SUPER IMAGE RESOLUTION

B-Tech Project Report

Submitted towards the partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

Degree of [Link]

In

Electronics And Communication Engineering

Semester : 3

By

ROHIT SINGHA ROY (ROLL-430222010086)

SUJAL KHAN (ROLL-430222010087)

SOUMIK SINGHA ROY (ROLL-430222010088)

SOUMODEEP DAS (ROLL-430222010089)

SONU KUMAR RAY (ROLL-430222010090)

Under the supervision

Of

Dr. SOUMEN Pal

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Narula Institute of Technology

Affiliated to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology

West Bengal

81, Nilgung Road, Agarpara, Kolkata-700109

 November , 2023

DECLARATION
We, Soumodeep Das, Soumik Singha Roy,Sujal Khan, Rohit Singha Roy,Sonu kumar Roy

bearing university roll no. 430222010089, 430222010088, 430222010087, 430222010086,

430222010090 declare that the project work is original work performed by us in the
department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology,
Kolkata. To complete the work, we have taken some reference and are cited in the report.

Place: Signature of students

Date: 1. ROHIT SINGHA ROY

2. SUJAL KHAN

3. SOUMIK SINGHA ROY

[Link] DAS

[Link] KUMAR RAY

i
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This is to certify that Soumodeep Das, Soumik Singha Roy, Sujal Khan, Rohit Singha Roy,
Sonu Kumar Ray bearing university roll no. 430222010089, 430222010088, 430222010087,
430222010086, 430222010090, Semester 3rd has submitted the B. Tech project entitled
VALIDATION OF INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE in partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of [Link] in Electronics and Communication
Engineering of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, West Bengal in the
year 2023. It is hereby approved and certified as creditable study of technological subject
carried out and presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a prerequisite
to the Degree of B. Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering for which it has
been submitted.

It is understood that by the approval the undersigned does not necessarily endorse or
approve any statement made. Opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but
approve the report only for the purpose for which has been submitted.

Name of Supervisor

Dr. Soumen Pal Mr. Kaushik Sarkar

Designation Head of the Dept.

Narula Institute of Technology Narula Institute of

Technology

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We want to thank Soumen sir from the bottom of our heart for all of her help and
support during this endeavor. His knowledge and perceptions have been crucial in
determining the project's outcome. We sincerely appreciate all of his time and work in
sharing his expertise, giving helpful criticism, and making insightful recommendations.
Working under his guidance has been a rewarding experience that has advanced both our
career and personal growth in addition to the project's excellence. We are so grateful to
Soumen sir for being such a great mentor and for having such a big influence on my
path.

Signature of student

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NUMBER

Declaration i

Certificate of Approval ii

Acknowledgement iii

Abstract v

List Of Figures vi

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Basic Introduction-

Semiconductor

1.2 Diode and types

1.3 Internal Structure & Energyband aspect of a Diode

1.4 Applications of Diodes

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Biasing

2.2 Types of Biasing

2.3 Effects of Biasing

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Characteristics of a Diode

3.2 Input & Output Characteristics of a Diode

CHAPTER 4

4.1Finding the Input Characteristics (Experimentally)

4.2 Finding the Input Characteristics (Theoretically/ Software Simulation)

4.3 Errors and Verification

vi
CONCLUSION

ABSTRACT
This project focuses on the verification of input characteristics of PN junction diodes,
specifically exploring their behavior under varying voltage and current conditions. The goal
is to understand and validate the diode's response systematically, contributing to a
comprehensive understanding of semiconductor devices. The future vision involves
leveraging these insights to advance semiconductor technology, potentially leading to more
efficient electronic devices and inspiring further innovations in diode design. Furthermore,
the project aims to lay the groundwork for future research and developments in optimizing
PN junction diodes, paving the way for continued advancements in the field of
semiconductor electronics.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE NUMBERS

Fig 1: Diode

Fig 2: Internal Structure of PN junction diode

Fig 3:

N-Dopped Semiconductor Structure

&

P-Dopped Semiconductor Structure

Fig 5: Energy Band diagram of PN junction Diode

Fig 6: Input Characteristics GRAPH of PN junction Diode (Experimental)

Fig 7: Input Characteristics GRAPH of PN junction Diode (Simulation)

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CHAPTER 1

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basic Introduction

-Semi Conductors
Semiconductors are crucial components in electronic devices, with
properties between conductors and insulators. Silicon is a commonly
used semiconductor material. Through controlled doping,
semiconductors enable the creation of transistors, forming the
foundation of modern electronics and integrated circuits.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor-

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials, like silicon or

germanium, with no intentional impurities. Their electron-hole pairs arise
from thermal excitation. Extrinsic semiconductors involve intentional doping
with impurities to enhance conductivity. N-type extrinsic semiconductors
have added donor impurities, introducing excess electrons. P-type extrinsic
semiconductors incorporate acceptor impurities, leading to electron
deficiencies or "holes." Doping modifies the electrical properties, allowing
tailored control of conductivity in semiconductors. The combination of
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor properties forms the basis for diverse
electronic applications, from transistors to diodes, powering the modern
technological landscape.

