Updated: 3/30/2021

4/1/2021

Transmission Line Design Information

In these notes, I would like to provide you with some

background information on AC transmission lines.

1. AC Transmission Line Impedance Parameters

AC transmission is implemented entirely as 3-phase
systems. Initial planning studies typically only consider
balanced, steady-state operation. This simplifies modeling
efforts greatly in that only the positive sequence, per-
phase transmission line representation is necessary.

Essential transmission line electrical data for balanced,

steady-state operation includes:
• Line reactance
• Line resistance
• Line charging susceptance
• Current rating (ampacity)
• Surge impedance loading
Figures 1a and 1b below illustrate a distributed parameter
model of a transmission line where z=r+jx is the series
impedance per unit length (ohms/unit length), and y=jb is
the shunt admittance per unit length (mhos/unit length).

Fig. 1a: Distributed parameter model - conceptual view

1
 I+dI
I1 I I2
••• zdx •••
dI
V1 V+dV V V2
ydx

••• •••
dx x

Fig. 1b: Distributed parameter model – analytic view

I have notes posted under the lecture for 9/13, at
[Link]
(called “TerminalRelations”) that derive the following
model relating voltages & currents at either end of a line.
V2
I ( l ) = I1 = I 2 cosh l + sinh l
ZC (1a)
V (l ) = V1 = V2 coshl + ZC I 2 sinhl (1b)
where
• l is the line length,
• γ is the propagation constant, in general a complex
number, given by
 = zywith units of 1/(unit length), (1c)
where z and y are the per-unit length impedance and
admittance, respectively, as defined previously.
• ZC is the characteristic impedance, also known as the
surge impedance, given by
γ is the propagation constant and is complex, so we can write γ=α+jβ where α is the attenuation constant and β is the phase
constant. If β is expressed in rad/m, then the wavelength is given by λ=2π/β meters. We also have that the wave’s velocity of
propagation, v, is close to the speed of light, 3×108m/sec, so2 that the wavelength is computed as λ=v/f where f is the frequency.
Thus, we have λ=3×108/60=5,000,000m=5000km=3106miles.
 A typical value of ZC is 400 ohms for a single three-phase overhead line,
but lower values can be found for highly bundled designs.

z
ZC =
y with units of ohms. (1d)
And cosh and sinh are the hyperbolic cosine and sine
functions, respectively, given by:
e x + e− x e x − e− x
cosh x = ; sinh x =
2 2
Those same notes (“TerminalRelations”) show that
equations (1a, 1b) may be represented using the following
pi-equivalent line model
IZ
I1 I2
Z’
IY1 IY2

Y’/2 Y’/2 V2
V1

Fig. 2
where
sinh l
Z'= Z ( 2a )
l
tanh(l / 2)
Y '= Y (2b)
l / 2
and Z=zl, Y=yl.

3
Two comments are necessary here:
1. Equations (2a, 2b) show that the impedance and
admittance of a transmission line are not just the
impedance per unit length and admittance per unit
length multiplied by the line length, Z=zl and Y=yl,
respectively, but they are these values corrected by
the factors
sinh l tanh(l / 2)
l l / 2
It is of interest to note that these two factors approach
1.0 (the first from above and the second from below)
as γl becomes small. This fact has an important
implication in that short lines (less than ~100 miles)
are usually well approximated by Z=zl and Y=yl, but
longer lines are not and need to be multiplied by the
“correction factors” listed above. The “correction”
enables the lumped parameter model to exhibit the
same characteristics as the distributed parameter
device.
2. We may obtain all of what we need if we have z and
y. The next section will describe how to obtain them.

