JOHN G. COLLIER Scanned with CamScannerOOD INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER —————} John G. Collier United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority London, U.K. TECHNICAL LIBRARY Geoffrey F. Hewitt UMM thi i 022850 Harwell Laboratory, U.K. and Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology Imperial College London, U.K. Q HEMISPHERE PUBLISHING CORPORATION 'A subsidiary of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Washington New York London DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA SPRINGER-VERLAG Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER - A . oo ‘Copyright © 1987 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed in the States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1234567890 DODO. 8987 R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company was printer and binder, Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Collier, John, date Introduction to nuclear power, Includes bibliographies and index. 1, Nuclear energy. 1. Hewitt, G. F. (Geoffrey Frederick) I. Title ‘TK9I45.C584 1986 621.48 86-2792 ISBN 0-891 16-269-0 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA: ISBN 3-540-17578-4 Springer-Verlag. Berlin My ae Scanned with CamScanner—____________ConTENrs | Cuneany } LEU Da oY Preface ” 1 THE EARTH AND NUCLEAR POWER: SOURCES AND RESOURCES 1 11 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Forms of Energy 2 .2. Units of Energy 4 1.1.3. Energy Conversion Process 5 12. The Earth's Internal Heat Generation 8 1.3 The Earth's Energy Flows 2 14 The Fission Process S 1.5. Thermal Energy Resources 19 References 20 Examples and Problems ay Bibliography , a 2 HOW REACTORS WORK 2 24 Introduction 2 22 The Fission Process 2 a Basic Components of a Nuclear Reactor 2 “4 Thermal Reactors 0 2.4.1. Natural Uranium Graphite-Moderated (Magnox) Reactors 3 24.2 Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactors 35 24.3 Pressurized-Water Reactors vii Scanned with CamScannervili CONTENTS iling-Water Reactors » ve aon ranium Heavy Watr-Moderated and Cooled Reactors % 3.4.6 Boiling-Wate, Graphite-Moderated Direct Cycle Reactor (RBMK) ie 2.5. Fast Reactors 4 2.5.1 Liquid Metal-Cooled Past Breeder Reactors 4 25.2 Gas-Cooled Fast Reactors 4 Examples and Problems 4 Bibliography 4 3 COOLING REACTORS 49 3.1. Introduction 49 3.2. General Features of a Reactor Coolant “0 3.3. Principles of Heat Transfer 51 3.4 Gaseous Coolants 38 3.4.1 Air ‘a 3.4.2. Carbon Dioxide 3 Helium 4 3.4.4 Steam 0 3.4.5 Oxides of Nitrogen : 3.5. Liquid Coolants ai 3.5.1 Light Water a Heavy Water ‘i Organic Fluids Ps 5.4 Molten Salts 3.5.5. Liquid Metals 63 3.6 Boiling Coolants “ 3.6.1 Water 65 3.6.2 Liquid Metals 66 3.7 Alternative Forms of Reactor Coolant Circuits 66 3.7.1 Loop-Type Circuits 6 3.1.2. Imegral-Type Circuits 61 3.1.3, Pool-Type Circuits 68 Reference 0 Examples and Problems n Bibliography ail 4 4 LOSS OF COOLING 4.1. Introduction 8 4.2. The Electric Kettle 4.3. Pressurized-Water Reactor 15 4.3.1 Operating States of the PWR 80 4.3.2 Energy Balances in the PWR 82 434 Tha LargeBinak LOCA Inde cot toes 82 43.4 The Small-Break Loca PNR 86 44 Bolling Water Reactor 89 1 Large-Break LOCA in ; 95 4.4.2. Small-Break LOCAs cae (the Design Basis Accident) 102 102 106 Scanned with CamScannerCONTENTS Ix «¢ CANDU Reactor “ Ga Cooted Reactors 106, so scign Base Accident for the AG| 109 1 Design t the AGR: Depressutizatior ’ {Sim-Cooled Fast Breeder Reactor Anomalies mM Reference ia Examples and Problems 1 Bibliography ite ¢ LOSS-OF-COOLING ACCIDENTS: SOME EXAMPLES i Intreduction 4 | Incidents in Light Water-Cooled Reactors Hd ** 6.1 The SL-1 Accident 120 2 The Millstone 1 Accident 120 $2.3. The Browns Ferry Fire mi $24. The Three Mile Island (TMI Incident a $.2.5 The Ginna Incident in $.2.6 The Serious Accident at Chernobyl, Ukraine 134 3. Heavy Water-Moderated Reactors Eo “5.3.1 The NRX Incident us 2. The Core-Damage Incident at Lucens 7 54 Gas-Cooled Reactors @ $.4.1. The Windscale Fire 139 5.4.2 The Fuel Meltdown at St. Laurent 140 5.4.3 Seawater Ingress in the Hunterston B AGR Station M2 5.4.4 Fuel Damage during Charging at the Hinkley Point B AGR 143 55. Liquid Metal-Cooled Fast Reactors 143 $5.1 The EBR-1 Meltdown Accident 43 5.5.2. Fuel Melting Incident at the Enrico Fermi 1 Fast Breeder Reactor 1s References Ww Examples and Problems 7 Bibliography 1st 6 POSTULATED SEVERE ACCIDENTS 153 6.) Introduction 133 62 Postulated Severe Accidents in the Various Reactor Types 1st 63 Debris Beds and Their Cooling 158 64 Fuel-Coolant Interactions and Vapor Explosions 160 65 The China Syndrome: What Really Happens 162 66 Containment Failure ta References 165 Examples and Problems 166 Bibliography 169 7 COOLING DURING FUEL REMOVAL AND PROCESSING m1 1 Introducti 71 rites 13 12 Refueling Scanned with CamScannerX CONTENTS 721 Refueling of Gas-Cooled Reactors 7.2.2 Refueling of CANDU Reactors 7.2.3 Refueling of Light Water Reactors 7.2.4 Refueling of Liquid Metal-Cooled Fast Breeder Reactors 7.3. Spent Fuel Storage and ‘Transport 7.4 Reprocessing Plant Examples and Problems Bibliography COOLING AND DISPOSING OF THE WASTE 8.1 Introduction 8.2. Classification of Waste Products 8.3. Fission Products and Their Biological Significance 8.4 Options for Nuclear Waste Disposal 8.5 Long-Term Storage and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel 8.5.1 Undersea Disposal 8.5.2 Ultimate Disposal in Salt Deposits 8.5.3 Geological Storage 8.6 Storage and Disposal of Fission Products from Reprocessing Plants 8.7 Disposal of Other Materials Reference Examples and Problems Bibliography 9 FUSION ENERGY: PROSPECT FOR THE FUTURE 9.1. Introduction 9.2 What Do We Need to Obtain a Fusion Reaction? 9.3 Confinement 9.4 Current Technical Position 9.5 Fusion Reactors 9.6 Conclusions Reference Examples and Problems Bibliography INDEX Scanned with CamScanner n % In Mm Im 13 18) 189 19 19) 19) 19 195 197 198 198 199 201 204 205 205 209CHAPTER oe TWO HOW REACTORS WORK 2.1 INTRODUCTION In Section 1.4 we briefly introduced the fission process and explained that it leads tothe generation of heat within the nuclear fuel. This heat can be used to generate electrical energy in a nuclear power station. In this chapter we shall further explore this heat generation process and discuss the aspects of nuclear reactor design concerned with removing and utilizing the heat. 2.2. THE FISSION PROCESS Given enough fissile material, such as 5U, fission leads to the production of a self-sustaining chain reaction in which the neutrons arising from a given fission “ause other fission reactions, which in turn cause others, and so on. Each fission feaction produces either two or three neutrons (with an average of about 2.5 neutrons per fission). Since only one neutron is required to cause a fission, about > Neutrons are available in excess. In a supercritical system, these neutrons Progressively increase the rate of fission, which is the basis for an atomic bomb. In fe Uclear reactor the excess neutrons are either absorbed or used to produce more ‘ile material. Thus, a nuclear reactor has a critical mass of fissile material in isis 4 state is achieved where, on average, one of the neutrons arising fom ash n Causes just one further fission, We thus have a delicate balance from wl 'ht deviation would cause the chain reaction either to die away or to accelerate. 23 Scanned with CamScanner24 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Fortunately, there are inherent features of the nuclear reaction within nuclea, reactors that prevent the uncontrolled acceleration of the fission process ang allow control of the reactor. We shall return to this matter when we discuss the component parts of nuclear reactors in Section 2.3. . To illustrate in more detail the balance between neutron creation and des. | truction, consider the fate of neutrons produced by fission in thermal and fas, reactors. Figure 2.1 illustrates the fate of neutrons in thermal reactors. Here, 109 fissions produce, on average, 259 neutrons. Some of these neutrons are lost by absorption in the fission products present in the reactor, absorption in the Teactor structure, or leakage from the reactor structure followed by absorption in the surrounding shielding. These combined processes account for 59 of the original 259 neutrons. The remaining 200 neutrons undergo interactions with the fuel as illustrated, some of which lead to further fissions, giving a steady-state value of 100 fissions with which to continue the process. The original fuel in the reactor isa mixture of a small amount of fissile 225U and a very large amount of nonfissile **U, The =U absorbs 78 of the remaining 200 neutrons, giving 63 fissions; the other 15 neutrons are absorbed to produce nonfissile “°U. The 7*U absorbs 63 of the original neutrons, and only 5 of these result in fissions (7*8U can only be split by very high velocity neutrons). The process of neutron absorption by 7°°U gives rise to the production of a new element, plutonium-239. This very important process of plutonium production is actually quite complex; first, 8U is transformed into 29, which has a 23.5-min half-life and decays by beta emission to another man- made element, neptunium-239 (?