), ·1-1. -IS. SOl,
;n~, 131-3, 133
p reli min.i1' treatmnll. lW-I
pnm'li_. )(l
, --
gimmer, 54
t':"ftT,:>S3--I
.
hJben:uIosis. 3-18
(f'reatSS
pfOCftSing. 130 (f'reI>eIlum, -15
SKOndar\' tre atmen t. H I """
horw.5<-5
53 Cfff'bru m, -15
skin s, 135-6 fd <'l\tifiu tion. 2-15-8 cen'lea] al>sa.-ss, -13-1
sto mach, 131- 3 im mahJre, -I5I! VrrJusClI nadmsis,1 7
b}·,;,;j n~is. <I ll lamo,10 c..n·u< ~lnpI1ll5, 17
line d ressin g. 89 Cl'Stooes. 636,637, 658-60
n""plasrns. -1-19 cha bertia sis, 656
<lX, 55 Ch agd.' cli,.,a,.,. 632-1
cad mium. 317.713 pig . 13, 5-1, 131 Charolais. 5
Caisson d;,......... 4-.13 ram, 54 ch......., 8,1-1
calcificdlion, H 3 ....m pl"". 3-11 chela tio n, 1 -I7~
calcium, 7l»-4 srn...·p. 5-1. 33 ch em ical agents, -122
ca lcium chlorkk~infus<,d bodne rnusdl', 73 s [Link]. 2-17 chemical mergv, I-M
C"lrofluu' whilt' / Fungif1uor kit. 3n [Link], 108 chemicd l oxygen dema nd (COD). 1-10, 16 1
c..If, 7 t<'Sting. )10 chemieal ....sid ul'S, 29'1-31'1, 709, 711
all" .."tinwlion, 49J wether, 54 diM~on limil. 303
un:.~. :;.,i urdidc arn'SI.I99 [Link], )00-1
diphthma, 535 Colrdio\·"'KUIa••.-stem,. -150, -I'~ ma~imum rPSid..., le\'e15 (M [Link];). 302-3
l\m~n:OlNI. 580 un.:. pII~, ;'j regulations, 301
[Link]>lliS. 25-1 Colrot........ fi.I sa mple collection, )llJ.--I
post-rnortftn rwniNtion. 250 "a_ _ l\1'l'lphadntitis, 512-1-1 Ymple ha ndlmg, 30S
stomKh. 24 aSf'OtOS~. m Hiltutory !iUl\....~ program ....... 304-5
thnnLH. 47 Cash instrurrwnts, 202 [Link] spoila~, 123--1
CMlit• ....i"inwu. 691 Cash~ti,... ~, 20-1 dwmical - . . 36. 352-3
CA.\Il' (Chmtoe. Atkins. ~Iunch-Pet...-sen) c..sl ........, df'finilion, 10 chemicallr'l'atmrnts.237--8
1nl. 369 castratl"S. 6 dwmiI~.35J
o.~ ....,
11»,232, 252, :81-2, 324. 326, c..suation, 7,67 0wrn0byI. man and me- Ktwme. 72 1
- 328,.)J()-2, 383-4. 512 [Link]· [Link] 1'12-1 Clwmob}i po"'....cornpln. 719
c.~ ~lIi. 282.3J2... dedslon on-fa..... 193 Che-'iot, s-9
\Alm~'~, 281-2, 512 InNt p!.ant, 193-1 dtickm. 16
eo..... cuualt\·s/.;lugh ter, 192.193 chicken ~a agt'l\ ! (CAAl. Vb
CysllUmlS ~ ~ proced u.... cat.. ....Nl fe- ....., 558 chill rooms, 110
674-6 [Link]..rmal in flamma tion, -125 dtilled meat, -106-7
m<"a'
ca",", 3. 7
in.~p«tioo eeccedtng, 727--$ catcb hasins. 80
catt'Cholaminn, -17
'a'lIin 106, lOS, 109. 1II
trv, 271- 2
_ .1", tu mou r uttle, 4-8 C lIanryJ'urpsiflllCi. -II ~, ~ 15
can d ida m~., 612-13 ..bIiCeU formation, -15-1 ClrlamyJi<t <pp .• 389--'lO
cand ,d iaSlS, 183,612-13 t>mi~ thPiler!osis of. 627 chl ..m ydiae, -M5,.J67
can d idosi•• 612-13 bl...-din!'. 2 1-1-15 ch Lam vd ios is. 282, ~14- 1 5
Ca nicola fe,...,., nJ, 530-1 I>rffds. :Hi ch l" .....llosi., 719
cannil'oalism. 2!1f> bunging, 233 ch loride. 140
canning, n carcase, 53 ch lo rina t.'<i hyd roca rbon s. 3 12
bad.,.i" Ill. 121-2 CMca", c<md em n ations, 732 ch lo rine, 237.272
can manufa<"lure. 118 con ta m ina tion. 733 ch lo rp ro maz ine, 7
h am . 121 d a taba ....., 7J.s-9 ch" lang;oh" pdtitis. 285
meat. 120-1 dehairing, 226 chol a nl\i!is, -168
microbiologiul ~u mination, 125 d """in g. 230 cholecdldferol, 717
Of"""ation&, 119 foot rot 01. 53+-5 chol ecys titis, -168
pul-l ie health asped, 12-1-3 growth rromoters. 7 cholera in hJ.k....·s, 27Il
quality of conta,ntn. 125 horns. 50 chronic wa .ting' disc..,.. (CW D). S5'I
rust or dalNl':'" 12-1 id<'l\tiru:ation, 2-15.733 Chrysomilr br..=urllD. 691
$pOi1a~. 121 -1 Iaira_. 1l.l-5 Cincinna ti· !loss (C B) rev 218
tr.o<l itioNl melhodo1ogy. 117-18 "....J;;"~litis of, 337~ ording disease,531-3
lr'I'a lmo.'nl of food, l i S-I q myrop'[Link]...."hritis in, 521-2 circulatory sH'tem,. 31-1
Can{'i'k Sfll"'l, 90 nirruto<l<-s in, 6J8-..W citr..te utilis.1tion test 375
aopOl'l(' pbror........ monia. 321-3 .........,11 tissue embolism in, 20-1 CjD Su.n'eilW>cE' {; nit (CjOSU), 563
Captiv.. BIrds 0rdE1' 1976. -115 pa.~itic [Link] of, 6J8-..W classical histop lasm<ll5is. 612
aopfi'... boll pi<;toI, 202, 203, 205. 211 passports. 7'38-'l dossOl swine feo,..... (CSF), ~
u. park. 'lll prwumonic ~ of. 538-9 dNn /hedlmy li,'estocl< production, 16l-72
[Link]. 71-1 poI\'arthntis, 528 dNrun
carbotwdnk, 60, 1-15. 1-17 [Link]'m insprction. 2-18 ~ reactions, 1-I7~
carbon'dioxidf'~ n,205.208, i«ord", 73S dlc-mistrv, l.u-s
212 l'I:'CtUm. 233 ;"..,' I-M
calbo~}'lio: aod.... 317 ....d d}...... t"Y in,. 620-1 EU111."l1i'·es, 1-1-1
746 Meat Hygielle
clf'anm~_"'lltifll...d Cmgo virus diSNse. 57S cnl'!~iosis, 6.21-2
150-2
fOolIll. ronjtm<:b \'itis, 502 C~iJ,u",., m . 621. 622
food pLmts. 1~3--I ronll«ti\-c- tissUC'. 19. 50 Cokt .;'/1111,,,,,,/,,,,,. 606
gel. 152 pmI1"ins. 59 cu ltu",
nwn,w. 150 ~, ilSS<'S>ment. IW "" ..:J"" non. 365-ti
monitortng.. 15!I ronUogious ~Locti<l. ~Q(l [Link], -105
ph~l ... actions. HE>-7 of go.>lf.. 512-3 fOI' SlI--'w orpn;srns. 281
prOCNurrs. 15fHl of shn-p, 522- 3 inc\Ib.>tiofl of, 365
[Link] bm'~ pl.-u"l:l\f'Umon;. memt>r. 1W slid e. 361
~~~k (carr). -121. -\:"l. 0'21-3
rontagioos b<:n:in<> p\~rih s, 52-1
methods, UoI
srra~. 152 cultu medi a. 36.l-4
"me. 146
training. 160
contagious carrine pleuropneumonia
(cc r p. 521-3
..n robic, 36-1
in<X"Ulation of. UoI
O,'ani"" Schedule, 156 cont.>g;.>U. t'C!h\-ma. n2,5i7-8 curi"!/;. 1 0~
d,'anline;;s testing.. 159-60 contagious t'qume metritis «( Eo\ \). -188 comn,on ddt'Cb. 106
d<,ansing-in-place (eEr), 147, 152--1 contagious opthalmia 0/ cattle• • he..." ,md hide. 131\
clNrol"'''' rates /or drug., 299 goats. 606 ;ngr....1i""15. 103
cl..nbulerol, 7 ront.,!\,OUS pustular dermatitis (CI'D) . Sollls _'nd additives. 103
dippil'g.. 166 -112-13, ;77-8 CUlalW\lU5 e.... I• . -13'1
C1",so""" kidn...\", -H I con taj(iou, \·ul\·c-.\·aginiti •• 523 cutaneous "",la5;S. 692
dOSo)ntet 311.315 con ta m ina tion. 155-6, 223-38 cutaneous stieplo!hrich""is. 52-1-5. 61l-1-1
c ,,-,,<trid ia l cellulitis, 418 can.:.se. 223,255 culs. -W9
clostrid ial di-...,,;, 514-19 chemk.. l, 225,31.1 cuttin!/;
Clostrid....... 328,330.3-15. 390 dIl'[Link] [Link]. 237-8 b.>coo ..nd holm . 104
CltW riJiuQ' rot "li"".... 117. 124. 335. 381, do......, 295 mNt. 69-75
S!!\. 710 d;m·~.~ cutting ~. 97. 27-1
C~ridill . .. i~~. 124 docUnwn t.>tiofl. 2-\j)..1 n'anides, 7 16
ClostridillJfl rl«'!Ii. 517 ~rmen l. 22~ ClId/l..-!...... ~UJis. :!M
Clostrid,u", ordnmtim<. 683 f.-.. l. 163. 25+-5 c1'St, -128-9. -I3'9.~. 6-\(>-7, 6.'""2. & 3
CJ<>,.tritlill'" vrrfrittgml'. 138. 278. 285. 326. pstrointl'stirYI tract, 2)l-5 • ~ ,IH>h n utid c..-st
~. 381-2,Ht. 516,511 rnrthods of l"l"durin~ 22.."-35 n"Sti«'Tti. :2-1Q .
CJt1<;tridillOJl~. 3-19- 50 monitoring faeul ;52 Ly#iw ru< /!ms, 57. 116. 2-16. 2~. 2~Q. 250.
QostrjJ".", putri/inllt., J30
Chi/ridi"", >q>tfru"" 278. 516
"P"".ti...-s. ::U~
poolt,,; VD ,;!Bb
...-"
n-,;Is. 61'""2. 673
C/CJStridi"", >,t~. 3-19 prt'\·C'Ohon. 2~7 iride>:. ca"", 675
C/<¥fridi" m Id,,,, ,. 518 [Link]-its. 292 [Link] ato n' con firm a tion . 6;:;;
cloud} ". we lling . 430 radi~chu;·. 719--23 ClI!'tk m-I' _< Ct/1"I(><oIlt'. I. 116.251. b80
cloxacillin, 306 slau!/;hlf'T!ine. 2.."'9 Cli.t iu ,." ,,, pi. if"r",;". 291
COil!,ul"..., lest 368 sourc ... . 223 ("lI!'t ju rm ,t..m,;, oIli •• 295.517
coagulat;,· ... l\<.'<"l'O5;5••no lrimmin.... 237 cvsturs, 52-1
robalt 7IJ.,I ulen~il •• 22-1 Cv,to,;,."'""r". 620
coccidia. 620 [Link]. 225,236 ("vl,,,wl~~ ' Elirlio;l';II I "/'''SA:lItpl'l,;Iol. DU'!
cocddioidalp;ranuloma. 610-11 COl1tinu"u~ powel"l"d ,,-stem. 'lO Cjlt<Wt~ 1~lIIg«)1to'l>IIJ·I". 5-\)
ClXcid",idt'$",m,iti,. 610 Conlrol of Subslan<;es Huardous 10 Hea lth
rottidioidom,-rosis, 610- 11 Regulations 1991 tCOS H H), 2-15
in man, err COIl\'en ;"""e foods . ~ d.. in· worker f.....w. -113
cocridiosis. 283.289. 291. ~1 con "e1't>'JS. I D."i:!\-\\".tolker S\-ndrotn\', 500
Cod .. x [Link] O;>mmi)siQn. 108. 1l)9.
125
rorJ'l"1'. 317. :0-1-5. 71-1
00J"Pf'T su lphate, 715
roi-ned beod. 12I
,..
d ...k, 'firm and d ...· (DFD) """'I. 1>-7. 6~-3.
.
dark ground (dark field) m icroscopy,
cok1 sho.>rt.-nin~ 110 ~
[Link]. ::>19--20 Comish ganw, ~ (\.at.> I'<"tril'\-[Link] fftdb.K1r.. 72.'>-3'1
coliform corn<1]\~..mon. 2.w DOT. 312
!I~mmkritis. 520- 1 corridor d~. C6 dud·o"..n " . ls IDOAsI.273
",f«tio::>ns. 279 COITl>'ion inhibition. 1-4S de<;Om f'O"ition. :H-I-53
roIiseptic.....u.. 275 ~mu",. 3-I 5 .sse<,.,."."t. 352-3
Citn.:_ ~ Z;~ [Link]('/wc/m"", tofui. 251. 3'95 dan~ le> ITWJ\, 352
coIl. g..... SO. -I27 C«vrlrlwNm"", ~,,~;~, -15-1 . 513. (.tot. [Link]-'jI
coIon,- counts o f nte'SOI'hilic...-rotw.-s. 357 . 612 decont.>mination. f"O"l ...lau!'Jlt..... D54l
rolon\·.forminK unit (LFUI. 357 Corv,,,,!lQ("lm,,~, rmnl~. 52-1, 525 d""l' inguin.1 nod... . 39
rolon\' morphOloi:v. 373
rolour. 70. 71. lob.-12-1
<XI!'ienn '[Link]:s. 36
=,. d""l' .. mfles. 3-12
cl.,."., le>- 7. 293-6. 3-\7
comminutoo mt'dIS. 68 ..ceton mia in . 700-1 cal .."" . 17
Comm itt..., on th e Med ic. 1 As~ls of Food carea 5-\ conl"miMh,,", 295
and "'ulrit;on r 'oucv (CO~IA). 2, 3 ddio ;t;on. 8 culli"!,, 2'15
romm"n caltl.. grub. 695 . homs• .50 ,,)'i"'t,lk ha\'[Link] di",a... e>f. 5/12
Communicable Disea"" SUr"";lldnce CO"IItre ",.,.ificahon. zz [Link]. 292
(CDSC ). 326 udd\'r, -14 handling. 17.2'1 3
rom m un icat ion s\-,;I<"JTl, 98 uteru•• -12- 3 hill . 17
Curnp.><tCO : lminobili....... 206 C"",/riII . " m;lIn" Ii",,,. 399.6Oi-8 husb...nJo·. 17
complt'meot fi....,tion. 56. -115 rowdriosis. 6Q;-8 ino;po."'tion. ~
compound l!pt m ~, )SO """J~~' 591 [Link]~. 80-7
COIICI'I.'1", Ib CoxitIIif""rnttii. 399. ~ 1 6.~ low land. 17
rondemn.1non. 130.136, 191, 253, 255, -1-19, ('JN~ r ' -pho [Link] (Cr K), -IQIl me..!. 17
461 ,~. 487, -191. ~~. -IW. SOl. 502. cminiwn. 46 park. ~5
731-l7J6 CreutzfricHakol> Disease (CJDI. 559.563 ruttin~ 17
cundetnned meal room. % Cnm...-COO!/;O [Link] ~ ""..... (CCUF). s!.1ughll'r. 2'U
[Link]. 101 57'8 stunninJt.- ~
a",,:htiooall~' a p pn:n-ed lot hulNl' crikria. sp«ifiC'.tonon. 2-10 "iId, ~
consumption. 255
rond;ti<Wn.( {tefldO"risingl. 714
critic. l """trol
~lft'd inJt.-
romts
2
CCCl'sI. 158. 23Q , 2-1-1 deerfh ' ""er, -11 9, 5534
defi<:ii,n,o· disea"..,., ~::u
rong.... iul .bnormaliti...., -122 croupous intl.m"",hoo. -125 dehairins. pig . 93
rotlgnliul c...s ts. -129 crushed [Link] "'ast,,,. 58 demOOoxhc mAnF". 690-1
con gt'J\ltal Jderts, 31-1. -171 . SOl C'n"OJo\""it: fret.>zinJt.- 112. 115 dend ril..... .j.-\
ronponital malformations. -150 C'n·ploco:;;r osis. 611-12 Denmark. me.. t inspection dala bank, .
[Link] phot""""siti""ho". 702 C~>t,1((I(fl<~ "ro(O","IIO;. 611 i'2~9
 Index 747
dn>lilion. age determi.... tion~ . >1-3 blood ........ J. tJ.l ..l«lrotl oo:.,m..Iogr..... (EEG ), 200
Drrn.....' ..... 617,693 Dubin-Johnson ..ndrome, -137 electrom.o~ [Link]. 126
dcTmam\-cosi,,6H-15 d uck. 1;"' 16 . eWctronK ide-ntinc~bon et 1h-~IOCk. 738
""",,,[Link]. 61.l-15 wu .tripping, 269 eIectrorkctic fil. 2.12, 267
dtonNtit&. ~ 11 duck \'iNs enlE'ritis . 1,"'"5 eIectrorl«tic ohock. 208
DtTwwttN "'-ini>-. &901 ductu. ,,~ . 32 EUSA (enzy .......linked imm~t
d""",,wm.\~ . .J1&-17 d~,mosu> . 32 ~\' l k'St, 56
d<onnarorliilosi5. 5:!~5.61J-J.I 0.... DiJ;l':"""'"' cMO'fIO". 156 em«illlm 281."59
