ITU Centres of Excellence for Europe

Wireless and Mobile Ultra-Broadband: LTE-A Pro,

WLAN, and 5G NR

Module 2:
Ultra-broadband WLAN
Table of contents

2.1. WLAN architectures ...................................................................................2

2.2. Ultra-broadband WLAN standards .............................................................5
2.2.1. IEEE 802.11n (WiFi 4th generation) ...................................................7
2.2.2. IEEE 802.11ac (WiFi 5th generation)..................................................9
2.2.3. IEEE 802.11ad (60 GHz WiFi) ..........................................................12
2.3. Next Generation WLAN............................................................................19
2.3.1. Technical characteristics of 802.11ax (WiFi 6)..................................19
2.3.2. Comparison of WiFi 6 and 5G...........................................................21
2.4. WLAN security and QoS ..........................................................................24
2.4.1 WLAN Security..................................................................................24
2.4.2 WLAN QoS .......................................................................................28
2.5. WLAN for Internet of Things (IoT) ............................................................31
2.5.1. WiFi in home environment IoT ..........................................................31
2.5.2. WiFi HaLow.......................................................................................35
2.6. 3GPP mobile traffic offload over WLAN ...................................................37
2.6.1. Integrated WLAN in 4G Evolved Packet Core...................................37
2.6.2. LTE-WLAN interworking....................................................................41
2.6.3. Prediction on mobile traffic offload to WLAN.....................................44
2.7. Ultra-broadband WLAN spectrum regulation............................................46
2.7.1. WLAN regulatory aspects .................................................................50
2.7.2. Next Generation WiFi (802.11ax) regulatory aspects .......................51
2.8. Business aspects of ultra-broadband WLAN............................................53
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................57
References .........................................................................................................59

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2.1. WLAN architectures

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) refer to local area networks

that provide wireless communication between devices on a limited area (typically
with coverage range from several tens to several hundreds of meters).
The most known WLAN network is WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) which in fact
refers to IEEE 802.11 family of standards. WiFi represents a broadband wireless
access technology, which provides high data rates on limited coverage, but with
great fidelity. Now WiFi and WLAN are almost synonyms, although in general
there can be other WLAN technologies. So, WLAN as a terminology is more
general than WiFi, which is more concrete and refers to specific standards by
IEEE (802.11 family of standards), which have initial purpose to provide wireless
connectivity for fixed, portable, and moving stations within local area networks.
However, one should note that ITU in its recommendations refers to WLAN as
RLAN (Radio Local Area Network). Considering that WLAN is more generally
accepted as terminology we use it as such in this course module.
The scope of IEEE 802.11 standards are to define one medium access
control (MAC) and several physical layer (PHY) specifications for wireless
connectivity within a local area.
Generally, the IEEE 802.11 standard is a set of media access control
(MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless local
area network (WLAN) or Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) in license-free Industrial,
Scientific, Medical (ISM) bands, on 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz frequency
bands. The IEEE 802.11 standards on physical layer define the bit rates by
specifying the spectrum bands, modulation schemes, coding rate, number of
antennas, etc. The first IEEE 802.11 standard was published in 1997, which
provided bit rates up to 2 Mbit/s. It was followed by IEEE 802.11b with up to 11
Mbit/s (in 2.4 GHz), then appeared IEEE 802.11g (2.4 GHz) and IEEE 802.11a (5
GHz) with up to 54 Mbit/s. The continuous development of the popular IEEE
802.11 technology continued with IEEE 802.11n which provides up to 600 Mbit/s
(it can be used in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz), and IEEE 802.11ac with up to 6.9
Gbit/s (in 5 GHz band). The WiFi development goes further with the next
amendment (IEEE 802.11ad), and one may expect top continue in such manner
in the future. However, the IEEE 802.11ad operates in 60 GHz band, which is
completely different than previous standards in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
(requires Line of Sight communication). The last WiFi generation is 802.11ax,
which provides up to 10 Gbit/s. However, before proceeding to main WiFi
standards, let discuss briefly the WiFi network architectures.

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WiFi main network architectures

All WiFi networks follow simple architecture, based on Access Points

(APs), which work on OSI-2 layer. In general, WiFi architectures can be
systematized into two main modes (Figure 2.1):
 Infrastructure mode: In this case WiFi APs are connected via switches to
a router connected to the Internet;
 Ad-hoc mode: In this case WiFi is used for direct communication between
two or more hosts (i.e., wireless terminals such as lap-tops).

Besides the above-mentioned modes, there is also a mixed network

mode of WiFi. It is form of network which is developed by mixing infrastructure
and ad-hoc network.

Figure 2.1. WiFi network modes.

Regarding the access scheme, WiFi was initially based on CSMA/CA

(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), without TDMA,
therefore WiFi:
 cannot have strict QoS support (like LTE),
 can not have fast handovers (required for mobility),
 is cheaper than mobile networks (no need for strict synchronization
between wireless stations and Access Points)

Figure 2.2 shows a WLAN network architecture. It is composed of different

components that help in establishing the local area network. These components
include the following:
 Access Point (AP): It is a special type of switching device (can be also
integral part of a router) that is used to transmit the data between wired
and wireless networking device on protocol layer 2. AP is typically
connected to a fixed Ethernet network (IEEE 802.3 family of standards) on

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 one side, and to wireless stations on the other side (via IEEE 802.11). It
transmits or transfers the data between wireless LAN and wired network
by using infrastructure network mode only.
 Wireless Stations (e.g., laptop, smartphone, etc.): Any kind of device
such as personal computers, notebooks, or any kind of mobile devices
which are interlinked with wireless network area.
 WLAN switch or router (which connects WiFi network with the Internet):
It is a device used to establish connections between wired network
devices (such as Ethernet) and different wireless networks such as
wireless LANs. It acts as a point of control in wireless LAN architecture.

In the infrastructure mode, single AP coverage area is referred to as

Basic Service Set (BSS), while multiple APs in the same IP network (on the
same side of the router through which they are connected to the Internet) define
so-called Extended Service Set (ESS), as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2. The WiFi network architectures, [2].

WiFi is not a mobile access network, it is neither 3G nor 4G or 5G, but

it may be used for traffic offloads, from a mobile network to WiFi network for
nomadic users (i.e., users with low mobility at home or office). Also, WiFi is not a
fixed access network, but it is wireless extension to fixed Internet access (at
home, office or public places).
The main intent in WiFi development was to bring to market low-cost
products that serve customer needs. Much of the work involves license-exempt
spectrum. This removes the spectrum acquisition costs from the economic
picture. Furthermore, it weakens the concept of a monolithic ‘operator’ with
strong control over the provided services (at least in home area). Instead, it
opens up the market to enterprises and innovation.

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2.2. Ultra-broadband WLAN standards

The IEEE 802.11 standards are representing broadband access

technologies that provide high data rates on limited coverage, with great fidelity.
As stated in first part of this module, the purpose of all IEEE 802.11 standards is
to provide wireless connectivity for fixed, portable, and moving stations within a
local area network via wires access. The scope of those IEEE 802.11 standards
(i.e., WiFi standards) is to define medium access control (MAC) and physical
layer (PHY) specifications, while from layer 3 (where IP is placed in the protocol
stack) up to the application layer are used standardized protocols from the IETF
from the beginning of the WiFi (that is, from 1997). Of course, on the application
layer can run any OTT application or any managed IP application as in other
broadband access networks to the Internet.
But, what is the primary use of WiFi? Well, that is wireless extension of
Ethernet (which is also an IEEE standard, in particular, IEEE 802.3). Therefore,
many specifications for Ethernet and WiFi have similarities, but also there are
many differences due to wireless local access in WiFi while there is a wired local
access with the Ethernet.

Figure 2.3. WiFi standardization timeline [5].

One should note that after freezing of the initial IEEE 802.11 standard, all
new versions of the standard for different functionalities on physical or MAC
layers (Figure 2.3) are called amendments and are denoted with a letter or two
letters of the alphabet (e.g., IEEE 802.11b).
The IEEE 802.11 standards on physical layer define the bit rates by
specifying the spectrum bands, modulation schemes, coding rate, number of
antennas, etc. The first IEEE 802.11 standard was published in 1997, which
provided bit rates up to 2 Mbit/s. It was followed by IEEE 802.11b with up to 11
Mbit/s (in 2.4 GHz), then appeared IEEE 802.11g (2.4 GHz) and IEEE 802.11a (5
GHz) with up to 54 Mbit/s. The continuous development of the popular IEEE

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802.11 technology continued with IEEE 802.11n which provides up to 600 Mbit/s
(it can be used in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz), and IEEE 802.11ac with up to 6.9
Gbit/s (in 5 GHz band). The WiFi development goes further with the next
amendment (IEEE 802.11ad), and one may expect top continue in such manner
in the future. However, the IEEE 802.11ad operates in 60 GHz band, which is
completely different than previous standards in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
(requires Line of Sight communication).

Table 2.1 WiFi standards and their main characteristics

WiFi IEEE 802.11 Frequency Stream data rate

standard Release (GHz) (Mbit/s)

802.11-1997 1997 2.4 1, 2

802.11a 1999 5 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54

802.11b 1999 2.4 1, 2, 5.5, 11

802.11g 2003 2.4 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54

802.11n
2009 2.4 and 5 Max. 600
(WiFi 4)
802.11ac
2013 5 Max. 6.9 Gbit/s
(WiFi 5)
802.11ad 2012 60 Max. 6.9 Gbit/s

802.11ah 2016 0.9 Max. 8 Gbit/s

802.11ax
2019 2.4 and 5 Max. 10 Gbit/s
(WiFi 6)
802.11ay 2019 60 Max. 20 Gbit/s

Aggregate WiFi standards (until Nov. 2018)

802.11-2007 2007 2.4 and 5 Max. 54 Mbit/s

802.11-2012 2012 2.4 and 5 Max. 150 Mbit/s

802.11-2016 2016 2.4; 5 and 60 Max. 6,757 Gbit/s

The previous revision IEEE 802.11-2012 specifies technical corrections

and clarifications to 802.11 standard for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
as well as enhancements to the existing medium access control (MAC) and
physical layer (PHY) functions. It also incorporates Amendments 1 to 10
published in 2008 to 2011.

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 Figure 2.4. The evolution of the WiFi, [15].

In particular, the revision IEEE Std 802.11-2012, incorporates the

following amendments into the 2007 revision, while IEEE 802.11-2016 does the
same for the time period afterwards. The timeline of WiFi standardization in the
past exactly two decades (from the initial standard) is shown in Table 2.1. Figure
2.4 denotes the WiFi generations. In that manner, 802.11a/g are 3rd generation,
802.11n is the 4th WiFi generation, 802.11ac is the 5th generation and the next
generation WiFi, the 802.11ax, is noted as 6th generation.