°Np). This, in turn, decays by beta emission, with a 2.3-day half-life, to ™°Pu. Plutonium-239 is comparatively stable and has a 24,000-year half-life. Ina reactor operating in the steady state, **°Pu exists in the fuel as a result of the absorption process described above. It is a fissile isotope and absorbs the remaining 59 neutrons (out of the original 259) to produce 32 fissions, the remaining neutrons being absorbed to form higher plutonium isotopes NEUTRON EVENTS - THERMAL REACTOR FISSIONS to FISSION = heurnons A Page |» fT” Bae “ "PLUTONTOM, +— * — [assogprions ssoen faasoeen a ye ws90NS. | | sSous | [| rstions K A FISSIONS | 100, | Log | Figure 2.1 Creation, reacti ing fission in a thermal re Hare 2-1. Creation, reaction, and absorption of neutrons during fission in a t mal react | for. | y SN . i Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 25 NEUTRON EVENTS - LMFBR FISSIONS + EISSION REUIRONS ] , |LELTRONS PROGUCTS | TERRE : Si + aE Figure 2.2 Creation, reaction, and absorption of neutrons during fission in a fast reactor. @Pu,”*'Pu, etc.). Thus, in the steady state, about 30% of the energy produced by a thermal nuclear reactor is actually being produced by the fission of plutonium. ‘The neutron events associated with a fast reactor are illustrated in Fig. 2.2. Here, the fast-neutron fissions produce more neutrons than do thermal neutron fissions, namely 292 instead of 259. Furthermore, fewer neutrons are lost in the fission products, the structure, and the leakage. The 253 neutrons that are not lost interact with the fuel, which in a fast reactor consists of a mixture of approximately 20% plutonium and 80% depleted uranium, i.e., natural uranium from which some of the?5U has been extracted. The uranium is depleted because it has either been through a thermal reactor, where the *"°U has been largely burned, or passed through an enrichment plant, where the *5U has been preferentially separated out for utilization in thermal reactors. Thus, the remaining 5U contributes only 3 of the 100 fissions that take place. The bulk of the fissions come from plutonium, where 116 of the original 292 neutrons are absorbed, giving rise to 84 fissions. Uranium-238 absorbs 121 of the 292 neutrons to produce **°Pu by the process described above, The remainder of the original neutrons produce 13 fissions from *SU; this is higher than the comparable number for a thermal reactor because of the high energy of the neutrons in a fast reactor. . If we look at Fig. 2.2 a little more closely, we see that 116 neutrons interact with plutonium and 134 interact with 75U. Of the latter neutrons, 13 produce fission of the 2°8U, leaving 121 atoms of 8U converted into “Pu. Thus, *”Pu is being created at a greater rate than it is being consumed. The Teactor can therefore Tegarded as breeding the fissile material “Pu. There is a net gain in fissile Material, even taking into account the fission of the small amount of . U deme. This remarkable process, by which the very large amount of available “pleted uranium i umed, represents a vast energy resource. In Chapter 1 we stated that ach kilogram of **U totally fissioned in a reactor WOuld release 80 million million (8 x 10") joules of thermal energy. This means ta typical nuclear power station producing 1000 MW of electric power mee 35kg of 25 each day. That is, for each unit of electrical power produced, Scanned with CamScanner26 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER we have to produce 3.5 units of themal energy, the remaining 2.5 units of energy being dissipated into the lukewarm cooling water. Let us now consider how this 80 million million joules of thermal energy from the fission of 1 kg of 2°5U is distributed, Table 2.1 lists the end products of the fission reaction and shows the breakdown of the energy released per kilogram of uranium for steady-state reactor operation. The greatest part of the energy is released in the form of the kinetic energy of the fission products. When a fission takes place, the fragments fly apart and hit the other molecules of the system, increasing their thermal vibration (i.e., releasing heat). The neutrons and gamma radiation from the fission process also interact with the surrounding matter, inducing thermal vibrations; this amounts to about 10% of the fission product interaction. Both of these processes occur at the time of the fission reaction and are therefore called prompt processes. However, the fission products themselves may be radioactive, and their decay may release further energy; this represents a delayed release of the energy arising from fission. The fission products emit beta and gamma radiation and, associated with the beta radiation, there is a simultaneous emission of tiny uncharged particles called neutrinos. As shown in Table 2.1, the interaction of neutrinos with matter contributes significantly to the total thermal energy release. Table 2.1 gives a clue to one of the most important technical questions in the design of nuclear power plants. The delayed release of heat due to fission product decay continues after the fission reaction has been closed down. The rate of this heating falls quite rapidly after the shutdown of the fission reactor, as shown in Table 2.2. After 1 s the power has dropped to 6.5% of the steady-state value, after 1 h down to 1.4%, after 1 year down to 0.023%, and so on. These power levels are small compared to the full power level, but they are quite significant in absolute terms. For example, a reactor generating 3400 MW of thermal energy will still be producing 217 MW 1 s after shutdown, 47.6 MW 1h after shutdown, and 0.78 MW 1 year after shutdown. Thus, it is essential to continue to cool the reactor after shutdown, and even to cool the fuel when it has been removed from the reactor. Removal of decay heat is a very important consideration in reactor safety analysis and will be discussed in Chapter 4, The heat released immediately by the fission reaction and in a delayed fashion from the decay of the fission products is essentially independent of the temperature of Table 2.1 Distribution of energy from fission of 1 kg of uranium.-235 Energy (10" 3) Fission products 4 Fission neutrons 2 Prompt y radiation 3 Fission product decay B radiation 3 +y radiation 3 Neutrinos 5 Total 80 4 Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 27 pe 2.2 Decay heat rates following shutdown ie M pressurized-water reactor —__________ Percent of steadypower lypowet Cooling time at shutdown " ec 1s 65 10s 5 100s 32 1000 s 19 1h 14 10h 0.75 100 h = 4.17 days 0.33 1000 h = 1.39 months Ont gr = 1 year 0.023, _—— the fuel. The temperature at which the fuel operates will be such as to drive the heat into the coolant, the steady state being that in which the rate of heat release to the coolant is equal to the rate of heat generation within the fuel. The maximum temperature at which nuclear fuel can operate is governed by the form of the fuel; for instance, the fuel rods can be made of uranium metal which has a relatively low melting point, or uranium oxide, which has a very high melting point. However, if there is a loss of cooling effectiveness in the reactor, these maximum temperatures may be exceeded, and in this unlikely event the fuel may melt. The consequences of such an event will be discussed in Chapter 6. 2.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR Figure 2.3 illustrates schematically the principal components of a nuclear fission reactor. Gaseous or liquid coolant is pumped into the reactor via the coolant circulator and passes over the fuel elements. These elements consist of uranium in metallic, carbide, or oxide form sealed in a can made typically of zirconium, magnesium alloy, or stainless steel. The can (or cladding) ensures retention of the fission products so that they cannot enter the coolant stream. It also prevents the coolant from chemically attacking the fuel, which would be possible with some fuel/coolant combinations such as uranium metal/water. ; ‘The fuel and coolant channels are surrounded by the moderator. As we saw in Chapter 1, the moderator may be a solid (e.g., graphite) or a liquid (¢.8-» heavy Water), In light-water reactors, the coolant and the moderator are both ordinary Water, Ifthe moderator is different from the coolant, it must either not react with thecoolant or be separated from the coolant by a suitable intervening structure. In the heavy-water reactor, this structure is known as the calandri; it consists of 2 = containing the heavy water penetrated by series of tubes in which the fuel is nted and through which the coolant passes. : on troll fe remaining main feature of the nuclear reactor core is the means © cn 'ng neutron population, namely the control rods. These consist of neutr’ absorh: 7 "bing material such as boron or cadmium. Scanned with CamScanner*OHNH WoW) WOIINU = Jo swuDuOdwOD HEE EZ andy 2010)nOH0 WUD|009 er Scanned with CamScanniHOW REACTORS WORK 29 ‘The number of neutrons produced per neutr i b i fon absorbed is oft asthe multiplication factor, k. If kisthe greater than unity, the neutron popula Fe increases. If k ars y unity, the neutron population remains the [Link] kis ieas than unity, the population decreases. The rate of growth of the a ulation depends on the neutron lifetime, b nthe erection of a ; ¢., that ti i aneutron and its interaction with the fissile Hil erate teal material to create furth | ie Most of the neutrons present in a reactor are the so-called ficnpt neon Inthermal reactors they have a lifetime of typically 0,001 to 0.001 s; in fast reactors their lifetime is even shorter. If the neutron population consisted only of th introns, it would grow very rapidly as soon as k sl ty and the ery ightly exceeded uni feactor would be very difficult to control. ‘This is because ibertce eons Euccessive generations is very short, and very rapid multiplication of the neutrons would be inevitable. For instance, for a neutron lifetime weriron population would increase (for k = 1.005) by over Sees eri ‘th clearly could not be controlled easily. ssranes Fortunately, at the steady state not all of the neutrons are of asmall fraction (~ 0.7%) are of the delayed type, whose lifetime (cadets typically 0.6 to 80s. These delayed neutrons arise from the decay of fission products rather than directly from the fission process itself. Thus, at