~t""'iJus ""'1,'(Il....~. 525.613 dur" mlltft". -15 embolism. +12-3
..knn.>!<'f'hy\e'§, :W6 du"'bili"; pmcessed food •• 353 embr)'o I.~n.h-r. 2
d""",,wr1wk,.;i.. .J16-17 Duroc.. 1'2 embri....uc- 0"''''. -129
d.-nnoiJ 0:,1\, 42'1 d},.pl"sill . ++I em~encli [Link]. 185
d ......rt j("\·cr. 616--11 cme",,,nc)' . 1Iujtht..r. 192. 193-1
d.1aint'<l m.."t room, % "baN"ir. 1'14
d"t<,'K"'flts, 150 [[Link]. 194
~rrlicdti"n, 157--S ... r. 502 emp\'t'ma. "2n
d''';;I\'' and cho ic.... 14S-9 E..st CN.t F..I·er (ECF}. 625-6 e mu [Link]. 10/6
""f<'h'. \(,0-1 EC Dire<:til'e. 7.12. 7'l ett<:'-1'haliti•• 500.532.600
d,·n1<,pm.-nt, .bnunTldliti..... ~ Ee Dit«th .. 6-1 /-133.95.107. liD. 2U.127. .....,."[Link]... 500
dinrhotoa. 2111 , 519-:!O 252.300.67-1,680 endoc..rditi5. 25--1. 441. 477
Dk"",,«Iill m d...,dritiClm, (D. /lI',lCtIJImJlllr•• EC DiI1!'CIiI,.. 69 /J.l9. 107 endocardium, 31.476--7
/is.l-; EC DiI'O'd;\'e 70/52-1. 300 endocrine .\.tnn, 46-50
o...'1l1OC~ul..s ~•. 657 EC Dir«li\ .. 71 /118. 107 end-ol-Illy ,,",S. d..finiliOfl. 15
d~n' f...-.,;, 2--4 EC Dtrecnve 77/99, 75 end""t....m . 21
di<oth~~.tiJboestroI. 7.303. JO'J. 310 ECDireo:Ii\..,79/lIl353 ~H5
di!t"'ti\·~ 'ystnn. 23--'1. 450 EC Oi~n~ 7'91373. 300 E'r'IefP.' ~'. 7W
.fiooto<.trol diacl"lal e. n5 EC Di~\'e llO/ 778. 36\ Entmotmw lrittoMiaI, 616
Di«1~""', -ss ECDirecti\"e81 /~;6.110 enteric roIib«-illom. 520-1
d ioQns.."71-1--15 £C0i~\'e81 /6lJ!. 300.301 ,309 enleric bU«t>on>.. 323-5
dip lilt. 20b EC Din!'cti,.., 81 /85t.
300 enleritis.466.532.5-II-2.6OO
dip slide ,361 ECDirm\,e81 /852, 300 rabbit!.. 2'iIO
dlphttwrihCinflam""'tion. 425 EC Din"Cti\-.. 85 /358. 301 Entrrolwctrriltuw. IlS.20""O
Di,thlllhJNhnu," IiI/II,", 660 EC Din.·cth'e 85 /6-19. 300 enk'rolowmtill. 516--18
d irtv ani",,"! , [Link]. 22..4 ECDiI1!'CIi\'C'86/~, [Link]'; Entrml Dxigrr,i< roJi/tarilkm•• 520
dirt\-U"ntoek. 166 ECDi~"e6SIl46. 301 &w;ron"'"'tlIl AOSl""loTT\E'I1t (EA). 78
disioloration. 106, 124 EC 0i11:'cti\"<' 88/657. 358.359 environment~l [Link]!.. 709-23
cli......"" EC Di"",Ii'-e 8'l/153.. 301 Environmen t,,1Statement (ES). 78
acquired. 4Z1 EC Dtrecttve 89/1'1 7. 301 enzoolic bala""rosthitis. 525
eau_. 42\ e c [);wcbn '19/395. 353 <'I\.lootic oo"ine le,,"""i, (EBl.).. .w'l. 57ll-llO
d,lt.! n"ConJing. 244 EC Din.",th' c IN/610. 301 enzootic s taphl'IO(O('("OSis. 5-13
1l<."IW\lcdlly d"lt'rm;,,,,d, 422-3 ECDin",tin'lll/153.301 ,oru:vme. 73.344
Inf"':I1\'<'. UI EC Din."'ti.... 90 /515. 301 enzvmc-lmked immunoo.s,",ys. 310
nanln' "r, HI le Di.....,ti,·.. 91 / ..97. 458.1 89. 2-l-1. 246. 252. <'T\Z\'molysis. 1~ ,
[Link]«lant•. 150 256.674 "'''''n'>phHk m\'(>5ili•. "95. 625
dni!:nandchoke.l50 ECDirecti\'e91 /628.I74 [Link]. )99
[Link]~ng.. 14'1 ECDirecti'·e91 /~. 301 ep<'I)·thrw.....,.,.;s. 606
o\idhing.. \49 EC Directi\'C 921!3. 301 EJ't"YfItTfr~ ... is. 606
~[Link]\ . lbO-l ECDi"",ti\"<·92/~5. m ..-phoimer..1 fe,,'er. 581-2
di!oillleCtion, 15S re Dir«ti" e 92/101. 191,2+1, 738 ep;card;um. 3 1. ";6
EL'dirft1i\'n. 1+1 ec Diftcti\'e 92/117, 20""2 epiderm.U incl ....... C\sts. -129
fo<;dplAnts. J.13--I EC Directi\'e 93 /119. 198, 19'1. 205, n . 214 tp~,1OSis. H6--17
IllOIUlorIn~ 156 ECDir..cth'e93/U, 22~ epidid\"Illlns. 490
principln. 1!9 EC Dil'Kti\"e 94/59. !H'iI .."inephnne. 7
diopmom. .1-1, EC Dl.r«ti,·e 94 /~95 . 86 epin<-unum. ~5
d~wd "If Rotation. 1-11
disl....m..tusiS. 681....
EC Dir«ti\"e 95 /23.. !32
EC Oirecti\'e 95/29. 1 7~
[Link].......... 19
epitheliom" of the eve, +19-50
D~A. 19.57.710 EC DiI1:'cti\'" % /12. 300,301 epizootic celluliti•. 510
p J.l3 EC Di~\'e % /!3, 3OO.~. 37'l ."il~'''lic h.,·mo..[Link] disease of d ,..... 582
D~ (dt"(>l<vribonuclea"",) !\'St, 3b8 EC Direct;".. % /m . 49 epizootic 1)''''ptwnKitis (EL), 612
dOCUl1wnL,IiOn, conlilmin.. ti.... n. 2-10-1 EC Directive % /362. 4<1 "PrinOnl<'Cfm. 315
d"g.. Mp<·wonns. 659 EC Fn>sh ~I~M Directive, 127 <"qUId . ..
d"r.. m,,,,tLn. 315 EC R..[Link] 1538/91 . 262 scpIiC,ll'mi. of. 538
do....11. 20 EC R"K\JIM;[In 1906/90. 35-1 stT\,nKyl""i~ (.trongrlidos;s! of. 65-1 -5
Durwt·[kown-crus •• 10 Kchvm"",.,.. 452 ' '<juine
Dorset Il u m . 9 EcI,i;wcoc,u, gra""'osus. 660-2 "llrlklli.. 1whtis. 607
Ju~1iI1 node.. 37 Eclmk"-O."OCw l JIIloIhloculari.<. 662 eh rlkhio!l;s. tIJ7
douri...... 63\ C, I,i,wc"",,, r'rJlil'li. 662-3 .....,..,,~alom~,ditis. 500-1
DuWI\e'r S\ndn>me. -I<n' ""Iopa.,,~ik>o. ~ hl-perhpol"m'... 702
dr"i""",e..'"",.1 plont. 80 ediNe f..t. 51 infecliow an....-mill (EIA). 581
[Link]. roll«tion of m"teri.11 from . 361 edible fAt room. <:t'l influenu. 582-3
d .......hing~. 16& effluent n>(lfloc\'tic ...... Iidtio"is. 6{fl
dn.-u.g techniques, 2J() control. 159 p""[Link]!em insp«tion. 251
driod b\ood "nd"fLLonw, 58 [Link]~. 1-10 5.tr00id, 463
drip (""ftl'inJU 15 tre~tmO'Ill .. 13'iI Iyphoid. 510
dnrpi~ iat egg drop .~T\drom!'. 15 \-iral ilfterilis (EVA ). 583
dn\.., •.ocn. 8-1 egg P!fltonitis. 286 '[Link] minopnnunOflitis. 510
dn\ing .1.... <1*, 592-3 Drrlidrw Dfl<i'ri. 605 eqUipment
drop platO' mrIhod. 357 £~. Yfl.. 620 COfIlilm iNriOfl, 12-1
drops"• .u3-1 Cirnm. .,AIM, 28'l design. 82
l>[Link]"l". 6 Ei",..,. trNIt.. 283 w~rJI. '1'7
dru" e~[Link]§. 656 ,,'nipelas. m. -113. 526-8
cle..r........, r,}!<'S fo r. m electnc ltOId•. 1'1'8 ........ipeloid. ~U
1ot'r/lll'Oc mic.J ~;""... el<'Ctlical ~Iimuldtion (ESI, 72-3 C,y.;'JIt'IDlI'rir [Link]. 278
d ...· m.n 1-10 e1<'C1Tic'i"'. 80 Ervs'I",I"I/'rr'x rl""'WI",IIIW. 2-1'1.252.2.'>4.
dri·inl!.- 102 d t'ct w rorticng ra m (ECoG).. 200 - 390-1. 413. 526
748 Meat Hygim e
nythromyctn, 306 fibri noos in tl.1m ll1iltion, 415 p ancn>as, 29
ervthropoit'tic feceor,
ES.:hmt:.."iIl. W.
~I

EKhmchilf coli. lOot 170.232. 235. 237. :52.

279.32·t 328•.132-3, J8.I
£~M alii mterotouerrUa. 520
fib rinouo pmearoiti5, 476
fibroma, m
fibrosi' , -127
fierv n.'d .0.. .....5, 106
...... ..
"""pi ratmY 5VStom'o, 30
' p\iol'n. 3-1 .
_ Iyphoid. 280
figtil and flighl, 47 traetures. 493
tu d i=ti ""lo .... EC 0irKti\""" fiJ!:ht or flighl syndrome, 163 poultrv, 18-t- 5
EUmpNn Union, C ~ """'" Fmn~ A~I. 167 Fra ncis a~, 55}--.4
insp«tion prored~. 674 FlI'Hrms Act I%S , 205 Fr~ ,~1JI (Pozskumlor) t"Iorrtrrsi5. 553
EwrytmIM ,PIInrnw/ioIm. 685 fifst-aid, 410 F ~ t ~ , 3'l 1, ~19
p\"aporation. ID) tint-aid room. 98 ffft bullel: pi5toI. 2m-5
[Link]. poW tn', ~71 frn lal h- acid (FFA\. 131
ewe " " I US
[Link]-, h\"droh'tic randdit\~ 4Oi'
an:-. s.l f1anwd ~ slides.. 360 frftu dn'ing. 113 •
~. dfflrulion.. 10 tlal-sou ring. 123 free~er bull\. lI5
defini tion, 10 f1a"'~, 636 frftzin g. 96, 106. ur. 111-12. 114
pl!'[Link] to>.at>mi.l ot, 100 ~triIl",. 346,391 areases, 108
Udd.... 4.f flee«. 223, 230 eff1'ct on p.:ol~...ue microorganisms and
uterus, .0 f1ighl ~l,JIWS. 181 p.:ora,it..s. 115-1 6
..~ fa I, 5 1 f1oTa, J66 hofS<' m..a L 631-2
~~~~~~~:'~~~-2
fIorenicol , 306 of mNt. 650- 1
flu id s. J62 hvsh m .... t dispatch aA'a, 97
"",,(m,ins, 455. 719 flu k... 247, 636, 6J 7,68lJ-8 FA'Sh :>Ol..a t (Hvgi""... and In'f"'<"tioo )
""san~u i nation. 200 f1ukecides , 314 R{'gu lallons 199;. 1 ~9, 192, 458. 680
.... udal... 363 fluorin..., 317, 715-1 6 Fries ian, ~
". ud alion cysts. 429 poi son in g. 710 fnu..n m l"al, 11-1-16
"",udal;'-.. diath... is, 707 FI"o~IS, 710 [Link] disea~, 471. ~n
... udal;\',i'1lide nt1;tis in pigs . 5.J3 ("..m, c1~[Link]. 150-2 [Link] poul tr\" d i....a....., 21:13
eve. 501-2."530 f"cal n/"{'ro,;i'l " f liHr. 333 fu ngi. 396-7;462.46-1,467, 610
..;'ewurm di ••M.... 657 foe..1s\"mm..trk al l'[Link], 317 fungici d l'S. 300, 713
fogging. 132 FU$/lri,, ~r. 106
follicu far [Link].... 690-1 Fusarium nl'CIllJHwru,. -t68
fol!iC\llihs, 428 Fu>ehl, 'c,ium ntcrop!"'r1mr, 425, 535
Factor; .... Act 1%1. ·no rood
[Link]>tv-blindn~. 144 adult... al ion . 5:-
f....... f colifonns. 362 ..nimals. 1- 18
f"""a l [Link] lion. 163 consum ption, 3
f~ 363.399-lOO dtt>asemm t, =;; gall bladder. -t68
gall sic kness. 60-1-5
~~~~ ~
colledion. 361
fa [Link] tu~ 487 galvanic corrosion, 145
FAO . 108 ta mpmng. 68-9 game, n.. 34:-
fa m ', 528-9 Food Ad 19&1. 57,58 gamma -irradiator, 117
sft. .Iso gLmdtn Food Ani ..... 1 Ikosidue An .,;da ra Datat>.ml< ganglioW;l05i5. +lO
h nn [Link] w,.uHf' Co-ordirwling (FARAD), 199 gangrme, 431- 2
Ell«Illi \"e. 212 food poisoning. 321-36 gangrenousdermatitis, m
Farm An ilNl Wrifa"" Council (f.",WQ . 86, [Link]. 3:51 as emboli.. 443
217 food '"emclts in. 326--:- ~,~ 'l'p., <&-9
FI........... ·sl un g.. 410 location of g.......41 outbre-ak... 327 [Link] nodes. 39, 41
fll5CioM fI~ldial. 681 manag!'lJ"Oml, 3J6-8 gastroenteri tis, ;1 9--20
f _ _ lIfJWfaar. 3H. 681-2 n<>ti~tion, 323 gaslroint..s11na1camr:o'~s, 512
fM olims. 681-6 organisms, 251 gastrointestina.l parasi tes 01 rwninants.
human, 68-1
F~IrfIIt'I/I. 681.684
ou tbrNk control group (OCGI. 336
outb reak SUl'"f'iIl..ina!. 325-1l
,,'-"
ga.~lroillle5tinal lrad, ID,710
f~~ ""w, 68-1 ri» factors in, 327 conta mination. 233-5
las t .mlimicroN"l ~ \e";t (FAST), W - S ..u ..~UAl'lU, 322-3 gene. 15-16
fasting.. prior to sl.... ghter. 183 trp". 321-2 gel cl...ming, 151
fat, 51 fOOd roi soning OI"JYlIlislIlS. 247 gela tin . lh
b r -p rod ucb t...... tIn""'. 130--1 Food ~if\g Engin...-ring l id (Fr E) ge latin ,trips . 246
d eco m pos ition . 3-l8-'l pla nt, 82- 3 $;<'Tl'-'I"al adapta tion S\...d rom e. 185
diH~"-'f'llia!lon, 55 food ... f~·. 258 General Agree m,.,.,t On Tariff' an d l rad ..
f'dibl~ fat rend..nng. 131 aft,.,. n uclear accid omts. 722-3 (G ATT), 238,263
t'1I'\boli. 443 Food Salt·ty Act 1990, 336 General Food Hy~l'f'l'" Rqr;ulatiul\5. 224
necrosis, H 1.46'J,470 Foo;>d Saf..ly In' pec tion servtc e (FSrS), 236 g""" tic ..bn onn..hti...... 487
rancid il\'. 348, 407 foo;l(j ' ·e hid "" in food pOlsorun g. 326-7 g..,w tic defecl', .J.f,2.-t64
""UK.... : 3 foodbom" di ",,,,,,. 318 genetic engin""rins. 2,189
f.,t s. oils and g'~.u"S, 140, 144 (oo;>dbom e pa lhogom" 328 gl"nl·tica lly d .. tl"rmmro di S<',,5l', U2 -3
saponification o f. 147 foot-and· mouth d ;"'...... (F:>O IDI. $83-7 gl'f'lit"ba, 41
fatty change, 438-9 ,452 fool ro t Iubl"rculosis, 54S
f. tty li" er, -l68 01utll... 534-5 germ tu~ lest. 3%
h....mo rrha g ic s~'Jld l'Ofl'\(' (FlHS). 285 01 goalS, H t Ge,.;tmann-Stra"..I..r- Sd ",;nkt'r ..'Jldrom ..,
feather pec king Or p u lling. 286 01 pip , 534 539, 560 .
fet>a ntef, 315 ofWq>, 534 ge;tag...... 309
Fed...ral M...at I ,,-~ pec tion Act , 190 fO« w ....l, ~ I O gia n l li,·,.,. fluke , 681
fffd a<kiiti'"""" n5 foramm magnum. 45 Gilrrdilr, 231. m. 622
f....ding toramm 0\-"",32 ......... 622
t'ftKt on odour, 65-6 tomgn bodies. 66 Cwmsa sta in, 372
inil~ on anim.d tis.~, 64-5 1~ 2 1 gi ll
fenbend.l~,*. )1 5 foor-p1at.. tes t (FPT1. 307.305 area..., 55
f....blgripPO!' S« .w;,....in fluenza fowl d~tion. 13
fermentatIOn of Mlgars, 3i3 choWra. 2i' 8 ult'ruS, -l3
Fern, "-t-\. 19f1
frtal blood, 3J
fftal c:ircuLotion, 32
""'" 31 26
intestines,
kidne\.,.. .c
""""""
~, "
.
definition. 10
~. 457 li,-...., '1:J g land....., 5.2&-9
f('\''''', 432, 4.$6 O\·ari"S.. +l gland,. coll«tion;and ~ieId, 49- 50
 Index 749
~05
containers. 121
~fd foods.,. 121
ItS p $ " " ' _, .... 6-l4