4
 2. Obtaining per-unit length parameters
In the 9/6 and 9/8 notes at
[Link]
I have derived expressions to compute per-unit length
inductance and per-unit length capacitance of a
transmission line given its geometry. These expressions
are: µ is the permeability
0 Dm
0

Inductance (h/m): la = 2 ln R
of free space, given by
4π×10-7 Henry/meter.
b

d(1)ab is distance • Dm is the GMD between phase positions:

( )
between phases
1/ 3
Dm  d ab
a and b under
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3 )
configuration
(1). There are 3
d ab d ab
configurations
(1), (2), and (3)
due to the
• Rb is the GMR of the bundle The effects of bundling
are to increase Rb. This
Rb = ( r d12 ) ,
common 1/2
practice of for 2 conductor bundle tends to decrease
transposition inductance and therefore

= ( r d12 d13 ) ,
where phase 1/3 inductive reactance of
positions are
interchanged
for 3 conductor bundle the line.
every few miles.

= ( r d12 d13d14 ) ,
1/4
d12 is the distance between
for 4 conductor bundle
conductors 1 and 2 in a

= ( r d12 d13d14 d15d16 ) ,

bundle. Bundling is the 1/6
practice of using multiple for 6 conductor bundle
conductors in each phase.
2
c =
Capacitance (f/m): a ln( D / Rc )
m b
The effects of bundling
• Dm is the same as above. are to increase Rbc . This
c tends to increase
• R b is Capacitive GMR for the bundle: capacitance and
therefore capacitive
Rbc = (rd12 ) ,
1/ 2
for 2 conductorbundle susceptance of the line.

= (rd12 d13 ) ,
1/ 3
for 3 conductorbundle
= (rd12 d13 d14 ) ,
1/ 4
for 4 conductorbundle
= (rd12 d13 d14 d15 d16 ) ,
1/ 6
for 6 conductorbundle

5
In the above, r is the radius of a single conductor, and r’
is the Geometric Mean Radius (GMR) of an individual
conductor, given by
r
−
r  = re 4
= r  0.7788 (3)
It is the radius of an equivalent hollow cylindrical
conductor that would have the same flux linkages as the
solid conductor of radius r. (According to Ampere’s Law
 H • dl = iEN , the magnetic field is zero if the closed

contour Γ encloses no current. Therefore, a solid
conductor has flux within the conductor whereas a hollow
conductor has no flux within the conductor.)

2.1 Inductive reactance

The per-phase inductive reactance in Ω/m of a non-

bundled transmission line is 2πfla, where
 0 Dm
la =
Rb Ω/m. Therefore, we can express the reactance
ln
2
in Ω/mile as
1609 meters  D  1609 meters
X L = 2 fla = 2 f  0 ln m 
1 mile  2 Rb  1 mile
 D  1609 meters D (4)
= f  0 ln m  = 2.022 10−3 f ln m  /mile
 Rb  1 mile Rb
Let’s expand the logarithm to get

6
 1
X L = 2.022 10−3 f ln + 2.022 10−3 f ln Dm /mile
Rb (5)
X
Xa d
where f=60 Hz. The first term is called the inductive
reactance at 1-foot spacing, because it expresses equation
(4) with Dm=1 foot.

Note: to get Xa, you need only to know Rb, which means
you need only know the conductor used and the bundling.
But you do not need to know the geometry of the phase
positions.

But what is Xd? This is called the inductive reactance

spacing factor. Note that it depends only on Dm, which is
the GMD between phase positions. So you can get Xd by
knowing only the distance between phases, i.e, you need
not know anything about the conductor or the bundling.

2.2 Capacitive reactance

Similar thinking for capacitive reactance leads to

  1
=  1.779  10 ln c +  1.779  106 ln(Dm )  - mile
1 6  1 
XC
f R  f
 b  
  
X a X'
d
X’a is the capacitive reactance at 1 foot spacing, and X’d is
the capacitive reactance spacing factor. Note the units are

7
ohms-mile, instead of ohms/mile, so that when we invert,
we will get mhos/mile, as desired.
A circular mil is a unit of area, equal to the area of a circle with a diameter 1mil (1 mil=0.001in=0.0254
mm). It corresponds to approximately 5.067×10−4 mm2. ... 1000 circular mil equals 0.5067 mm2.
The area of a circle of a circle of 1 mil is πr2= π(d/2)2, or π(10-3in /2)2=7.854x10-7 in2.
3. Example
Let’s compute the XL and XC for a 765 kV AC line, single
circuit, with a 6 conductor bundle per phase, using
conductor type Tern (795 kcmil). AEP considered a
similar design a few years ago when they proposed a
765kV transmission overlay for the nation, shown below.

