lOMoARcPSD|17648593

Bio Psych Finals reviewer

AB Psychology (University of Luzon)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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CHAPTER 4.1 • A dominant gene shows a strong effect in

GENETICS, EVOLUTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND either the homozygous or heterozygous
PLASTICITY condition
• A recessive gene shows its effect only in the
GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR homozygous condition
• Both genes and environment interact to shape • An intermediate gene occurs in a phenotype
human behavior. where there is incomplete dominance in the
• The fundamental issue is how much of a role heterozygous condition
each factor plays in shaping human behaviors.
GENE EXPRESSION
Example: Skin or hair color -Other examples: • Examples such as PTC and hair color can be
addiction, psychological disorders, weight gain, misleading
personality, and sexual orientation —Implies that a single gene combination
completely controls a characteristic, but this is
GREGOR MENDEL not always true.
• He discovered the fundamental laws of Some genes are only expressed partly: in some
inheritance. cells and not others, or only under certain
• He deduced that genes come in pairs called circumstances.
alleles and are inherited as distinct units, one
from each parent. **PTC – Phenylthiocarbamide

Gene has been defined as part of chromosomes TYPES OF GENES

composed of the double-stranded molecule • Autosomal genes: all other genes except for
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sex-linked genes
• Sex-linked genes: genes located on the sex
FOUR BASES OF DNA chromosomes
-Guanine, Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine • In mammals, the sex chromosomes are
designated X & Y
PROTEINS • Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
Proteins determine the development of the • Males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY)
body by
— Forming part of the structure of the body X and Y
— Serving as enzymes, biological catalysts that During reproduction:
regulate chemical reactions in the body —Females contribute an X chromosome
—Males contribute either an X or a Y
Heterozygous and Homozygous Genes chromosome that determines the sex of the
• Being homozygous for a gene means that a child
person has an identical pair of genes on the two • If an X chromosome is contributed by the
chromosomes. male, you have an X and X, then the offspring is
• Being heterozygous for a gene means that a genetically female
person has an unmatched pair of genes on the • If a Y chromosome is contributed by the male,
two chromosomes. you have an X and Y, then the offspring will be
genetically male
DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES
• Genes are either dominant, recessive, or Sex-Linked and Sex-Limited Genes
intermediate • The human Y chromosome has genes for far
fewer proteins than the X chromosome

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• Thus, sex-linked genes usually refer to X-linked - Strong environmental influences may
genes: e.g., red-green color deficiency cause genetic influences to have less of
• Sex-limited genes are genes that are present an effect
in both sexes but mainly have an effect on one
sex (chest hair, breast size, prostate (males) or HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
ovarian cancer (female etc.) • Almost all behaviors have both a genetic and
an environmental component
GENETIC CHANGES • Researchers:
• Genes change in several ways -Study monozygotic and dizygotic twins to infer
-Mutation: a heritable change in a DNA contributions of heredity and environment
molecule. -Study adopted children and their resemblance
-Microduplication/microdeletion: part of a to their biological parents to infer hereditary
chromosome that might appear once might influences
appear twice or not at all -Example: some
researchers believe schizophrenia might be a ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION
result of microduplications and microdeletions • Traits with a strong hereditary influence can
of brain-relevant genes. be modified by environmental intervention
- e.g., PKU: a genetic inability to
EPIGENETICS metabolize the amino acid
• A field that is concerned with changes in gene phenylketonuria.
expression without the modification of the DNA • Environmental interventions can modify PKU:
sequence special diet, even in adulthood (low in
phenylalanine)
-Some genes are active only at a certain point in
one’s life, a certain time of day, etc. HOW GENES AFFECT BEHAVIOR
-Changes in gene expression are central to • Genes do not directly produce behaviors
learning and memory • Genes produce proteins that increase the
-Epigenetic differences are a likely explanation probability that a behavior will develop under
for differences between monozygotic “identical” certain circumstances
twins • Genes can also have an indirect effect
• Genes can alter your environment by
EPIGENETIC EFFECTS producing behaviors or traits that alter how
• What you do at any moment not only affects people in your environment react to you
you now but produces epigenetic effects that
alter gene expressions for a longer period of THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR
time. • Evolution refers to a change in the frequency
of various genes in a population over
• Experiences alter the activity of genes. generations
—Regardless of whether the change is helpful
HERITABILITY or harmful to the species
• Refers to how much characteristics depend on • Evolution attempts to answer two questions:
genetic differences —How did some species evolve? (e.g., Natural
- Researchers have found evidence for History)
heritability in almost every behavior • How species evolved is based on
they have tested inferences from fossils/comparisons of living
- Heritability of a certain trait is specific species
to a given population —How do species evolve?