~~~'1i
~1m,".12b-7,-I1
glucocorticoi<b. -17
~ulamic:"o ... Joac:...ti<: tTa.......mi~ (OOn.

'"
gh'COg.... ~Ioras.. disoea~, 4)9
g';..[Link].aS1S, 656
[Link], n-a
t>"·.~'(b. H
C.I'U >/;', 55
conlaKious agalactia of. 522-3
fool rot of, 5J.I
id'~ltifical;nn and "'gislra tion. 736
kidneys, -12
meat. 14
Nairobi ~p d~ (NSD). 5117-S
.......... ICldt"s in. MO
[Link]... iti<; ~roenterilis of, ~2
pl.1l\uc. 5llO

_ 25
~ past....."'IIooi$ 01. 53'l
post ·mortrm euminatim. 250
",""", 736
' 1<.iM, 115
u?",'orms, 659
_~S3
.....
alttlo!, 2~
~,2l ~ain ts, 1%
tuhon-ulosi.... 5-16 hNd·lO-briolet ,,~, 209
udd"'. +l he.>dgear, 226 .
goatpo~ !jql hN ling .. f~; us
g<>atpo>; , -irus (SGPV ). 591 ht-allh and saf..t\', 2~5
C",nglyoncnlll p"khr"",. 6-12 [Link], -W9-IO
Good Manufacturing [Link]«"S CGMP), 238 <'« Ill$(! sar.." ·
Gralf-R~in"rt diseaS<.", 588-9 Health and Sale!)" at Work Ac t 1974. .J09
Gram·n..gati"e bacteria, 367 Ilealth and Salelv b e=ti, ·1' nISEI. ~O'l,
Grarn-nl'ga ti"" cocci and bacilli, 371 ~10 .
Gram-n..gati,-" organisms. :H6-S h~allh food~, 4
Gram-positi"" cocci and b.1cilh. 371 health rbk5, [Link]
Gram-posit;"" non-sportng rods. 367 ""art. )1 .475-8
G ram-po•..ti,'" orgamsrru;. ~4 Ciilllll'. 2~9
Gram's stain. 370-1 congenital conditiOllS. Pt!
granuLollon Iissu.., -127-8 ......m....to-r. 607-$
grAnulomatous infiamlJl,)tion. U7 hl'.[Link] proc..... ing. U .....2S
gra\"'1y r.d 0\"St~ 90 tw..ted bttf. 3-17
p~ 0« b'~ [Link] grN~ heo"v fTW't,ok, 300. 3 1 ~17
~y pig d ist>"5e, m ~~~; 6'i5
gn"ft' offal. 130
g......n lotrud<. J,j,7 alruw. 53-1
~106 _ dl'finitim. 8
~ d~a n/ rnl"""OOn. 156-7 h\'lmmlt\ pofaSileS, 28-1 . Ir36-8
gn>".lt\ ~ (G I{), 7 l'II'[Link] d~... 7(]7
P'O".lt\ ~ 7.309 lwit>ickks. 300,3 13. 713
~t"'g. 311)...11 H..nt UNllh Sur...-iII.1ncl'. bi,258
[Link]~. ·no lwrediUlry.' ""'lformati<:lm. ~50
jl;u....... fowl. 16 H ......ford , 6
guilt'! wo rm , &l2 h..nlat>1e hl1"'ml'Oglobinopmia. 4-41
Gumboro disea oe, 274 Hrlrr/lkis g.iUll1llr;,m, 28-1
gut .nd tri p<.' room, %--7 IIrx/lN"t/l "'(/''rl~ridj~ , 28-1,398
gut OI....I~ma, S20 hl'[Link]. ~!l-I
gut ~"'t"('tbnMd, 29 he:<Ol"Strol. ~ 10
hide, 96, no, 166, 223
by-products \n>atml."flt. 135--6
curmg, 136
manu,;al pollution,. 163
high-p...rform.1nCE' liquid chromatography
(HI'lq, 308
high ~'" I>.dUliQues. 127--8
high-risl< 1N!1.'rioll. 116
high-volUl~ .. ~s ( H YE)
bioi utography; n
I-lijl;[Link] W tl<'. 5
hindkog.21
[Link]'J nodes, 38-9
hip~1. 494
h'ppurah> h~-drolys;s ~t. 368
H rAA'ImOnIfS rnn~lS . 2fl.I.398
[Link], 283
HI"lr<p/IIS"'" caps"/lItu m, 612
I>nck ~m. 285
hog
ca rca ... , S4--5
750 Meat Hygielle
i<:l\'ru~, H·~--f> isr ha..mia. +12 Lond ,ac... 12
idm ti fiution of Oll\~"isms. 366-9 ischat'mic hnrt di-...aw (IH DI. 2 "'rge Ammc..., li...., flu ..... 681
ihacs, )'l ioc::[Link]: nod.., 39 LoW Black.. 12
urgE' \\"hite. 12
:::::::ri~~m
1S0117S.j. 19 1
1S011765, 191 "'f)"1\g<"'1 """"'*"'cillosi.... 535
immune 5\"'1""', ~22. ill i:>olation blork. 95 "'n-ngitis. ~71
imm~y, 306.310,318 [Link] ....-dia, 36-1--5 lateral retrophaf)Tlg..al nodo..... 36
[Link] fACtors, i l l 1~,620 "'undn-. 96.226
impacl <WrNlg~, 81 i\·eTm«tin. 315 1e-acI, 116.7l1_12
imf'""t"1td l>Iftding. 456-7 IIOk>.617,694 INnness. .159
implants. 311 I:a'>M1. ririn.... .115. >13. tnI ~.391-2
Imponed M....t Mmitoring Prognomow hodicW, 693 kogisIation
(IM~Ip). J(U ante--meJrlEom ~~. 189-92
tmp<l'lWd M... ts Poin t of ~tion rhemicaJl'l'SidlJ<'S. 300-1
Smlpling Cl.\lI'oOS) SUl'\~; 304 hNlth and 5/lf("'l\·. ~10
;mrlftSion ruin. ill poullf)·. 266 -
inclusion bod~' ho:[Link]~. 275 pmcf'SSf'd foods. 353
incu Ntion s...u gtu..... 213-15
of rul tu......, 3t>5 transport. 173-4
p..'Iiod. HI L..i!ohman stain. 372
Ind ia in k film, 38\ uislltlWlw spp.• 398
loo"l.. I,."t. 369 If'11"S t.1d agmt, 557
; nd u~[Link] nu....., 98 k-ptoml-'flin j;itis. 500
in«lib le an!'a , 97 lLpt,,,,pilll. 392
inedibl.. rend.. ri"l
infarct, 249. 429. 32. 41H
p lant s. 13S-41 Ul't''''I,irn ~ifle:rn. ~13
Ur'nifirn immugnlls, ~ IJ
inf<'<-tinn , 409- 19, HI k.<ng ilrtXl m ..at , 57 L.~''''''I'i'n i"lrrr"!<a,,, (a"'p/n. 530
1l'·'1<'rali'n'l.i syste mic, 450-62 k,' la. 590 I" p losp iros is. ~ 1:3. 530-1
mod .. of sr n'., d, 4';(}...1 k.. ra tini"" tio n. H9 I"" ions, re~iona l dis'ribu tion , ~62
inf, 'CI;ou~ hO,' int' rlunorrach ..itis IIIlR). 5Il6 k,·ra rilis. :;02 le uc ocv. l'S. 33
inf...-tious bulbar paralvsts, 556-7 kid n..\', 4 1- 2.. u s, 25.1. ~8J-6 U"",..ithl'(I<l'" 2S-I
inft'ct ;o lls hur... ! di "'..... (lBD ), 15.274 ca tll... 2~9 le uco&>Iozoonosi,. 2!J..l
inf""lioll S di .......es. SOs-634 ta t...,d rha nn .. 1 If'''l\ic) fat (KKCf). 6'l Ul"WIi>s,,,,. 3--15
jud grm<>nl. 505-6 ,.....idul"S. -t02 l.. ult.1..m ia. ~7'1-80. 578-80
infO'<11ous E'lVootic ~tilis of cattle and .t.,.."..,, ~ I"ulosis. 276
sheo!p '$t'( R,ft \0111....., fe...er (RVF) tublrn:ulosis. 5-17 levameol.., 315
iol"':''''\I. k......'''"'''iunct1'·itis, 530.606 "'arm of pillS, b-t5 1i(~ UUl'Sta tion. 689-9
inf«tiO\l$W)'T\gotrolCOOtis. 276 Kkl>sitIJ.o, >I6.3'Jl ligamentum nuchae. 50
inl«tious n«rotic heJ'.:ttitis, 517 kni\'l"S, .110 lighting. %
infectious OJ'htlulrnia. 530 h\'~ use of E -'J m ..at plant. 80-1
inl«tive ml~m5. -Ut multi}'! .. knif.. t..ehruqU<'. 229 limbemeck, 518
inf\.1mrNltion, 42W, -166
.KUI... -U-l-7
chronic. -U7~
.~ 227-S
Koshrr lJaul!;hlft ....training
Krris If'sI. ):19
s~-stn=. 218 """"
limits' '"
Umousin,5
of quantification (lOQJ. 310