The bundles have 2.5’ (30’’) diameter, and the phases are
separated by 45’, as shown in Fig. 3. Assume the line is
lossless.
2.5’
●●●
● ●
●
●●● ●●● ●●●
● ● 45’ ● ● 45’ ● ●
● ● ●

Fig. 3
8
We will use tables from [1] (available in pdf [2]), which I
have copied out and placed on the website. Noting the
below table (obtained from [3] and placed on the
website), this example focuses on line geometry AEP 3.

The tables show data for 24’’ and 36’’ 6-conductor

bundles, but not 30’’, and so we must interpolate.
Get per-unit length inductive reactance:
From Table 3.3.1, we find

9
24’’ bundle: 0.031
36’’ bundle: -0.010
30’’ bundle: interpolation results in Xa=0.0105.

From Table 3.3.12, we find

This means
45.0, 46.0, etc.

45’ phase spacing: Xd=0.4619

And so XL=Xa+Xd=0.0105+0.4619=0.4724 ohms/mile.

Now get per-unit length capacitive reactance.

From Table 3.3.2, we find

10
24’’ bundle: 0.065
36’’ bundle: -0.0036
30’’ bundle: interpolation results in X’a=0.0307.

From Table 3.3.13, we find

45’ phase spacing: X’d=0.1128

And so XC=X’a+X’d=0.0307+0.1128=0.1435Mohms-mile.
Note the units of XC are ohms-mile×106 [so that BC=1/XC
has units of 1/(ohms-mile×106)=Mhos×10-6/mile].
11
So z=jXL=j0.4724 Ohms/mile, and this is for the 6 bdl,
765 kV circuit.
And y=1/-jXC=1/-j(0.1435×106)=j6.9686×10-6 Mhos/mile
The propagation constant γ of an

Now compute the propagation constant, γ, electromagnetic wave is a measure of

the change undergone by the
amplitude of the wave as it
 = zy = j 0.4724  j 6.9686  10−6 propagates in a given direction.
γ is in general complex, so that

= − 3.292  10−6 = j 0.0018 / mile

γ=α+jβ. For a lossless transmission
line, γ=jβ.

Recalling (2a, 2b) β, the phase constant, determines the

sinh l wavelength, given by λ=2π/β. For the

Z'= Z ( 2a ) example, we obtain

l
λ=2π/0.0018=3463miles which means
it requires 3463 miles to complete 2π

tanh(l / 2)
radians of the wave.

Y '= Y (2b)
l / 2

Let’s do two calculations:

• The circuit is 100 miles in length. Then l=100, and
Z = j.4724ohms / mile *100miles = j 47.24 ohms
Y = j 6.98610−6 mhos / mile*100miles = j 0.0006986mhos
j 0.0018
l = (100miles) = j 0.18
mile
Convert Z and Y to per-unit, Vb=765kV, Sb=100 MVA
Zb=(765×103)2/100×106=5852.3ohms,
Yb=1/5852.3=0.00017087mhos
Zpu=j47.24/5852.3=j0.0081pu,
Ypu=j0.0006986/.00017087=j4.0885pu

