2 / 54 C O NV E CT IV E H E AT T R A N S F E R
With respect to heat transfer in circular pipes, fully developed turbulent flow is achieved at a
Reynolds number of approximately 104 . For this flow regime (Re ≥ 104 ), the following correlation
is widely used:
Nu = 0.027 Re0.8 Pr 1/3 (µ/µw )0.14 (2.33)
where
Nu ≡ Nusselt Number ≡ hD/k
Re ≡ Reynolds Number ≡ DV ρ/µ
Pr ≡ Prandtl Number = C P µ/k
D = inside pipe diameter
V = average fluid velocity
CP , µ, ρ, k = fluid properties evaluated at the average bulk fluid temperature
µw = fluid viscosity evaluated at average wall temperature
The average bulk fluid temperature and average wall temperature are given by:
Tb1 + Tb2
Tb,ave = (2.34)
2
Tw1 + Tw2
Tw,ave = (2.35)
2
Equation (2.33) is generally attributed to Seider and Tate [4], although they did not explicitly
formulate it. The equation is frequently written with the coefficient 0.027 replaced by 0.023. The
latter value gives a somewhat more conservative estimate for the heat-transfer coefficient, which is
often desirable for design purposes. Both coefficients will be used in this book. Although this may
cause some consternation, it does reflect current practice, as both values are in common use.
Equation (2.33) is valid for fluids with Prandtl numbers between 0.5 and 17,000, and for pipes
with L/D > l0. However, for short pipes with 10 < L/D < 60, the right-hand side of the equation is
often multiplied by the factor [1 + (D/L)2/3 ] to correct for entrance and exit effects. The correlation
is generally accurate to within ±20% to ±40%. It is most accurate for fluids with low to moderate
Prandtl numbers (0.5 ≤ Pr ≤ 100), which includes all gasses and low-viscosity process liquids such
as water, organic solvents, light hydrocarbons, etc. It is less accurate for highly viscous liquids,
which have correspondingly large Prandtl numbers.
For laminar flow in circular pipes (Re < 2100), the Seider-Tate correlation takes the form:
Nu = 1.86[Re Pr D/L]1/3 (µ/µw )0.14 (2.36)
This equation is valid for 0.5 < Pr < 17,000 and (Re Pr D/L)1/3 (µ/µw )0.14 > 2, and is generally
accurate to within ±25%. Fluid properties are evaluated at Tb,ave except for µw , which is evaluated
at Tw,ave . For (Re Pr D/L)1/3 (µ/µw )0.14 < 2, the Nusselt number should be set to 3.66, which is the
theoretical value for laminar flow in an infinitely long pipe with constant wall temperature. Also,
at low Reynolds numbers heat transfer by natural convection can be significant (see Section 2.6
below), and this effect is not accounted for in the Seider–Tate correlation.
For flow in the transition region (2100 < Re < 104 ), the Hausen correlation is recommended [2,5]:
Nu = 0.116[Re2/3 − 125]Pr 1/3 (µ/µw )0.14 [1 + (D/L)2/3 ] (2.37)
Heat-transfer calculations in the transition region are subject to a higher degree of uncertainty
than those in the laminar and fully developed turbulent regimes. Although industrial equipment
C O NV E CT IV E H E AT T R A N S F E R 2 / 55
is sometimes designed to operate in the transition region, it is generally recommended to avoid
working in this flow regime if possible. Fluid properties in Equation (2.37) are evaluated in the
same manner as with the Seider–Tate correlations.
An alternative equation for the transition and turbulent regimes has been proposed by
Gnielinski [6]:
( f /8)(Re − 1, 000)Pr
Nu = [1 + (D/L)2/3 ] (2.38)
2/3
1 + 12.7 f /8(Pr − 1)
Here, f is the Darcy friction factor, which can be computed from the following explicit approximation
of the Colebrook equation [7]:
f = (0.782 ln Re − 1.51)−2 (2.39)
Equation (2.38) is valid for 2100 < Re < 106 and 0.6 < Pr < 2000. It is generally accurate to
within ± 20%.