infl....nu. ~uirw.
582-3 Kuru, 559 Iinl'drf'S5itlg.. l>'9-'12
infrarrd radiation. 126 a"h antagt'S. '10
iJ>~Ul. Wl di;.a.h·an",~. 90-2
inhoorik'd rondinon.... ill-3 linp'wtuLw. _~9
inf«tion 41~..n. ~ ~. .I9S 1I.bri1~ 57.353-4 hpids. 59-60
inJwin. 167 ... bouhire, X\8---9 liPofuscin. -n;
O«UpllloNl. ~IO ...tooraton· liqurfaction (rolliq....m·..) n«TOSis. UI
medu. 36-1

-.
inlxWtion of culrure .uwI\Ws. )00 liquid batch cultun"S. ~
in!;ectKidn. 312. 713-1.1 "'{Uipment. 355-6 liquid ni~ ..... 112
in-'p«tio.,., ltU tion. 2-66. 2.17. l63-W7 li,kTellosis. ~1 3--1-t. 53 1 -3
ante- mort<>m.. 189-92. 2B -'" fadlili 355-«17 Lmm... 251. 328
""
lTl<'at. 68.91,305.737
rerording sySt<'1nS. 725-35
m..thods. trichina... b--lil-9
pron'du...... quality control. b-t ~-S
reco rds. 36b
Usltri> """r«VI~. 292.333-4. 3-U.
382-3, :&13--14. .12 1. 532.533
listeriosis. 292. -t 1 3-1 ~ . 500. 531-3
trad ition a l n'TSU' ftl rirel\- \'isual, Z51 rep'0rb, 3D--5 homan, 533
!'O'I-mortem, 1 9~. 2.....58· ~ur" .. il1anct'. 325 lin'!". 26-8. 25-1 ,-Uii-7
rabbit. 2'10 IM~ra lions. ~09 abscesSf'S. ~ ~. 535
int~l'('ost.11 1'00,', 37 LMtcmcilll's. toe. J.I5 ca tll 2-t9
inlcniijl; ital d .'rmalili. (scald ) in .h""P. 535 Loikip ia l un~ d i... ~S<'. 5&1--'< di ... ~ -t67-i\
in!<'rdijl;ital necrob••dl1""i,. 5J.l-5 1,' ir"II'" 8~7. 166 "",large<!, 285
int.. rm,t!.. nt pow.. .....J sySl..m, 90 a n ,ma l hu sband r'v; 181-4 focal n<'emsis of. 535
ink'n",1 p Ma,ilism o f pijl;S. &U-S ,a lll~. 8+-5 . func h ons. 26
int.. "",1"'tropn'''Tnjl;eaf nod es. 36 w nstrw:tio n. 180-t h\'p"rla sia . .o6!l
Int,-m ati Ollal Co mm ,,;,;ion on tll<' d ..... r. 86-7 ni pture, .o6!l
Mkrol:>iologkal Specification of design. 198 tubt'rcuJosis. 5-<7
[Link] (lo. ISF), J.I3-1.358 tlip,t ~on<'S, 182- h\-e r flu ke di S<'aSf'. &111-6
ln k'm aliona l [Link];Ition for handling farili r:-·. 197-9 li..t'Stock
SMndardi5/l tion (ISO). 19 1 ""wing anunals ..iihin. 18 1- 2 dim; 166
int..[Link] rwphritis. 484 ostriches. 2% ..I..ctronic id.... tific4ltion of. 738
in _ h al pn..umoni;a. ~ 73 pig, 84 health\·, 167-9
in !f'osri....,. ze, 130, ID• .165 j:>ouItry. 265 mortafil\- during transport. 178-9
by-produetslrNlmft'IL 131- 3 ~. 85.1S2 production. 16}-72
rall"k, 24" "-.lifting, 182 re«plion area. 83
intracE'lIuLu aec:umulatittls. 112-11l Lamb. 10 fl."'>earch.. 461- 2
intracE'lI""'" blood ~rasilf'os. J60 driinirion. 10 tran.."J'O'1. 172-80
im~ [Link]. m hmphadenitis of. 5JS loading/unlooMiing. 1'72-3. 175

,-"" "~hkT.!25
iod~. 705.721 ..-Ming. 87
iod~ '·I.I~, 56 ... ' ill "-....,,ther safrt\' ir><k!< chI.... 17'9
ioniZing r~[Link]. 126 uWINM. ~ ...OrId production, ~
Lamt>[Link]. 622 lobar pn<>umOllil.. -l72- 3
ilT~ i.l tion. 126 "'nuio'kt<i'. 518 1ocl<;a"- _ tf'tanus
 Index 751
louping ill . ~ 1.J. 5AA MU>ual (OnSUmplion. 3 ml'"l'CUn-', 31b-17, ne
lO\"ibOOd COIJlp.1;r. lor, -oe b~'-prod ....1 s. 741- 2 m...enll-rK ..mp}w"....,.., 470
low-nok miltenal. 136 canning ;n [Link] "'•.•......uerk l\O<kS. 38
tuins. .; chem ical and biological dift ........halion. mnophilic a<"l'tlbes. colon,' rounl!; of. h7
lumNr~. 38 se-e mctaOOlK disorder.;. 6\I9o-'lo3
lump~ ' ~ ". _ actinom\'roo;i~ romposilioorl. 59-61 acquired, fR9
lum~' ~kin d ise...... (lS OI. 3S7 ronckrnned ;n rondemna lioorl inherited. ~
lumP)" " 'col ;2.1-5 Olnng ;nruring mt"[Link] , 637, 658
lum~ " [Link]' ..~. 613--14 Ollting. 69-7S mo1allK forrign bodies. M
lung;, 29-30. ..za [Link], 80 nwuplasia, .u.l
[Link] . 24CJ PWtK production. 2~ nwusta";~. 443
tu~~ 5-Uo froun; IU-16 AIntiI.....gII'Ilt$ rlMgorl"", 652
1WW'"orm . 295 h~:gime, llHl Mrt<lSl/UOlgyiu.s pvdmJotKtll'. 652
lule<Ol n,.ts, U 9 [Link] approKh. 1111 MrtosJ.....gvltt< ..,/"' ;. 652
lulrinisin~ ho:>nnono:' ~sing hormont "",",'l{E' f1ow~. 7Z6 IDI'Uzoon p.;.r~lt's. 4:!:2
(LHRHJ. 67 id ....tificalioorl, 2H meth,.. red It'st , 373
l " d;...,,,..... borreliosis. ..1:;....16 iTofmor, 255 Il\t'trlti~. 488
LVm l>uti"hJidt.;, 682 jn"pKtioo. 68. Ill, 305. 737 in rAbbilS, 2'lO
Uml_ ditJplrcw. 682 rfwrding ,,-,;t ems. 725-33 Micn!ArcJm u"" 345
1j",...4nI 1"......' tIN. 682 [Link] ,·.,..;us enli1'\'h-"iwal, 251 microb ial con [Link] tion. 155
/..i,r""ratIl ltU''''''Uw, 682 int"/[Link] inspectionfh,-g......... 257 microb i,1 rounts. 3+f
/..imtrrMll t';"lor, 68.! mar kinj; of. 649-50 . microbialsp«ifkatiom.. 35li
t'mph no<l..... 301-5 .36--11. 25-l. .wJ. ~I mi<:1'oblOlog v ;« microtoiolog\' mi<:1'obLalspoilage, 122-3
. carcaoe, 2.'0,251 [Link] · . microNological anal\'~i •• 3-12-3
c.1lul.., 2-lS and throu gh pu ts . 4 microb iological as.... sm~nt 1511
ha,·m.t. 35-0 ar.... sIze. 79 microbiologicaloitrma. 248
h". d . nd ",,,,,k, ;16-S, .w .ons ttuc ti"n and eq uipme nl. 77-~ microb io logical e"" rnindl;OIl
rit:. 40-1 <1001"'. 81- 2 01 I..... h m..at. 401
sut>m.~illaf\', 2-'10 dra inage, 79 0/ pnxl'SSt.'<;! m~dt , ~O I
l\'mphadt'llili';. 452, ':RI ~J t..triri ll; 811 microbio logical );Uiddin<"S. 3-13
. of I"m~. 538 ~n .. ironri"'IlI. 78 microbiologic al limits, 358, 35'1
I\'mph ..ngilis, 44 1 . ~1 fadlilit'$, 79-82 microbiological sp«ificalions. 3-13. 3~
l;-mphalic 5~·51"m. J.,l...6 fi,,,,.and wall finish"". 81 microbiological standard" 3-13• .1.'>8
l\'mphahC \·"" 15. ).I, ~1 -2 floor plan . 78 microbiologirallt'Chniques, 3-l4
!\mph"li"' I h'~ ' iome, monitoring. 378----11 microbiologkallt'stinR,. 357
l;'mpkobbs!t,rn.L 2Il7 l! nng, 80-1, microbiology. 158. 3J~~
1;,·mphoo;'l1..... .l4 P , ubmisSlOll.. 78 MII"nrrJ<TU'; 106, 3-15
I\nlphoc)·tic in fl.a m llUllion . ill plumbing plan. 78 Mict'P(O(cus /"tr"s. 307
li;mphocVlom.o, 578-80 sanilArWn,. 143-62 m~anisms. 16'1. 170
1\"lJlphoni."osis. 578-80 sib:. 7i-8 mM:b, e, .121
1;"IJlp Ooprohf" " b H' d,""..... turk..y .... 27&-7 ~ilt' p lan. 78 " bcropo!!fSP"'U", r-ri. ~ 1 0
1...J1~J.u s\"'Stern • .aso-J ,l,1hsli(" 730-1 ml<'YOSCOJ'Y, 3to9-73,380-1
l\uphdisanon. na n'lltilation. 81
wa n-r, ~
Illiatlsporo6is 416-17. 614--15
M .......,.,...,,,,,6I.l
1;"»01. 5'13--5
pn'M'f\"ation. 101-25 middk conical nod ..... 36
;nMfo(>ch illi ng; freezing; heal·tt>omnal ~liddle Whib>, 12
~siTog; ~....aOOn mild sted. 145
~YcC~ ' "11:'"', ) 7.1 qualir(, f11-9 milk. 8, U
A ~I~ lt>lri rW;~, 486,6+1 ..n.f~lrns, 185-6 milk ~- ..., 701
Tmd cc.... disN"" «< bovine spongifonn M1crt of stunning. 211 milk....·s nodule, 5112
enrep....[Link] (BSEJ pff«ts of bn-ediTog and p ........lauj:hl.... \linrrd Mtal Preparations (H ypme)
mad ilch, 556-7 s lrnS, 62-1 Regulations 19115, 7;
maNi . !i68-9 pl\\,'Oical ,od chPmiral <:hang..,. 61 rnint>ralocortiroids. 47
maoo;... i-. ..... 588-'l poUltry, 2IJ minnals, 60
mag~ um,. 705 re-inopection , 246 mitn,6'JIlJ
malformarioM. 450 sped" diff........tiation. .ro7 [Link]......, p."<kaginl\: (MAP ),
mali""ant ;oedt"IN, 517-18 stored. 101-2 70-1, 116
malignanl ca [Link], W M..al and U,·t'$lock Commission. 246 moist""""" membrane fill,,", 360
malignant cal~rrhal fe'o'pr, 5511 m<,,<:haniral ~n .. l'liOv, 1-«1 molybdenum. 71).1,716
malif\ll<1nt h,...d catar rh. 558 m....h.U>ical handJtng sysl~rns, 1\2 monili~ .is. 2113,612-13
malignan t hn,,·rthcrmi a. 6..j rnt'Chanicall\'-..... o'·~red m....t l ~l R~I ), 511, mon ito ring
ma lignanll\'mp homa, 578-80 74--5 . bdcli'ri"logical. 256
malign anl lnc ik·ri""i s. 627 Mrd,I, \'irr"" ,IiS;I,,'''s. 638 la,-cal w ntilminiltio n. 252
malleu s. 528-11 median rl~ tll', 20 hygiene, 158-60
ma lnutriti" n. 459,703 m..uical c....tifi(a tion, 227 implemt'1"[Link]. 240
$« al.., n utrition m,'tl i(al ex,lmination s. 227 plant h y gi~l"'. 37S-9
ma mmary!\lan<ls, 50, 4 S~ m,odidn'" mooo n udl'OSis. ~ 1 3- 1 ~ , 531-3
mang.>n...., 705 admin;~lralion. 302. M<>rIl):rU,l<', 10-1, 3-16, 3'12
ma ng<>. 690-1 ",", on:! k«pinjt. 302 morlalin·.!rilnsport. 178-9
ma nu1'\'. dL~f.."... l, 87 ",le uw. 3IJ1-1: molllit...'tt"St. 375
ma n u1'\' bdy. <J7-8 ~la tulury ~u r\"ri llanreprogram.....,. 304-5 mould;, 3-12, 350-1, 3'J6
marbled lung, 521 ...ithd ra", alliml'S, 301 X"""·Ih. 1\3
marbli..,. 51 _lIlfo(> chemical ft'Sidues mo~idectin, 315
Ma1'\'k', <I;".,.a , 15. 276 Moodiocir>es Ad \et<"rinarv Information muroid deK.........ation,. .[Link]
marko.... orp;.ni 37ll--9 Senire ( ~IA\'IS).· 3O-I muroli pidosis, .[Link]
marking <ly~, 2n Medite'lTa...... n Coast F"',..... 1i.."ft-7 MlK1Ir, \I.l. 106.352
marking of mNl, f>.W-50 medulLo obIongatll. H [Link]. 613
marrow, 21 me lanIn• .133-1 mucosal dse....... complc~ ( ~I D" 576-7
~ti5.~ melioidosi~. 533-1 m.......,.... infla mmation. 4:!5
rabbi15. 2'l'O h uman. .534 murous membranes. 2~