12
 sinh l sinh( j.18) j.179
Z'= Z = j 0.0081 = j 0.0081 = j 0.00806
l j.18 j.18
tanh(l / 2) tanh( j.18 / 2) j 0.0902
Y'= Y = j 4.0885 = j 4.0885 = j 4.0976
l / 2 j.18 / 2 j.09
• The circuit is 500 miles in length. Then l=500, and
Z = j.4724ohms / mile * 500miles = j 236.2 ohms
•
Y = j 6.98610−6 mhos / mile* 500miles = j 0.0035 mhos
j 0.0018
l = (500miles) = j 0.90
mile
Convert Z and Y to per-unit, Vb=765kV, Sb=100 MVA
Zpu=j236.2/5852.3=j0.0404pu,
Ypu=j0.0035/.00017087=j20.4834pu
sinh l sinh( j.90) j.7833
Z'= Z = j.0404 = j.0404 = j.0352
l j.90 j.90
tanh(l / 2) tanh( j.90 / 2) j 0.4831
Y'= Y = j 20.4834 = j 20.4834 = j 21.99
l / 2 j.90 / 2 j.45
It is of interest to calculate the surge impedance for this
circuit. From eq. (1d), we have
z j.4724
ZC = = -6
= 260.3647ohms
y j6.9686×10
A line terminated in ZC has a very special character with
respect to reactive power: the amount of reactive power
consumed by the series X is exactly compensated by the
reactive power supplied by the shunt Y, for every inch of
the line. In addition, such a line appears to the source as
an infinitely long line; it produces no reflections.

13
Then the surge impedance loading is given by

PSIL =
V 2
=
LL (
76510 )
3 2
= 2.2477e+ 009
ZC 260.3647
The SIL for this circuit is 2247 MW. We estimate line
loadability from the Fig. 4 St. Clair curves as a function
of line length (we further discuss these curves later).

Fig. 4
100 mile long line: Pmax=2.1(2247)=4719 MW.
500 mile long line: Pmax=0.75(2247)=1685 MW.
14
4. Conductor ampacity
A conductor expands when heated, and this expansion
causes it to sag. Conductor surface temperatures are a
function of the following:
a) Conductor material properties
b) Conductor diameter
c) Conductor surface conditions
d) Ambient weather conditions
e) Conductor electrical current

IEEE Standard 738-2006 (IEEE Standard for Calculating

Current–Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors) [4] provides an analytic model for computing
conductor temperature based on the above influences.

In addition, this same model is used to compute the

conductor current necessary to cause a “maximum
allowable conductor temperature” under “assumed
conditions.”
• Maximum allowable conductor temperature: This
temperature is normally selected so as to limit either
conductor loss of strength due to the annealing of
aluminum or to maintain adequate ground clearance, as
required by the National Electric Safety Code. This
temperature varies widely according to conductor type
and engineering practice and judgment [4], with 100 °C
being not uncommon.

15
• Assumed conditions: It is good practice to select
“conservative” weather conditions such as 0.6 m/s to
1.2 m/s wind speed (2ft/sec-4ft/sec), 30 °C to 45 °C
(86°F-113°F) for summer conditions.
Given this information, the corresponding conductor
current (I) that produced the maximum allowable
conductor temperature under these weather conditions can
be found from the steady-state heat balance equation [4].

For example, the Tern conductor used in the 6 bundle

765kV line (see example above) is computed to have an
ampacity of about 860 amperes at 75 °C conductor
temperature, 25 °C ambient temperature, and 2 ft/sec
wind speed. At 6 conductors per phase, this allows for
6×860=5160 amperes, which would correspond to a
power transfer of √3 * 765000 * 5160=6837 MVA.

Recall the SIL for this line was 2247 MW. Figure 4
indicates the short-line power handling capability of this
circuit should be about 3(2247)=6741 MW. (Note that
Fig. 4 shows the power limit does not exceed this value.)

➔Short-line limitations are thermal-constrained.

When considering relatively long lines, you will not need

to be too concerned about ampacity. Limitations of an
amount equal to the SIL or lower will be more appropriate
to use for these long lines.
16
5.0 St. Clair Curves
Figure 4 is a well-known curve that should be considered
as a planning guide and not an exact relationship. But as a
planning guide, it is very useful. You should have some
understanding of how this curve is developed. Refer to
[5], a predecessor paper [6], a summary [7], and an
extension (for voltage instability) in [8] for more details.

This curve represents three different types of limits:

• Short-line limitation at approximately 3 times SIL
• Medium-line limitation corresponding to a limit of a
5% voltage drop across the line;
• A long-line limitation corresponding to a limit of a 44
degree angular separation across the line.