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 Again Extrinsic Semiconductor
are two Types – N & P type
Semiconductor. N-type and P-type
semiconductors result from
intentional doping to modify their
conductivity. In N-type
semiconductors, donor impurities
(e.g., phosphorus) introduce extra
electrons, enhancing conductivity.
Conversely, P-type semiconductors
involve acceptor impurities (e.g.,
boron), creating electron
deficiencies or "holes" that
facilitate conductivity. These
doping processes impact charge
carriers—electrons in N-type and holes in P-type. Understanding the behavior
of N and P-type semiconductors is crucial for designing electronic devices.
Combining both types enables the creation of diodes and transistors, forming
the backbone of modern electronics and facilitating the controlled flow of
electrical currents in various applications.

1.2 Diode and It’s Types-

A diode is a semiconductor device crucial in electronics for its one-way conduction of

electric current. It consists of a P-type semiconductor connected to an N-type
semiconductor, creating a junction.

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Types of diodes- include Rectifier Diodes, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Zener Diodes,
Schottky Diodes, Photodiodes, Varactor Diodes, Tunnel Diodes, and Schottky Barrier Diodes.

1.3 Internal Structure & Energyband aspect of Diode-

The internal structure comprises a PN junction, where the P-type and N-type
semiconductors meet. This junction forms a depletion zone, preventing the flow of current
in the reverse direction. The concept of energy bands plays a crucial role in understanding
diode behavior.

In the energy band diagram, the valence band represents the highest energy level filled with
electrons, and the conduction band is the energy level where electrons can move freely. The
energy gap between these bands determines the semiconductor's electrical properties. In a
diode, the PN junction creates a potential barrier that requires external energy for electrons
to move across.

When a forward voltage is applied, it overcomes this barrier, allowing electrons to move
from the N-type to
the P-type, creating a
flow of current. In
reverse bias, the
potential barrier
increases, preventing

current flow.

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1.4 Applications of Diodes

Diodes have diverse applications, including rectification, where they convert AC to DC, signal
demodulation, amplification, and light emission in LEDs. Varactor diodes are crucial in
tuning circuits, while Zener diodes maintain constant voltage.

Schottky diodes, with their low forward voltage drop, find use in high-frequency
applications. Photodiodes generate current when exposed to light, essential in photovoltaic
cells and light sensors. Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, making them suitable for
high-frequency oscillators. Schottky Barrier Diodes, with their fast switching speed, are
employed in radio-frequency applications and high-speed rectification. This diverse array of

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diodes demonstrates their fundamental role in modern electronics, serving various
purposes across a broad spectrum of applications.

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 CHAPTER 2

2.1 BAISING
Biasing in a PN junction diode refers to applying an external voltage to control its operation.
Forward bias aids current flow, while reverse bias inhibits it, crucial in electronic circuits.

2.2 Types of Biasing

Biasing a diode involves applying an external voltage to establish a certain operating point.
There are three main types of diode biasing:

1. *Forward Bias:*

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 - In forward bias, a positive voltage is applied to the anode and a negative voltage to the
cathode.

- This reduces the potential barrier, allowing current to flow easily through the diode.

- It is a common mode for diodes in active circuits.

2. *Reverse Bias:*

- In reverse bias, a negative voltage is applied to the anode, and a positive voltage to the
cathode.

- This increases the potential barrier, preventing significant current flow.

- Reverse bias is often used in applications like diode breakdown regions.

3. *Zero Bias:*

- In zero bias, no external voltage is applied, and the diode operates under the influence
of only the ambient temperature.

- Common in applications like microwave detectors.

Each biasing type has specific applications, and choosing the right biasing method is
crucial for proper diode functionality in electronic circuits.

2.3 Effects of Biasing

Biasing significantly impacts a diode's functionality. In forward bias, external voltage

reduces the energy band gap, enabling easier electron flow across the PN junction. This
promotes conductivity, allowing the diode to conduct current effectively. Conversely, in
reverse bias, the external voltage increases the band gap, creating a barrier that impedes
the flow of electrons. Here, valence electrons play a crucial role as they engage in the
formation of the depletion region, reinforcing the diode's insulating properties. The energy

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band diagram illustrates these changes, visually representing the alteration in electron
energy levels due to biasing. The intricate interplay between energy bands and valence
electrons under different bias conditions is fundamental to understanding the diode's
conductivity and its application in electronic circuits.