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HOW DO SPECIES EVOLVE? • Assumes that behaviors characteristic of a

How species evolve rests upon some species has arisen through natural selection and
assumptions: provide a survival advantage
—Offspring generally resemble their parents for - Examples: differences in
genetic reasons peripheral/color vision, sleep
—Mutations, recombination, and mechanisms in the brain, eating habits,
microduplications of genes introduce new temperature regulation (color vision,
heritable variations sleep, hibernation, piloerection, grasp
—Certain individuals successfully reproduce reflex)
more than others
BEHAVIOR AND NATURAL SELECTION
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION • Some behaviors are more debatable with
• Refers to choosing individuals with desired regard to the influence of natural selection
traits and making them parents of the next Examples :
generation —Life span length
• According to Darwin, nature also selects, and —Gender differences in sexual receptivity
successful individuals’ genes will be prevalent in —Altruistic behavior: a behavior that benefits
later generations someone other than the actor genetically.
(doing things in a selfless manner)
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT • Altruism is hard to find outside of humans
EVOLUTION
• Lamarckian evolution: “The use or disuse of GROUP AND KIN SELECTION
some structure or behavior causes an increase A gene:
or decrease in that behavior” (near the end of —Only spreads if individuals with it reproduce
his career even Darwin felt pressure to include more than individuals without it
Lamarckian evolution in his later editions of his —That benefits the species but not the
book.) individual dies out with that individual
• “Humans have stopped evolving” (fails to Group selection: the controversial hypothesis
consider differential reproduction, not that states that altruistic groups survive better
differential survival) than less cooperative ones
• “Evolution means improvement” (improves Kin selection: more plausible; selection for a
"fitness" but change in environment could gene benefits the individual’s relatives
disrupt)
• “Evolution acts to benefit the individual or the RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM
species” • The idea that individuals help those that will
return the favor
BRAIN EVOLUTION • Building a reputation for helpfulness only
• One explanation is that our ancestors works if others are willing to cooperate with you
managed to get enough nutrition to provide a
big brain with all the fuel it needs CHAPTER 4.2
—Cooking food made it easier to digest DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
—Group hunting was more efficient
—Humans have a better capacity for glucose MATURATION OF THE VERTEBRATE BRAIN
transport • The human central nervous system begins to
form when the embryo is approximately two
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY weeks old
• Focuses upon functional and evolutionary —The dorsal surface thickens, forming a neural
explanations of how behaviors evolved tube surrounding a fluid-filled cavity

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—The forward end enlarges and differentiates • The axon grows first either during the
into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain migration or once it has reached its target and is
—The rest of the neural tube becomes the followed by the development of the dendrites
spinal cord
4. MYELINATION
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID • The process by which glia produce the fatty
•The fluid-filled cavity becomes the central sheath that covers the axon of some neurons
canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles -Myelin speeds up the transmission of neural
of the brain impulses
•This fluid is the cerebrospinal fluid -First occurs in the spinal cord and then in the
BRAIN WEIGHT hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
• At birth, the human brain weighs -Occurs gradually for decades
approximately 350 grams
• By the first year, the brain weighs 5. SYNAPTOGENESIS
approximately 1000 grams • The final stage of neural development
• The adult brain weighs 1200-1400 grams • The formation of the synapses between
• Brain weighs less in old age neurons
-Occurs throughout life as neurons are
The Development of Neurons constantly forming new connections and
1. Proliferation discarding old ones
2. Migration -Slow significantly later in the lifetime
3. Differentiation
4. Myelination NEW NEURONS LATER IN LIFE
5. Synaptogenesis • Originally believed that no new neurons were
formed after early development
1. PROLIFERATION • Later research suggests otherwise
• The production of new cells/neurons in the - Stem cells: undifferentiated cells found in the
brain primarily occurring early in life interior of the brain that generate "daughter
- Early in development, the cells lining cells" that can transform into glia or neurons
the ventricles divide - New olfactory receptors also continually
- Some cells become stem cells that replace dying ones
continue to divide
- Others remain where they are or NEW NEURONS LATER IN LIFE
become neurons or glia that migrate to • Development of new neurons also occurs in
other locations other brain regions
2. MIGRATION -Example: songbirds have a steady replacement
• The movement of the newly formed neurons of new neurons in the singing area of the brain
and glia to their eventual locations • Stem cells differentiate into new neurons in
• Occurs in a variety of directions throughout the adult hippocampus of mammals and
the brain facilitate learning
-Chemicals known as immunoglobulins and
chemokines guide neuron migration THE LIFE SPAN OF NEURONS
• Different cells have different average life spans
3. DIFFERENTIATION • Skin cells are the newest; most are under a
• The forming of the axon and dendrites that year old
gives the neuron its distinctive shape • Heart cells, on the other hand, tend to be as
old as the person