This curve was developed based on the following circuit

in Fig. 5.

17
Given: R, X, B, X1, X2, θ1, |E2|, |ES| Write 2 KCL equations at the nodes corresponding to
ES and ER; then separate these into real & imaginary
Find: |E1|, θs, |ER|, θR parts, giving 4 equations to find 4 unknowns.

Fig. 5

This circuit was analyzed using the following algorithm,

Fig. 6. Observe the presence of the voltage source E2,
which is used to represent reactive resources associated
with the receiving end of the transmission line. The
reactances X1 and X2 represent the transmission system at
the sending and receiving ends, respectively.

18
Fig. 6
19
The key calculation performed in the algorithm is
represented by block having the statement
CALCULATE
|ER|=f(θ1)
Referring to the circuit diagram, this problem is posed as:
Given: R, X, B, X1, X2, θ1, |E2|, |ES|
Find: |E1|, θs, |ER|, θR
Although the paper does not say much about how it
makes this calculation, one can write two KCL equations
at the two nodes corresponding to ES and ER, and then
separate these into real and imaginary parts, giving 4
equations to find 4 unknowns (note that the angle of E2 is
assumed to be the reference angle and thus is 0 degrees).

The result of this analysis for a particular line design

(bundle and phase geometry) is shown in Fig. 7, where we
observe two curves corresponding to
• Constant steady-state stability margin curve of 30%
(angle is θ1, which is from node E1 to node E2).
This value is computed based on
P − Prated
%StabilityM argin = max  100%
Pmax
Here, Pmax is the ampacity of
the line, and Prated is the
allowable flow on the line.
0.70

20
• Constant line voltage drop curve of 5%, given by
E − Er
%VoltageDro p = s  100%
Es

Fig. 7
21
In Fig. 7, the dark solid curve is the composite of the two
limitations associated with steady-state stability and
voltage drop. The 3.0 pu SIL value which limits the curve
at short distances is associated with the conductor’s
thermal limit.

The paper being discussed [5], in addition to 345 kV, also

applies its approach to higher voltage transmission, 765
kV, 1100 kV, and 1500 kV (Unfortunately, for some
reason, 500 kV was not included). For these various
transmission voltages, it presents a table of data that can
be used in the circuit of Fig. 5 and the algorithm of Fig. 6.
This table is copied out below.

The “system strength at each terminal”1 is quantified by

the fault duty at that terminal, assumed in both cases to be
1
The fault duty or short circuit current at a bus provides an indication of the network’s voltage
“stiffness” or “strength” at that bus. The higher a bus’s short circuit current, the lower the
impedance between that bus and current sources (generators), the less the variation in voltage
magnitude will occur for a given change in network conditions.

22
50 kA. Using this, we can get the fault duty in MVA
according to
MVA3 = 3  VLL, nom  50 E 3
Then the corresponding reactance may be computed by
2 This pu reactance is computed at each
V pu
X pu = terminal and used to represent the
sending and receiving end impedances X 1
MVA pu and X respectively (see Fig. 5).
2

This can be shown as follows:

S3φ=3VLN2/X.
Writing all S, V, and X quantities as products of their pu values and their
base quantities, we get
S3φ,baseSpu=3[(VpuVLN,base)2/(XpuXbase)
Rearranging,
S3φ,baseSpu=[3VLN,base 2/Xbase][(Vpu)2/Xpu]
And we see that
S3φ,base=3VLN,base 2/Xbase and
Spu=(Vpu)2/Xpu
➔Xpu=Vpu2/Spu.
We will assume that Vpu=1, and with a 100 MVA base, the
last equation results in
1 100
X pu = =
MVA3 / 100 MVA3
For example, let’s consider the 765 kV circuit, then we
obtain
MVA3 = 3  VLL ,nom  50000
= 3  765000  50000 = 6.6251E10 volt-amperes
which is 66,251 MVA.
Observe the table above gives 66,000 MVA.