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Diode Characteristics-

Diodes exhibit several key characteristics:

1. *Forward Voltage Drop:* A diode requires a minimum voltage (forward bias) for current
flow.

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2. *Reverse Leakage Current:* In reverse bias, a small leakage current flows due to minority
carriers.

3. *Forward Current:* The current through a diode increases exponentially with voltage in
forward bias.

4. *Reverse Breakdown Voltage:* Exceeding this voltage leads to a sudden increase in

reverse current during breakdown.

5. *Speed:* Diodes respond rapidly to changes in voltage, crucial in high-frequency

applications.

6. *Rectification:* Diodes allow current flow in one direction, essential for converting AC to
DC.

7. *Temperature Sensitivity:* Diode characteristics can vary with temperature, impacting

performance.

Understanding these traits is crucial for effectively incorporating diodes in electronic circuits.

3.2 Input & Output Characteristics of diode-

The input and output characteristics of a PN junction diode provide insights into its behavior
under varying conditions:

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*Input Characteristics:*

1. *Exponential Current Growth:*

- The diode follows the exponential Shockley diode equation, where current (I)
exponentially increases with forward voltage (V).

- \(I = I_s \ (e^{(V / (n \ V_t))} - 1)\), where \(I_s\) is the reverse saturation current, \(n\) is
the ideality factor, and \(V_t\) is the thermal voltage.

2. *Threshold Voltage:*

- There's a threshold voltage (typically around 0.7 V for silicon diodes) below which
significant current flow begins.

- Prior to this threshold, the diode conducts very little current.

3. *Minority Carrier Injection:*

- Forward biasing injects minority carriers (electrons in P-type and holes in N-type) across
the junction, facilitating conduction..

*Output Characteristics:*

1. *Forward Bias:*

- Plotting forward current against forward voltage shows an exponential relationship,

described by the Shockley diode equation.

- Beyond the threshold, incremental increases in voltage lead to significant current changes.

2. *Reverse Bias:*

- A reverse bias curve depicts a small reverse saturation current initially, followed by an
abrupt increase during breakdown.

- The breakdown voltage is a critical parameter, marking the point where reverse current
surges.

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Understanding these characteristics aids in diode application, ensuring optimal performance
and reliability in electronic circuits.

Chapter 4

Finding the Input Characteristics (Experimentally)

To study of input characteristics of voltage current characteristics of PN junction diode, the

apparatus required are
DC supply, resistor, diode, wire, digital multimeter, and breadboard.

When the diode is connected in FB diode condition, the current increases slowly and the

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curve obtained is non-linear. As the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential
barrier, the curve rises sharply with the external voltage increases. The voltage at which the
potential barrier is overcame is Cut-in voltage.

When the diode is connected in reverse bias condition, the potential barrier increases.
Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in the
junction. If the applied voltage increases, the breakdown of the diode will happen.

Using the data from the experiment,

Precautions
for the
experiment
[Link] should
check the pin
junction
diode
terminal
carefully
2. We should
connect the
wires
carefully
[Link] applying input, we have to check networks are connected properly

4.2 Finding the Input Characteristics (Simulation)

With help of C computer language, we have written a code which will check the input
characteristics of diode and the software experiment have given the data in forward bias
condition showing below using graph-

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4.3 Possible Errors --

Possible errors in experimenting with the input characteristics of a p-n junction diode
include:

1. *Incorrect Connections:* Mistakes in wiring or connecting the diode could lead to

inaccurate results.

2. *Voltage Measurement Errors:* Inaccurate measurement of applied voltage across the

diode can affect the plotted characteristics.

3. *Current Measurement Errors:* Incorrect measurement of current flowing through the

diode can impact the accuracy of the input characteristics.

4. *Temperature Variations:* Changes in temperature can influence the diode

characteristics, so maintaining a constant temperature is crucial.

5. *Component Aging:* Over time, diodes may degrade or age, leading to changes in their
characteristics.

6. *Instrumentation Limitations:* The precision and accuracy of the measuring instruments

used can introduce errors.

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7. *Noise Interference:* External noise or interference in the experimental setup can affect
the reliability of the measurements.

8. *Non-Ideal Conditions:* Deviations from ideal conditions, such as non-uniform doping

in the diode, can affect the experimental results.

9. *Parasitic Capacitance/Inductance:* Unintended capacitance or inductance in the circuit

can impact the observed characteristics.

10. *Human Errors:* Mistakes made by the experimenter during the setup, data recording,
or analysis can introduce errors in the experiment.

If the errors are neglected the graphs are nearly similer. So the datas are verified.

REFERENCES:-

 [Link]

 [Link]
[Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]

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