2.2.1. IEEE 802.11n (WiFi 4th generation)

This standard gives enhancements for Higher Throughput (Amendment

5): this amendment is much more than just a new radio for 802.11. In addition to
providing higher bit rates (as was done in 802.11a, b, and g), 802.11n makes
dramatic changes to the basic frame format that is used by 802.11 devices to
communicate with each other. Furthermore, in more details the changes
incorporated in 802.11n, including MIMO, radio enhancements, and MAC
enhancements are described. Environmental characteristics and network density
plays a significant role in the ultimate performance of a network. In well-designed
networks, each access point can serve well over 150 Mbps of TCP throughput to
clients using 802.11n technology, and multiple radios can operate simultaneously
to provide several gigabits of throughput.
The IEEE 802.11n uses both 20 MHz and 40 MHz channels. Like the
proprietary products, the 40 MHz channels in 802.11n are two adjacent 20 MHz
channels, bonded together. When using the 40 MHz bonded channel, 802.11n
takes advantage of the fact that each 20 MHz channel has a small amount of the
channel that is reserved at the top and bottom, to reduce interference in those
adjacent channels.
Moreover, the IEEE 802.11n has enhancements in three general areas:

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  MIMO antenna architecture: most important enhancement
 Radio transmission scheme: increased capacity by channel bonding
and coding schemes
 MAC enhancements - Frame aggregation: most significant change is to
aggregate multiple MAC frames into a single block for transmission IEEE
802.11n channel bonding

The IEEE 802.11n uses both 20 MHz and 40 MHz channels, where:
 40 MHz channels in 802.11n are two adjacent 20 MHz channels, bonded
together.
 802.11n increases the number of subcarriers in each 20 MHz channel
from 48 to 52. This marginally increases the data rate from 54 Mbps (as in
802.11g/a) to a maximum of 65 Mbps, for a single-transmit radio.

When using 40 MHz channels, the top of the lower channel and the
bottom of the upper channel do not have to be reserved to avoid interference.
These small parts of the channel can now be used to carry information. By using
the two 20 MHz channels more efficiently in this way, 802.11n achieves slightly
more than doubling the data rate when moving from 20 MHz to 40 MHz
channels. 802.11n continues to use OFDM and a 4-microsecond symbol, similar
to 802.11a and 802.11g.
However, 802.11n increases the number of subcarriers in each 20 MHz
channel from 48 to 52. This marginally increases the data rate to a maximum of
65 Mbps, for a single-transmit radio. 802.11n provides a selection of eight data
rates for a transmitter to use and also increases the number of transmitters
allowable to four. A four-transmitter 802.11n radio operating with 40 MHz
channels and using the short guard interval can therefore deliver a maximum of
600 Mbps (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2. IEEE 802.11n configurations and bit rates (all rates assume coding rate 5/6).

Number Physical
Nominal Bandwidth of Data Throughput
Modulation
Configuration (MHz) Spatial Rate (Mbit/s)*
Streams (Mbit/s)
Typical
20 1 64QAM 65 46
(minimum)
Low-end 20 1 64QAM 72 51
Mid-tier 40 2 64QAM 300 210
High-end 40 3 64QAM 450 320
Amendment
40 4 64QAM 600 420
max
*Assuming a 70% efficient MAC layer.

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 Also, the IEEE 802.11n standard includes the ability for the receiver to
combine the received signals from multiple antennas to reassemble a single
spatial stream. Multi-path echoes in an environment can lead to frequency
selective fading, in which certain subcarriers within a 20 MHz or 40 MHz signal
are stronger than others. Maximal-ratio combining (MRC) enables the receiver to
correlate the signal reception from multiple antennas and select the strongest of
each antenna before decoding a particular subcarrier. In order to reduce the
MAC overhead, 802.11n introduces frame aggregation. Frame aggregation is
essentially putting two or more frames together into a single transmission.
802.11n introduces two methods for frame aggregation: Mac Service Data Units
(MSDU) aggregation and Message Protocol Data Unit (MPDU) aggregation. Both
aggregation methods reduce the overhead to only a single radio preamble for
each frame transmission. The possible bit rates (theoretical maximums and real
maximums throughput) are given in Table 2.2.
The IEEE 802.11n standard offers several technical benefits over previous
technology generations, which result in improved throughput to 802.11n-based
clients, as well as greater reliability for legacy 802.11a/b/g clients. Overall, the
IEEE 802.11 standards already underpin wireless networking applications around
the world, such as wireless access to the Internet from offices, homes, airports,
hotels, restaurants, trains and aircraft around the world. The standards relevance
continues to expand with the emergence of new applications.

2.2.2. IEEE 802.11ac (WiFi 5th generation)

The purpose of the IEEE 802.11ac amendment is to improve the WiFi

user experience by providing significantly higher throughput for existing
application areas, and to enable new market segments for operation below 6
GHz including distribution of multiple data streams. Also known as Very High
Throughput (VHT), 802.11ac achieves this purpose by building on the existing
802.11n technology. In doing so, it continues the long-existing trend towards
higher data rates (Figure 2.5), to meet the growing application demand for WiFi
network capacity and enable WiFi to remain the technology of choice at the
edge.
To increase data rates, the 802.11ac has defined a set of optional
parameters in addition to some that are mandatory. The flexibility built in the
technology is typical of the latest wireless technologies, and enables chipset and
device manufacturers to make the best use of the available resources and tailor
their products to the specific need of the targeted application. Specifically, the
802.11ac has defined optional parameters for:
 Channel Bandwidth
 Modulation
 Number of Spatial Streams

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 Figure 2.5. Trend of WiFi technologies towards higher data rates, [14].

An 802.11ac device making use of only the mandatory parameters (80

MHz bandwidth, 1 spatial stream, 64 QAM 5/6 with long guard interval) will be
capable of a data rate of about 293 Mbps. A device that implements all optional
parameters (160 MHz bandwidth, 8 spatial streams, 256QAM 5/6 with short
guard interval) will be able to achieve over 6 Gbps.

Table 2.3. IEEE 802.11ac configurations and bit rates (all rates assume coding rate 5/6).

Spatial PHY
Nominal Bandwidth Throughput
Streams Modulation Data rate
Configuration (MHz) (Mbps) *
(Number) (Mbps)
Typical
80 1 64QAM 293 210
(minimum)
Low-end 80 1 256QAM 433 300
Mid-tier 80 2 256QAM 867 610
High-end 80 3 256QAM 1300 910
Amendment
80 8 256QAM 3470 2400
max
Low-end 160 1 256QAM 867 610
Mid-tier 160 2 256QAM 1730 1200
High-end 160 3 256QAM 2600 1800
Amendment
160 8 256QAM 6930 4900
max
*Assuming a 70% efficient MAC layer.

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 Furthermore, the Table 2.3 presents some examples of 802.11ac
configurations between an AP and another 802.11ac-enabled network client
device (STA). The PHY link rate and aggregate capacity assume 256QAM, rate
5/6, and short guard interval (400 ns).
Contrary to 802.11n, which operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz RF
bands, 802.11ac devices will operate only in the 5 GHz RF band. The choice to
restrict usage in this band is mainly driven by the wider channel bandwidth
requirements for 802.11ac. As the bandwidth increases, channel layout becomes
a challenge, especially in the crowded and fragmented 2.4 GHz band. Even in
the relatively expansive 5 GHz band, manufacturers will need to adapt automatic
radio tuning capabilities to use the available resources wisely and conserve
spectrum.
Moreover, the IEEE 802.11ac includes both mandatory and optional
bandwidth enhancements over 802.11n. In addition to the 20 MHz and 40 MHz
channel bandwidths, supported by most 802.11n devices today, the 802.11ac
draft specifications include a mandatory, contiguous 80 MHz channel bandwidth.
The key benefit of this wider bandwidth is that it effectively doubles the
PHY rate over that of 802.11n at negligible cost increase for the chipset
manufacturer. With 80 MHz contiguous bandwidth mode, not only is the data
rate/throughput higher, but also the efficiency of the system increases, and data
transfers can be made faster, thus enabling new applications not supported by
the current 802.11n specifications.
In addition, the 802.11ac specifications include an optional 160 MHz
channel bandwidth, which can be either contiguous or non-contiguous (80+80
MHz). In the non-contiguous case, the frequency spectrum consists of two
segments; each segment is transmitted using any two 802.11ac 80 MHz
channels, possibly non-adjacent in frequency. Compared with 40/80 MHz
transmissions, 160 MHz PHY transmission has the advantages of reducing the
complexity of the requirements (e.g. MIMO order, MCS, etc) that allow devices
achieve Gbps wireless throughput, and opening the door to more applications.
However, 160 MHz bandwidth in the 5 GHz band is not available
worldwide, and implementations to support this feature will likely be higher in cost
– hence, the decision to make this feature optional in 802.11ac devices.
IEEE 802.11ac uses 802.11n OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) modulation, interleaving, and coding architecture. Specifically, both
802.11ac and 802.11n require device support for BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM and
64QAM modulation. However, there are two key differences with respect to the
802.11n specifications.
First of all, 802.11ac includes an approved constellation mapping
enhancement, specifically, optional 256QAM (3/4 and 5/6 coding rates) that can
be used for both 802.11ac 80 MHz and 160 MHz transmissions. The benefit of
256QAM is that it offers 33% greater throughput than a 64QAM transmission.
This increase comes, however, at the cost of less tolerance of bit errors in lossy
signal environments.
Moreover, the IEEE 802.11ac provides backwards compatibility with
802.11a and 802.11n devices operating in the 5 GHz band. This means that:

11
  802.11ac interworks with devices supporting 802.11a and 802.11n
technologies
 802.11ac frame structures can accommodate transmission with 802.11a
and 802.11n devices

The backward compatibility of 802.11ac is a definite advantage of

802.11ac over alternative revolutionary technologies (such as 802.11ad) that
also promise to increase data rate over 802.11n, but do not operate with existing
WLAN devices. Backward compatibility will ease adoption into the marketplace
and ensure 802.11ac devices can seamlessly “plug into” existing WLAN
networks.
Also, the number of wireless devices that support 802.11n has been
growing steadily in the past years, and this growth is expected to continue in the
future. Not only devices that have traditionally used previous amendments
(802.11a/b/g) are adopting the newer technology, but also wireless is moving into
a growing number of devices that previously did not have this capability.
Moreover, as mentioned, 802.11ac PHY is based on the well known OFDM PHY
used for 802.11n, with some important modifications necessary to meet the
802.11ac’s goals. IEEE 802.11ac devices make use of OFDM modulation
principles as 802.11n, but use wider channel bandwidth, higher modulation, more
stream, and enhanced MIMO techniques to increase throughput and enable
faster, new applications.
Designers and manufacturers of this type of Giga Speed WiFi (IEEE
802.11ac) devices need to understand the requirements for this new technology
not only to create their products, but also to ensure that their test equipment is
able to tackle the raising challenges of accurately testing their performance.

2.2.3. IEEE 802.11ad (60 GHz WiFi)

The 60 GHz transmission technology is a fairly new wireless

communications concept that aims to exploit the 7 GHz of bandwidth available in
the 60 GHz unlicensed band. Particular characteristics of this technology have
generated special interest within the industry. The main advantages of this high-
frequency-range technology are that it enables high data rates and short-range
communication applications such as data transfer and uncompressed audio and
video (A/V) transmissions. Data rates beyond 1 Gbit/s at up to 10 meters are
feasible. The Table 2.4 below gives a summary of the salient features of the
IEEE 802.11ad or also known as 60 GHz Gigabit WiFi.
These high data rates can be achieved because of the continuous
spectrum and a less power-restricted bandwidth available in the 60 GHz band.
Moreover, high path loss enables a larger frequency reuse factor per indoor
environment. In addition, the millimeter wavelengths make it possible to have
very small radios with multiple antennas solutions, enabling beamforming and
beam steering, which enhances the channel capacity and also supports NLOS
communications.

