ANA 411: SKELETAL BIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

FOSSILIZATION: REQUIREMENT AND METHODOLOGY

A fossil is an obvious trace of pre-existing life. Fossils are old, usually embedded in

sedimentary rocks and are not associated with humans. A fossil is also direct remains of

a part of an organism, such as teeth, bones, or shells, evidence of past life such as a

footprint or a gizzard stone these are known as trace fossils. A fossil is any evidence of

a once-living organism. This includes body fossils, casts, molds, footprints, track ways

and feeding traces. This evidence of previous living organisms can then be used to

study changes in life forms through time. This includes their evolution, ecology,

functional morphology, growth and form, as well as their geographic distribution.

Fossils provide link to the history of life.

Paleontology is the study and interpretation of fossils. Fossils are useful in several

ways; to help determine ancient environments and the ages of rock beds. Paleontology

science essentially studies two principle fossil types:

Body Fossils are preserved remains where an organism's body tissue, or parts thereof,

become fossilized in an altered or actual state.

Trace Fossils constitute any evidence of left behind by an organism that is not tissue

remains. Examples of trace fossils are animal tracks, trails, burrows borings,

impressions, molds, casts, and steinkerns.

A B

A- Body Fossils include remains like this peccary mandible which includes teeth and
1
 Bone.

B- Trace Fossils are evidence of the presence of an organism in its environment like

this therapod track

The process of fossilization is a rare occurrence. Chemical decomposition, erosion,

scavengers, and pressure and temperature changes are several processes that decrease

the odds of fossilization occurring. The possession of hard parts, rapid deep burial,

and protection from bacteria are conducive for fossilization.

Most of the fossils used to interpret earth history are organisms whose hard part (shell,

bone) have been preserved. Since the hard parts of most invertebrate organisms are

composed of calcium carbonate, silica, or chitin, and since the bones of most

vertebrates are composed primarily of calcium phosphate, alteration during

transportation and burial is expected.

There are various methods of preservation employed in fossil study, some fossils are

preserved by combinations of more than one type of preservation.

METHOD OF PRESERVATION

The method of preservation indicates what happened to the organism's remains

subsequent to death, and the conditions under which the fossil was originally created.

Most remains do not become fossilized after death. All life begins to decay after it dies

and will decompose over time. Animal remains are often subjected to predation. To

become fossilized, tissue has to be subjected to particular environmental conditions that

are conducive to preservation. The more important circumstances are rapid burial and

the existence of hard part in the remains. If an organism is not quickly buried,

microbes and other animals will devour the remains and the material will be lost to the

fossil record. Even if remains become fossilized, erosional processes can destroy them.

2
Unless an organism happens to die in anaerobic environment, its soft parts will not be

preserved. Therefore, fossilization of soft tissue is highly unusual.

Preservation Methods

Unaltered remains (rare)

Soft parts - entrapment of organisms in amber or oil seeps

Hard parts - unaltered shells, bones, or teeth

Per-mineralization –

Minerals deposited in pore spaces (such as in wood and bone) and may become per-

mineralized: also called petrification. Skeletal material may be the original, replaced,

or recrystallized. Common permineralization agents include calcium carbonate

(CaCO3), silica (SiO2), pyrite (FeS2), and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).

Aragonite (CaCO3) is a form of calcium carbonate that is fairly unstable and

commonly dissolves away. Skeletons made originally of aragonite are commonly

recrystallized to calcite and preserved as molds. Aragonite is easy to recognize. It is

usually (not always!) milky white and has no cluster.

Calcite (CaCO3) is the more common form of calcium carbonate. It is more stable than

aragonite and therefore does not dissolve as readily. Calcite usually has a grayish

colour and a slight vitreous (or glassy) luster when found as a skeletal mineral. It can be

found as an original skeletal material, or as a recrystallization product.

Silica (SiO2) is easy to distinguish from the carbonate minerals since it will not react

with acid. Skeletons composed of this mineral will commonly have a brown, earthy

colour, with or without a vitreous lustre, and can have a granular texture. Silica is rarely

found as an original material and most commonly occurs as a replacement product.

Pyrite (FeS2) or "fools' gold" is a golden colour mineral with a metallic lustre and is

therefore identified easily. It always appears as a replacement product.

3
 Recrystallization - Original material is recrystallized into a more stable form. No

new material is added or taken away. This method of

preservation is hard to identify.