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• Mammalian cerebral cortexes form few or no Neurotrophins

new neurons after birth • Chemicals that promote the survival and
activity of neurons (i.e., NGF)
PATH FINDING BY AXONS – Axons that are not exposed to neurotrophins
• Axons must travel great distances across the after making connections undergo apoptosis
brain to form the correct connections – a preprogrammed mechanism of cell death
• Sperry's (1954) research with newts indicated **Therefore, the healthy adult nervous system
that axons follow a chemical trait to reach their contains no neurons that failed to make
appropriate target appropriate connections
• Growing axons reach their target area by
following a gradient of chemicals in which they NEURONAL DEATH
are attracted by some chemicals and repelled by • The elimination of massive cell death is part of
others normal development and maturation
• After maturity, the apoptotic mechanisms
Competition Among Axons as a General become dormant
Principle • The visual cortex is actually thicker in blind
• When axons initially reach their targets, they people due to a lack of visual stimuli
form synapses with several cells -It cannot prune out ineffective neurons
• Postsynaptic cells strengthen connections
with some cells and eliminate connections with THE VULNERABLE DEVELOPING BRAIN
others • Early stages of brain development are critical
• The formation or elimination of these for normal development later in life
connections depends on the pattern of input • A mutation in one gene can lead to many
from incoming axons defects
• Chemical distortions in the brain during early
NEURAL DARWINISM development can cause significant impairment
• Some theorists refer to the idea of the and developmental problems
selection process of neural connections as
neural Darwinism FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
• In this competition among synaptic • A condition that children are born with if the
connections, we initially form more connections mother drinks heavily during pregnancy
than we need • Marked by the following:
• The most successful axon connections and - Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
combinations survive while the others fail to - Difficulty maintaining attention
sustain active synapses - Varying degrees of mental retardation
- Motor problems and heart defects
Determinants of Neuronal Survival - Facial abnormalities
• Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles do • The dendrites of children born with fetal
not determine how many axons form; they alcohol syndrome are short with few branches
determine how many survive • Exposure to alcohol in the fetus’s brain
• Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a type of protein suppresses glutamate and enhances the release
released by muscles that promote the survival of GABA
and growth of axons • Many neurons consequently receive less
-The brain’s system of overproducing neurons excitation and exposure to neurotrophins than
and then applying apoptosis enables the exact usual and undergo apoptosis
matching of the number of incoming axons to
the number of receiving cells. Pruning a bush is
an analog.