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 Table 2.4. Summary of some features of the IEEE 802.11ad.

IEEE 802.11ad Details

Spectrum 60 GHz ISM band
Maximum bitrate 6.9 Gbps
Typical distance up to 10 m
Antenna Uses beamforming
Modulation Single carrier and/or OFDM

The Wireless Gigabit Alliance (WiGig) created a first version of their new
specification at the end of 2009. WiGig then worked together with the IEEE
802.11ad group to create an amendment to the well-known IEEE 802.11 WLAN
specification in order to enable WLAN operation in the 60 GHz band. This
amendment was finalized in 2012, with the publication of 802.11ad, providing up
to 6.75 Gbps throughput using approximately 2 GHz of spectrum at 60 GHz over
a short range (60 GHz transmission suffers from large attenuation through
physical barriers). Bearing in mind the number of existing devices, backward
compatibility with existing standards using the same frequency range is a “must”.
The goal is for all the 802.11 series of standards to be backward compatible, and
for 802.11ac and ad to be compatible at the Medium Access Control (MAC) or
Data Link layer, and differ only in physical layer characteristics.
Devices could then have three radios: 2.4 GHz for general use which
may suffer from interference, 5 GHz for more robust and higher speed
applications, and 60 GHz for ultra-high-speed within a room – and support
session switching amongst them. Since IEEE 802.11ad-2012 was published in
December 2012, the products based on this technology are now commercially
available. The unlicensed frequency allocations at around 60 GHz in each region
do not match exactly, but there is substantial overlap; at least 3.5 GHz of
contiguous spectrum is available in all regions that have allocated spectrum.
Unlike the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz unlicensed bands, the 60 GHz area is also
relatively uncongested. Transmission at 60 GHz covers less distance for a given
power, mainly due to the increased free space path loss, compounded by
propagation losses through materials and human body shadowing.
So, low-power transmissions will not propagate very far, but this is
considered an advantage. It reduces the likelihood of co-channel interference
and increases the possible frequency re-use density. Another perceived
advantage of limited range is the reduced opportunity for “theft” of protected
content by eavesdropping on nearby transmissions.
Multiple-antenna configurations using beam-steering are an optional
feature of the 802.11ad specifications. Beam-steering can be employed to
circumnavigate minor obstacles like people moving around a room or a piece of
furniture blocking line-of-sight transmission, but longer free-space distances (e.g.
> 10 m) and more substantial obstructions (e.g. walls, doors, etc.) will prevent
transmission.

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 It would be unlikely, for example, for a media server in one room to be
able to reliably transmit HD video directly to a display in another, but it could be
in the same room (example use case scenarios for home are given in Figure
2.6).

a)

b)
Figure 2.6. Example use cases for IEEE 802.11ad, [18].

The WLAN system uses frequencies in the 60 GHz unlicensed spectrum.

Dependent upon geography these are located between 57 GHz and 66 GHz.
The ITU-R then recommends the use of four channels, each 2.16 GHz wide with
centre frequencies of 58, 32, 60.48, 62.64, and 64.80 GHz. It can therefore be
seen that only channel 2 with its centre frequency of 60.48 GHz is globally
available. This is recommended to be the default channel.
To maintain generality in the specification text, and to simplify functional
descriptions in future, the IEEE has introduced new terminology to identify the
higher performance PHYs (some of the words already mentioned before);

14
  VHT, which is short for very high throughput, is any frequency band
that has a starting frequency below 6 GHz excluding the 2.4 GHz band.
 DMG, which is short for directional multi-gigabit, pertains to operation
in any frequency band that contains a channel with a channel starting
frequency above 45 GHz.
 These terms replace the previous, more frequency-specific terms LB
(Low Band at 2.4GHz), HB (High Band at 5GHz), and UB (Ultra Band at
60GHz). So, using the new terminology, clause 21 of IEEE 802.11ad-
2012 defines the DMG PHY, which is normally deployed in the “60 GHz”
band from 57 GHz to 66 GHz; subject to the regional variations.
 The IEEE 802.11ad-2012 DMG PHY supports three distinct modulation
methods:
o Spread-spectrum modulation; the Control PHY.
o Single carrier (SC) modulation; the Single Carrier PHY and the
Low Power Single Carrier PHY.
o Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) modulation; the
OFDM PHY.

Because 60-GHz transmission suffers from large attenuation when

propagating through physical barriers, its usage model is different from the other
IEEE 802.11 standards. Low-power transmissions will not propagate very
far. This is considered an advantage, as it reduces the likelihood of co-channel
interference and increases the potential density for frequency re-use. Another
perceived advantage of limited range is the reduced opportunity for "theft" of
protected content by eavesdropping on nearby transmissions.
The unlicensed frequency allocations at around 60 GHz in each region do
not match exactly. But there is substantial overlap. At least 3.5 GHz of
contiguous spectrum is available in all regions that have allocated spectrum.

ITU-R-recommended channelization

The ITU-R-recommended channelization comprises four channels that are

each 2.16-GHz wide. They are centered on 58.32, 60.48, 62.64, and 64.80 GHz.
However, not all channels are available in all countries. Channel 2, which is
globally available, is therefore the default channel for equipment operating in this
frequency band.
Nowadays, devices and subsystems in the 60-GHz band for consumer
technology are a commercial reality, thanks to high-yield, low-cost, micron-
geometry components. Multiple-antenna configurations using beam-steering are
an optional feature of the specifications. They can be employed to
circumnavigate minor obstacles, such as people moving around a room or a
piece of furniture blocking line-of-sight transmission. Longer free-space distances
(e.g., beyond 10 m) and more substantial obstructions (e.g., walls, doors, etc.)
will prevent transmission.
In summary, IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ad both provide much higher data
throughputs than their predecessors. Yet they have much different potential

15
uses. IEEE 802.11ac is an evolution of previous WLAN capability. It gives the
“unwired office” the ability to compete directly with gigabit wired systems while
offering much better layout and connection flexibility. In contrast, IEEE 802.11ad
is a new solution that provides ad-hoc short-range connectivity in support of
extremely high data rates.

Application of multiple gigabit wireless systems in 60 GHz (by ITU-R)

License-exempt equipment in the 60 GHz band makes it feasible to

achieve multiple gigabit link throughputs, and hence offers the ability to enable a
multitude of new usages and applications such as:
 The next generation TV link – Transport uncompromised quality video
for the next generation of HD color depth and rates.
 Download gigabytes of contents in seconds – Send digital content
between devices in 1/10th the time experienced today.
 Cordless computing – Gigabit speed wireless input-output (I/O) and
pristine wireless display allow the user to remove the cords between
computing platforms and peripherals without performance compromise.

The following distinct applications can be enjoyed with Multiple Gigabit

Wireless Systems (MGWS):
 Two basic types of Wireless Display usages:
o “Wireless HDMI” typically used to connect to CE equipment and
o Wireless compute display, typically used to connect to computer
monitors.
 Additional special cases of display and/or data streaming usages, e.g.
mobile camcorder, multicast, etc.
 Three basic types of data/file transfers:
o Kiosk to target device sync,
o Peer-to-peer device sync, and
o Computer I/O and peripherals.
 Local Area Network (LAN) and horizontal backbone.
 Wireless docking – that is a combination of both wireless display and
wireless I/O.

It should be noted that these applications could be indoor or outdoor;

however, when larger networks are considered (e.g. connections within corporate
LAN distributed in different buildings or backhaul of cellular systems) there might
be the need for outdoor Fixed LAN Extension (e.g. point-to-point roof-to-roof).
There are three important scenarios describer in ITU-R recommendation
M.2227, which include home living room, office conference room, enterprise
cubicle.
An example of a home living room floor plan is show in Figure 2.7 In this
deployment. In this use case a set-top box is transmitting a video stream
(compressed or not) to the TV set. The separation between the set-top box and
the TV set is at least 3 meters.

16
 Figure 2.7 Use case for home living room, [18]

Figure 2.8. Office conference room use case for IEEE 802.11ad, [18].

17
 An example of the office conference room floor plan is shown in Figure
2.8. In this deployment, there is a mix of uses:
 Laptop transmitting lightly compressed video to projector.
 Multiple laptops connected to an access point that has a 60 GHz radio
and, most likely, a lower frequency band radio in the 2.4 GHz and/or 5
GHz.
 Laptop connected to device performing sync-and-go file transfer.
 Laptops connected to other laptops performing local file transfer.

In the enterprise cubicle floor plan there is a mix of uses within each
cubicle, such as laptop transmitting lightly compressed video to monitor; laptop
connected to an access point, possibly doing web browsing; or laptop connected
to hard drive.

18
2.3. Next Generation WLAN

Next Generation of WLAN, called also 6th generation, is based on the

IEEE 802.11ax standard. Many see this new standard as the “savoir” for the
overcrowded radio networks of the future. The next generation of smart WLAN
devices achieves one thing, above all, that is, higher performance in high-
density environments, due to additional bandwidth with WiFi 6 connected to
fixed network infrastructure.
The sixth generation WLAN standard aim to come to terms with the
growing number of bandwidth-hungry applications that are driving today’s
digitalization and additionally interconnectivity on the Internet of Things (IoT).
Ultimately the new standard aims not only to use parallel data
transmissions to improve the user experience, but also to offer higher speeds in
high-density environments, i.e. in areas with very large numbers of WiFi clients.
Examples include major sporting events and hotspots in larger hotels or
shopping malls.

2.3.1. Technical characteristics of 802.11ax (WiFi 6)

One benefits of IEEE 802.11ax is the improved utilization of the

unlicensed spectrum available in the 2.4-GHz and 5-GHz bands (and in future
in the 6-GHz band) for latency-critical applications such as VoIP or video
streaming.
Performance gains also come with the increase in average throughput
for the individual WLAN clients in high-density environments. Transmission is
more stable and individual connections have a stronger signal. The performance
gain is achieved with parallel transmissions and not simply by higher
transmission rates as such. A special role here is played by the parallel
transmissions by Multi-User MIMO (Figure 2.9), including also the uplink, unlike
the previous WiFi 5 standard, IEEE 802.11ac, as well as the introduction of
OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access).
Previous WLAN standards used OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing), which occupies the whole frequency range per unit time when
transmitting. For the first time OFDMA is being used for WLAN with 802.11ax.
At the same time, the number of symbols has been quadrupled from
QAM-256 to QAM-1024. With 2 antennas and a channel width of 80 MHz, the
potential gross data transmission rate increases to more than 1 Gbit/s, and the
theoretical maximum is near 10 Gbit/s.

19
 Consequently, IEEE 802.11ax is less about an increase in absolute speed
and more about the improved "simultaneity" of transmissions to multiple clients,
i.e. an increase in efficiency. A look at the maximum absolute transmission
speeds reveals an increase of only about 40 percent over current IEEE
802.11ac Wave 2 devices.