steady state only 99.3% ofthe neutrons are of the prompt type and the population is “topped up” by delayed neutrons, whose number is just sufficient to maintain the steady state, i.e., k = 1,000. The control system operates essentially on these delayed neutrons, and the response of the system is such that control rod movements over a time scale of 10-20 s can give adequate control over the chain reaction. The system is designed so that the k value cannot exceed a critical value (1.007 for the example cited above), above which the k value for the prompt neutrons alone is greater than unity. If k were allowed to exceed this value, rapid growth of the prompt neutron population would occur and the system would be in what is known as the prompt critical condition. However, the design of nuclear reactors is such that it is not possible for this condition to occur. In passing over the fuel elements the coolant is heated, and this heat is then used to generate steam. Various forms of steam generators are used in nuclear Teactors, and, indeed, the nuclear reactor itself is the steam generator in the case of the boiling-water reactor, where the steam is formed directly within the reactor core. The steam generator is fed with water, which is totally or partially evaporated tosteam, The steam is then passed through the turbine, which drives the electrical generator. The very low pressure exhaust steam from the turbine is passed to a Condenser, where it is converted back into water and recirculated to the steam generator, a The nuclear fission process results in intense radiation. The fission products also contribute substantially to the radiation field, and they continue to emi Tadiation after the fission reaction is closed down. Thus, it is very pipe My Provide proper shielding around the reactor core. This shielding takes "he i e neutron, iton (as ordinary steel), water, and concrete, which together block th ble levels imma, and bere sadiation and prevent it from reaching unaccepta Scanned with CamScanner30 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER outside the shield. In many reactors, further protection is provided by housing the system inside a containment. We shall discuss the role of this containment jy possible nuclear reactor accidents in Chapters 5 and 6, Figure 2.3 gives a generalized view of the components of a nuclear Feactor, and it should be realized that there are many possible permutations of fuel type, coolant type, cladding, moderator, and steam generator. It would be tedious to describe every nuclear reactor type that has been built and practically impossible in any book of reasonable size to describe all those that have been conceived, | Many of the early concepts for nuclear reactors departed from the format shown | in Fig. 2.3 in that they proposed to use the fuel in a fluid form, circulate it through | the core, and pass it through heat exchangers externally before returning it to the | core. These concepts included systems in which solutions of uranium salts were | circulated through the core, slurries of fuel were made and circulated, or the fuel was circulated in fused salt form or in solution in liquid metals. There was a tradi. | tion at Harwellt that in the early days it was possible to invent a reactor system in the bath in the morning and to have a project by lunchtime. It took some years to | realize that reactors that you have just thought of are simple, cheap, and reliable, whereas those you are actually working on are always complicated, expensive. and troublesome. Inthe remainder of this chapter we will concentrate on describing some of the main systems that have been implemented in practice and that form the basis of the development of nuclear power. These are the British Magnox and AGR (advanced gas-cooled reactors), the USA light water reactors (BWR and PWR), the Canadian CANDU reactor, the Soviet boiling-water graphite-moderated RBMK-type reactor, and the liquid metal-cooled and gas-cooled fast reactors. 2.4 THERMAL REACTORS Although other coolants have been proposed, nearly all practical thermal power reactors are cooled with carbon dioxide (Magnox and AGR) or with light water (BWR and PWR as well as the Soviet RMBK type) or heavy water (CANDU). We shall restrict the descriptions of reactors to these more common systems. 2.4.1 Natural Uranium Graphite-Moderated (Magnox) Reactors ‘The Magnox reactor is illustrated schematically in Fij dioxide at a pressure of 20 bars (300 psia). The that consists of the moderator structure, whic! taining holes through which the coolant flows and in which the fuel elements are Placed. Fuel elements consist of natural uranium bars clad in cans of « magnesium alloy known by the trade as Magnox (hence the name of the reactor). Ten all does not significantly absorb neutrons, so natural uranium, rather thon enriched uranium, can be used as a fuel. A typical Magnox core would be 14 win diamet and 8 m high. The coolant gas leaves the core at 400°C, flows to the steam enenioe ‘The Atomic Energy Research Establishment ofthe U.K, Atomic Energy ‘Authority, 2.4, The coolant is carbon coolantis circulated through a core ‘h is built from graphite bricks con- founded in 1946. —= Src Ne Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 31 a Basic gas-cooled reactor (MAGNOX) Ssssssea b ‘A Mognor fuel element Figure 2.4 (a) Carbon dioxide-cooled, graphite-moderated (Magnox) reactor using natural metallic uranium fuel; (b) a Magnox fuel clement and from there flows back through the gas circulator to the reactor. In the carlicr designs of Magnox reactors, the pressure vessel containing the core was made of steel. In later designs it was combined with the shielding in the form of a pre- stressed concrete pressure vessel, which also contained the heat exchangers (in the earlier designs these were external to the pressure vessel and the shielding as shown in Fig. 2.4), Magnox reactors were constructed in the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan and have operated very successfully since their construc- tion, which in some cases was around 25 years ago. The steam cycle efficiency of Magnox reactors is about 31%; this means that 69% of the nuclear heat is rejected to atmosphere via the cooling towers (see Section 1.1). ‘A Magnox fuel element is shown in the inset in Fig. 2.4. The outside of the Magnox can is machined in a complex pattern of fins (‘“herringbone” pattern), which has been shown by detailed heat transfer experiments to be the optimal form. The swirl of the gas in the channel and the fins on the surface are an aid to heat transfer. The advantages and disadvantages of various coolants will be discussed in Chapter 3, where we shall also discuss some basic principles of heat ransfer, Although the Magnox reactor has been remarkably successful and reliable, it disadvantages compared to some other reactor types. The principal one is its relatively low power output per unit volume of core. This leads to a large size for veges # large investment in fuel, and high capital costs. Table 2.3 compares a Teactors in terms of the average power generation rate per unit volume of Sore (called the average volumetric power density). It also shows the rate of Scanned with CamScanner32 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Table 2.3° Volumetric power densities and linear fuel ratings for various reactor systems Se ce eee a Average Average Average Thermal Core Core Core vol. power — fuel Tinear fet Type Reactor power diameter height volume density rating rating . IMwoy) om), (m) (m')— (MWim') (MWitonne) (kWim) Magnox Calder Hall 2S 9S 6a 0.50 - = Bradwell Sw 1219782913 0.59 220 2 Wylta 188 17.37.14 2166 0.865 3.15 30 AGR Hinkley B 1500 91 BS 540 278 11.0 169 Hartlepool 1807 93 8.2 557 20 Ws 161 NWR CANDU 3s 7.78 5.94280, 122 4 ng LWR PWR 380000360 3.81 40 95 388 175 BWR 3800 5.01, 3.81 75 51 46 190 RBMK Chernobyl 340° 187.0 165 410 154 1431 Winfrith SGHWR 3908.23.12 3.66 2B 11.0 43 158 Fast. Phenix 5631.39 0.85 1.38 406 149 70 reactor PFR 612147091 1.61 380 133 70 power generation per tonne of fuel (the average fuel rating) and the power genera- tion per unit length of fuel (the average linear fuel rating). Compared with other reactors, the Magnox has a very low volumetric power density and a very low average fuel rating per unit mass of fuel. Both of these factors lead to high costs due to the high fuel inventory and large cores. 2.4.2 Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactors ‘The low volumetric power density and low operating temperatures and pressures of the Magnox stations led to a search in the United Kingdom for an improved design. The resulting advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR) is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. In common with the Magnox reactor, the AGR uses carbon dioxide as coolant, but the coolant pressure in the AGR is 40 bars (600 psia) and the coolant outlet temperature is 650°C. To achieve these higher temperature and pressure conditions, it was necessary to make a radical change in the design of the fuel. The fuel was changed to uranium oxide, mounted in the form of pellets inside thin- walled stainless steel tubes, which had small transverse ribs machined on the 2.6). These tubes (sealed at each end) were grouped in bundles of 36 (see Fig. 2.6). Since the high temperatures require the use of a stainless steel can, the can material is a significant absorber of neutrons, unlike that in the Magnox reactor and it is necessary to enrich the uranium in the fuel to about 2.3% 2°5U (about three times the natural *°U content). The AGR design benefited from the Magnox developments, particularly the design of the gas circulation system, The steam generators were mounted inside the prestressed concrete vessel, as illust’ rated in Fig. 2.5. Since the CO, reactor coolant is now at a high temperature, the steam generators can be designed to provide steam under conditions similar to those found in the most efficient fossil-fuel power plant, i.e., steam at 170 bars and 560°C. This gives the AGR a considerable advantage. Its steam cycle efficiencies are around 40%, the highest of any nuclear reactor operational at present. Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 33 , actor Essential features of the CO;-ooled, graphite-moderated advanced gas-coled Figure (GR Scanned with CamScannerM INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Tie Bar Double Skinned Graphite Sleeve © Improved graphite to withstand longer reactor dwell P (© Modified design of graphite sleeve to imorove strength Brace © Streamlined gnds and braces to reduce pressure drop Fuel Pins © Strong cladding matenal to withstand longer rescter One © Cozing on pins 0 reduce owdaton © Large ganed UO; fuel pellets for moroved fanon proc retention Stainiont Stool Cladding on © Imoroved heat ranster surlace Figure 2.6 Details of the AGR fuel element. Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 35 Referring foTable2.3, Wwesce that the average volumetric power density of an GRisarouns Rage oe highest rated Magnox station. The average fuel rating is ¢ cr, by a factor of approximately 4. This leads t tal-effective design. N = inlcal cation compact, capital gn. Nevertheless, a number of technical problems in the AGR ont had to be solved. One was that the carbon dioxide coolant ight react with the graphite moderator under the high temperatures and radia- tion fields in the reactor to produce carbon monoxide by the reaction: CO, + C> 2co which would corrode the graphite and reduce its strength. It was found that recise control of the carbon monoxide and water vapor content, together with the addition of methane in small concentrations, inhibited this reaction and minimized the rate of attack on the graphite, However, too high concentrations of methane and carbon monoxide could lead to carbon formation on the fuel tlements (see Fig. 2.7), which would impair the heat transfer by reducing the turbulence caused by the ribs. Fortunately, there is a range of methane and carbon monoxide concentrations (called the coolant “window”) in which the satisfactory operation is possible without excessive corrosion or deposition, as illustrated in Fig. 2.8. 2.4.3 Pressurized-Water Reactors By far the most common civilian power reactor is the pressurized-water reactor (PWR). Reactors of this type were originally developed to drive nuclear sub- marines. The PWR circuit is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.9. Water at typically 150 bars (2200 psia) is pumped into a pressure vessel, which contains the Figu; iti "2.7 AGR fuel pins and the effect of carbon deposition. Scanned with CamScanner36 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Increasing deposition oF carbon Methane concentration Increasing moderator corrosion Carbon monoxide concentration ———s> Figure 2.8 AGR coolant compo: ion: window for satisfactory operation. reactor core. The water passes downward through an annulus between the reactor core and the pressure vessel and then flows up over the fuel elements. It then leaves through a series of pipes, which pass to the steam generator. The light water coolant also acts as the moderator for this reactor. The absorption of neutrons by Steam Steam generator I= Feed water Core: Pump Figure 2.9 Schematic diagram of the light water-moderated and water-cooled pressuy ized. reactor (PWR). ‘water oe na «< Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 37 ht water (as described in Chapter 1) necessitates a significant enrichment of he li 2351) (=4.5 th ‘5 fuel to 3.2% a 4.5 times the concentration in natural uranium). In the gteam generator the e Water from the reactor passes through vertical U-tubes (Fie. 2.9), and water at lower pressure is fed into the steam generator shell and contacts the outside of the U-tubes. Steam is generated (1000 psa) and passes from the steam generator into the the condenser, the condensate being returned to the reheaters. Figure 2.9illustrates one complete coolant | feo, three, oF four such loops per reactor vessel. A typical four-loop PWR is iustrated in Fig 2.10. The fuel elements in a PWR are illustrated in Fig, 2.11; the fuelisin the form of uranium oxide pellets mounted in a 12-ftlong tube made of a zirconium alloy (Zircaloy), The tubes are usually mounted in square bundles of 17 fows of 17 tubes, with some pins omitted to allow passage of control rods into the at approximately 70 bars turbine and from there to steam generator via feed loop; PWRs typically have an 1982 there were 77 operating civilian PWR power reactors in the world and 164 under construction. Although the steam cycle efficiency of a PWR is relatively Jow (32%), its capi I cost may be considerably less than that of an AGR. The main reason for this is the great reduction in core size made possible by the enormous increase in volumetric power density and core rating, as shown in Table 2.3. Another factor contributing to the low capital cost is the fact that much of the PWR can be constructed off-site under factory conditions. Because of the high rate of heat generated per unit mass of fuel (fuel rating), the response of a PWR to changes in operating conditions is much more rapid than that of an AGR. It has been argued that this is a negative safety factor. Even when Turbines Pure 2.10 4 typical four-loop PWR station. Scanned with CamScanner38 INTRODUCTION TO NUCL R POWER OCT hae on POC GRID ASSEMBLY| Figure 2.11 PWR fuel element design. Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 39 tor is shut down, the level of decay heat is such that the reactor must be kept covered with water. We shall discuss these safety features in rs Sand 6. Pressurized-water Teactors have experienced problems with sieam generators, which have failed due to corrosion on the secondary (steam- enerating) side. Reactors are often More susceptible to problems outside the core than in it. Although it is now believed that design improvements can prevent these corrosion problems, most exist ‘ing reactors are still prone to them. This is not a major safety issue, but it does limit their performance. the rea Chapte! 244 Boiling-Water Reactors ‘The boiling-water reactor (BWR) differs from the PWR in that it generates steam directly within the core and does not have a separate steam generator. The system is illustrated in Fig. 2.12a, Water at a pressure of about 70 bars (1000 psia) is passed through the core and about 10% of it is converted to steam. The steam is then separated in the region above the core, the water being returned to the Lower Peel rod b tepate Pe Nose piece ; tmhge 2 (@) Light water moderated and -cooled boiling-water reactor (BWR): the fuel is ‘ranium oxide; (6) fuel bundle contained within Zircaloy channel. Scanned with CamScanner40 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER | bottom of the core via the circulation pump and the steam passing from the top o the vessel to the steam turbine. The steam from the turbine is passed through , condenser and the condensate is returned to the reactor Stee as shown jp Fig, 2.12a, The core power densities in a BWR are about al ties B a PWR (though still much higher than those in gas reactors). A f Bee Jements consiy of 12-ft-long bundles of Zircaloy-canned UO2 pellet fuel with an enrichmen, similar to that in PWR. Each bundle ‘of fuel is contained within a square channg constructed of Zircaloy, as illustrated in Fig. 2.12b. ; The advantage of the BWR is the elimination of the steam generator, which has been one of the most troublesome features of the PWR. However, in the PWR the coolant passing through the reactor is contained within the reactor/steam generator/circulator circuit. In the BWR the coolant also Passes through the steam turbine and the condenser. Corrosion products and in-leakage from the turbine and condenser are passed to the reactor, where they may be activated by the reactor neutrons to produce radioactive isotopes, which circulate around the system. Also entering the coolant stream are small amounts of radioactive substances leaking from damaged fuel elements, including the rare gases xenon and krypton. These find their way into the inert gas removal system in the condenser. Thus, the reactor must be operated with many of the external com- ponents maintained under radioactive conditions, which is not the case with the PWR. Consequently, BWRs give somewhat higher (though carefully limited) radiation doses to their operators. Another problem with existing BWRs has been cracking of the stainless steel pipework due to corrosion under the highly stressed conditions. This is similar to the steam generator problems in PWRs in that it can be cured by using a different design approach (i.c., using stress corrosion-resistant material), but many existing plants will continue to be susceptible to it. 2.4.5 Natural Uranium Heavy Water-Moderated and Cooled Reactors As discussed above, the U.S.