_..
ma\1:riab at wnstruetion. 145
muimum l'\"O:O\'pry d il......,t r..tRD). 359
maximum I"l""id.......·d tMRl), 302-3

a~ng, 126
~s «'Inus, 6112
~tllt~ .362
mnnl>[Link] rJid<" cultuft'S . 361
""""'in gitis, 500
1lW'l\in~li lis of rattle. 537---8
mud ""....., ~ 13, 530-1
Mwllmus atpil/lns. 6S7
mulbnty heart dist>ase tMHO), 701>-7
mule. 9
l,1~onns, 6511
752 Meal Hygielle
C!fShCffl:~' OOiojs inspfction pro«'dUI'E'. orgAns. 19
omitho/;is. 283," 1~1 5
'"
meat in5portion d ata, 726-7
~~u.11e disea5e, 15, IT7
06.'>ifu:ation, 22- 3
rows. 22
nitn~. 103, 716-1 7 osteiM. ..92
nitric oUdo>. 103 ost.-oarthritis. 492
nitri~. 103. 716- 17 osteoehoodrosis, "92
nitrogen. toW osteod~ ...trophia fib 93
n imw.>myog\otoin, 103 os~im~ 93
nitrous oUdeo ~ 205 ~·,20--3
nitrolntil 3H osleoml!aria. ..92
no obinnbJe tffect exOEl). :n!: osteomyelitis, 278, 492
~oomI•• 39}-4 oM~s. 493
noiw. 182
non·meal pl'Olcin5. 58
~.J93
non-I?rot~ nitrogen, 6lI d~g..297
[Link]'1.'NliN:. 7. ..7 [Link]..g.... 296
non'J'm..phrine, 7 restraint. 297
nortE'St05~. 3\ 0 s1aughtl>(. 298
:-':[Link] stunning.. 197
condnnnations data, 731-1 outer in legume n t. 223
"""'t in!op«tion d at a, i29-30 ovallurtnl'l. 206
notoo'drk ma" l e. 691 O\·aria ... (Iollicular) e...ts. 429
~SA I[)';. 317- 8 ovaries. 48. 487 .
l'o:ubian, I~ fowl. 44
nudear acri d "",ts. food ""feh" afl er. n 2- 3 oversc eld, 287
nu trll ion. 464 . o "e"'l;ckin g, 21~
!>to' alS<) malnutrition c vmc encephalom~"e!ilis. 51*1
nUlr lli"na l d"{i~ iencies, ~62. 467. 471, 703-7 o\"ine progressi\'" pneumonia , m,ledi,
n ulritional mu scular d ystroph r (t\::"'IDj. maedhi:sna, 5SS-9
soe o\·i n.. pulmonary ca rcin oma, 592-3
nu lrilio""l mropalhy, 706 0'
adrenal lt~s. 47
carca .... "
ot-,ih.; 438 heart. 31
obturoilOl'loramen. zz kidne>~. 41
o«[Link];onal disease. pr\,nmtion o t. ~19 Ih-..r; '26
o«upational injuries. .wcl-IO lungs, 29-30
ochratoxins. 318 I~-mph nod..... 36-9
ochronosis. ~38 [Link]'as, ;N
odour. 65--9.365
abnor-lNl 68
aboorption, 6iJ
,'""""" "
" ' - . 3>-1
,,,,,,",,, "...
rontrOl. 161 teeth. 52
d\W to abnormal metabolism. 66 thnoi<!, .J6
Of:>Cwl.67-8 1Oft~. 23

:.<5 d...:, .w3

""'-",...
~t'TNI d~a~. 520
[Link], 315
o Udl ~ (C\10dtr0r<wc oxida.w)lnt, 36S
:-<ADr. -168 ~".,.., '" !ormiCIr1ld".... 652-3 o~[Link]-pOsili'·" bacteri".. 367
,......... . 631-2 ~ .....,,'" dtntat" .... 652- 3 oridabon of roloured lNllnUb. 1-«1
Na~ sheep dlSeaM' (~SD). 587-.'1 ~tc>m"... gtorgYn"",. 652-3 o,,:"'ClcNnide. 314
I\it""l p.o.....gps, ~70-1 ~tc>mJ'''' 4f"11drispin."Ia'"m. 652- 3
National Sampling a nd Surnillana ~''''''u''' raJ..,,,,,,. U 9
Sc"",,," ()\,;SSj. 303.379 ~"""um spp.. f>U
nn-k-<Utting..poIJltrv; 267-$ orsophagus. 23.213,233 ~ints. 145
n«rob,odllos,s, 53-1 ' can"'. 1~<l ~le. sott. ..xudattve (PSE) m uloClto ti.......
rlf"CTOSis. 429-32 oestradiol. 309.310,311 11.63-1,86.186
noocmtken teritis, 177 ""lrog....... 7.309.715 pa ncreas, 29.468-9
necrotic rhinitis, 535 ot"lrus, .ui1 ~ncreatic flu ke, 685
n<"<TOtir ~tomahh •• 533 Ots' rJlS "ri~, 692 pan crea til is, 46S-9
Nri.S<'rin, 393 off·flavou r. 67 pap a ' n, n
Nei.",ria mttli"xitidi., UZ, ..51 offa l, 97, 130, 136 pap"r lab.-Is. 2~5
n r ma t"d,.... 636 ed ib le, 238 p apill a. ~28
in catlle, 63S-10 ~ lural5~' 108 papillomatosis (wart5). 589-10
in"""ts., (W.l)
in sh..."'p. MO
",a"h, ng , 23ll
Oh ara'§ d i.., a..., 419,553-1
pa pule, ~1$
p a ralyl ic m rog lobi n u ria , 701-2
infec tio ns. 653-60 oils :'<t fals. ous a nd gn'a scs param p hiSIOm ias is, 687-8
in horws, 655-6 omasum. U .-165 ~ra""",,1 sinu"'-'S, 470-1
nroplasia. H6-SO omphalo [Link]. calves, 25-l pa rasites. 462. #I, 465. -167, -169, 477, 4.85,
neopl~m •• 462, -U>4, 465, -l67, .(71).- 2 on-lhe-ra,1dnossing. 88-92 635--97
poultry. 2l!6 0."100.;=,, """'/laln, 654 specimen roll«tion, )99...1(1(1
Nmspom .62J o.".......-...u ti'-ni. 65f pa rasitic C\·sts. -l29
ne<>5f'OI'05~ 622-3 0.""""..,.;,, s p p ., 653-1 parasitic d'_..ses, 4n.4n. 495. 501
nq>IuiM, 483 ~. 653 [Link] gastroenl..,;ti... 638
...... hrom. -185 ~
ondiri diw.. se, at ...." Ie. 638-lO
1W'n~~II ... +I operali\'es of goats. f>W-2
"",""OUS'VSiE'm.. -U-6 . ..50, "'l':l-501 (Onbm;[Link], 224 of~. 6-W-2
"""""O\IS~. 19 Nnd"·~g..226 parasitic inMctions, 116. "93. 502. >I~50

-_.",
l'W'toOimill. 315 [Link].l. 502 parasitic inf<'Stations. 473
fWUl".o.l ~ ~boIi ..... in uttle. 2CJ.J onl necrobacillosis. 535 parasitic poultry di........... 283-l
nnlroIiLtria!<is, 656 ()rpgon d~, 1$7 parasitism. in!£'JNI. 166
nnlrons, +I 00. ~ 1 2. 577-8 paras...n pathetic S\.,.tern• .J6
....... nriant-CjO (n\·.qDJ, 56.J--.I ~,[Link]. 366-'l poratlwroids • .f6...i"
~ e">' York ~ (:-''YO ) binl5. 271 pa rarubeTculosis. 536
~..... u..[Link]. 9, 10 [Link]. 312. 313. 71 ~ poral)photd. 5)9-12
 Index 753
para' -iICriltia.
parotid nodes, 36,40
m
parrot ft'.:M', nI-IS
~:~1
hid5, 135
U porcint' si......,; svndrom.. (I'SS ). 6oI. 4<l'l
porl< •
pa.k, soft. [Link]'''' (!'SE). 86
p.>rt111Ol'l5. 17~ id .... tif" .. tion. 145,733 tapeworm, 678-80
p.J1t\.l.lim1 [Link]. 701 imop«tion. bl porphyrin.. -l3b-7
porturilion • .K>l inlomWl "",ras'ti!om. [Link] porta' circulation, 31-2
pi1l""gl'W'~ "', cu...-ed. SI kidMy "'onn o f. 6015 porta' noo:i<'S, 38, 41
Pn /rorrlJ. • .)94 [Link].. ~, 8H f'O'iSI'"rior mroiamnal nodes. 38
Pntnm 'u (M""u·tlLf) .n;I,ipffiifrr. 279. !i"ft.17 "... -
537 lungs, )(l .umination. 311
l'ItJlnrd/ll '--"[Link], 179. 537, 538.539 l~.... ph noo:i<'S. -»-1 BSE.. 5M-75
[Link]. ha~mo,,1ioa. 539 ,.......1 ~tion. 648-9 C'\i1TeI>I regime. 255
Pntnl,,,I. ",,,It«iU. 278. 291.510.537. ......1 production. 12-13 decision-making. 252-5
5" m~'«lf'Jurn.,.' ..rthritis in. 522 imp"""emI'T\t proposals, 255-8
p"otf'Umlos ;,. 278-9.291. i l l myCt~.ma.' (enzootic) pneumonia in. poUltn~ 1m
p.11hog....ic b.<; ...,;"" 1.'0 findings: 17'9
pot!>oltms, )81-99 pnooumonic [Link]-lJo,;.is o f. 538 inspection. 194. 2«-58
fooof-bonw h«[Link], 3Ilt-a p<>'t·mortf'm eumination,. 250-1 re procedure, 246-8
i,,",lific.o lion, 37+-8 p~l.o up.t.....1.....,;. 198 poultn~ 273
non-food-bomt' Nd..n...l, 389-% productIOn. 12 rabbitS, 290
[Link]. U8-12 rt'<'Ords. 735 spMmt'rtS. 362
palhotog;c.l .....[Link]. 433 rectum, 235 posl·p.>.rtw'ien.l haemogloblnuna, 701
pathology, 421-50 3 ...~islralion. 735 posl-rlnsing.. 158
pawpaw. 73 se..lding. 93 posl_slaughter deconlamina tion. 235-8
pediculo,;; •• f>I'I<[Link] sl a u~h l r. 2 15- 16 posl-w~aningdiarrh""a. 520--1
pt"11'<, 130 sla ughl hall . 92-4 polabl~ water samples, 79,361 -2
pcm·lrd!i ,·~ trl'<' of percuss;,-" stunner, Z[)2
p',,,,killin,l06
'rh'". 34
s\('mach. 25
[Link], 706
pol assium peroxi de (3%) I... t. 366-7
Pe,udlli,mr. 3 111 . Iunnini/:. 198 Potomac hors<.' f~ ,·~r. 6Ul
PeuicilliwlJ "",,,,,,,,,, 351 t...·ln. 53 pou ltry, H-16
pt'f\i~, 49 1 tho m v· hN d ed woon 01. 6+l anl ... mort~m inspection, 2n-3
p""'. "'
Ihvrol d. -u. bacterial disea...., 277-33
perkanlilis. 274, +11, 47& lolo ll<Iils, 23J bru'sing.. 28+-5
pt"flCud,um, 475-6 tongu e. 23 catt:hing and crating.. 264-5
tubo>Tnll~i", 5-17 tut>emllosis. ~5 chilling.. 271-2
p<.'ri ...... rium. 45 ,·..m e"l sc" ld mg. 'N. m coolantirwtion, 270.2Il6
pmodont.1] dist'a~ • .j.64 vir..' mcephalom,...hlis of. 603 d..ad,,",, -arri,·al 2SI
pmo,.l~m, 21 pig let dehnition. 1'3 defo.'athmnilv 1m
~iti5 . 278 pigm ....tation. 433. 473. -Ri5. 501 d ....ase, 17~
pmplw'R1 nen'ous wseem. 44.45 pig n>ef"lts. 61 sta lis~, 734
po-riton<-wn, -16'1-70 pioc,ol g land , -l8-9 di!.e........ of the tnnak> rq>roductiv.