Replacement - New material replaces the original skeleton; common

replacement minerals includes calcite, quartz, and pyrite.

Mold –

Skeletal hard part dissolved resulting in a hole in the rock. Internal molds

preserve the internal structure. External molds preserve the external structure.

Casts –

New material fills in natural molds, forming a replica of the original skeleton.

Carbonization –

Heat and pressure degrade original materials leaving a thin film of carbon in

the shape of the organism, this can preserve fine details and soft parts.

Trace fossils –

Any indirect evidence of an organism. Records behavior of organism.

ex: tracks, trails, burrows, coprolites (fossilized feces), gastroliths

(gizzard stones), may help show the size, living conditions, or eating

habits of the organism. Trace fossils do not include the original

organism, and are often difficult to connect to a particular species.

BODY FOSSILS

A. Unaltered Preservation refers to fossils that have undergone little or no change

in structure and composition. A fossil of an organism that lived recently is more

likely to be unaltered than a more aged one.

i. Original Skeletal Material refers to the hard tissues that are preserved as the

original material. This includes many invertebrate molluska that have shells

4
 composed of calcium carbonate, silica, or chitin and vertebrate species with

bones of calcium phosphate.

ii. Encrustations occur in caves where ground water with a high concentration of

dissolved minerals seeps or drips constantly. As the water evaporates, the

minerals are remain. These chemicals then form a thin coating on the interior

surface of the cave and remains that lie in it thereby preserving organisms that

die there.

iii. Tar Impregnation is excellent for fossilization. The La Brea tar pits of

California yield particularly fine collections of vertebrate bones and wood.

Smaller tar pits frequently yield perfectly preserved insects their larvae.

iv. In Amber Entombment coniferous trees, like spruce, pine and fir that have a

sticky resinous pitch that seeps from damage to the tree's bark .Many small

insects and other small organisms occasionally become trapped in the resin.

After burial the sap hardens into amber. Particular areas of the Baltic Sea

coastline and a few islands in the West Indies are well known for insects

preserved in amber.

v. Refrigeration occurred primarily during the Pleistocene, when ice sheets

covered much of the Northern Hemisphere. Some animals fell into crevasses or

became trapped in permanently frozen oil. Although infrequent, some have

beend is covered perfectly preserved in this manner.

vi. Mummification occurs in very arid environments. The animal's remains

dehydrate or desiccate quickly and become preserved -- usually including its

soft tissues.

5
Unaltered preservation (like insects or plant parts trapped in amber, a hardened form of

tree sap)

B. Altered Remains

As sediment layers become compressed by the weight of overlying material, they

slowly

Under-go the process of lithification. It is common for cementing materials in the

groundwater like carbonate, silica, and iron oxides, to bond the sediment together and

harden. Often the groundwater, and the minerals contained in it, impacts the

fossilization process.

In Per-mineralization, bones, teeth, shells, and plant stems have porous internal

structures. These pores can become filled with mineral deposits in the soil and

groundwater. In the process of per-mineralization, the actual chemical composition of

the original hard parts of the organism may not change but it generally will be altered.

6
Per-mineralization or petrification in which rock-like minerals seep in slowly and

replace the original organic tissues with silica, calcite or pyrite, forming a rock-like

fossil – can preserve hard and soft parts - most bone and wood fossils are per-

mineralized.

Carbonization occurs when an organism becomes pressed into sediment and its

volatile,

liquid or gaseous contents are forced out leaving a thin film of carbon. When other

organic material remains, as when plants are entombed, coal is formed. Thus,

coalmines are typically a good source for carbonized fossils.

In Recrystallization the hard tissues are converted, usually in a solid state, into a new

mineral or to coarser crystals of than those of the original mineral.

Carbonization or coalification in which only the carbon remains in the specimen - other

elements, like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are removed.

7
Dissolution or Replacement refers to fossils formed when groundwater, particularly if

it is acidic, acts upon the remains to dissolve the hard and soft tissue structures of an

organism trapped in sediments. The hard tissues are often simultaneously replaced by

minerals contained in the water -molecule by molecule. Petrified wood is a classic

example of this type of fossilization where even the internal microscopic cellular

structure of the plant is replaced by silica in the process of fossilization. This occurs

when skeletal material is replaced, molecule by molecule, bysome new alien material.

This process occurs gradually over a long period of time as the original mineralogy

dissolves away and a new mineral precipitates in its place.

Examples include: Silicification - where calcium carbonate is replaced by silica, and

Pyritization - where pyrite replaces calcium carbonate.