Figure 2.9. Multi-user MIMO in downlink and uplink, used in IEEE 802.11ax, [15].

In addition to the improvements from parallel transmission, IEEE 802.11ax

offers other advantages for users: An improved target wake-up time (TWT)
increases the battery life of mobile clients, which is very convenient for Internet
of Things (IoT) devices. They “sleep” better or longer because they have to
“wake up” less frequently in order to listen out for their access points.
Key benefits of WiFi 6 technology include the following:
 Higher data rates;
 Increased capacity;
 Performance in environments with many connected devices;
 Improved power efficiency.

The ubiquity of WiFi and its ability to complement other wireless

technologies helps bring the promise of connecting everyone and everything,
everywhere. WiFi popularity has also created very diverse and densely populated
WiFi conditions, requiring technological advances to meet the needs of users.
WiFi 6 delivers improvements and new features that enable WiFi devices to
operate efficiently in the most dense and dynamic connectivity settings.
Overall comparison of IEEE 802.11ax with previous WLAN standards is
given in Figure 2.10.

20
 Figure 2.10. Advantages of IEEE 802.11ax versus previous WLAN standards, [16].

In historical context, it can be seen that the new features in IEEE 802.11ax
are mostly extensions or improvements on previous work – with the standout
exceptions of OFDMA and spatial re-use, which are new territory.

2.3.2. Comparison of WiFi 6 and 5G

There are similarities in technologies used in WiFi 6 (802.11ax) and 5G.

Since they appear approximately at the same time (e.g., around 2019, one year
plus or minus) they can use similar technologies that are available, although with
different approaches.
So, similarity between WiFi 6 and 5G is the fact that both are based on
OFDMA technology, which originated from LTE. WiFi 6 introduces subcarriers for

21
simultaneously transmitting user data. In addition, multi-user multiple-input
multiple-output (MU-MIMO) is used by WiFi 6 to increase both the per-AP
bandwidth and the access capacity by four times.
However, there are differences between WiFi 6 and 5G in several different
aspects, given as follows:
 Application Scenarios: WiFi 6 is a short-distance wireless technology
and is most suitable for indoor coverage. Due to the limitation of spectrum
resources and power, WiFi 6 does not work well in outdoor long-distance
scenarios where signals are prone to interference. The 5G network is
planned and managed uniformly by the national authorities based on
licensed spectrum resources. For outdoor coverage, signal interference is
low, and therefore 5G is a feasible solution. For indoor coverage,
however, high-frequency (24 GHz to 52 GHz) signals used by 5G are
extremely prone to attenuation, and consequently, complex network
planning is required for 5G deployment. As such, 5G is mainly used in
public venues, public network access, and public IoT infrastructure of
smart cities. Conversely, WiFi is mainly used for self-built campus
networks of enterprises and indoor high-density access.
 Spectrum Acquisition: The 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz spectrums of WiFi are
unlicensed. Enterprises can simply buy WiFi devices to get free access to
10 Gbit/s wireless networks brought by WiFi 6. By contrast, 5G frequency
bands require approvals from relevant government agencies from each
country.
 Costs: WiFi deployment is simple and WiFi APs are becoming more
intelligent. WiFi network planning and O&M has become easier than ever
before and can be achieved without highly-trained experts. On the
contrary, 5G network planning and deployment require extensive network
planning by professional wireless network planning engineers, increasing
investment, deployment, and maintenance costs considerably.
 Deployment: The cost of deployment for WiFi 6 terminals is lower - only a
simple chip upgrade is required to convert WiFi 5 terminals to WiFi 6,
without the need to change the architecture design. Portable terminals can
even quickly support WiFi 6 through PCIe cards, accelerating the
development of the entire industry. The evolution to 5G terminals requires
a complete redesign of the product, adding significant cost and complexity
to the system. Therefore, WiFi 6 network is the preferred choice for non-
critical terminals such as printers, electronic whiteboards, intelligent
building control systems, projection TVs, and telepresence systems.

In high-density outdoor venues like squares and stadiums, the 5G

network will not be able to meet the high capacity demands of the users unless
5G base stations are added. In this case, the high-density access capability of
WiFi 6 is a cost-effective solution to tackle this problem and allow a large number
of users and terminals to get high-quality coverage.

22
Discussion

The coming years hold much promise for ultra-broadband WLAN, but also
great uncertainty. The IEEE 802.11ax is the WLAN industry’s response to these
opportunities and challenges, to take us through the next five years from 2019 to
2024 and the next IEEE 802.11 amendment. WLAN chips are shipping at a rate
of 3 billion a year, with an installed base of 8 billion. Every smartphone and PC
comes with a WLAN chip, every broadband home Internet connection terminates
on WLAN, the technology is established in outdoor point-to-point links and
making inroads into the automotive industry and connected factories.
The WLAN ecosystem, much less-coordinated and regimented than the
cellular world, has shown it is able to assemble features in various combinations
and solve new problems. The features in Next Generation WLAN, i.e. IEEE
802.11ax, give the companies (that by now have deep expertise in WLAN
technology) the tools to move into already-emerging markets and react to new
opportunities. The most likely outcome is that history will repeat itself and WLAN
will continue its growth amid the coming changes (with mobile technologies
entering into the unlicensed spectrum where WiFi operates).

23
2.4. WLAN security and QoS

The Security and QoS provisioning are the most important issues in any
wireless and mobile technology, including the WLAN too. The QoS refers to the
capability of a network to provide differentiated service to selected network traffic
over various network technologies. On the other side, securing WLAN
connections is an important element of securing personal data, and WiFi Alliance
has been on the forefront of evolving WLAN security as the number of WLAN
devices in use worldwide has grown.

2.4.1 WLAN Security

Users access WiFi networks everywhere: at home, in the office, in hotels,

shopping malls, transportation hubs, and municipal locations. Accessing
unsecured networks in these locations presents a risk that someone could
acquire personal data, which is why it is always recommended that users ensure
they access secure, authenticated WiFi networks whenever possible. The most
common types of WiFi vulnerabilities are listed in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5. Types of WLAN risks/vulnerabilities and possible attacks

Type of WLAN vulnerability Attacks

Rogue APs
Reconnaissance Open/Misconfigured APs
Ad Hoc stations
WEP, WPA, LEAP cracking
Sniffing/Eavesdropping Dictionary attacks / Brute Force / Rainbow Tables
Leaky APs
MAC spoofing
Masquerade HotSpot attacks
Evil Twin / Wi-Phishing attacks
Multicast / Broadcast injection
Insertion Routing cache poisoning
Man in the Middle attacks (MITM)
Disassociation
Denial-of-Service (DoS) Duration field spoofing
RF jamming

24
 However, there are situations where an open WiFi network is the only
feasible option. But, in this case, the WiFi Enhanced Open networks provide
unauthenticated data encryption to users, an improvement over traditional open
networks with no protections at all. These protections are transparent to the user.
Based on Opportunistic Wireless Encryption (OWE) defined in the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 8110 specification and the Wi‑Fi Alliance
Opportunistic Wireless Encryption Specification, WiFi Enhanced Open benefits
users by providing data encryption that maintains the ease of use of open
networks, and benefits network providers because there are no public
passphrases to maintain, share, or manage.

WiFi Client Authentication

The 802.11 standards support different means of client authentication

between the wireless client system and the AP (Access Point), which include:
 Open Key Authentication – it does not require any user authentication in
associating to the wireless network. Users only need to know the correct
SSID details to associate to such a wireless network. There is no
encryption for the data transmitted and received, except use of SSL/TLS
on the transport layer (e.g., HTTPS).
 Shared Key Authentication – in this case the AP sends the client device
a challenge text packet that the client must then encrypt with the
correct key and return to the AP. If the client has the wrong key or no key,
authentication will fail and the client will not be allowed to associate with
the AP. Shared key encrypts data transmitted and received.
 802.1x Authentication – it provides WLANs with strong, mutual
authentication between a client and an authentication server. There are
several 802.1X authentication types (e.g.,, Light EAP - LEAP, Protected
EAP - PEAP, etc.), each providing a different approach to authentication
while relying on the same framework and the Extensible Authentication
Protocol (EAP) for communication between a client and an WiFi AP. With
802.1X authentication types such as PEAP, mutual authentication is
implemented between the client and a Remote Authentication Dial-In
User Service (RADIUS) server. The credentials used for authentication,
such as log-on password, are never transmitted in clear, or without
encryption, over the wireless medium.

WiFi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2)

However, WiFi Protected Access (WPA) and WiFi Protected Access II

(WPA2) are two security protocols and security certification programs developed
by the WiFi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks.
WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless
network interface cards designed for WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) that
began shipping as far back as 1999. However, since the changes required in the

25
wireless APs were more extensive than those needed on the network cards,
most pre-2003 APs could not be upgraded to support WPA.
The WPA protocol implements much of the IEEE 802.11i standard.
Specifically, the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was adopted for WPA.
WEP used a 64-bit or 128-bit encryption key that must be manually entered on
wireless access points and devices and does not change. TKIP employs a per-
packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key for each
packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP. WPA also
includes a Message Integrity Check, which is designed to prevent an attacker
from altering and resending data packets. This replaces the Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC's main flaw was that it
did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it
handled.
Well tested message authentication codes existed to solve these
problems, but they required too much computation to be used on old network
cards. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called TKIP to verify the
integrity of the packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as
the algorithm used in WPA2.
So WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2, which requires testing and certification
by the WiFi Alliance, implements the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11i. In
particular, it includes mandatory support for CCMP, an AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard) based encryption mode. That’s how the WPA2 continues
to provide security and privacy for WiFi networks and devices throughout the
WiFi ecosystem. WPA2 devices will continue to interoperate and provide
recognized security that has been its hallmark for more than a decade.
The WPA2 certification program has continually evolved to meet security
needs as the security environment changes. In 2018, WiFi Alliance augmented
existing security protections for networks through configuration, authentication,
and encryption enhancements. Enhanced validation of vendor security
implementations reduces the potential for vulnerabilities due to network
misconfiguration and further safeguard managed networks with centralized
authentication services. The WPA2 will be available in WiFi devices for the
foreseeable future, and all devices supporting WPA3 will continue to work with
WPA2 devices.
In January 2018, the WiFi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to
WPA2. The new standard uses 128-bit encryption in WPA3-Personal mode (192-
bit in WPA3-Enterprise) and forward secrecy. The WPA3 standard also replaces
the Pre-Shared Key exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals
resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode.

WiFi Protected Access 3 (WPA3)

WPA3 is the next generation of WiFi security and provides cutting-edge

security protocols to the market. Building on the widespread success and
adoption of WiFi WPA2, WPA3 adds new features to simplify WiFi security,
enable more robust authentication, deliver increased cryptographic

26
strength for highly sensitive data markets, and maintain resiliency of
mission critical networks. All WPA3 networks:
 Use the latest security methods;
 Disallow outdated legacy protocols;
 Require use of Protected Management Frames (PMF).