23
Then, Xpu=100/66,000=0.00151pu
which is 0.151%, as given in the table.

The table also provides line impedance and susceptance,

which can be useful for rough calculations. Note that the
values are given in % per mile, which are 100 times the
values given in pu per mile.

Finally, the table provides the surge impedance loading

(SIL) of the transmission lines at the four different voltage
levels, as
320, 2250, 5180, and 9940 MW for
345, 765, 1100, and 1500 kV,
respectively.

Recall what determines SIL:

2
VLL z
PSIL = ZC = = X L XC
ZC y
1
X L = 2.022  10 −3 f ln + 2.022  10 −3 f ln Dm /mile
Rb  
  X
Xa d
  1
X C =  1.779  10 ln c +  1.779  106 ln(Dm )  - mile
1 6  1 
f R  f
 b  
  
X a X'
d

24
Dm is the GMD between phase positions:
(
Dm  d ab
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3 )
d ab d ab )
1/ 3

Rb is the GMR of the bundle

Rb = (r d12 ) ,
1/ 2
for 2 conductorbundle
= (r d12 d13 ) ,
1/ 3
for 3 conductorbundle
= (r d12 d13 d14 ) ,
1/ 4
for 4 conductorbundle
= (r d12 d13 d14 d15 d16 ) ,
1/ 4
for 6 conductorbundle
r
−
r  = re 4

Rbc is Capacitive GMR for the bundle:

Rbc = (rd12 ) ,
1/ 2
for 2 conductorbundle
= (rd12 d13 ) ,
1/ 3
for 3 conductorbundle
= (rd12 d13 d14 ) ,
1/ 4
for 4 conductorbundle
= (rd12 d13 d14 d15 d16 ) ,
1/ 6
for 6 conductorbundle
So in conclusion, we observe that SIL is determined by
• Phase positions (which determines Dm)
• Choice of conductor (which determines r and r’ and
influences Rb and Rbc)
• Bundling (which influences Rb and Rbc).
We refer to data which determines SIL as “line constants.”
(Although SIL is also influenced by voltage level, the line
loadability limit, Prated/PSIL, is not.)
Reference [5] makes a startling claim (italics added):

25
 “Unlike the 345-kV or 765-kV line parameters, UHV line Translation:
data is still tentative because both the choice of voltage level 1100 and 1500
kV transmission
and optimum line design are not finalized. This uncertainty have never been
about the line constants, however, is not very critical in built and so we
…but it does not are really just
matter, because determining the line loadability -- expressed in per-unit of guessing in
Prated/PSIL is rated SIL – especially at UHV levels. The reason lies in the regards to its line
almost indepen- constants…
dent of line fact that for a lossless line, it can be shown that the line
constants but loadability -- or the receiving-end power -- in terms of SIL of
rather depends on
just the line
that line, SR/SIL, is not dependent on the line constants, but
length and rather is a function of the line length and its terminal
terminal voltages. voltages. This concept is discussed further in the Appendix.”
The paper’s appendix derives this result for a lossless line:
*
 ES 
  − cos  L
= j R 
Prated E 2
ER
PSIL sin  L
where β=ω/υ and ω is 2πf (f=60Hz), and υ is
approximately the speed of light (3E8m/sec).
The paper justifies the “lossless line” requirement:
“Since the resistance of the EHV/UHV lines is much smaller
than their 60-Hz reactance, such lines closely approximate a
lossless line from the standpoint of loadability analysis.
Therefore, the loadabilities in per-unit of SIL of these lines
are practically independent of their respective line constants
and, as a result, of their corresponding voltage classes.”
The paper develops the St. Clair curves for a 765 kV,
1100 kV, and a 1500 kV transmission line, and I have
replicated it in Fig. 8 below. Observe that the three curves
are almost identical. The paper further states (italics
added):
“It is reassuring to know that one single curve can be applied
to all voltage classes in the EHV/UHV range. Obviously, a
general transmission loading curve will not cover the
26
 Or… it can
provide a
complete range of possible applications; nonetheless, it can reasonable basis
for a preliminary
provide a reasonable basis for any preliminary estimates of estimate of the
the amount of power that can be transferred over a well- transmission
system voltage
designed transmission system.” level necessary
to achieve a
given power
transfer level.