Replacement where an organism’s hard tissues dissolve and are replaced by other more

stable minerals, like calcite, silica, pyrite, or iron.

Authingenic Preservation occurs when a mold or form of an organism is made after it

decomposes in sediment and is replaced by material that hardens into casting of the

original animal's likeness. Animals with exoskeletons or shells are often fossilized in

this way.

Fossils of animals with shells, particularly molluska, are sometimes called Steinkerns.

8
Authigenic preservation molds and casts of organism itself occur where the animal

becomes destroyed or dissolved leaving a replica of the creature in cased in matrix.

Desiccation

Desiccation occurs when an animal dies in extremely dry and arid locations, such as

deserts or some caves. Essentially, these conditions create an aseptic environment,

where it is highly unlikely that it will be able to decay. These fossils are very rare, due

to the fact that they require that the remains be undisturbed by scavengers and that the

environmental factors leading to desiccation remain constant. Desiccation is almost

identical to mummification, although it is conducted by natural conditions and are

typically from further back in time

9
TRACE FOSSILS

As in Authingenic Preservation, a Mold refers to any reproduction of an organism's

past presence in the environment that has been preserved by leaving an impression, but

not necessarily filled with hardened material such as an animal's track or footprint.

Cast is the copy of the original form when the "positive" item is removed or dissolved

away and the remaining "negative" impression becomes filled with sediment or mineral

material that subsequently hardens into a replica of the original.

Compression refers to fossils that form as a result of pressure from sediments that

cover an organism or its trace fossils of it. Compression usually is used to describe the

casts and/or molds of plant leaves.

Borings and Burrows from when worms, clams and other burrowing invertebrates

"drill" into rocks, wood, shells, and all types of sediment. These cavities are frequently

preserved, especially in fine-grained rocks and may also appear in the bones of

vertebrate animals.

Coprolite is the fossilized excrement from animal and is sometimes very useful in

providing knowledge about specific diet of the animal concerned.

Gastroliths are smooth, polished stones that are typically found in the abdominal

cavities of skeletal fossils of dinosaurs and large mammals. These "grinding stones" are

thought to have been essential for the animal's digestion of plant material by grinding

up vegetable matter in their stomach.

Gnawings are the result of rodent, marsupial and other animals that chewed on bones

or trees.

10
These Gastroliths were found in the abdonimal area of a dinosaur fossil and may have

helped the animal digest plant material. Similar small gastroliths are often found

associated with certain fish and mammal species.

Coprolite, like this preserved dung from an alligator, can be useful in determining the

type of foods that the animal ingested for nurishment or may reveal digestive disorders

and allomentary parasites.

11
12
 Taphonomy

Taphonomy is the study of post-mortem processes on once-living organisms. In

addition to determining the type and intensity of the processes and their role in

preservation, taphonomy detect bias in the fossil record and tends to provide solutions

to the following challenges as part of the taphonomy objectives:

Is the assemblage a true representation of the original assemblage?

Was any material lost during the fossilization process?

Did the material condense?

How much time is represented in the rocks?

How can we tell what has happened to the shells from the time of the death of

the organisms to their burial and ultimate fossilization?

What can these preservation features tell us about the depositional

environment?

13
Taphonomic processes

There are three major categories of taphonomic processes of alteration and destruction:

physical processes, chemical processes and biological processes.

Physical processes involve the mechanical breakdown of organic material via water

and /or wind action (storms). Chemical processes include any alteration of a material's

mineralogy, as well as any leaching of material by the surrounding water or air.

Biological processes, such as sponge or algal borings, can help to alter and eventually

destroy potential fossil material.

All three types of processes can act in concert at various amplitudes in any given

situation. It is a taphonomist's job to look at the intensity and interactions of these

processes and their effects on a fossil assemblage.

Fossil concentrations

Fossils can be concentrated in two major ways, by physical processes, such as storms

and currents, or winnowing and deflation. Fossils are also concentrated by

aggradation, which is a biological process in that it is the piling up of live individuals,

such as those found in oyster beds or coral reefs.

Konservat-Lagerstatten

This term was coined by German palaeontologists. It means exceptional preservation in

the fossil record. Konservat-Lagerstatten represent a preservation method of

fossilization. For Konservat-Lagerstatten to form, all taphonomic processes must be

minimized. That is, physical, chemical and biological destruction must be kept to a

minimum.