Since WiFi networks differ in usage purpose and security needs, WPA3
includes additional capabilities specifically for personal and enterprise networks.
So, in that way, the WPA3 security continues to support the market through two
distinct modes of operation: WPA3-Personal and WPA3-Enterprise. Users of
WPA3-Personal receive increased protections from password guessing attempts,
while WPA3-Enterprise users can now take advantage of higher grade security
protocols for sensitive data networks.
WPA3, which retains interoperability with WPA2 devices, is currently an
optional certification for WiFi devices. It will become required over time as market
adoption grows.
WPA3-Personal brings better protections to individual users by providing
more robust password-based authentication, even when users choose
passwords that fall short of typical complexity recommendations. This capability
is enabled through Simultaneous Authentication of Equals, which replaces Pre-
shared Key (PSK) in WPA2-Personal. The technology is resistant to offline
dictionary attacks where an adversary attempts to determine a network password
by trying possible passwords without further network interaction.
 Natural password selection: Allows users to choose passwords that are
easier to remember.
 Ease of use: Delivers enhanced protections with no change to the way
users connect to a network (see Figure 2.11).
 Forward secrecy: Protects data traffic even if a password is compromised
after the data was transmitted.

Figure 2.11. Illustration of the WiFi WPA3 easy to connect user experience, [7].

WPA3-Enterprise: Enterprise, governments, and financial institutions

have greater security with WPA3-Enterprise. WPA3-Enterprise builds upon
WPA2 and ensures the consistent application of security protocols across the
network.

27
 WPA3-Enterprise also offers an optional mode using 192-bit minimum-
strength security protocols and cryptographic tools to better protect sensitive
data.
The 192-bit security mode offered by WPA3-Enterprise ensures the right
combination of cryptographic tools is used and sets a consistent baseline of
security within a WPA3 network.

2.4.2 WLAN QoS

The main WiFi standard for QoS provisioning is IEEE 802.11e. To explain
the WiFi QoS one needs to understand the way how wireless stations
communicate with the AP. Main access to wireless interface in almost all
deployed WiFi networks is with DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)
which is based on avoidance of collision between competing wireless stations by
using CSMA/CA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) and
binary backoff algorithm (it backs off WiFi stations which may collide in accessing
the wireless link, by using random backoff within a given Contention Window –
CW). Besides DCF, WiFi has also as option to use PCF (Polling Coordination
Function) in which AP polls wireless stations to transmit data on PCF intervals
PIFS (PCF Interframe Space) shorter than DCF intervals DIFS (DCF Interframe
Space).
For the purposes of QoS support, IEEE 802.11e standard defines Hybrid
Coordination Function (HCF) which has two working modes:
 Enhanced DCF Channel Access (EDCA): similar to DCF, but provides
different priority levels for different services.
 HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA): it is CSMA/CA – compatible
polling technique (like PCF, but with improvements).

The QoS support with EDCF is based on traffic differentiation by using

traffic prioritization, so higher priority traffic has a higher probability of being sent
over the wireless interface than the lower priority traffic. The access to the
wireless channel in EDCA is controlled with four parameters, which include:
 CWmin: It is the minimal size of the contention window.
 CWmax: It is the maximal size of the contention window.
 Arbitration Interframe Space (AIFS): It is variable DIFS (shorter AIFS is
used for higher priority packets and vice versa).
 Transmission Opportunity (TXOP): It specifies maximum time interval
during which wireless station can transmit WiFi layer-2 frames back-to-
back (contention-free access).

The WiFi QoS support typically is provided with EDCA which provides
service differentiation of traffic into 4 Access Categories (ACs) and 8 priority
levels with aim to provide traffic differentiation, as shown in Table 2.6.

28
 Table 2.6. WiFi access categories and priorities for QoS provisioning.

Access Category Designation

Priority
(AC) (Informative)
0 0 Best Effort
1 0 Best Effort
2 0 Best Effort
3 1 Video Probe
4 2 Video
5 2 Video
6 3 Voice
7 3 Voice

For a given station, traffic of different ACs is buffered in different queues

as shown in Figure 2.12. Each AC within a station behaves like a virtual station: it
contends for access to the medium and independently starts its backoff after
sensing the medium idle for at least AIFS period. When a collision occurs among
different ACs within the same station, the higher priority AC is granted the
opportunity for physical transmission, while the lower priority AC suffers from a
virtual collision, which is similar to a real collision outside the station.
IEEE 802.11e also uses the transmission opportunity (TXOP) limit as the
interval of time during which a particular station has the right to initiate
transmissions. During an EDCA TXOP, a station may be allowed to transmit
multiple data frames from the same AC with a SIFS gap between an ACK and
the subsequent data frame. This is also referred to as Contention Free Burst
(CFB).

Figure 2.12. ACs and virtual collision in IEEE 802.11e, [1].

29
 In the Contention Free Period there is no contention between wireless
stations connected to the same WiFi Access Point. In this period TXOP is also
given, however its start time and duration are specified by so-called Hybrid
Coordinator (HC) which is using QoS polling of wireless stations.

Table 2.7. IETF DiffServ classes mapping to WiFi Access Categories and priorities

WiFi user WiFi Access

IETF DiffServ class
priority Category
Network control 7 Voice (VO)
Network control 0 Best Effort (BE)
Telephony 6 Voice (VO)
Voice-admit 6 Voice (VO)
Signaling 5 Video (VI)
Multimedia
4 Video (VI)
conferencing
Real-time interactive 4 Video (VI)
Multimedia streaming 4 Video (VI)
Broadcast video 4 Video (VI)
Low-latency data 3 Best Effort (BE)
Operation and
0 Best Effort (BE)
Maintenance
High-throughput data 0 Best Effort (BE)
Standard 0 Best Effort (BE)
Low-priority data 1 Background (BK)

Overall, similar to the dominant use of DCF (and not PCF) in WiFi
networks, the HCCA is rarely used, while the QoS provisioning in WiFi is typically
implemented via EDCA. However, with aim to have end-to-end QoS there is a
need for mapping of WiFi ACs and priorities onto network classes of wired IP
network, such as IETF DiffServ classes (Table 2.7).

30
2.5. WLAN for Internet of Things (IoT)

The IoT applications have diverse connectivity requirements in terms of

range, data throughput, energy efficiency and device cost. On the other side, the
WLAN is often an obvious choice because in-building WLAN coverage is almost
ubiquitous, but it is not always the appropriate choice. This section examines the
role WLAN can play and the emerging broadband IEEE standards, 802.11ac,
802.11ad, 802.11ah and 802.11ax.
Data transfer requirements for IoT vary from small, intermittent payloads
like utility meters to large amounts of continuous data such as real-time video
surveillance. Range requirements can span from very short distances for
wearables to several kilometers for weather and agriculture applications.
Sometimes, for some specific IoT services, those communications require low
latency and high reliability.
One thing that is common is power constraint. IoT devices require
constant connectivity, but they may not always have continuous access to a
power source. IoT devices are expected to be power thrifty, sometimes to the
extent of running on button cells for years at a stretch.
Other dimensions that influence the use of WLAN for the IoT connectivity
technologies include:
 Cost of devices and supporting infrastructure
 Ease of deployment, commissioning and management
 Reliability and security.
 Scalability

As mentioned, the WLAN, or IEEE 802.11, is a wireless protocol that was

built with the intent of replacing Ethernet using wireless communication over
unlicensed bands. Its goal was to provide off-the-shelf, easy to implement, easy
to use short-range wireless connectivity with cross-vendor interoperability. With
zero spectrum cost, there was little focus on spectral efficiency and with
expected use by desktop devices, power efficiency was not critical.

2.5.1. WiFi in home environment IoT

As can be noticed, the sixth generation WLAN (IEEE 802.11ax) standard

aim to come to terms with the growing number of bandwidth-hungry applications
that are driving today’s digitalization and interconnectivity on the Internet of
Things (IoT).

31
 Moreover, everyone has their own preferences in any areas of daily life,
e.g. preferring specific air temperature and humidity or illumination intensity.
People prefer different levels of TV or music volume. With IoT technologies in
mind, having home WLAN connectivity, we can talk about the artificial
environment, provided by some sets of IoT sensors and actuators, supported
with WLAN at home environment.
While staying at his/her own place a user can adjust the parameters of IoT
devices to provide the most comfortable environment. It may take a lot of time, so
it should be done only once. Thus, it is necessary to have the possibility to store
the adjusted parameters in the home WLAN. It may be the local memory of home
IoT devices or some kind of cloud storage.

Figure 2.13. Home environment profiles categories, [24].

There are several categories that can be distinguished as home

environment profiles. These categories include, but are not limited to, the
multimedia environment, habitation control, climatic environment and energy
consumption. Figure 2.13 shows the one home environment profiles categories
where WLAN can be used for IoT applications, where:
 Multimedia environment is the category of home environment which
stores the user's preferences on different multimedia applications. The
example of audio profile is provided in Appendix I in [24].
 Habitation control is a set of means for the user to control their smart
house features remotely. It may contain a set of features predefined by
user (to boil a kettle, to turn on air conditioner, etc.).
 Climatic environment is a set of parameters to provide the comfortable
climatic environment for the user in some remote locations (air
temperature, humidity, etc.).
 Energy consumption is a set of preferences related to energy
consumption.

32
 Figure 2.14. Use case of centralized controlling for home devices with WLAN, [25].

Moreover, the smart home devices (e.g., as shown in Figure 2.14, sensing
devices, smart appliances, health devices and smart furniture) usually come from
different vendors which may support various types of communication
technologies defined by other standard development organizations, such as open
interconnect consortium (OIC) or the UPnP forum, etc.
Assuming that a user's smartphone hosts the IoT device capability
exposure (DCE) and a relevant IoT application such as the home device centre
(HDC App), by using home WLAN, as the most appropriate connection. The user
can use the HDC App to manage his home devices even though the devices
support different communication technologies. When the user is back at home,
the IoT DCE and WLAN dynamically discovers the user's home devices and
exposes the devices' capabilities to the HDC App according to the user's policy,
the user then selects and accesses his/her home devices. In this case, the user
only uses one application, the HDC App, to manage all of his/her home devices
ore his WLAN or other technology (as shown in Figure 2.14).
Finally, as very important trend, Internet of Things (IoT) presents a
significant challenge to enterprises: how to securely and easily connect hundreds
or thousands of electronic devices to the corporate IT network congruent with
their operational and engineering needs. In contrast with user devices such as
smart phones, IoT devices have either a need for deterministic wireless service
(for example, poll me every 10 ms or I will shut down) or low-power service
(sleepy time - that is, I don’t talk unless I really need to). Traditionally, these
needs have been met with proprietary, niche, or service provider-specific

33
technology, but enterprise or home WLAN has been increasingly chosen as the
indoor IoT platform because of its significant economies of scale and ease of
management by IT. To address these IoT operational needs, IEEE 802.11ax
and its IoT capabilities such as low power and determinism are expected to
accelerate this adoption (see Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15. Trends and predictions for IoT devices in different technologies, [26].

Figure 2.16. WiFi in IoT network general architecture

34
 An overview of the WiFi role in IoT network general architecture is shown
in Figure 2.16. The Next Generation WLAN, i.e. IEEE 802.11ax lets access
points support more clients in dense environments and provide a better
experience for typical wireless LAN networks. It also powers more predictable
performance for advanced applications such as: Internet of Things (IoT), 4K
video, Ultra HD, and wireless office. Flexible wake-up time scheduling lets client
devices sleep much longer than with IEEE 802.11ac, and wake up to less
contention, extending the battery life of smart phones, IoT, and other devices. As
we see, the WLAN is very essential for IoT platforms and services.