-designed PWR and BWR teactors require con- siderable enrichment of the uranium in order to overcome the relatively high absorption of neutrons by the light water coolant. This disadvantage can be overcome by using heavy water as the moderator and either heavy water or boiling light water as the coolant. In the latter case, for instance, in the British steam- generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR) design, some enrichment is still required, but at a much lower level than for PWRs and BWRs. If heavy water itself is used as the coolant, it is possible to operate with natural uranium ve is the principle adopted in the Canadian-designed CANDU (Canadian deut cre uranium) reactors, which are illustrated in Fig, 2.13. eae CANDU reactors dispense with the massive thick-wall used in PWRs and BWRs; instead, the fuel elements are meee pressure tubes constructed from zirconium alloy. These pressur, S porizontal | through a calandria filled with heavy water at low pressure and teroeeees Pa the CANDU reactor, heavy water coolant i also passed over the fuel emer | ‘ments at a k | i pressure of approximately 90 bars (1400 psia). It then passes to a steam generator, Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 41 Canlub graphite interlayer Uranium dioxide pellets \ | \— zireaoy fuel en Sheath fe stbport Figure 2.13 (a) Heavy water-moderated and -cooled CANDU reactor; the fuel is natural uranium Oxide; (b) end and side views of a horizontal pressure tube, which is very similar to that used in the PWR (see Fig. 2,9). Itshould be noted that CANDU reactors have not experienced the same steam generator problems as the PWRs, possibly because of the lower operating temperature on the primary side. The fuel elements consist of bundles of natural UOz pellets clad in ae alloy eas; individual bundles are about 50 cm long, and about 12 such bundles Placed in each pressure tube. The average volumetric power density in a= core is approximately one-tenth that in a PWR (since the moderator vue taken into account in calculating the average volumetric power density) sma urtimes that in an AGR.. However, the fuel rating is comparable 10 Scanned with CamScanner42 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Furthermore, the fuel is very much cheaper since natural uranium can be usey The CANDU reactor has operated with remarkable success and has hag perhaps the lowest downtime of any power reactor type. Even though it has , lower fuel cost, CANDU needs considerable amounts of expensive heavy Water, which make its capital cost high. 2.4.6 Boiling-water, Graphite-moderated Direct Cycle Reactor (RBMK) A design developed by, and unique to, the Soviet Union is the boiling-water, graphite-moderated direct cycle reactor. The reactor consists of a graphite Core some 12m (40 ft) in diameter and 7 m (23 ft) high through which vertical zirconium alloy pressure tubes pass. These pressure tubes are 88 mm (3.5 in.) in diameter, and there are 1700 in a 1000 MW(e) reactor. The fuel consists of two 3.6 m (12 ft) bundles of 18 fuel pins held together on a central supporting rod and, suspended, form a plug in the upper duct. The fuel pins 13.6 mm (0.53 inc.) in diameter consist of UO; pellets (1.8%7°5U) clad in a zirconium-niobium alloy. The primary circuit consists of two parallel loops with four circulating pumps in each loop. Water supplied from individual feeder pipes passes to each coolant channel from below. Boiling takes place in the channel, and the steam-water mixture passes to one of two steam drums per loop. The separated steam passes to one of two turbine generators, and the water is returned via downcomers to the main coolant circulating pumps. The graphite core consists of blocks of graphite resting on a steel structure. Heat generated in the moderator is transferred to the fuel channels by radiation and by conduction by a series of “piston ring” graphite rings. The graphite runs hot (~700°C), and the atmosphre within the sealed core structure is an inert helium/nitrogen mixture. Refueling is undertaken with the reactor on load, Safety systems are provided to cope with various accident situations, including a pressure tube failure and a steam line rupture. The reactor core and pipework are contained in a number of conerete cells. The reactors are mounted in pairs with a single refueling machine serving the two reactors (see Fig, 2.14), 2.5 FAST REACTORS 2.5.1 Liquid Metal-Cooled Fast Breeder Reactors The most prevalent design for a fast reactor system is that employin, " the coolant. The advantages of liquid sodium in cooling reactors xe die Chapter 3; briefly, sodium is an excellent heat transfer agent and can cope waite very high volumetric power densities encountered in reactors of this type (iyi five times those of a PWR; see Table 2.3), The sodium-cooled fast reactor ely igillustrated schematically in Fig. 2.15, consists of a pool of sodium conte’, Ytich ‘ained ina MN Mah. Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 43 Concrete sts Control rods Figure 2.14 Boiling light water, graphite-moderated reactor (Leningrad, USSR). primary vessel in which the core is submerged. Sodium is pumped through the core (the pumps being submerged in the sodium pool, as illustrated). The hot sodium then passes through an intermediate heat exchanger, where heat is transferred from the primary coolant to a secondary sodium stream; the secondary stream passes through the steam generator, where steam is raised for electricity generation. In contrast to the AGR and PWR, this reactor has three heat transfer stages: from the fuel elements to the primary sodium coolant, between the primary sodium coolant and a secondary coolant, and between this secondary coolant and evaporating water in the steam generator. This somewhat complex system ensures that the primary coolant stays in the primary vessel and that any radioactive substances in the primary vessel are not transferred to the steam generator, where the potential exists for a chemical interaction between the sodium and the water (due to minute leakages). ‘Sodium-cooled fast reactor Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram of the sodium-cooled fast reactor. Scanned with CamScanner44 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER fast neutrons, there is no moderator. The layout g ype sodium-cooled fast reactor (PFR) (Phenix) is operating in France. Reactoy, 'd (e.g., the Commercial Demonstratio, It (c.g., Superphenix in France). Thy ‘The fuel is in the form o Since the reactor utilizes the U.K. 250-MW (electrical) protot shown in Fig, 2.16. A similar prototype of commercial size are now being designe Fast Reactor, CDFR, in Britain) and buil layout of the proposed CDER is illustrated in Fig. 2.16. Reactor Building Active Handling Caves Figure 2.16 The U.K. 250-MW(e) prototype fast reactor operating at Dounr igur AK. 2: ) perating real y, Scotland, a Se i Scanned with CamScannerHOW REACTORS WORK 45 ‘Two Steam Generators per eircut ~ Fue Hanser Co) Fut tore weer i] | Ly omer JN te ul A 2 x\ Figure 2.17. Proposed design for the U.K. Commercial Demonstration Fast Reactor (CDFR). Pellets of mixed plutonium and uranium oxides (20% PuO2) clad in stainless see {ubes, as illustrated in Fig. 2.18. Each fuel element consists of 200-300, hes : ™min diameter with an active core length of about 1 m. The core Pose ves about five times that in a PWR and 1000 times that in a Magnox reactor. Scanned with CamScanner46 INTRODUCTION Pe eS IS CDFR Sub-Assombly CDFR Fuel Pin Upper Restraint Pads Neutron Shield Fost Reno eases ——T | ch Fuel Pins Lower Restraint Pade ‘Suppo Grid — COMET “Cee == Coolant Flow Bottom Figure 2.18 Fuel element design for a liquid metal-cooled fast breeder reactor, Scanned with CamScannerHow REACTORS WORK 47 sodium-cooled fast reactors have been operated i ynited States, France, the USSR, and Jay They mete commercial development, though in the be; Sfrecive. Problems have been encour " $ attractive, despite i high power density. We shall discuss these in Chapters Sand 6, me 2.5.2 Gas-Cooled Fast Reactors Analternative to sodium cooling for fast reactorsis to helium). However, with such systems the core of the gases are grossly inferior to sodium as coolants. An reactor is that it achieves considerably more breed reactor because the gas absorbs many fewer neutrons than sodium. However, it does not have the inherent safety features associated with sodium cooling, though it is claimed that gas-cooled fast reactors could be operated economically and safely. use a gas (carbon dioxide or Teactor must be larger, since advantage of the gas-cooled ing than the sodium-cooled EXAMPLES AND PROBLEMS 1 Power increase following increase in reactivity Example: A sudden increase in reactivity of a water reactor 1% beyond prompt criticality occurs. The neutron lifetime is 10s. What is the increase in reactor power after 1/100 s? What processes are available to terminate the transient? a Solution: The reactor power increased by a factor of 1.01 = 2.7 in 0.01 s. If such a reactivity ease is to be terminated before melting of the fuel occurs, then steam bubbles must appear within a few hundredths of a second to expel the moderator and terminate the fission reaction. Problem: What increase in reactivity would be required to increase the power of a water reactor by 4 factor of 2 in 0.01 s, assuming a neutron lifetime of 10-* s? 2 Decay heat removal . Example: A 4000-MW(t) PWR has been taken out of service. Us the data gen in Table 2.2 to estimate the rate of jeneration after 1000 h and 1 year from shutdown, Solution Promote 2 vee that after 1000 the decay hea ate 0.11% ofthe full: power ‘ate. Thus the decay heat generation rate after 1000 his 4000 x 0.11 2 4.4 MW 100 Similay, after 1 year, 0.023% of full power is emitted as decay heat, giving the following value for “ay heat generation: 4000 x 0.023 _ 9.92 MW i) ; 1 (arf?2blem: Assume that the shut-down reactor in the example is cooled by residual ee “e) Water at 20°C, Calculate the RHR water flows required after 1000 h and 1 year i ‘emperature is to be restricted to 20°C. Scanned with CamScannery 48 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER | 3° Fuel investment in thermal reactors ; Example: Using the data in Table 2.3, estimate the investment of enriched fuel that woulg,, required for a 10-GW(e) program of AGRs and PWRs, respectively. oe ‘Solution: Taking a figure of 11 MW(t)/tonne, and assuming a thermodynamic