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• The occipital lobe normally dedicated to

DIFFERENTIATION OF THE CORTEX processing visual information adapts to also
• Neurons in different parts of the brain differ process tactile and verbal information
from one another in their shape and chemical
components BRAIN ADAPTATIONS
- Immature neurons transplanted to a • People blind from birth are better at
developing part of the cortex develop the discriminating between objects by touch and
properties of the new location have increased activation in their occipital
- Neurons transplanted at a later stage of cortex (visual cortex) while performing touch
development develop some new properties but task
retain some old properties • Further research using magnetic stimulation
Example: ferret experiment to inactivate brain areas demonstrated that
blind people use the occipital cortex to
FINE-TUNING BY EXPERIENCE discriminate between tactile stimuli and Braille
• The brain has some ability to reorganize itself symbols, but sighted people do not
in response to experience
- Axons and dendrites continue to modify their MUSIC TRAINING
structure and connections throughout the • MRI studies reveal the following:
lifetime - The temporal lobe of professional
- Dendrites continually grow new spines musicians in the right hemisphere is
• The gain and loss of spines indicate new 30% larger than non-musicians
connections, which relates to learning - Thicker gray matter in the part of the
brain responsible for hand control and
EXPERIENCE AND DENDRITIC BRANCHING vision of professional keyboard players
• Rats raised in an enriched environment - Results suggest that practicing a skill
develop a thicker cortex, increased dendritic reorganizes the brain to maximize the
branching, and improved learning performance of that skill
• Measurable expansion of neurons has also
been shown in humans as a function of physical SPECIAL TRAINING IN ADULTHOOD
activity • Adult experiences can also modify brain
• As old neurons die by apoptosis and new ones anatomy
form to take their place, there is improved • However, research is needed to determine
learning and memory whether the effects are strong enough to be
• It was once believed that teaching a child a observed with MRI or similar technology
difficult concept (e.g., Greek, advanced math,
etc.) would enhance intelligence in other areas WHEN BRAIN REORGANIZATION GOES TO FAR
- This concept is known as "far transfer" • Focal hand dystonia or "musician cramp"
• Evidence shows that skills associated with the refers to a condition where the reorganization
practiced task transfer, but not other skills of the brain goes to far
- The brain cannot be "exercised" like a muscle - The fingers of musicians who practice
extensively become clumsy, fatigue easily, and
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL EXPERIENCE make involuntary movements
• Blind people improve their attention to touch - This condition is a result of the extensive
and sound, based on practice reorganization of the sensory thalamus and
- Touch information activated this cortex so that the touch responses to one finger
occipital cortex area, which is ordinarily overlap those of another
devoted to vision alone

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BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL - After a severe injury, recovery can be slow and
DEVELOPMENT incomplete
• Adolescents tend to be more impulsive than • A stroke or cerebrovascular accident is the
adults temporary loss of blood flow to the brain
- Impulsivity can be a problem when it leads to - A common cause of brain damage in elderly
drinking, risky driving, sex, etc.
• Adolescents tend to "discount the future" TYPES OF STROKES
• Ischemia: the most common type of stroke,
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND ADOLESCENTS resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an
• Adolescents are not equally impulsive in all artery
situations —Neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply
- Peers, amount of time to make decisions, etc., • Hemorrhage: a less frequent type of stroke
affect their decisions resulting from a ruptured artery
• The prefrontal cortex of adolescents is —Neurons are flooded with excess blood,
relatively inactive in certain situations, but this calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals
may or may not be a cause of impulsivity
EFFECTS OF STROKES
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND OLD AGE • Ischemia and hemorrhage also cause:
• Some neurons lose their synapses, and the —Edema: the accumulation of fluid in the brain
remaining synapses change more slowly than resulting in increased pressure on the brain and
before in response to the experience increasing the probability of further strokes
• Brain structures begin to lose volume —Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump
• Research underestimates older people: leading to the accumulation of potassium ions
- People vary in respect to intellectual decline inside neurons
- Older people have a greater base of • Edema and excess potassium trigger the
knowledge and experience, and many find ways release of the excitatory neurotransmitter
to compensate for losses glutamate
• The overstimulation of neurons leads to
PLASTICITY AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE – RECOVERY sodium and other ions entering the neuron in
• Most survivors of brain damage show some excessive amounts
degree of behavioral recovery • Excess positive ions in the neuron block
• Some of the mechanisms of recovery include metabolism in the mitochondria and kill the
those similar to the mechanisms of brain neuron
development such as the new branching of
axons and dendrites IMMEDIATE TREATMENTS FOR STROKE
• A drug called tissue plasminogen activator
BRAIN DAMAGE AND SHORT-TERM RECOVERY (tPA) breaks up blood clots and can reduce the
Possible causes of brain damage effects of ischemic strokes
- Tumors • Research has begun to attempt to save
- Infections neurons from death by blocking:
- Exposure to toxic substances or —Glutamate synapses
radiation —Calcium entry
- Degenerative diseases • One of the most effective laboratory methods
- Closed head injuries used to minimize damage caused by strokes is
• A closed head injury refers to a sharp blow to to cool the brain
the head that does not puncture the brain • Cooling protects the brain after ischemia by
- One of the main causes of brain injury in young reducing overstimulation, apoptosis, and
adults inflammation