2.5.2. WiFi HaLow

WiFi HaLow (IEEE 802.11ah) extends WiFi into the 900 MHz band,
enabling the low power connectivity necessary for applications including sensor
and wearables. WiFi HaLow’s range is nearly twice that of today’s WiFi, and has
capability of transmitting signals further, but also providing a more robust
connection in challenging environments where the ability to more easily
penetrate walls or other barriers is an important consideration.

Figure 2.17. WiFi Halow main characteristics, [33].

So, main characteristics of IEEE 802.11ah include (Figure 2.17):

 long-range version of WiFi that supports many concurrent IoT
connections;
 targeted to operate in the unlicensed wireless spectrum in the 900MHz
band;
 easily penetrate walls and barriers thanks to the propagation capabilities
of low-frequency radio waves;

35
  its range (1-1.5 kilometers) is nearly double compared to other available
WiFi standards.

WiFi HaLow provides the long range and low power needed to support IoT
applications in industrial and manufacturing environments, as well as smart
homes. It is targeted to enable a variety of new power-efficient use cases in the
Smart Home, connected car, and digital healthcare, as well as industrial, retail,
agriculture, and Smart City environments.

36
2.6. 3GPP mobile traffic offload over WLAN

The WLAN is an efficient solution for mobile traffic offload, which has
started with the convergence of mobile networks and Internet. Why WLAN traffic
offload (from mobile networks) is attractive?
Well, due to several reasons, from which two are the most important ones:
 WLAN (i.e., WiFi) is cheaper wireless broadband solution (than 3GPP
mobile access), although it requires fixed (or mobile) connection to the
Internet or managed IP networks.
 WLAN (i.e., WiFi) always has higher bitrates than mobile networks,
going from its appearance in 1997 until the present date (November
2019), and one may expect that trend to continue in future.

2.6.1. Integrated WLAN in 4G Evolved Packet Core

Integration of WLAN (i.e., WiFi) access into EPC enables Mobile Services
to be available through WiFi. Release 11 and later makes it possible to use
mobile services, like IMS-based voice and video, MMS and SMS over IP over the
WiFi Access.
WiFi Access is divided into two scenarios, one for Trusted WiFi Access
and one for Untrusted WiFi Access.
In case of Trusted WiFi Access, the WiFi connects directly to the PDN
Gateway via S2a interface, using GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol).
In Untrusted WiFi Access an additional IPsec tunnel is established
between UE and ePDG using SWn interface. After successful IPsec tunnel
setup, ePDG forwards the user traffic to PDN GW via S2b interface using GTP.
In a roaming scenario, the HSS/3GPP AAA Server in HPLMN makes the
decision of whether a WiFi Access is used as Trusted or Untrusted WiFi Access.
The HSS/3GPP AAA Server may take the VPLMN's (Visited PLMN) policy and
capability returned from the 3GPP AAA Proxy and roaming agreement into
account.
Figure 2.18 illustrates the overall local breakout roaming architecture for
EPC. The following list briefly describes key EPC components.
 PDN (Packet Data Network) Gateway in the EPC supports GPRS
Tunneling Protocol for the control plane and the user plane to provide
PDN connectivity to UEs using trusted or untrusted WiFi Access.
 ePDG (evolved Packet Data Gateway) is placed at the border between
the Untrusted WiFi Access and the PLMN. It is used to create an IPsec
tunnel to the UE and is connected to the PDN Gateway via S2b interface
when using Untrusted WiFi Access..

37
  Trusted WLAN access network is summarized in Figure 2.19. In this case
there is no need for an IPSec tunnel between the UE and Trusted WLAN
Access Gateway (TWAG): It leverages the appropriate security provided
by IEEE 802.11-2012 (802.11i, AES) over the air interface (SWw)
between UE and the WLAN Access Network. The TWAP (Trusted WLAN
AAA Proxy) relays AAA information between TWAN and 3GPP AAA
Server (and via a 3GPP Proxy AAA when roaming).
 PCRF (Policy Charging and Rules Function) is responsible for provision
of QoS information and charging policies information to the PDN Gateway
(P-GW) and to manage and control sessions.

Figure 2.18. Roaming Architecture for EPC with Local Breakout, [22].

Non-seamless WLAN offload is an optional capability of a UE supporting

WLAN radio access in addition to 3GPP radio access.
A UE supporting non-seamless WLAN offload may, while connected to
WLAN access, route specific IP flows via the WLAN access without traversing
the EPC (Evolved Packet Core). These IP flows are identified via user
preferences, and via policies that may be statically pre-configured by the
operator on the UE, or dynamically set by the operator. For such IP flows the UE
uses the local IP address allocated by the WLAN access network and no IP
address preservation is provided between WLAN and 3GPP accesses.

38
 For performing the non-seamless WLAN offload, the UE needs to
acquire a local IP address on WLAN access, and it is not required to connect to
an ePDG.

Figure 2.19. Trusted WLAN Access Network functions, [22].

Also, in the case the WLAN access is EPC connected, it is possible for a
UE which also supports seamless WLAN offload to perform seamless WLAN
offload for some IP flows and non seamless WLAN offload for some other IP
flows simultaneously.

Figure 2.20. 4G bearers for untrusted WiFi, [22].

39
Untrusted Access

For WiFi Access to the EPC the PDN connectivity service is provided by
IKEv2 and IPsec connectivity between the UE and the ePDG concatenated with
S2b bearer(s) between the ePDG and the PGW. During this connection
procedure the UE and the ePDG must support mutual authentication for the
IPsec tunnel establishment between the UE and the ePDG (SWu reference
point). The Tunnel authentication is using a SWm reference point to the AAA
Proxy / Server. The use of S2b bearers is depicted in Figure 2.20.
The UE must establish a separate SWu instance (i.e. a separate IPsec
tunnel) for each PDN connection. One default S2b bearer must be established on
the S2b interface when the UE connects to a PDN, and that remains established
throughout the lifetime of the PDN connection to provide the UE with always-on
IP connectivity to that PDN. Additional dedicated S2b bearers may be
established for the same PDN connection depending on operator policy. The
PGW establishes dedicated S2b bearers for the same PDN connection based on
PCC decisions.

Trusted Access

In this case, the PDN connectivity service is provided by the point-to-point

connectivity between the UE and the TWAG concatenated with S2a bearer(s)
between the TWAG and the PDN GW.
The bearer model of GTP based S2a interface is similar to that of GTP
based S5/S8 interface and GTP based S2b interface. The TWAN handles the
uplink packets based on the uplink packet filters in the TFTs (Traffic Flow
Templates) received from the PDN GW for the S2a bearers of the PDN
connection as depicted in Figure 2.21, in the same way as an ePDG does for
GTP based S2b interface.

Figure 2.21. Trusted WiFi access in 4G, [22]

40
 The trusted access can be used in the following modes:
 Non-Seamless offload mode (as from Release 11): this mode does not
make use of a P-GW and the traffic is routed directly to an external data
network via the TWAG.
 Transparent connection mode (as from Release 11): single connection
to P-GW using S2a but without mobility support between 3GPP and
WLAN. Selective offload (e.g. moving one PDN out of two from one
access to another) is not possible. This nomadic PDN connectivity
enables to have a consistent 3GPP service (re-use of P-GW
functionalities) while using a WLAN.
 Single-connection mode (as from Release 12): support of a single
connection at a time (non-seamless or with a single PDN connectivity).
The use of the Single-Connection mode and the associated parameters of
the connection can be negotiated during authentication over TWAN.
Seamless mobility between accesses in this mode is possible.
 Multi-connection mode (as from Release 12): support of multiple
connections simultaneously. One connection may be used for Non-
Seamless offload and one or more simultaneous connections may be
used for PDN connectivity. The use of the Multi-Connection mode can be
negotiated during authentication over TWAN and a requested PDN
connection can be setup with the WLCP (WLAN Control Plane protocol,
as per 3GPP TS 24.244). This mode therefore enables the support of
MAPCON (Multi-Access PDN Connectivity) where selective offload is
possible (e.g. two PDN connections (e.g. IMS, Internet) over 3GPP and
only one (e.g. Internet) needs to be moved to WLAN based on operator
policy/rules). Seamless mobility in this mode between accesses is
possible.

2.6.2. LTE-WLAN interworking

Unlicensed spectrum is becoming increasingly important for mobile

operators to cater to operators’ demand, in Release-13 the 3GPP have defined a
number of WLAN interworking features between LTE and WiFi (i.e. WLAN):
 LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA)
 LTE WLAN Radio Level Integration with IPsec Tunnel (LWIP).

LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA)

LWA allows aggregating LTE and WLAN at RAN level. WLAN AP/AC
only interacts with the LTE eNB, while there is no interaction with LTE Core
Network. The key drivers for this are: performance, mobility, eliminating need for
WLAN-specific Core Network nodes. LWA is controlled by E-UTRAN Node
B(eNB), based on User Equipment (UE) measurement reporting.
LWA allows a single bearer to be configured to utilize LTE and WLAN
simultaneously. LWA supports aggregation in downlink only (in Release 13),

41
while uplink transmission is always on LTE Packets (PDCP PDUs) belonging to
LWA bearer can be sent by eNB via LTE or WLAN simultaneously. The eNB can
do packet-by-packet scheduling, based on measurements (LTE and WLAN) and
feedback from WLAN. LWA supports two deployment scenarios:
 Collocated: integrated eNB and WLAN Access Point (AP)/Access
Controller (AC)
 Non-collocated: eNBand WLAN AP/AC connected via WLAN
Termination (WT) using standardized interface Xw (Figure 2.22).

Figure 2.22. LWA network architecture, [30].

LWA activation and deactivation are controlled by eNB, where eNB

configures WLAN mobility set for UE. Based e.g. on WLAN measurements
reported by UE, WLAN mobility set is a group of WLAN APs (e.g., identified by
SSID(s)).
Mobility set is UE-specific and there is only one set configured for UE at a
time. All WLANs in mobility set are connected to the same WT, and mobility
within WLAN mobility set is controlled by UE, i.e. transparent to eNB.
Mobility outside of WLAN mobility set is controlled by eNB. When LWA is
activated, eNB configures one or more bearers as LWA bearers.

LAA (License Assisted Access)

Figure 2.23 shows four LAA deployment scenarios, where the number
of licensed carriers and the number of unlicensed carriers can be one or more.
Though the backhaul between small cells can be ideal or non-ideal, the
unlicensed small cell only operates in the context of the carrier aggregation
through ideal backhaul with a licensed cell. In scenarios where carrier
aggregation is operated within the small cell with carriers in both the licensed and
unlicensed bands, the backhaul between macro cell and small cell can be ideal
or non-ideal.