efficiency of 4, the fuel required for the AGR program would be 10x10 _ 3973 tonne 11x 0.4 Similarly, assuming a thermodynamic efficiency of 32%, the fuel required for PWR program would, 0x10 = 8.05 tonne 38.8 x 0.32 Problem: Assuming that the alternative programs were for 1000-MW(c) reactors, use the day from Table 2.3 to estimate the core volumes required for the AGR and PWR reactor choices, respec. tively. Calculate the diameters of equivalent spheres required to contain these respective volumes BIBLIOGRAPHY Dent, K. H., et al. (1982) Status of Gas-Cooled Reactors in the UK. In Gas-Cooled Reactors Today, Proceedings of a Conference, Bristol, September 20-24, 1982, vol. 3, pp. 247-258. British Nucleat Energy Society, London, 830 pp. Duderstadt, J. J. (1979) Nuclear Power, Marcel Dekker, New York. Haywood, R. W. (1975) Analysis of Engineering Cycles, Pergamon, Elmsford, N.Y. International Atomic Energy Agency: Directory of Nuclear Reactors, IAEA, Vienna, 1982. Knief, R. A. (1981) Nuclear Energy Technology: Theory and Practice of Commercial Nuclear Pow. McGraw-Hill, New York, 620 pp. Marshall, W. (ed.) (1983) Nuclear Power Technology, vol. 1, Clarendon, Oxford. McIntyre, H. C. (1975) Natural Uranium Heavy Water Reactors, Sci. Am. 233(4), 17-27. Patterson, W. C. (1983) Nuclear Power, 2d ed., Penguin, Harmondsworth, U.K., 256 pp. Weisman, J. (1977) Elements of Nuclear Reactor Design, Elsevier, New York. Winterton, R. H. S. (1981) The Thermal Design of Nuclear Reactors, Pergamon, Elmsford, N.Y: Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER THREE COOLING REACTORS 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘As we saw in Chapter 2, a variety of liquids and gases have been used to cool nuclear reactors. The present chapter introduces some of the desired general features of a reactor coolant and discusses the actual processes of heat transfer from the fuel elements to the primary coolants and from the primary coolants to the steam generation system. It also reviews the various types of coolant (gaseous, liquid, and boiling) and concludes by giving some examples of the engineering features of cooling circuits used in various types of reactor. 3.2. GENERAL FEATURES OF A REACTOR COOLANT The general features that make a particular fluid (gas or liquid) attractive as a Teactor coolant are as follows. 1. High specific heat, Suppose we have a nuclear reactor that is generating heat ata rate of Q watts, Coolant at a flow rate W (kilograms per second) is passed fo the reactor, entering the core at temperature Ty and leaving the core at temperature T-,,, From the first law of thermodynamics (see Section 1.1), these Guantities are related by the equation Q = WC) (Tou ~ Tin), where Cp is a Specific heat or specific heat capacity of the fluid. The specific heat is the ene eat required to heat 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (1°C) and thus has the units joules Per kilogram per Kelvin, In designing reactors it isimportant to prevent excessive 'emperatures within the core, in order to avoid damaging the fuel and the cor 9 Scanned with CamScanner—_— Ls CHAPTER THREE COOLING REACTORS 3.1 INTRODUCTION As we saw in Chapter 2, a variety of liquids and gases have been used to cool nuclear reactors. The present chapter introduces some of the desired general features of a reactor coolant and discusses the actual processes of heat transfer from the fuel elements to the primary coolants and from the primary coolants to the steam generation system. It also reviews the various types of coolant (gaseous, liquid, and boiling) and concludes by giving some examples of the engineering features of cooling circuits used in various types of reactor. 3.2. GENERAL FEATURES OF A REACTOR COOLANT The general features that make a particular fluid (gas or liquid) attractive as a Teactor coolant are as follows. 1. High specific heat. Suppose we have a nuclear reactor that is generating heat ata rate of Q watts. Coolant at a flow rate W (kilograms per second) is passed to the reactor, entering the core at temperature Tin and leaving the core at temperature T,,. From the first law of thermodynamics (see Section 1.1), a quantities are related by the equation Q = WCp (Tou ~ Tin)s where Cy is U re Specific heat or specific heat capacity of the fluid. The specific heat is the enous eat required to heat 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (1*C) and thus has the units joules Per kilogram per Kelvin. In designing reactors it is important to prevent excessi temperatures within the core, in order to avoid damaging the fuel and the core ao Scanned with CamScannerE WER 0 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR PO! si his can be acco, ion indicates that this m ‘ above equation I 1. First, the flow rq eee nee gen inlet temperature Se auch Hie than the ing t He ature is no! plished in tw hat the outlet temperatt uid can be chosen that. Wean be so high th ive ofthe value of C,, Second, a i ti ' ature. Of COUTSE, the temperature re ich wll also limit the outlet temperature, Ofc ce oe mutes cannot be too low, or the reacto outlet temperal ith hi significa ined in Chapter 1. Also, with high flow rates significan, Se rin eu sap coolant, and this is power that is no, mounts of Pow : mn ety 1 the sich the coolant is inthe form of a boiling liquig A spec ned by the coolant a its boiling point with no change jy Hee ea rota convert the guid int vapor. The amount of hay TERE a ast ran of liquld to vapor i celled the fate heas a required to convert one unit mass of liquid p poten aso uca a i . The boiling-fluid coolant is oftes as Se ae ted from a boiling-wat the working fluid in the turbine (e.g., steam generate shells coolant in a reactor is used in a steam turbine). For the reasons discussed in Chapter 1, the higher the boiling point of the fluid the higher the thermodynamic efficiency. Since boiling point increases with pressure, the boiling-coolant system should be operated at the highest practicable pressure. However, the higher the Pressure, the more expensive the system, and there is a trade-off between increased capital cost and increased thermodynamic efficiency. 2. High rates of heat transfer. The rate at which heat can be transferred from the fuel elements to the coolant is determined by a number of factors, which are discussed in more detail in Section 3.3. One of the parameters is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, which is the constant of Proportionality between the rate at which heat is transferred through a stati if femperature gradient, i.e., the rate at which temperature is changing per unit length. Liquid metal coolants have high thermal conductivity, wh relatively low thermal conductivity, 3. Good nuclear properties. For all re it is it . 'eactors, it is important that the coolants See aa sbeorption, As explained in Chapter 2. any neutron coolant rt i for the fission resetign wna tfucture reduces the number of Neutrons available ‘on. The neutrons should Not react appreciably with the Coolant to form radioactive j mee oa iene Isotopes. Excess radioactivity in the circulating system ic in Chapter 2, Tf the coolant is also ulties, as mentioned acting as the mod g ntiones of moderation were oi ripen Properties are required (the processes hapter 1), - 1K not mode Per 1). In fast Feactors, of course, it is (plai neurons are required i the Neutrons, since unmoderated (ast) important that the coolar in the reactio 4. Well-defined ion, Phase state, It is Phase state (i.e, liqui “LS preferable for the cool; normal and acc the remain as liquids ‘ant to have the same 7” and i mal and accident cong ‘and gases remain as i bonis Bits esiabe to svcd cang et tis in the case veh es ing point alo hy 8 of Phase ifthe liquats pis At 8 certain temperate ama8e Of minimitne tt Hauidis overheated. A high | erature level and of Ahieving high there eauited to operate er ™odynamic efficiency. Sica Scanned with CamScannerCOOLING REACTORS 51 5, Cost and availability. Since the OS inventory of cal res ages quit high hundred of tons) tis important Coolant in typical reactor fp, coolants may leak from reactor circuits peda AREER aa Ae cases: The ideal coolant should also be freely avai eriicant cost in A far use in the reactor circuit, POOP Heel availabe in a sutcenty pure 6. Compatibility. 1t is obviously axiomatic that the coolant should be atible with the reactor circuit and not corrode it, even under the conditions of figh radiation flux that occur in the core. 7. Base of pumping. Fluids of low viscosity require much less pumping power to circulate them around the reactor circuit than do fluids of high viscosity, The viscosity of a fluid is related to its temperature, that of liquids decreasing with increasing temperature and that of gases increasing with increasing tem, erature the viscosity Of a fluid is indicated by the symbol y_ a No practical fluid meets all of these requirements. All known coolants have one or more disadvantages. The thermodynamic and heat transfer characteristics of acoolant can be compared conveniently by using a parameter called the figure of merit, which derives from the heat transfer Processes and the associated pumping power required. The figure of merit F is defined as ate rm where C, isthe specific heat, g the fluid density (kilograms per cubic meter), and pt the viscosity. The rather peculiar looking powers appearing in this equation result from the empirical correlations used to predict the pumping power and the heat transfer rates. There are relatively few practical choices for reactor coolants. The ones mainly used are listed in Table 3.1, which shows their density, viscosity, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and figure of merit value. In terms of figure of merit, ordinary water is outstanding. However, it