Fig. 8
27
A final statement made in the paper is worth pointing out
(italics added):
“Any departures from the assumed performance criteria and
system parameters -- which, for convenience, are clearly
enumerated on the EHV/UHV loadability chart shown in
Figure 8 -- must not be ignored and, depending on their
extent, they should properly be accounted for in the line
loadability estimates. To illustrate this, the effect of some of
the variations in these assumed parameters such as terminal
system strength, shunt compensation, line-voltage-drop
criterion and stability margin, are investigated in the next
section.”
Note from Fig. 8 the “assumed performance criteria”:
• Line voltage drop = 5% No series or shunt compensation
means distance is an uncompensated
• S-S stability margin = 30% distance. If you use series or shunt
compensation, voltage (particularly
and the “system parameters”: w/ shunt) and stability (particularly
w/ series) constraints will be partly
• Terminal system S/C – 50 kA (each end) alleviated. The model, Fig. 5 above
uses N (series) and N , N (shunt) to
• No series or shunt compensation
S R
allow for compensation.

The paper provides sensitivity studies on both the

performance criteria and some system parameters.
Finally, observe that Fig. 8 also provides a table with
• Nominal voltage
• Number and size of conductors per bundle
• Surge impedance loading
• Line charging per 100 miles
These are “line constant” data! Why do they give
them to us?

28
Although Prated/PSIL is independent of the “line
constant” data, Prated is not. To get Prated from the St.
Clair curve, we must know PSIL, and PSIL very much
depends on the “line constant” data.

6.0 Resistance

I have posted on the website tables from reference [7]

that provide resistance in ohms per mile for a number
of common conductors and provided a section of
those tables below.

A DC value is given, at 25°C, which is just ρl/A,

where ρ is the electrical resistivity in ohm-meters, l is
the conductor length in meters, and A is the
conductor cross-sectional area in meters2.

The tables also provide 4 AC values, corresponding

to 4 different operating temperatures (25, 50, 75, and
100°C). These values are all higher than the DC value
because of the skin effect, which causes a non-
uniform current density to exist such that it is greater
29
at the conductor’s surface than at the conductor’s
interior. This reduces the effective cross-sectional
area of the conductor2.

Resistance also increases with resistance because

temperature increases the level of electron mobility
within the material.

7.0 General comments on overhead transmission

In the US, HV AC is considered to include voltage levels
69, 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV.

EHV is considered to include 345, 500, and 765 kV. There

exists a great deal of 345 and 500 kV all over the country.
The only 765 kV today in the US is in the Ohio and
surrounding regions, owned by AEP, as indicated by Fig.
9 [9]. Transmission equipment designed to operate at 765
kV is sometimes referred to as an 800 kV voltage class.
There also exists 800 kV-class transmission in Russia,
South Africa, Brazil, Venezuela, South Korea, and
Quebec.

2
Loss studies may model AC resistance as a function of current, where ambient conditions (wind speed, direction,
and solar radiation) are assumed.

30
 Fig. 9
Figure 10 shows ABB’s deliveries of 800 kV voltage class
autotransformers (AT) and generator step-up banks
(GSUs) from 1965 to 2001 [10].

Fig. 10

31
It is clear from Fig. 10 there was a distinct decline in 765
kV AC investment beginning in early 1980s and reaching
bottom in 1989. However, there has been renewed interest
in 765 kV during the past few years, with recently
completed projects in China & India. I am unaware of
765kV US projects moving forward in the near future.

UHV is considered to include 1000 kV and above. There

is no UHV transmission in the US. There was 1200 kV
UHV in neighboring countries to Russia [11], and in
Japan, but the operational voltage of these lines were
downgraded to 500kV. China completed a 1000 kV
transmission project in 2009 [12].