42
 Figure 2.23. LAA deployment scenarios, [35].

The following four LAA scenarios (Figure 2.23) are possible:

 Scenario 1: Carrier aggregation between licensed macro cell (F1) and
unlicensed small cell (F3)
 Scenario 2: Carrier aggregation between licensed small cell (F2) and
unlicensed small cell (F3) without macro cell coverage
 Scenario 3: Licensed macro cell and small cell (F1), with carrier
aggregation between licensed small cell (F1) and unlicensed small cell
(F3)
 Scenario 4: Licensed macro cell (F1), licensed small cell (F2) and
unlicensed small cell (F3), which include the following possibilities:
o Carrier aggregation between licensed small cell (F2) and
unlicensed small cell (F3)
o If there is ideal backhaul between macro cell and small cell, there
can be carrier aggregation between macro cell (F1), licensed small
cell (F2) and unlicensed small cell (F3)
o If dual connectivity is enabled, there can be dual connectivity
between macro cell and small cell.

LTE WLAN radio level integration with IPsec tunnel (LWIP)

UE uses WLAN via IPsec tunnel between eNBand UE (Figure 2.24). Here
key drivers are fast time to market, and use of legacy WLAN infrastructure.
WLAN is hidden from CN (Core Network) except for WLAN authentication. LWIP
is controlled by eNB, based on UE measurement reporting.

43
 Figure 2.24. LWIP network architecture, [31].

For security reasons IPsec tunnel is terminated in LWIP-SeGWin eNB.

IPsec tunnel is transparent to WLAN infrastructure, however there are no
standardized network interfaces in LWIP. LWIP establishes single IPSec tunnel
per UE for transfer of UL and DL data. Regarding the control plane, in LWIP
activation and deactivation is controlled by eNB, and it re-uses same WLAN
mobility concept as LWA.

2.6.3. Prediction on mobile traffic offload to WLAN

The amount of traffic offloaded from 4G was 57 percent at the end of

2017, and it will be 59 percent by 2022 (Figure 2.25). The amount of traffic
offloaded from 3G will be 40 percent by 2022, and the amount of traffic offloaded
from 2G will be 30 percent. As 5G is being introduced, although one may expect
much larger mobile data caps and higher speeds, the new application demands
on 5G are also going to move upwards as well encouraging similar behaviors of
offload as 4G. The offload percentage on 5G is estimated to be 71 percent by
2022. As the 5G network matures, one may expect offload rates to come down.
Globally, total public WiFi hotspots (including homespots) will grow four-
fold from 2017 to 2022, from 124 million in 2017 to 549 million by 2022. Total
WiFi homespots is predicted (by Cisco VNI, 2019) to grow from 115 million in
2017 to 532 million by 2022. Homespots or community hotspots are a significant
part of the public WiFi strategy. The public WiFi hotspots include public WiFi
commercial hotspots and homespots, where:
 Commercial hotspots include fixed and mobile operator hotspots that are
purchased or installed for a monthly fee or commission.

44
 Homespots or community hotspots have emerged as a potentially
significant element of the public WiFi landscape. In this model, subscribers
allow part of the capacity of their residential gateway to be open to casual
use. Homespots have dual SSIDs and operators download software to a
subscriber’s home gateway, allowing outside users to use one of the
SSIDs like a hotspot.

Figure 2.25. Offload traffic predictions for period 2017-2022, [38].

45
2.7. Ultra-broadband WLAN spectrum regulation

As for the Mobile broadband technologies, so for the WiFi, the spectrum is
one of the most important resources facing the industry and ICT
communications. As mentioned before, the ITU Radiocommunications Sector
(ITU-R) plays a pivotal role in the global management of radio spectrum (so the
same for the spectrum for WiFi), and the identification of necessary changes to
existing spectrum allocations to accommodate changes in demand.
However, fact is that the regulatory requirements to access the spectrum
are different in every region in the world, and the same applies for the unlicensed
bands. In general, there are several compliance rules that have been defined
around the world for regulating the use of the unlicensed spectrum. These rules
can be summarized as follows:
 Limitations of the maximum transmission power and the maximum power
spectrum density (PSD).
 Use indoor only or use both indoor and outdoor.
 Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS).
 Listen-Before-Talk (LBT).
 Transmission Power Control (TPC).

DFS is a mechanism that is specifically designed to avoid causing

interference to non-IMT (International Mobile Telecommunications) systems,
such as radars. According to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
regulations in the United States, any device (working in certain sub-bands of the
5 GHz band) must sense the channel before using it, and sense it periodically to
ensure there is no radar system using this channel. If a radar signal is detected,
i.e. the received power levels are above a certain threshold, the operating
channel must be vacated. The device must not utilize that channel for the non-
occupancy period of thirty minutes [28].
LBT is a mechanism introduced for fair co-existence with other wireless
communication systems (such as WiFi). In Europe and Japan, there is a
mandatory requirement to implement LBT when accessing the unlicensed
spectrum. According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI), and based on the Load Based Equipment rules, any device that wants to
access the unlicensed spectrum, needs to perform Clear Channel Assessment
(CCA) beforehand, which translates to spectrum sensing for certain period
(called CCA period and it is greater than 20 ms). If the detected energy is lower
than a certain threshold (which equals -73 dBm/MHz for the case of a transmitter
with an EIRP of 23 dBm and assuming receiver antenna gain of 0), the device
can access the channel for a period called channel occupancy time. Then the

46
device has to stay idle for a minimum period of CCA multiplied by a number that
is randomly selected, [29].

Table 2.8. General technical requirements applicable in certain administrations

and/or regions (source: ITU-R M.1450-5, [20]).
General band Administration Specific frequency Transmitter output power
designation or region band (MHz) (mW)
USA 2 400-2 483.5 1 000
Canada 2 400-2 483.5 4 W e.i.r.p.
2.4 GHz band Europe 2 400-2 483.5 100 mW (e.i.r.p.)
2 471-2 497 10 mW/MHz
Japan
2 400-2 483.5 10 mW/MHz
50
5 150-5 250
2.5 mW/MHz
250
5 250-5 350
12.5 mW/MHz
USA
250
5 470-5 725
12.5 mW/MHz
1 000
5 725-5 850
50.1 mW/MHz
200 mW e.i.r.p.
5 150-5 250
10 dBm/MHz e.i.r.p.
250
5 250-5 350
12.5 mW/MHz
5 GHz band (11 dBm/MHz)
1 000 mW e.i.r.p.
Canada
250
5 470-5 725
12.5 mW/MHz
(11 dBm/MHz)
1 000 mW e.i.r.p.
1 000
5 725-5 850
50.1 mW/MHz
200 mW (e.i.r.p.)
5 150-5 250
10 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
200 mW (e.i.r.p.)
Europe 5 250-5 350
10 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
1 000 mW (e.i.r.p.)
5 470-5 725
50 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
4 900-5 000 250 mW
50 mW/MHz
Japan 5 150-5 250 10 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
5 250-5 350 10 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
5 470-5 725 50 mW/MHz (e.i.r.p.)
40 dBm (e.i.r.p.)
57-66 GHz Europe 57-66 GHz
13 dBm/MHz (e.i.r.p)

47
 Table 2.8 captures the regulatory requirements in the major regions of the
world for the unlicensed spectrum. The maximum transmission power in every
sub-band is limited by regulatory requirements, which motivates designing the
LTE/LTE-Advanced Pro in unlicensed bands for the small cell network
deployment.
Products based on 802.11ac/ad/ax are able to provide reliable high data
rates and shall meet the challenge of supporting the new wireless bandwidth
demands coming into the enterprise.
It is a fundamental rule of wireless communication that more spectrum
enables higher throughput, and it is no surprise that the 802.11ac task group has
chosen to expand the channel width from 40 MHz in 802.11n to 80 and 160 MHz.
This allows a pro-rata increase in effective data rates. However, since the
spectrum allocated for WiFi is limited, it has been necessary to allow for channels
to be split across non-contiguous spectrum.
But it is clear that doubling the RF channel bandwidth allows twice the
data throughput, representing a significant improvement. The 40-MHz channel of
802.11n is extended to 80- and 160-MHz in 802.11ac. There are practical
obstacles to using these wider channels, but now that they are defined,
equipment will be developed to use them. The details:
 80-MHz and 160-MHz channel bandwidths are defined
 80 MHz mandatory, 160 MHz optional
 80-MHz channels are two adjacent 40-MHz channels but with tones
(subchannels) in the middle filled in.
 160-MHz channels are defined as two 80-MHz channels. The two 80-MHz
channels may be contiguous or non-contiguous.

In that way, the telcos and enterprises will be able to utilize the 80 MHz
channels but the future optional 160 MHz channel support will only be usable in
home environments since there are only 1 (or 2 if DFS is enabled) 160 MHz
channels available for designing an enterprise deployment while the use of 80
MHz channels can leverage up to 5 channels in the deployment plan.
Moreover, all channelization is based on the 20-MHz channels used in
earlier 802.11 standards, and the same channel numbering scheme is used.
Since channel numbers are defined every 5 MHz, an increment of four for the
channel number indicates adjacent 20 MHz channels.
The band from Channel 36 (center frequency 5,180 MHz) to Channel 48
(5,240 MHz) is known as U-NII 1, while channels 52 (5,260 MHz) to 64 (5,320
MHz) comprise U-NII 2. Both are available for WiFi, and they can be used for two
80-MHz channels or a single 160-MHz channel. Since the U-NII 1 and 2 bands
have different FCC rules for antennas and transmit power, the more restrictive
rule would apply to a 160-MHz channel spanning both bands.
The band from Channel 100 (center frequency 5,500 MHz) to Channel
144 (5,720 MHz), known as U-NII 2 extended or U-NII-2 Worldwide, is a little
wider, and since Channel 144 is now allowed for 802.11ac, it can support three
80-MHz channels or one continuous 160-MHz channel.

48
 The U-NII 3 band, from Channel 149 (center frequency 5,745 MHz) to
Channel 165 (5,825 MHz) allows one 80-MHz channel but no contiguous 160-
MHz channel. This band is not widely available outside the U.S.
Because it is difficult to find 160 MHz of contiguous spectrum, 802.11ac
allows two non-contiguous 80-MHz channels to be used together as a 160-MHz
channel. For example, channels 36-48 and 116-128 comprise a viable 160-MHz
channel, sometimes referred to as 80+80 MHz. But each of the underlying 80-
MHz channels must be contiguous.
Moreover, the unlicensed frequency allocations at around 60 GHz for
IEEE 802.11ad, in each region do not match exactly. But there is substantial
overlap. At least 3.5 GHz of contiguous spectrum is available in all regions that
have allocated spectrum.
The ITU-R-recommended channelization comprises four channels that are
each 2.16-GHz wide. They are centered on 58.32, 60.48, 62.64, and 64.80 GHz.
When considering channels in the 5-GHz band, there are two practical
restrictions. A large part of the band is covered by regulatory requirements for
radar avoidance, to prevent interference with prior users of the band, primarily
weather and military radars. The industry response to these requirements was
802.11 h, including dynamic frequency selection (DFS) and transmit power
control (TPC). The latter is not normally required at the power levels used by
WiFi, but equipment using channels from 5,250 to 5,725 MHz must be certified
for DFS.

Figure. 2.26. The 60-GHz-band channel plan and frequency allocations are shown by
region, [37].