has three main disadvantages: its low boiling point, which requires operation at high pressure in order to reach even moderate thermodynamic efficiencies; its neutron absorption; and its corrosion Properties, The latter two disadvantages require enrichment of the fuel and special containment materials, respectively. F= 3.3, PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER In discussing heat transfer processes, it is usual to define a heat Slux q froma surface, which is the rate of heat flow per unit surface area per unit time and has Units joules per square meter per second or watts per square meter (a watt is a joule per second). The heat flux is commonly related to the temperature difference © temperature driving force AT by the simple equation: q=haT Scanned with CamScanner(861) vorSunay1y :201n0g “(1 =) wmppos 04 aanrejay — 22 a one,» Pao A Ol OxXet 00 zr og sez oF Ost 8L- —LS—_aprro1p vogue oO XT COLXTT se00 zs 9€ 8O'€ oF ose - uz wun 9 80070 sg £100 tt oor oss I oor kee siz usydioy-d oo 1 re v1 ose 1ST oss 8 86 un1pos OLX 87 uo 6100 ws en Sets ouz ito sorem Keo L100 ss 6so"0 e's zor iL 46 ouz oor oo stem 37 2 IO Ooty) — Oo BvE4) [C01 x) WSN] (wy) (une) dd (9,) 1 Oo wUEIOOD vous ssoi9 unig Auianompuoo 194 ‘Ausoasi,, ——— _auiod wondsosqe feuusyy — 2y!oadg 38 oad Hog | SURI vonnau jewsoys aidossorseyy SPULIOOD JO}IvIY Jo sansadoig [erIs{Yq 1°¢ 3qeL, 82 Scanned with CamScanner > << ™-COOLING REACTORS $3 hisa constant of proportionality commoy xe ‘ont. The temperature difference AT ic ¢ ve element surface temperature Ty and nly referred to as the heat transfer het defined as the difference between the bulk coolant temperature Ty: AT = Ty = T, the fu ature of the fluid is not uniform across the channel; the fluid adjacent to teat the wall temperature, The bulk temperature Pe ey aient to the wall fe that would be obtained if the flutt were totally mixed Te Tae gure 3.1 shows & typical temperature distribution channel wreactor, Heat Is generated in the fuel pellets and coolant race, then across the gas gap between the pellet Fe can wall, and finally out to the fluid, tarongh at transfer processes in the reactor must be designed to prevent the anton exceeding two main temperature limits: —s within the across the fuel and is conducted to the and the can, then faximum temperature of the fuel. If the fuel i from uranium metal, its Me temperature of the fuel. If the fuel is made n | ximum temperature is around 650°C, where volume swelling occurs due ma Radius (mm) Start of life AC WS 0 005 0 015 oo Radius (inches) fuel). Pirure 3,1 Typical fuel pin temperature profile (PWR Scanned with CamScanner$4 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER in anil ide fuel, 1 structure change in the metal. For uranium oxi the SS eranaat round 2800°C, the melting point of the oxide ximum temperature is a : ey ma rs maximum temperature, metal fuel may release hea, Despite its much lower i 1 i from its surface at a higher rate than oxide fuel because of its much highe, thermal conductivity. However, in modern reactors metal fuel is rarely useq, since it undergoes chemical reaction with the coolant if the cladding is Tuptured, |. Maximum cladding temperature. The temperature of the cladding material j, often the limiting factor. For instance, the commonly used Zircaloy Cladding rapidly corrodes if its temperature is greater than about 500°C, and it reacts exothermically (i.e., generates heat, which can promote further reaction) with steam to form hydrogen at temperatures above 1000°C. Stainless steel cladding is used in AGRs and liquid metal-cooled fast reactors; it is compatible with carbon dioxide and sodium at normal operating conditions (700-750°C) but oxidizes rapidly at higher temperature, the short-term absolute limit being the stainless steel melting point of about 1400°C. v In practice, it is not feasible to design a nuclear reactor system to work close to these maximum temperatures, since a margin must be provided for abnormal or accident conditions. Typical maximum cladding temperatures for steady opera- tion of various reactor systems are as follows: Magnesium alloy cladding (Magnox) 450°C AGR stainless steel cladding 750°C Pressurized-water reactor 320°C Boiling-water reactor 300°C Sodium-cooled fast reactor 750°C The heat transfer coefficient h depends on the physical properties of the fluid, increasing with increasing fluid thermal conductivity, decreasing fluid viscosity, and increasing fluid density. It is also a strong function of the fluid velocity. Typical values of h for reactor coolants at the usual ranges of velocity are as follows: Water 30,000 Wim? °C Boiling water 60,000 Wim? °C High-pressure carbon dioxide 1,000 Wim? °C Liquid sodium 55,000 Wim? °C In a pressurized-water reactor the heat flux 4 is typically around 1.5 million W/m, giving a cladding-to-fluid temperature difference of about 50°C. In liquid metal-cooled fast reactor, the heat flux might be typically 2 million Win’, giving a cladding-to-fluid temperature difference of about 35°C. Similarly, in # boiling-water reactor, a typical heat flux is 1 million W/m?, giving a temperature difference of around 15°C. The values given above for heat transfer coefficients are those appropriate fof smooth, plain surfaces. The values for carbon dioxide are very much lower tha" | those for water and sodium. This means that the temperature difference would b¢ Scanned with CamScannerCOOLING REACTORS g5 ably high, or the power output una unite", It is thus necessary to enhance the heat + se Jn Magnox reactors this is done by usi i ait illustrated in Fi. eae More detail ing ae oe wae a : of elaing in contact With the gas, thus ineresa aie a rte for ag ne nt of fuel, The fins also promote int ny vs at 5, which also aids the heat transfer, By using external fing yon ming of ‘increased above that for a plain can by a factor of seen eee veihe advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGH), ent of petal ent is achieved by quite different means. ‘The cay et ot B8s-Phase heat Meat (etbly low, for gas-cooted Fansfer in some way in these rate insfer | i i tam qular ribs on the surface as illustrated inf 3.3. Thee abe ce tay tothe total surface arca ofthe cladding, but they enhanee the heareeaiee ficient by & factor of typically 2.5. By interrupting the flow 7 tpesurface and causing the hot gas to be mixed with the cooler. sine ents they help bring the cooler gas to the surface, enhancing the heat transfer rare However, this enhancement of heat transfer is achieved at the expense of increas. ing the frictional resistance to gas flow through the system, thus requiring more ower to drive the circulators. In nuclear electricity generation, it is necessary to boil water in order to produce steam. In the boiling-water reactor, this is done directly in the reactor core (see Fig. 2.7). In the other reactor types discussed in Chapter 2, boiling occurs in a separate steam generator, which is heated by the primary coolant: water (PWR), carbon dioxide (AGR), or sodium (fast reactor). The phenomenon of boiling is encountered frequently in everyday life. Most British families have an electric kettle to produce boiling water for domestic purposes. In such kettles, bubbles of steam are produced at the heating element Spitters Fins d\ \ Feu fins. "32 End view of a Magnox fuel can with herringbone pattern © Wwe AT % End cap Scanned with CamScanner56 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER Ribbed fuel can surface ae cylindrical ;-— fuel pellet + SSS Figure 3.3. Longitudinal section through an AGR fuel rod. surface and rise through the water, ally condensing, but later escaping from the surface of the water and out through the kettle spout, at which time mos people remember to switch off the kettle. In a typical kettle, the heat flux would be around 150,000 W/m?. For such a domestic kettle, the heat transfer coefficient would be around 10,000 W/m? °C, giving a temperature difference between the surface of the element and boiling water of about 15°C. The electric kettle provides a useful analogy in discussing safety issues and accident conditions in ‘Chapter 4. Note that the heat transfer coefficient for a typical domestic kettle is approximately one-sixth of that observed for boiling in a boiling-water reactor, because the heat transfer coefficient in boiling increases with increasing pressure and with increasing heat flux, both of which are higher in the BWR. A further complication in the BWR is that the steam generated flows along with the remaining water, resulting in a two-phase flow (the two phases being water vapor and water liquid). Two-phase flows are highly complex in nature and have higher flow resistance (higher pressure drop through the reactor) than equivalent single-phase flows. The development of two-phase flow in a heated channel s illustrated for the case of a simple heated tube in Fig. 3.4, At the bottom of the channel, heat transfer is to the liquid alone (i,e., a single phase). At certain point along the channel, bubblesstart to form at the walland wan yes he bubbly two-phase flow regime. Initially, the bubbles are formed at the wall and condense rapidly when they move toward the center of the tube, Howeve m i n the liquid heats up to its boiling point the bubbles can no longer condence, ihe flow proceeds farther up the tube, more and more of the fluid is 44 het ook f steam. A parameter commonly used to describe the extent of evans orm” steam quality x, which isthe fraction of the total mass flow in the portion is the The quality increases along the channel as vapor is generated sq °r™ Of Vapor transfer of heat to the fluid. When the population of bubbles ig suffice ei iently high, — Scanned with CamScannerCOOLING REACTORS 57 egin to coalesce and form very large bullet-sha