-
tubm:uIos ~ 547 pin k r.-e. 530,583.606 sYstem. 286
pmlonim. Wol, <170 ~ ~ . 61 7-1 8 dtKtS of stunning on ",,","Iquahty. 213
pennilt...:l [Link]'s. 30J pithing. 88. 214 ...·~a tion,. 269-71
pt'fOxiM ... I~ (PV). tal pituita,,· gland. -is reedingstuifs. 263
pu-zlt' rot. 525 flock hHlth. 263
c onla [Link] risk. 155-6 pl.>cmta, 46 frKtures. 28-1-5
fadliliH, 98 pLlnning a pplication. jg
prsI cootrol. 81 [Link]>t ~tabon. 16-62 '-n. '"
fw1gal [Link]. 283
pest of """"U I'[Link] lPPR). 5'JO pLlnts , poi.........", 718 han~mgpro<;edure5. 2M
p<'Stiddes. 300.312_16. 713 p'..stic: iag. 245 !airagt". 265
Il'!'linjt. 31 ~1 .f pLlstia, 145 [Link],. 266
pt'! food industfy, 129 piaI<' «>un t, )..13, 357 modular .vslO'ffi,. 265
pH f'ff«'b, 62- 3. n.
140. 307~. 345 pk-uraE', 472 neck"""tting. 267-8
pH nlilYUllion, 353 h'btttulosis. 5-17 nt'OJ'la.m., 286
pH me ••un-m.....t .J06 pleurisy, 254. 47+-5 ~rasitic diseases, 28..l -4
pH value. .&06,453 pluck. )0-1 pellO'ting of i.....d, 263
f~ slurry. 170 pneumoni.., 2>I. 4n-3 post-mortem e xamination. 2~\, 2&9
phann~~utical prnducts, 130 of ruminants. [Link] pos l-morlt>m inspection, 273
pharmarokin..tics. 299 pnpumunic: pa " "urellosis. 539 pres1aughler inspeclion, 266
ph~ryngc,,1 n...-nlbaci llosis, 535 "I caul .., 5J8-'1 p rOOllclion, 261-87, 272
ph"",ol •• 313 ,,18"ats, S3'l l"o.'Ct'ption and unlo adinilv 265-b
ph""yl l'> u tawne, 317-18 "I pig., 538 ""aid ing. 268-9
ph ),ot,il i. , +11 of sh,...1" 53'1 shackling. 266
ph" . p horc..,cllc e. 350 pn,·um"nckeUsios's. ~16, 6O'l-9 , k.'[,'lo n, 23
ph""phoru~, 70s, 717 poached ~ l')"', 605 slaul':htl'T, 211-13.262,264.266-8
[Link]"",tion, 437, 702- 3 podod..rmatilis. 53-1-5 on-farm, 213
phvll"",rvlhnll. 700 poisoning. 710 [Link]. 271
PI'Ywetpl",l U< ...nlatus . 642 diAgnosI S. 711 stu nn in g. 266-8
pia mat<'r. 4.~ inorg"nic,md organic, 710-19 tubrrcuk>sis, 282
pica . 459 poisonous plants. 718 unfi t lor human con.~umph"n. 273-1
pickk> applic:.. tion.. 104-5 po .....".. 4&3. 465, ~7 " iral diSE'ases, 17......7
Pi<'dmon_, 5 pollution ~ramt'k."r'S. 139-40 Poultry 8....-ding Aocb and I Lt!Chery
pig. 10- U polvarthrili~ Scbeme Ord .... 19901. 281
a~ 253 , 45-1 cM cam.., 528 pour plates, 364
brwd•• 11-12 of~, 52S [Link], 262
CiII~a .... 5-1. 131 poIvdOOrinated birnl'Tl\'1s (PCBsI. 3 14 dmnltion,. 15
condnruwtions.. 733-4 poI}'d>lorinated rwp hthi.1enes (l'C1\s). 314 pt»;. di!.e-..... 590-1
d..nnition. U pol~"IT\ft"'" chain reaction (PCR) arw'r~, practical storage !in- (l'Sll, 112
dO'hairir>g. 9) 37 ~bd [Link], 353
d..-irog. 232-3 poI~~lPs. IOS pre-rinsin.s. 157
" udam ... t'J"idt·mum in. 5-13 poph tN.1nodes. 39. 4 1 pr-IaughtlT
fat, r~itv, ;MS ~ pobomy. !itis. 6Q3 dleck. 2.&7
flu s« _ iN- influenza porriJW l'l"p11>ducfu'und ~ralol'y f<o,od'ng of sugars, 186
foot rot in. 5...'l4 syndromt' (PRR$). 557 [Link] and ...... t quality. I M-to
754 Meat Hvgiene
death be/OT\' ~laughler , 290 ~cu lum, 24. 465
f,,' "er, ~ 19, ~53-4 ""1l ...."'oma. . 5i'8-&l
ins ped ion. 290 n'troJ"t'ri~ .u.4-7l)
nwal. It> rnrophan.....lt"alnodes. 36
pos t-mortem in;,pe<:tioo. 290 RF-tap. ~
pl"OCE'SSing plants. \ 6 rhabd iliasis. 636
production, ~ rtuniti<.. 410
~dotubnrulosis, ~2 rhinosporidiosis. 614
lolIitnol'1o!'l~. !9Z rhinotr<1chrilxS. turk\- ~ 2..,
w. ugh ter. 189-90 Rhip"'~I.... 617.64-1
trimmil'lg. m 1VI~. 106
~, m RlJOdonK'II; "IlIi. 195
tumours. 291 rik ~~
rabies, S'l3-S Ric~ Ccom m,tt_. 167
con trol. 595 rickets. 4<12
Intlo. % RUMt;;", :m
r~ [Link] d..omage. 71.9-2 1 Rickrlt,;M pha~"",u., 6O'l
r.d io»cti ' -.. ront.1min.1tion,. 719-23 Ridrlt__, 4b:-. ~
Ta<!io,octi,"ily monitoring.. :-::!1~2 rid ~ . 5Q$
ra founid ... 31 ~ Rift \ '"IIE'" fever tRVH ;96
ragwon, 711 [Link]. 61-2.115. 1R6
ra~ , -.. hickos. 17l rind . :;s
"m
btghead in , 515
rind"rpt'SI. 5%-8
ringworm, 292.411>-17,1>14-15
carca ",', M rinse s\"Stems, 15-1--5,3-11.361
d"finilion, 10 high·p"",,,u,,,. 154
'.Im f' angl,,,., l i3 low ·r.....un.". 154
ranodil\'. 106,3-l8 ml.'dlllm:P.""",.... l~
fat, 407 rip<.'ning. tl
o,[Link];\'''' 407 Tt.k .,....sment, 252
rapid m..thodologi...., 3<3 principles, 2..1
t.,ajl;<,.,t. , .t.'Ta!>", 4()J risk fa,tors in food roisoni"~. 327
rearing. dt'finihon, 13 R'\A. 19.7}o
I'Kt'f'laculum chd i. ~ road vehicles , \ 74.1 71>
[Link]<ltion: 155-6 rodding, zas. ~.5;;
...rord~. ant...mortl.'TTl. 192 rodent gjanaers. 533---1
rectum. ill rodenlicid<'s, 717
, . ttle. ill roUer slri~. 245
pigs, 235 Roma!tJlOla. s
5Mp. m Romne\' :\larsh. 'I
red blood ulb. 33 rough lla nd lin g, 187
redd","", 1~17 round....orms . 636
red d "ot'Il lrn' in caftlr , 6 0....1 ruN>t-r.;. U 5
red m.,.."t, ins'pection. l H 5'l ruJnI"n, 2... 465
mt now. 3116 rumirun"
red off.l room. 97 ga>lrotnl~ ro-r"",l<"S of. bJ8-.I2
~ iquiU. 717 f'Tl"Umon ;;, of. 657-tl
rN $tomiId\ "'Oml. 6C- 3
rvd...ong bodin. 61
rvd... ~Ift. 617- 18
ml ", onn ini es Utlon. b3-1-5 wa,,1 nod ~. 39
[Link] ind ..... 56 [Link] smic ~ 59
n-frig..rMlls . 112 ~m. 21
n-frigo-ratl.'d lTlO'al
$1Of~lte of. l13-lI
~"""
clNnint/- 1:;'1
IT.1nsro" of. lI 3--lI helmets. 4\ 1l
[Link] l'O<ld whick. 113 5« at"" [Link] .nd ....fct'.·
",frig•.,..lion. 106--14 s",k>rs, 5 .
~ccommod .tion . 95 Sal","nrllll. [Link]. l llO. 251. 252.
EL' n'[Link], 1117-'1 263, 26·t 325. 326. 328, 3~31, 3+1.
instrumentation, 112 :w-6,>W
mC'[Link].l, 109 or~ani.m5. rultu ... for. 21lO
"'gi""al il,·iri •• .J.66 5.11"""",/111 (1,,,1= ( "Ill", ~ 25
teind...... $laull;ht 213 S11lmQlr,1I11 d"Ni", 1'14.32'1
",latiH' humid it 179 5.,1"'011,1111 '" lmtidi~, 271,325,329, 330, ~52
m"h:."" . 112 . '·acdnation. 281
...n.1 di"'..... ~83 50,1"",,,,11.> 1/lIlIi""'W'I. zso
"",.1 node, 38 5olIm""dlll [Link], 93
..."d..ring plan\';, inedil;ole, 138-l1 $.rl"""ltllll p"lw.,,"r. 2i"J.3.."'9. 330
nm in , 41 501",<:",,1111 typhi. 329
Q fe\..,r, ~16, 6OS-'l n-o...iru ...... m SaI"..",r//,IlypIri"umrmr. 93. 1(12. 32.;. 330.
in man . 609 ft'l."<'tiri'-e . tr "in in jury tRSIJ. 409 331 '
qwoH di""'ase. 277 l\I'f>rodu.:ti Iem, 42-1. 450, 487-'11 501,,,,,ndllr \', IIti:: ",W. 28\
q....litali ".. ml<"l'W, 2-W [Link].n:[Link] ·.iock. -161-2 5.r1"rondlll rin-h=, 330
qu.>liw ......uraece. I 5/!, 2+1. [Link]-I "",id Uf/S ....Imonellosis. 180 .2..'"9--81. 466, 5:W-U
q... Ii~' <;OI'ItroI. 23ll MI~. 401 [Link]>it,;.. 292
w..~ie procrssing plants, 138 .1ntibiotic. 401 ....Ipin gitis. 279.-l&'
«<M'i(l HACCP; ....... t kid......; 402 w t. l ID
quM1tiur;,,, ailt."rU, 2-W wmpfing, 379---ro ...mpb .356-'
Qwn' l'PI'er. ~ 16, 6OS-'l sulfonamid.,. -JO:! (oUr_,3-U
qUid' dU lling. 110 1«."" chemial f\"Sid..... chrmic.. I .....wl...... 305
roll«tion.. 303---t -103, ,11
.-....pir~ton· S\..""", 29-31 . 4~5
Reta il AnftNl Products SUn-..•.. (RAPS). 3l).I [Link] to .. pp",,-f'd Iabora torioo-l. 64"
rat>bit. I' . 28~2 ~tion " .. Is . 4-"'9 . storage, 363
conta m ina tion, :NZ ~. 276 tran. port. 363
 Index 755
... mplin~ 356-63 record. . 73t> ~.21 7
.oir, J6: ~m .m ....ting of .n"",,1 prior 10, 183-1
P"'m. 35ll. 359 [Link]#lI ~", 166,215 ............ 166,215
rnid ~, 3~ sLn't~ht.... n..1I. 92 transport 10. 173
I«hniques. 35'43 spleen. ~ 5« .J!iO rr-J.1ugh....
San \h,: UrI ..... lion \. ~ d;........ 602 stomach. 23 ~ J : ~,t.n
...niu non. p\.lnt, H 3-62 [Link]'"" omu.. 65'1 .:I>de .:aLl .......-st. 367
"'P'O"', fl<;,.lIon of fats, oils " nd g............ 1-17
xttonrsh", -4'15.623
l"'-"th. 52
tlwroKl. 46
slid". :lfR--73
.lit [Link]..-n.. 362
...rroe....tosis. 623-5 tOOgut'. :3 .:Iurn'. 169-70
",rcon\a. 276. 287 tul:oerculo!li•• 5-l6 'me ...... 36'l-73
...m'ptk "",nsl', 69\ '·isc........, 25 .....il ft-,.-..... 686-7
""o«>oporidi,)§,s, f>23-.5 s....." l'dips. 3D ",ow moul d •• 351
... u....ge, 347-.'l .h...,p ked . 692 ",>ci.I.tn_. 182
casings. 130 sh,'t,p n""lTil or ........1 f1 ,'. 6'l2 sodium ascorba te, 105
...."'du.t lin'fS, 535 sh...,ppox. 591 . sod ium ch lorid , 103. 70t 718
s.,abl'oMd. hygkonic 1.1"", 22'1 sh,"epp?x \"i,u" (SI'V). 391 sod iu m f1 u"1'\~" tale/f1l1oroacet~mid c. 717
...,alding. pig. 93 slwtlfi,h loxin . 318 soi l", l-U-S
S"',i~I"""~'" mnl/JIff;' 41\5 Shi,~tll" . 3116 solid ca rbon dio\id... 113
!Khist\...-.mi"si., 6&>--7 ~ippin " (....·..r, 179.53il-9 ..,Iubili... tion . 1..7
Sch"'antl cells , +l ShOrthorn . 5.6 sore mouth. 577-8
"Cwntifk c\p<"Iirn'....e . 195 shrink.~ 101, III SOUr sid .... >17
so>tom.o. 1+4
loCO\lB. 519--20
..... .pt.. .5'Ill-Q
SCT.. ~1t'd fit>rils (SA F). S9'l
Simnwn 1. 5
Si"""rJ ""noJ.>u. oH
~ l d ioonkn. 493
sJ<dri.,1 Sl-stem. 441- 5
_. it'ricil.
SQUrin >19
South Clf'l.........us bwis inspection
proadu~. b77