49
 Furthermore, as Figure 2.26 illustrates, looking from the IEEE 802.11ad -
not all channels are available in all countries. Channel 2, which is globally
available, is therefore the default channel for equipment operating in this
frequency band.
Finally, WiFi as low-cost technology in unlicensed spectrum is used for
traffic offload from mobile networks as well as for hotspot implementations. Also,
WiFi has become such an amazingly successful technology because it has
continuously advanced while remaining backwards compatible.

2.7.1. WLAN regulatory aspects

Until recently, most consumer devices, including smartphones, have

typically supported single - band WiFi with 2.4GHz (with support for only three
non-overlapping channels). As these devices have proliferated, many enterprise
networks have experienced issues relating to network congestion as well as
interference. Some network managers therefore have moved their dual - band
devices (such as laptops) to operate using 5GHz spectrum, thereby alleviating
some of the congestion issues with 2.4 GHz. Another solution often used is to
deploy WLAN and controller architectures that have the intelligence to
dynamically handle spectrum-related issues to optimize WiFi workloads. The
push for continuous improvements in capacity, bandwidth, and network
robustness and the need to leverage the 5GHz band with its inherent benefits
have driven standards bodies such as IEEE and industry groups such as the
WiFi Alliance to move quickly to the next evolutionary step in WiFi innovation
Giga Speed 802.11ac.
As we mentioned in the previous section, the regulatory requirements to
access the spectrum are different in every region in the world, and the same
applies for the 5 GHz band. Also, if we go back to the previous WiFi standards,
the Figure 2.27 gives excellent overview of the used regulated bands and OFDM
Subcarriers used in IEEE 802.11a, .11n and .11ac standards.
As a testament to the certainty of a fairly rapid transition to this standard,
as well as the battery-preservation benefits from moving to higher performance
(i.e., requiring less time while transmitting or receiving), major mobile device
vendors are now incorporating 802.11ac capabilities into their smartphone and
tablet portfolios. Going forward, every WiFi-enabled mobile device will most
certainly support this new WiFi standard.
Moreover, given these business drivers and benefits, it is clear that the
new 802.11ac standard has been defined with the promise of delivering
significant increases in bandwidth while improving the overall reliability of
wireless in the enterprise. Further, the comparison between the subcarriers on 20
MHz spectrum of existing 802.11ac and next generation WiFi, 802.11ax, are
given in Figure 2.28. As one may expect 802.11ax allows more subcarriers on
the same frequency carrier (when it is compared to the previous WiFi standards).

50
 Figure. 2.27. The bands and OFDM Subcarriers used in IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11n
and IEEE 802.11ac standards [36].

Figure 2.28 Comparison of subcarriers on 20 MHz spectrum for 802.11ac and 802.11ax,
[36].

2.7.2. Next Generation WiFi (802.11ax) regulatory aspects

As promising as the potential gains in efficiency may seem, in some

regions the IEEE 802.11ax may cause some concern. The reason is the
regulations for radio operations in the 5 GHz frequency band. All devices that
transmit in the 5 GHz band, whichever radio technology they use, are obliged to

51
comply with certain specifications. On the one hand, they should ensure the
efficient use of the limited frequencies that are available and, on the other hand,
they enable a fair coexistence of different radio technologies.
However, WiFi devices benefit from better performance by including a
number of exemptions for IEEE 802.11. These exemptions permit devices
accessing WiFi channels to use mechanisms that offer better performance. What
is otherwise a good thing for previous WiFi standards (802.11b/g/a/n and ac)
actually presents a problem for IEEE 802.11ax - cannot operate with their full
performance. Why? Because one possibility of 802.11ax is to increase the power
transmitted in certain OFDMA RU’s, while reducing that used in others. That
provides possibility 802.11ax AP to allocate the resources to the most-effective
recipient, but also allows the AP to transmit above the allocated power levels
(EIRP) for certain subcarriers (while reducing power on others). So long as the
overall EIRP on a 20 MHz channel is within the given limits, such configuration
would be allowed by the regulation.
However, it is not only the regulations for WLAN that need to be revised
for the IEEE 802.11ax. The IEEE 802.11ax standardization process itself is
behind schedule. Although the High Efficiency WLAN Study Group (HEW SG)
started working on this in May 2013, its final adoption is currently expected for
2020.
Regarding the unlicensed spectrum regulation, where WiFi is positioned,
certain regulatory changes may allow new unlicensed or lightly-licensed
spectrum to be allocated. Why? Because the two main WiFi bands (2.4 GHz and
5 GHz) have not significantly changed from IEEE 802.11ac. And WiFi is needed
in different flavors because it is affordable (low price of the equipment), because
it is available (every laptop and smartphone has built-in WiFi interface) and it has
inexpensive spectrum (unlicensed bands) which uses to achieve multi-gigabit
speeds at lower costs than other radio technologies in the wireless local area
networks segment.

52
2.8. Business aspects of ultra-broadband WLAN

As it is well known, the mobile broadband access provides basis for

converged service and contents based on Internet technologies. However, the
business aspects for many services have influence their development. For
example, legacy services such as telephony and television are being transferred
from PSTN/PLMN and broadcast TV networks to IP-based access and transport
networks in form of VoIP and IPTV, respectively. Other services such as WWW,
which are Internet-native and deployed in best-effort manner in the Internet, are
being used for development of broad range of services, such as web services,
Internet of Things (IoT) and Web of Things (WoT). The IoT/WoT has also impact
on the regulation and the business aspects of network and service providers, as
well as end-users and the society in a given country. All services are converging
onto IP-based networks infrastructure and broadband access (including fixed and
mobile/WiFi access networks). That requires certain adaptation of existing
business and regulative environments (e.g., for legacy services) as well as
provision of new business models and regulation (where needed) in the
converged telecommunication world.
The WiFi is the most used technology worldwide for wireless access
to Internet in a local area network (e.g., home, office, public places, etc.).
Since a decade ago, public WiFi hotspots have appeared at many different
hotspots (e.g., airports, malls, hotels, cafeterias, even whole city areas were
covered with WiFi). However, WiFi is cheap, but it lacks mobility (no TDMA
support as 3G and 4G mobile broadband networks have, either from 3GPP or
WiMAX from the IEEE) and has limited QoS support (i.e., there are not exact
QoS guarantees possible, but mainly better service for one Access Category in
IEEE 802.11e than for other one). On the other side, WiFi Access Points are
cheap (since they do not TDMA support in the wireless link) and operate in the
unlicensed bands (no spectrum fees), hence they are irreplaceable nowadays
and together with Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) for fixed local access in the last meters,
provide unified local access to Internet. On the others side, certain operators use
Gigabit Speed WiFi access networks for traffic offload from their mobile
broadband networks, especially in high dense urban areas where capacity is
scarce for the mobile broadband access.
Furthermore, a good WiFi network is the foundation of every business
and organization. With our reliance on technology becoming more prominent by
the second, the importance of a secure, fast and down right good wireless
network is the key to successfully running a business. You can have the latest in
mobile, medical and computing technology, but if your wireless network can’t
handle the load of all that traffic, you’re basically throwing money down the drain.
Because, at the end of the day, the business is all about connections, from the

53
relationships that allows one worker to climb the ladder of success to the contact
that he/she is making with customers and colleagues as a business owner. And
like these connections, your WiFi works unseen, quietly powering everything
from your access point to your smart phone. Whether you're providing free WiFi
to coffee-sipping patrons or uploading high-quality media files to a faraway cloud,
it's the workhorse the business can't live without. If the businessmen hold his
products and services to the highest of the standards; it’s time to treat his Giga
speed WiFi the same way.
Speaking of speeds, devices that support the common IEEE 802.11n
standard introduced in 2009 can handle several hundred of Megabits per second
(Mbps), and can operate on both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. Bands are like
radio freeways for data; while the 2.4 GHz frequency is often congested with
competing WiFi signals, 5 GHz connections typically make for less competition
and more stable Internet. In comparison, as it was mentioned in the Section 2.3
the IEEE 802.11ac devices operate exclusively on the 5 GHz frequency, and
offer max speeds over Gigabit per second (Gbps). To put that in perspective,
remember that one Gigabit is equal to 1000 Megabits, and that was for just the
first wave of 802.11ac devices (IEEE 802.11ac-1). There is also a newer
generation of IEEE 802.11ac called “Wave 2”, that provides theoretical speeds of
up to 6.9 Gbit/s.

Figure 2.29. Illustration of the trend of WiFi Product and Industry, [5].

Moreover, many statistics show that the WiFi market, particularly in the
enterprise, reflects somewhat of a pause in growth as 802.11ac gets adopted
and businesses anticipate second-wave Giga Speed WiFi features.
Carriers are increasingly attracted to Giga Speed WiFi for data offload
from their cellular networks. The Figure 2.29 also shows the trend of the WiFi
product (with some predictions).

54
 Figure 2.30 gives the rapid transition from 802.11n to 802.11ac starting
from 2015 and then giving the market dominance to 802.1ax in enterprise access
shipments after around 2020.
The world has already entered the era where the WiFi products have been
integrated deep into all aspects of our work and life.

Figure 2.30. WiFi enterprise access units, [16].

Figure 2.31. WiFi new business approach, [16].

The next generation WiFi broadband access, IEEE 802.11ax (WiFi 6), is
designed for high density connectivity (Figure 2.31). It allows simultaneously
serving lots of devices per AP, unlike previous WiFi standards (where the
number of users per Access Point was limited, and therefore were needed many
APs on a given area to serve larger number of WiFi users). It also has optimal
performance in dense environments with many APs, and multiple APs can be
used on shared channels. So, regarding the business side the 802.11ax may be
expected to replace 802.11ac and 802.11n first in business and public

55
environments, and then in residential home environments. It is also convenient
for use in IoT (Internet of Things) in parallel with use for ultra-broadband
access to Internet (with individual bitrates over 100 Mbit/s), because it can
provide efficiently serving multiple traffic types, including low traffic IoT devices
and high demanding video streaming (e.g., 4K) or download.

56
Abbreviations

3GPP Third Generation Partnership Project

AAA Authentication, Authorization and Accounting
ABS Almost-Blank Subframe
AC Access Controller
AP Access Point
BS Base Station
BSS Basic Service Set
CA Carrier Aggregation
CFB Contention Free Burst
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
DCF Distributed coordination function
DFS Dynamic frequency selection
DRS Discovery Reference Signal
DSS Data Security Standard
EDCA Enhanced DCF Channel Access
EDCF Extended DCF
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
ESS Extended Service Set
HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HCCA HCF controlled channel access
HCF Hybrid coordination function
IA Integrated Authenticated
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IMT International Mobile Communications
IoT Internet of Things
IP Internet Protocol
IPTV Internet Protocol television
LAA License Assisted Access
LAN Local Area Network
LTE Long Term Evolution
MCS Modulation and Coding Schemes
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex modulation
OWE Opportunistic Wireless Encryption
QoS Quality of Service
RLAN Radio Local Area Network
SC Single Carrier
SSID Service Set Identifier
TPC Transmit Power Control
TXOP Transmission Opportunity

57
U-NII Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure
VoIP Voice over IP
WiFi Wireless Fidelity
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WoT Web of Things
WPA WiFi Protected Access
WRC World Radiocommunication Conferences

58
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