For flow in ducts and conduits with non-circular cross-sections, Equations (2.33) and (2.37)–
(2.39), can be used if the diameter is everywhere replaced by the equivalent diameter, De ,
where
De = 4 × hydraulic radius = 4 × flow area/wetted perimeter (2.40)
This approximation generally gives reliable results for turbulent flow. However, it is not recom-
mended for laminar flow.
The most frequently encountered case of laminar flow in non-circular ducts is flow in the annu-
lus of a double-pipe heat exchanger. For laminar annular flow, the following equation given by
Gnielinski [6] is recommended:
0.19[1 + 0.14(D2 /D1 )0.5 ][Re Pr De /L]0.8
Nu = 3.66 + 1.2(D2 /D1 )0.8 + (2.41)
1 + 0.117[Re Pr De /L]0.467
where
D1 = outside diameter of inner pipe
D2 = inside diameter of outer pipe
De = equivalent diameter = D2 − D1
The Nusselt number in Equation (2.41) is based on the equivalent diameter, De .
All of the above correlations give average values of the heat-transfer coefficient over the entire
length, L, of the pipe. Hence, the total rate of heat transfer between the fluid and the pipe wall can
be calculated from Equation (2.1):
q = h A Tln
In this equation, A is the total heat-transfer surface area (πDLfor a circular pipe) and Tln is an
average temperature difference between the fluid and the pipe wall. A logarithmic average is used;
it is termed the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) and is defined by:
T1 − T2
Tln = (2.42)
ln(T1 /T2 )
One Pass Shell
Double Pass Shell
Conversion Factors
Acceleration 1 m / s 2 = 4.2520 x 107ft/h 2
Area 1 m 2 = 10.764 ft 2
Density 1 k g / m 3 - 0.06243 l b m / f t 3
Energy 1J - 0.239 cal = 9.4787 x 10-4Btu 1
Force N = 0.224811bf
Fouling factor I m 2. K / W = 5.6779 h . ft2 . o F / B t u
Heat capacity flow rate 1 k W / K = I kW/~
= 1895.6 B t u / h . ~
Heat flux l W / m 2 = 0.3171 B t u / h . ft 2
Heat generation rate l W / m 3 = 0.09665 B t u / h . ft 3
Heat transfer coefficient l W / m 2. K = 0.17612 B t u / h 9 ft2. o F
Heat transfer rate lW = 3.4123 B t u / h
Kinematic viscosity and t h e r m a l lm2/s = 3 . 8 7 5 • 104ft2/h
diffusivity
Latent h e a t and specific enthalpy i k J / k g = 0.42995 B t u / l b m
Length I m = 3.2808 ft
Mass l k g = 2.2046 lbm
M a s s flow rate I k g / s = 7936.6 l b m / h
M a s s flux I k g / s . m 2 = 737.35 l b m / h , ft 2
Power lkW = 3412 B t u / h
= 1.341 hp
P r e s s u r e (stress) 1 Pa (1 N / m 2) = 0.020886 lbf/ft 2
= 1.4504 • 10 -4 psi
= 4.015 • 10 -3 in. H 2 0
Pressure 1.01325 x 105 Pa = I atm
= 14.696 psi
= 760 torr
= 406.8 in. H 2 0
Specific h e a t 1 k J / k g . K = 0.2389 B t u / l b m . oF
Surface tension 1 N / m = 1000 d y n e / c m
= 0.068523 lbf/ft
Temperature K = ~ + 273.15
= (5/9) (~ + 459.67) = (5/9) (~ 1 K
T e m p e r a t u r e difference = 1 ~ = 1.8 ~ = 1.8~
T h e r m a l conductivity 1 W / m . K = 0.57782 B t u / h . ft. ~
T h e r m a l resistance 1 K / W = 0.52750~ 9 h/Btu
Viscosity 1 k g / m . s = 1000 cp = 2419 l b m / f t , h
Volume 1 m 3 = 35.314 ft 3 = 264.17 gal 1
Volumetric flow rate m3/s = 2118.9~/min(cfin)
= 1.5850 • 104 g a l / m i n (gpm)
lbf: p o u n d f o r c e a n d l b m : p o u n d m a s s .