definItion. 13
~ln" rao-r ""clcton.'21
!t'i~ 310
~'Wonn infe';[Link]. to'll -2
~.lll
pou.!ln':3 --."
uterus, ~3
S«OI1oIUrv ~ti ... tion. 702 skin. 50: %. 11>6. 223. ~50, 462-4 ,~idl'nti fi<:.tion !t">b. 55-9
!«Unn' alTarlg\"Int'f1ts, 98 l:>,'-products tn,>,o!men!, 133--6 ~fied oo·..ine rn..otl'riotl (5 6:'f), no. Sb3
.........ium , 317,706,71 7-18 di....-.s. 411. W ~f....t Rid M........!. 248
wlf ·.dhoesive, n-llophllToe t.1po."!o (If Llt>els, 360 [Link], 463 sp«ifM."d ri"k m. Ien.1 ISR." IJ. 131
OE'mi~lid cullul'tS. 36-1 [Link]. 250. W ".om~
Snl«io~, 711 leukt»oi s. 580 id....[Link]. 363
~tic pt'ri<:..rdilis, ..76 [Link]. 410 parasite roU.'Ction. :l99-W:l
l'<'POC shock. 455 ..-psis. 417_111 5p1w'l7l'horu, " (\'rw/Wr1l<, 434,5711
...-r1i'....mia , 254, 274.21>7, 451- 3. 5.'2, ~1 tubercul""l§. 550 .pin~1 cord. 45, 5o'!
dini",],;"n, and I",,;on., H2 .Iaught,·r. 16.l-96 , pine, 21
[Link]<>sis, 452 assessm"nl o f unco nsdous",'Ss. 1W-21X1 spir~mrdn. 30t>
jud",·n lt·" t ot 452 casual"', 192 ' piroc hae tal,.... 3'1'l
rwonMoru m. 519--20 d r, 2lf3 spiroeh." h",ls, 291
of equid..o>, 53Il em 'gl'nC\', 192-4 Spirometnl mn>Nmi•. MO
lot'f'tic• .,mi c [Link]>b. 520 f.."tin!!:prior to, 153 Sf" ", ,,"I ... ~'d"""'wiJN. MO
SO'f'tlraO'1llIc p'hlt'urclJ"si., 539 hall. S1-'l9 spleen, aa 2-tS. l.'>4, 4S2-3
...'l'DUS nuids, W bl.....Jinji: ...... /Ill ...alll .., U9
!offl>llS inflammdlion. 4:'6 cond..mnt'd me..1 room, % tubnrulo!lis. 5-17
~Ifria ,;pp.• -lll5 cutting rooms. 97 sp1enk 1\'ITlph nodes. 38
_ -"gt' ~ud ge, 171 dt-tainn:l mNt room. %
~ih~ f.t room. 97
spoi"~: 106. ).1.1-53• .&07
canrung.I22---t
~ ~in.1lion,. 5l-5
5t'x hormonn. -lS tmoI'f'g...,.;y unit , 95 ~"cs. J.l1
so>xlUlodour. 1il-8 m'ironrnent. 22+-5 ~gifonn [Link].1lh\' Ad,'iso;>c'v
[Link]' w~. 2$ <'qUif'lT"'!'1 ..'ash. 'I, Commlu.....(SEAC). !'063 .
w .... cultu~ 364 fri.->J'i me.1 di"f'1td1 ....... . 'l7 spores, -103
"h,lIp f.....zom-. III gu l .ond lrif'E' room. %-, st.1... ing'-, 370
..tM:-.th rot. S25 hid ...nd [Link] .Iore, 96 .JX>r0CY5t. 638
"'-1'. ll-I O in..(hb~ "rN. 97 Sf""'Jflim ocMrrckii. 615
sporolrich<>s;, . 61S-16
.[Link]. 47 [Link] block . 95
.,,~. 22 I• .,.[Link] f1"wlines. 229- 30 spr.y chille ... 272
!;01,m'f1~' strik. 692 m'Anu,,"N\'. 97-8 spravek'aning. 152
!;o!'<'t"{h: 8-10 on·th....r Jil ·d...'SSing, 89-92 sprav·....sh [Link] llry, 271
c~"."". 5-1,55 pt'nlOnn...l fACiJiti..... 98 "'1 "~b, p rod uct i" n , 2911
c<mdcml'.' lion. 732,733 pig. 'l2--l squam"". c<·1I e~ "inom ~, 287, + I'l
wnl~gi,,"s aKa lacti~ . 522-3 r..a "ff,,1 roo m, 97 .tab ru lt" ,,'S. 3f>.l
[)[Link]. 9 ",[Link] acwmm odati" n, 95 staff. .....If"''','CI ,u Ali'' n form. 228
dn.'S.~in~ l.1(}-2 sh..... p.92 slag. 53
fal. 131 .tunning a",• • 87-8 definition. 8
foot rot ot. 5.l4 \,...h id.. was h ing, 'IS [Link]. 369-73
"".n. 31
hill bn'l"d", 8-9
''et....uun· "boraton·, '19
,·et.-.;",,";.. o ffice. 'l&-'l
of spon"'I. 370
t<.'Chniques. 37U
id~tifl""lion and ~[Link]. 7.16 hu l ln- m st.1inless hollow knife . /Ill
inlrrdiJ;it.J1 ",,",,-,liltS ("".. Id) in. 535 1 •• 217-20 .....irIIrss sI«I. 145
... t lpar_I''''''.IM [Link]. ID .bins. 3'96
kid -s, .c [Link] ion,. 213-15 Il-pes. 3J\)
"ir.~. 115. 182 1~ .I 99 stM.i:Urd p Lo!<' count (SI"C). 357
Ii\' ..... '17 m;snol"rwou. methods. 21l-1 4 5t~. us. 328. 345, 386-7
Iow"nd br1'f'<:ls. 9 mol>ile fKili ty. 83 S~ ."mtS, loo. 252, 25-1, 21ll.
lun.s". 30 [Link]. 220-1 326. 328. 334. 422. 451. 343
~.,iobi .......1 ' disc....... (~SI}J. 5S7-8 ostrictws. m StorplrylmullS "_ I/iols, 5-13
.......alodn in . n.w P;~ 21S--16 stardw.-s, 145
p.1r<bi1k ~1'O<.'Il1""";lis 01, 6-10--2 poultry. 211-13,26.2.26-1,266-8 st.1n'.lion,. .. 5<1
pn<'Umonic f'o" leurel""'i. of. S:W on-farm. 213 ....Iic w . ..or chHlr .... 272
ptoh·..rthrihs. 528 Pl'OCl._ . 199 ,Ieam ext ractio". 7'1
poSt.m"n...m ""'rni....ti" n. 2S0 pl'O!\[Link],'. 245 steam h<J!;o..... 15-1
p"'ducl,,'n, </-10 rAl>l>lt" 2119--90 , I...a m pa , I"., ri",' ti,m, 2,1(,
756 Meat Hygielle
~Il>.m ~Imli!o.'ltion. 237 superficial sa mples. 3-11 teslo5 terone, 309,310.311
steam ' "I CUum ~h,riJi$.>tion p~, 237 Sllp ra [Link] ma f)· (lema"') 1"lCJdl'S. )9 Ie tMlus (Ioc k~ ... ).
418-1 9, SIll-19
_ I, h)'jl;'rfUC use. 229 suprasl","",l nOde. 37 Ma nus toXOId. 4tH
s~r, 6,53 surf~ ronlollCt or imp~ion pLu.... 36\ tettxhk>rodil>en>odioxin, n~ls
ddinition. 8 surf~ materials. I _ b tetr~"dines. 306
SttplwNrmo,4tntatus, 485. MS surfaa plate ml'thod. 357 Texas·f""·<er, 617-16
mriI~lion. 92, 236 surf~ slices. 341 thalliu m sulphate. n7
kni ....... 227-8 surfacrs. coo!.Jmi""tion. 156 11u",niJi"",. 352
sternum. ~ sum. 631-3 tha ...1Nf frozen meal. 406-7
.k'roid~ 309 ~soI..id5.140 ThnIMt. 398.625.627-8
~[Link] point. 224 s.....bs, 3-11. 339---«1. -103 TNilm. ptrnV. 625.626
~tf \[Link] d_~, 706 s"'~p fe·..er. 581 thnleriosis. 625
~.309 ."·Ntulg.. 101 theliziasis. (PI
stocl<.nwnship, 166 s..~ mea t ~ nn>rding,. n:; tMnpruoc products. 299
~~.130.Z23 ."."'"1'p l..te teduUquf'. 361 themW~; 146
by-products treatment,. 131-3 ....w thermal processing m! l'w"t-tlw1maI
c"tt~. 249 ("o"Stknr05is. 67S-80 pl'OCE'§Sing
,lor'K@ d,........ h"n,. 5-12-3 thiabendazole. 314.31 5
1'wSh ........1. 116 ..ry..ipo'Lls. ~49. 52tH! thin e\'''' s\T\drome. 514
"'frig.-•• to.'d ......1. IU-I -1 fe\·"r (Sf), sw-eco thin-liI n'r ChromatoRraph,', 30S
![Link], 112 herd d,......... 413 thiobaTbituric Kid (l1IAJ: 3-19
.tr,"i>em' foo l rot, 524- 5, 613-1 '" tw-rd fe\-er. 530-1 tho racic duct. 3-1
, In' . k for '00101'1\' iso la tion . 374 infl.... nu. 600--1 tho m,·-hea dO'd worm of pigs. 6-14
.I",.k pI. '""" 364 ,·....i<;ulu dise..... (SVD). 601 ttlree-1.l ay sickn ess . 581-2
. t"'plorocwsi., -118 ve$iculu eunth..ma of. 602 thro mbrie\' te'S. 33
S''''I'ro",,:m., 125, 345.395 S"" n..po>.:. 592 th rombosis. +12
Strrl"oK(lCClI' .fill.,;,li., 249 s... nll..., h....d .mdrome (SHS). 275 thro.h . 283.612-13
5' '''1'' ''',,"11. liq'''1''d,''., 123 .\'m pa thetic sys tem • .u, TlIIIga arri<le<l fa/is, 412
St,rplOCOHlI. /1IIw molllnr, -151 ;lI"~m ,,s lrar)tro. 284 ihvmic leu [Link]. 5/llJ
S'rt'I,tococCll' pyogr',fS, -151 ,}·ri'n go my ..Jia. 500 th\"rI\us. 47,483
SI"'P,.J.-oHlI. " ... type 2, -118 .ys tem ic cir<:u lation. 31 th;""roid. 46
Sll'f'1'tococCll' :ootpiJrmi",., -118 sy.l"mic di sturbance, 191 Iitiia ""urs. 350
SI"!"","1j'('l'S .,onmllilis, 3 1-1 .~·stems. 19 tick pyaemia., 5-13
Sln'l' ,on\vcin. 306 Iic k-bOme disea~. 617
51~. ".~7 m k-bome fe...er (I1In. 609
a nd rn....' q.... lil... IS;;....e, T 'y",pllOClIlts. 423 li<; k-bome men iIlgo polyn.... rilis. ~ 1 S- 1 6
pn::--slaugh h'1'. fl4--5 T4n,iII lryJj'f'St"''''. 295,66H licks. 692-1
51"",~ "'"som;, 6014-5 T_iII _rgilUlltl. 66..4 n lmirosin. 306
.trongy!05i. Istron~'lid05is} of equid.w, T_iII ",,,flictp;. &66-7 ttne", 4H.-1 7. 61 ~ 1 5
'65-1-5 . T_ior cas. 6Ii7~ lissue factor. 4-12
S,,,,,,gylus ,w"t.,IlS, 655
51",,"-~ld "'U,"li', 655
T_iII pisi[ortff;s.. 2'91.668
Tam. ""S" ....l tI, 248. &69-74. 6;'S-80
ram 291.669
..-. "
T~uN_14
51""'~1<S ('Il1~. 654-5
~.
toilE1 facilities. 87
structUred .un"e'I'S. 303 ram_ soli"",. 6<~ toiIet~, 98
$1",''';'''''-'"., '2% r_.ItIm~. 291 """"".23
.m1:hniJw. 717 [Link], 669-74. &""8-80 torulosis. 611-12
stUnning. 198, 199 taint. f>5-.9 [Link]. rount -s.... rrco. 342-3
.nd moNol q....li r.~ 211 in fit, 3-19 totiI '"\ab'" rount m·Cl. m 357
a,".87-8 " in I>ams. 3-19-50 to>.Mmia, 274, 455
..... iss Talf.." di ........... 603 toxic goitT1'. -l6
df"'ign and Mnsing.. 188 T" m" ·orth" 12 to>:.ic shock. 455
catt"'. 2 1~I S !.Jnning,. 136 tori<: su bstoma·s. no
_,m liP"'"·orms. 28·l, 636. 658-60 toxins. 318,421,463. -165, -667. no
.-ff«ti,.......-.s. ::!OO ~659 r"ropl<rsmo. )98
electrical, 200.208-1 2. Y:r6-7. 290 Utile, 6S9 rorop/tls_ golldii. 629-30
hlg!l-\"oILllI:e. 210 dog. 6~ lo xoplasmosis. ft28....9
lo ...·',oILlge, 210. 212 KOdl>;. 659 trlloCheitis. 4n
gas, 267 hor-s.659 tr" in ing, cleaning.. 159
h....d to back / ~ 21G-1l mulH, 659 tTan 'l,u illiSlTS. 300
m~",[Link]. 201. 268 .JK.. .". 659 tran s,t e r\'th<"lT\a. 463
",('th od •• 200.-11 TeDD. 7H -t5 I,a ns it fe;;·er. 179.538--9
non· J"-·'....tTati \'e percu"'on, 202 t""th, 52-3 T,ans,t of Animals Ord .. r 1927, 177
os lrkhl'S, ]fj7
pt~l . llI!
telang,,,,,ta.'" 467--8 Transit of Animals (Road ."..1
Rdil) O rd er
t"mreram""t and [Link]). 188 1975(amend,xl 191:18; 1992).173-5
l>t'TCu«i" e. 200- S tl·"'perat" re. 191 tra" , it letany, 179
h('ad ~ l!<'s. 202-5 control, 179 [Link]••ible g as troenteri t'. (Te E). 601- 2
p' gs. 19t1 indica tor·""ord e rs. 110 transmissib le min k enceph al" [Link] (Th IE).
p.... llma t'c, 202 Indicate rs. 112 559 '
poultry. 266-8 rll'C ording fadli""" 95 tra",~missib le s~iforrn ena:oph<l lopathi....
wat ·b..lh. 267 witer, r ss (TSEs). ,,59
...a t -j<-t.20S t..'1\dercut proc:....,., 72 transponders, 2H
.ubtuti. d~a~, 46J--4 tel'\d<:risi"&- n-l transport.. 166
~ubdorsal node. 37 b,· ele<:hi<:al stimu..Lation. 72-3 <>;r-wnd,tioned "e hicks, 176
~ub"",illlary node$. 36, 40 bY infusion of cakium dUoride, 73 ronditions indlJCftlln~ 179
•ubpri"",1 CUIS. 116 p no·[Link]!lter, 73-1 fresh mNt. 107 .
.ub$trat..... 145 tenderness of meat. 71 ~·plan. 174
Suffolk-cross. 10 t..onderstrPtch method of hanging beefsides. legislation. 173-1
~uY'" 72 !i,·estoek. 172-80
[Link]. 375 tenoo\TlO\·ilis. 21"3 loading/unlc>«Img.. 172-3, 175
P~[Link]"" t-ding" 186 tftmUW ilritiJi, -l66 Ioadinfl:/\Ulk>ad- 188
su1foNmilH 11!SidUl'S. 402 t<"1'1nin&l rinsing. 158 loss ~"·right d:tg. 177-8
sulphiding,. 118 terrnzo.145 mortalir.; 17B-9
.ulphorwmid..... 303.306 Tf'lIdwn d~.ose, 603 mngeorated meat. 113-14
"""Imur. 704 Iestes, 48.250, 490--t separation [Link], 175
[Link] inguinal ([Link]»~, )9 fo... l. +I unfi t ilnimal. 17~
 Index 757
Transport of An;mal$ (C". eneral) Qrd .... 1973 "i",1 d~a>l'S. 471
C ~~ 1988; 1992), Ir:>-7 "i",1 encephalomy....itis o f pig> , 603
traps . IlO \'ira! papular dnmatlbS. 603
[Link] ...... lic inj ury, 187-9 viral papular StOlNltltis. 603
[Link] ~ronitis, 46'l ,'iral pouiln' diseases. -r74-7
tra".. l oodlP'ml, f,j , iruses, 32$ .421 , -463, 465. 467
bYmatodes . 636. 637, b8G-8 ,·iscn.
~Ian~ du mou ton 5« ,.;[Link] bWI. 25
~. 309. 3 10 i~lable, 88
TITI'l""""I'. 395-6 miMing. :m
T~ /rytJiIopnolniM, 5-12-3 ~,2S
T~ piollalU"l. 415 \'iston 5'~ TJp,
trichiNe. ~.tory methods. M8-9 '[Link]
Triclrind/4. 116 dol'ficimcin, 7f1l
Tridri~ t') "m. 646--7 ,iLomin A. 7f1l
Trichindhl ·ntI~. &1 5 uddM". 44.2-19--50 \i lamin B, 7f1l
trichint'l~ ~s-s ~,54S ,·[Link] C, 7f1l
control, 652 UK FI'l'!'h Meat Din-cti\·,. 1995. 226 \' iLomin D, 7f1l
trichini.t.~~ &45-8 ukt.... ~28 \·[Link] E, 706
trichinnoropr. MS-9 ukerattve l"l'Itt'1itis. XTl \'iUmin K. 7f1l
tridUl'106is. Ms-3 ultraviolet rad iation, 126 ~[Link], m-to
T ~.628 umbilkal cord, 32 volatile lalt)· acids (VFAl. 141
Tmho""""" {ott,,,., 398,627 unt'Or\1;Cio~. assessm<'llt. 199 \·ul\"a. 489
trichomani...;., 627-S undu l~nt r",,·<'1. 511
TlUhophl(lon. bl ~ unli t for h u man C'On-'umption. poultry,
m(hop~~"n m~,,'agroplJ!I' fS 'oar. gra/lll lart, 27>-< wapita. 17
United SIdles of America. Cystiurrr,s b'Il'is wa rble fly, 295, b'I4--6
trichophyh ...is.416- 17. 61....15 rns pc<:lron procedu re, 67&--7 war/~ rln, 717
'Iridtu ris s"is, 653 upper cer vicalno des 40 wart hog d io;t'ase, 555-6
1ri(huri~ 1,i<-lIium. 94 ur ~e m ,a. -l8tl washes . 3-11, 361
tricl,lm'nd ,.znle, 315 u/'\"a, 58,712,715 [Link]
trinwthnp ri m, 3Ot> u .....1'" 1...1. 369,375 lambs, 225
trimming UI'\"l\"1", ~1 . 4IlO--7 li ..... toc k. 87
rontaminati"n, 137 un'thra. n, ~S6-7 m",hiJl(', 152
rabbit., 292 U'l1;n.... "",rili"",. 717 ofbls, 238
trip<'. 132-3 [Link] (aleuli, 485 p ~a ugh te r, 168
lriSodium poo..pNle. 23i. 2.-:'! Uri rY organs. .'1 waste. high- and low ·risk. 136
tropinl thei"'riosis. 626-:- un ')' ~ysl<'m, 4S3-1 w~ disposal. 168.715
true . .........ct> eead. 47 urine, 363, 486 was k' processing plants