they the slug flow regime. Eventually, these slug flow bubbles all join together, efron enter the annular flow Tegime, where there is a liquid film on the heated at ce with the vapor flowing inthe center of the channel (Fig. 3 4). The surface surfact liquid film is highly disturbed by ripples and waves, and liquid is picked up ofthe wave tips in the form of droplets and flows with the steam, from ¢ ther along the channel, the liquid film is gradually thinned by the process Farvration and droplet formation and finally dries up. Here, the drop flow of evaPeentered, with the liquid phase flowing totally as droplets. The transition regime annular flow (wetted wall) to the drop flow ( from (dry wall) region is often .d to as dryout or burnout. This is a particularly important transition since it referre in a large decrease in the heat transfer coefficients, In the annular flo re pe coefficient is typically many tens of thousande ct wane per square regime, ped bubbles, which charac- Annular — Z Ley Ca nel. Ree 3.4 Flow paterns in a vertical heated channel Scanned with CamScanner$8 INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER meter per degree centigrade. Beyond the transition, in the drop flow regime, the coefficient can fall to a small fraction of this value, typically 2000 Wim? °C. ‘hig large decrease in heat transfer coefficient results in an increase in heating surfacy temperature, if the heat flux is maintained constant. As a result, the heatin, surface may become unacceptably hot. It is important to avoid the dryout/burnoy, transition in the reactor core situation, where the heat flux governed mainly by the neutron population, As shown in Section 2.2, the temperature of the fuel in an operating nuclear reactor is determined by the rate of heat transfer into the coolant, If the heat transfer coefficient falls by a factor of, say, 30, from 60,000 to 2,000 W/m? °C, then the temperature difference between the fuel and the coolant will rise by an equivalent factor, namely from 15°C to 450°C, which would exceed the permissible operating temperature for Zircaloy cladding. Itis thus very important to operate nuclear reactors under conditions at which dryouy burnout does not occur. Referring to Fig. 3.4, we see that the droplets persist for long distances beyond the dryout point. This occurs because the droplets evaporate slowly, even if the steam is heated well above the boiling point or, saturation temperature. Heat transfer in the region beyond dryout/burnout is very important in considering accident conditions and will be discussed in Chapter 4. In contrast to the situation in the reactor core, where the heat flux is con- trolled by the neutron population, boiling in the steam generators of indirect- cycle reactors (AGR, PWR, fast reactor) is controlled by the temperature of the primary coolant fluid. Thus, if and when the dryout/burnout transition is traversed, the heat flux itself will decrease commensurate with the decreased heat transfer coefficient. In one design of PWR steam generator (the “‘once-through” steam generator design of Babcock & Wilcox), the dryout/burnout transition is deliberately traversed. This is also the case in the steam generators of the AGR and in some steam generator designs for fast reactors. 3.4 GASEOUS COOLANTS Gaseous coolants have the great advantage of having a well-defined phase state. Unlike liquid coolants, they are not subject to a change of phase, with the resul- ting complicated two-phase flow problems during abnormal operating condit- ions. However, they have the disadvantages of a low heat capacity and low heat transfer coefficients, the latter necessitating heat transfer enhancement or low operating temperatures. A wide variety of gases have been considered for nuclear reactor cooling, but only those that have been used or have had serious evaluation will be discussed here. 3.4.1 Air cooling was used in the very first generation of nuclear reactors, namely Air i hite-moderated natural uranium “piles,” which were built in both the United grap! PE “id seit L Scanned with CamScannerCOOLING REACTORS 59 mand the United States in the 1940s. Kingdo! itis a” oxidant, i.¢., it supports combustion. In the ca graphite-moderated piles, there was something of a dilemm: ture was 100 high, the graphite oxidized, but if the pile tem, ine graphite atoms could become permanently displaced fr tions by neutron bombardment. At higher temperatures, the atomic vibrations are sufficient to shake them back to their normal positions. Displacement of the atoms results in energy being stored, with possible accident connotations, which wee will discuss in the context of the Windscale accident in Chapter 5. Despite the ready availability of air, its oxidizing properties rule it out as a viable coolant in modern high-temperature reactors. se of the Windscale 1a: if the pile tempera- perature was too low, rom their natural posi- 34.2 Carbon Dioxide Interms of its physical properties, carbon dioxide is the best available gaseous coolant, and consequently it was chosen for the large U.K. Magnox and AGR power stations. In the Magnox reactors, the graphite moderator has a maximum temperature of only about 350°C. At these temperatures CO, is unreactive with graphite, nor does it react with the canning material, the circuit steels, or the fuel (uranium metal). When the temperature is increased, difficulties arise because of the chemical reaction: CO, + C> 2CO Here, the C (carbon) represents the moderator graphite blocks, and the reaction slowly removes the moderator from the reactor, decreasing the strength of the graphite core. The above reaction is induced not only by higher temperatures but also by increasing nuclear radiation. The occurrence of the carbon dioxide/graphite reaction is a potentially very serious limitation since the structure of the core, including the alignment of the fuel channel, is dependent on the physical strength of the graphite blocks. In the case of the advanced gas-cooled reactor, there have been two approaches to solving this problem: rator struc- 1. The inlet (relatively cold) carbon dioxide is fed through the moder atalower ture to the entrance of the fuel channels, thus keeping the moderator temperature, Carbon monoxide and methane are added to the carbon dioxide to inhibit the hich this inhibition is achieved ate complex. One mechanism is that the additives produce a thin layer of carbon on the graphite, and this carbon layer reacls cial r “oolant, preventing attack on the bulk structural graphite. A difficulty here i that the carbon may, under certain circumstances, be deposited on the fe elements themeclnen’ Ac we saw in the preceding section, heat transfer 7 the fuel elements is critically dependent on small isolated rib roughnesses Scanned with CamScanner& INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR POWER of these roughnesses by carbon at transfer and lead t0 a rise in hemical control is therefore smoothing out hancement of he: recise Cl the surface of the cladding. Si deposition would negate their en the fuel element temperature. Very pl required in AGRs: 3.4.3 Helium i i ‘on, and x Helium is one of a family of gases (which also includes argon, ne enon) red to as the inert gases OF noble gases. Apart aa some excep. cademic interest, atoms of these gases do not form compounds ‘ents (hence their description as jnert). Helium, vie 1 has a ‘of 4, ispresentin small quantities In the atmosphere, but is more 4 from oil and natural gas wells. ; : ‘The inert gas argon (atomic mass 40) is much more available; air contains K 0.94% by volume of this gas- Unfortunately, argon is not suitable as a reactor coolant, since irradiation by neutrons causes it to form a radioactive isotope (argon-41) that decays with a half-life of 1.8h, emitting both B and y rays. This neutron absorption and the resultant activation of the coolant circuit are unacce- ptable. Helium, though more expensive than argon, is not activated in a neutron flux and is, therefore, much more suitable. Helium has been employed in the so-called high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR). Here, the fuel is in the form of uranium carbide clad in graphite, which acts as both the cladding material and the moderator. With helium it is possible, in principle, to operate ‘such reactors at very high temperatures (typically in excess of 800°C) without any chemical attack on the moderatorlclad However, it is usually impossible to maintain the helium coolant in a pure state, because in an actual circuit there will be a small leakage of water vapor from the boilers, ingress of air and other materials through leaks of the circulators, and release of gases originally adsorbed on the graphite. Although the helium itsel does not react with the graphite or the steel structures even at high operating temperatures, the impurities do, and this limits the temperatures that can be achieved and provides a major design problem for such reactors. commonly refer tions of purely a with other clem molecular weight commonly derive 3.4.4 Steam tat ete ere properties as a coolant than carbon dioxide. Is 2 good heat transport with lower mass flow rates 2 fo a number of dedioe et ee nems than in other gas-cooled units. This has! However (at bish ts ies of the possibility of using steam as a reactor coolat! fluid, and pane een Pressures, steam is a highly corrosive oxidiz"t with steam at incperatires one co pe construction materials for In a col i il fi . * sent ventional oi-fired oF coal-fired boiler, i is normal to superhea! feeding it to the turbin Thsineess above the saturation temperature) be tee vores irdine. This increases the overall thermodynamic efficien) Power generation of the cycle. In the normal nuclear boiler (e.g., the B® Scanned with CamScanner