8.0 General comments on underground transmission

Underground transmission has traditionally not been
considered a viable option for long-distance transmission
because it is significantly more expensive than overhead
due to two main issues:
(a) It requires insulation with relatively high dielectric
strength owing to the proximity of the phase
conductors with the earth and with each other. This
issue becomes more restrictive with higher voltage.
Therefore the operational benefit to long distance
transmission of increased voltage levels, loss
reduction (due to lower current for a given power
transfer capability), is, for underground transmission,

32
 offset by the significantly higher investment costs
associated with the insulation.
(b) The ability to cool underground conductors as they
are more heavily loaded is much more limited than
overhead, since the underground conductors are
enclosed and the overhead conductors are exposed to
the air and wind.

Table 1 [13] provides a cost comparison of overhead and

underground transmission for three different AC voltage
ranges.

Table 1

Although Table 1 is dated (1996), it makes the point that

the underground cabling is significantly more expensive
than overhead conductors.

33
Note, however, that this issue does not account for
obtaining right-of-way. Because underground is not
exposed like overhead, it requires less right-of-way. This
fact, coupled with the fact that public resistance to
overhead is much greater than underground, can bring
overall installation costs of the two technologies closer
together. This smaller difference may be justifiable,
particularly if it is simply not possible to build an
overhead line due to public resistance. Such has been the
case in France now for several years.

Another issue for underground AC is the high charging

currents generated because of the capacitive effect caused
by the insulation shield and the conductor. These high
charging currents make voltage regulation very difficult
for long underground AC transmission, and so typically
underground AC is not used beyond a certain length.

[1] Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), “Transmission Line Reference Book:
345 kV and Above,” second edition, revised, 1987.
[2] National Technical Reports Library, “Transmission-Line Reference Book. 345 KV
and Above. Second Edition,” [Online]. Available:
[Link]
[3] R. Lings, “Overview of Transmission Lines Above 700 kV,” IEEE PES 2005
Conference and Exposition in Africa, Durban, South Africa, 11-15 July 2005.
[4] IEEE Standard 738-2006, “IEEE Standard for Calculating the Current–
Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead Conductors,” IEEE, 2006.
[5] R. Dunlop, R. Gutman, and P. Marchenko, “Analytical Development of
Loadability Characteristics for EHV and UHV Transmission Lines,” IEEE

34
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-98, No. 2, March/April
1979.
[6] H. P. St. Clair, "Practical Concepts in Capability and Performance of
Transmission Lines," AIEE Transactions (Power Apparatus and Systems). Paper
53-338 presented at the AIEE Pacific General Meeting, Vancouver, B. C., Canada,
September 1-4, 1953.
[7] Electric Power Research Institute, “Transmission Line Reference Book: 345 kV
and Above,” second edition, revised, publication EL-2500, 1982.
[8] J. Hao and W. Xu, “Extended Transmission Line Loadability Curve by
Including Voltage Stability Constrains, ” Proc of Electric Power Conference, 2008.
[9] H. Scherer and G. Vassell, “Transmission of Electric Power at Ultra-High
Voltages: Current Status and Future Prospects,” Proceedings Of The IEEE, Vol. 73,
No. 8. August 1985.
[10] L. Weiners, “Bulk power transmission at extra high voltages, a comparison
between transmission lines for HVDC at voltages above 600 kV DC and 800 kV
AC,” available at
[Link]
ocumentPartID=&Action=Launch&IncludeExternalPublicLimited=True.
[11] V. Rashkes, “ Russian EHV Transmission System,” IEEE Power Engineering
Society Review, June 1997.
[12] B. Badenhorst, C. van der Merwe, and J. de Vos, “China unveils 1000 kV AC
transmission grid,” Transmission and Distribution, July, 2009, [Online]. Available:
[Link]/wp-content/uploads/legacy/energize%202009/02_TT_03_China%[Link].
[13] COMPARISON OF HIGH VOLTAGE OVERHEAD LINES AND
UNDERGROUND CABLES, REPORT AND GUIDELINES, CIGRE Joint
Working Group 21/22.01, Report 110, December, 1996.

35