w_ >!a.....
T')1'II_ _ grnnNtoN', 6:;'; ~UI sv~lem. 41- 2 hr gi.......requirro>mts for. 137-3
Trypor_ ~q. 63-0 t'SOA ~ufarions, 191-2 [Link] amtrol 138
T'YP"_ (Schr.t>t"W'l"''''' ' ,~..::;. 633 uwbf da k'. ~ dispoo;al s~ll"l'I'l . 80
~~ - 63(l....j: u temr l&, contamination. 224 Wolll.'1', 58-9.321

_
trYro>",*""u..s. 6:<1-4 u m-u s, 42-4 .-488-9 acti Yity, 102
~ [Link],.....,;lt.-d Airic.m ca "~. 249 ol....i labiJity. 102
~ ~.630....: contaminated. 155.225,236
I\Ibfo roa~ k'St. ?«' cont .....t of mt"at and offal 3-45
tub,·f([Link] h."St. 5-19 \"I':ctnation, s.J-...u. rntrri4i/iJ, 281 "'[Link]~. 84
tu~ 2-19. 250. -461J."~~ _
.fkoctions of sP"'O!k 0Ip--5 :<k-'>
alimmtln'tract. ;:.4:-
~::.:I. ;4:;"":<3 "[Link]. 5J91
"xuola;r~abon. 439
"llC\Ium ' 70.113
..... "
.......0.1 plant, 8lI

potable, 19,361-2
~,SS ,·apM. ",,"pentu~. 155
catue. ~;. 54<>. 54~ ' ·al'i<:>la.-. !i'lO- 1 wall"r buffalo. 5
cn>tral n<"I"\'OU' ,,-.lem. :-." uriolo....eri nia. 591 watl"[Link]~, 182
(k,er, 295 . \"afruli h~. -« I watery pork, 6J-..l
difkrnltial di.t~,. 3-I....3i 3:;,) veal calv....., 7 wu stnpping, ducks, 2b9
s.....iUlia. 3-IS '·~I'tabl .. protcin p rod ucb, ~ w............ definilion. 13
goal». !40 ,-.,;..[Link]. ~ weeping. 115
ho""-"5, 545 whid e Weil'5di",a;;<,. 4 13. 530--1
pointll, 54ll dni)l;n.11ll'l W..lfare of An imals during [Link] Ord.'r
,ud jl;cm<,nl. 551- 3 washing. '18 1994, 192
kid""~' ,, 54;'" \ '''; 1'15, ~~ l Welfare 01An imals during Trans porl Order
I....ion~, 545 wnepuIKlu...., 56-l 19'N (w ith a mm d mm " ), 174
l i v ~r, 547 ,·..niso n. 72 welfare 0/ Animals (Nor the rn l r<!l~",l ) Ad
m u..:le, .548 wnlil.,tio", 79 19n.171
pa t!lollen....L•• ~ 5 meat plant, SI Wd fare of Poultry (Transport) Ord"r 1<JS!j
pt: rica m iu m . 304~ ,'e n lral. 20 (amen de-d 1989; 1992), 175
pt: ri ton<'um . 5-r vents, 80 W"lsh ,12
pigs. 5-15
p~ r~ . 5-1;'"
paullr)r.
rabb its. :0:
:s:
.....~ in J:rTem-1 ~ ;:....-.
" erilica tio n e"''Cks, 2-10
H'ffn in. 225
"""minoou brono:hitis. 657~
\·~o~ in - [Link] £sdrffl<:hlll roif (VTfC).
w_
Wf'Stem d uck di o;t'ases« b" tull.m
wet urcase svndro me, -199
wet p....pa rat>on (ha ng ing drop). 31'0-1

carcase. 54
" 2-3
~. ~ \-m O'bral oolu mn. 21 definition, 10
.Jo:.irl. 5:;"'1- 1 "nick-, ~28 _ting. 146
spkom. 304· \·esH:u L.. ~unthtma of s"ine ( YES). 602 ..'hi pworm, 94
ud der . ;.<.< , • •_ \'rsicuLlr [Link]. 602-3 wlti5ken. 352
lU ~· .e:'l llL"r. c:,. ,.., \-etrrirwy [Link]; 99 whil~ b lood «'Us. )J
tubm:vlou.-. mcNl'l>:lt::> M s,,- \ "t"MiN')' Mo."dicilws Directora .... »&-5 wh,le !i,Oft disoNS<', 468
~f~~~ ~­ '·~rv offio::~, 98---'l whi'" mu:sde d i..... se 4\,,(0 ~-,...
tuLorlol"ll1U. 4 1~ ~;:~ . I'ilrio>. W-3 whd~ fj'Ot. 351-2
tumour. +;t,-50 ~-~ r:< ~ -< .;,<;. .. ~ I ilnt ,..........)11icU5. l l i WhI!rnore'S disea... . 333-4
• ~93. ~"" ~'" - ;;."'::;-W \1brlonic d rsen1ery, 542- 3 ... ~food ,5;
ra bbi ts. :--1 \ias. 285 Wholesorn.- Mea l Act . 1"'0
tup. d efinitlOtt 1 \irarmw. 451 wild anim.1lls . 1
758 Meat Hygiene
""nlhoM~. ·Hi z..bu. 5,6
~irhoid (....""tr..1 mediAstiNl ) nod.... )tI Zenker 's necrosis , ·131
zeranoL 309. )1 0
Zioehl-:\:~ sto in,. 371-2
zinc, US. 718
\·....~I'. 3-U. )96
h , u",, " rat, 65. ·HS
ronl' of m.l-'<imum ia forTNtion. 11..
Z<:>oI'l<>W!>. ::!'l2.·nJ
)mi,,", )AA ~. 6Cl'l
Yn'SiIlM ffllrmmlitiaJ. n:? m. . ~~ Z}·gom~·cosis. b13
)Millil ptSIis. 55-l
Ymoillil ~1I/Jm:u1c>i>, :'""'9,5;4
\'O'niniosis. 55-1
~'oghurt,. 1 ~