Examples of Konservat-Lagerstatten include: Faunas such as the Mazon Creek

(Illinois), Solnhofen Limestone (Germany), La Brea (tar pits in Southern California),

14
insects and others in amber (the Baltic states, Dominican Republic), and Burgess Shale

(Canada). The Burgess Shale is located in the Canadian Rockies (British Columbia).

Examples of fossil deposit

The shales and its fossils are dark black in colour, suggesting anaerobic conditions (no

oxygen) and the fine-grained nature of the sediment indicates quiet water deposition,

because there is no disturbance from wave action or burrowing organisms in the

sediment. The Solnhofen is also very fine grained. The complete skeletons (e.g.

Archaeopteryx) preserved in the limestone indicate very quiet waters too.

These fossil deposits are important because they represent a "snapshot" in time, because

of probable rapid burial and they provide previously unknown anatomical details that

can be important from a systematic (evolutionary) point of view. They also provide test

for environmental and diagenetic boundary conditions and the excellent time resolution

allow true biotic diversity for an assemblage to be observed.

15
Processes of breakage and diagenesis of fossils. Dead organisms may be (a)

disarticulated; or (b) fragmented by scavenging or transport; (c) abraded by physical

movement; (d) bioeroded by borers; or (e) corroded and dissolved by solutions in the

sediment. After burial, specimens may be (f) flattened by the weight of sediment above;

or (g) various forms of chemical diagensis, such as the replacement of aragonite by

calcite may take place (Benton 1997).

16
Ichnology: Trace Fossils

Trace fossils or ichno fossils represent the effects of organismal activity upon or in the

substrate. Tracks and trails are the most commonly encountered traces. Body fossils are

actual remains of organisms, and trace fossils represent an indication of an organism's

behavioural activity can be observed.

Trace fossils are often preserved in environments that are hostile to the preservation of

body fossils (shallow, high energy environments, shallow marine sandstones, and deep

marine shales).

Trace fossils are generally not affected by diagenesis, but can be enhanced by

diagenetic processes. Trace fossils are not transported, and are thus good indicators of

the original sedimentary environment

Trace fossils may be preserved in a number of reliefs. They may be preserved in actual

3- dimensional relief, within sediment or become filled in by a more resistant mineral

and are subsequently eroded out of the surrounding sediment in full relief.

Types of trace fossils

Repichnia: These are crawling or walking traces; this group includes any trace that was

made during locomotion. Included in this category are examples of amphibian, reptilian

and mammalian footprints. Cruziana is an example of a crawling trace made by a

trilobite; note the scratch marks made by the trilobite appendages.

Fodichnia: These are feeding structures, usually in faunal burrows made by deposit

feeders that systematically mine the sediment for food. A typical feature found

associated with these types of traces is called spreiten

Domichnia: Domichnial traces are burrows used principally for dwelling as opposed

to

17
feeding. These types of burrows may be oriented vertically (Skolithos) and are

commonly U-shaped.

Cubichnia: This group of behavioral traces includes resting or nestling traces; places

where organisms rested temporarily on the substrate. Examples are common

impressions

Formed by sea stars and trilobites (Rusophycus).

Pascichnia: These types of traces are made by grazing herbivores, usually at the

sediment/water interface. Nereites is a systematic sinuous trail made by deep water

gastropods.

Hard substrate traces: Traces are also be made on hard substrates (shells) and are

usually called borings. Examples are the small boring formed behind by clionid

sponges boring clam shells.

18
1. Koupichniurn (horseshoe crab tracks); 2. Isopodichnius; 3. borings of Polydora, a

polychaete; 4. Entobia, clionid borings; 5. echinoid borings; 6. algal borings; 7.

pholadid bivalve borings; 8. Diplocraterion; 9. unlined crab burrow; 10. Skolithos; 11.

Thalassinoides; 12. Diplocraterion; 13. Ophiomorpha; 14. Arenicolites; 15. Phycodes;

16. Rhizocorallium; 17. Teichichnus; 18. Diplichnites (trilobite tracks); 19. Cruziana;

20.

Rusophycus; 21. Ateriacites; 22. Zoophycos; 23. Lorenzinia; 24. Paleodictyon; 25.

Taphrhelminthopsis; 26. Heminthoidia; 27. Spiroraphe; 28. Cosmoraphe. (Prothero,

1998, modified from Ekdale et al., 1984)

19
Ethological classification of trace fossils. (Adapted from Frey, 1978)

20