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• Cannabinoids have also been shown to

potentially minimize cell loss after a brain stroke DENERVATION SUPERSENSITIVITY
• Benefits are most likely due to cannabinoids’ • Postsynaptic cells deprived of synaptic inputs
anti-inflammatory effects develop increased sensitivity to the
—Research shows that they are most effective neurotransmitter to compensate for decreased
in laboratory animals when taken before the input
stroke • Denervation supersensitivity: the heightened
sensitivity to a neurotransmitter after the
LATER MECHANISMS OF RECOVERY FROM destruction of an incoming axon
BRAIN DAMAGE —Can cause consequences such as chronic pain
Following brain damage, surviving brain areas
increase or reorganize their activity REORGANIZED SENSORY REPRESENTATIONS
—Diaschisis: decreased activity of surviving AND THE PHANTOM LIMB
neurons after damage to other neurons Phantom limb: the continuation of sensation of
• Because activity in one area stimulates other an amputated body part
areas, damage to the brain disrupts patterns of —The cortex reorganizes itself after the
normal stimulation amputation of a body part by becoming
• Drugs (stimulants) may stimulate activity in responsive to other parts of the body
healthy regions of the brain after a stroke —Original axons degenerate leaving vacant
synapses into which other axons sprout
Destroyed cell bodies cannot be replaced, but • The phantom limb can lead to the feeling of
damaged axons do grow back under certain sensations in the amputated part of the body
circumstances when other parts of the body are stimulated
—If an axon in the peripheral nervous system is —e.g., a touch on the face can bring about the
crushed, it follows its myelin sheath back to the experience of a phantom arm
target and grows back toward the periphery at a —Use of an artificial limb can reduce the
rate of about 1 mm per day likelihood of experiencing phantom limb

REGROWTH OF AXONS LEARNED ADJUSTMENTS IN BEHAVIOR

• Damaged axons do not readily regenerate in a • Deafferented limb: limbs that have lost their
mature mammalian brain or spinal cord afferent sensory input
—Scar tissue makes a mechanical barrier to —Can still be used but are often not because
axon growth the use of other mechanisms to carry out the
—Neurons on the two sides of the cut pull apart behavior is easier
—Glia cells that react to CNS damage release —Has led to the development of therapy
chemicals that inhibit axon growth techniques to improve the functioning of brain-
• Research on building protein bridges may help damaged people
• Focuses on what they are capable of doing
AXON SPROUTING
• Collateral sprouts are new branches formed
by other non-damaged axons that attach to
vacant receptors
• Cells that have lost their source of innervation CHAPTER 5: VISION
release neurotrophins that induce axons to form
collateral sprouts How far one sees depends on how far light
• Over several months, the sprouts fill in most travels before it strikes one’s eyes. Perception of
vacated synapses and can be useful, neutral, or visual information is not done in the eyes; it’s
harmful done in the brain.

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• Consists of the axons of ganglion cells that

Arab philosopher Ibn al-Haytham (1965–1040) band together and exit through the back of the
demonstrated that light rays bounce off an eye and travel in the brain.
object in all directions, but you see only those • Leaves the back of the eye; the point at which
rays that reflect off the object and strike your it leaves is called the blind spot because it
retina (Gross, 1999). contains no receptor

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION The Fovea

• Each sense has a specialized receptor that is • Small central portion of the retina and allows
sensitive to a particular kind of energy. acute and detailed vision.
• Law of specific nerve energies states that - Packed tightly with receptors
activity by a particular nerve always conveys the - Nearly free of ganglion axon and blood
same type of information to the brain. vessels
-impulses in one neuron indicate light; impulses • Each receptor (almost exclusively cones) in the
in another neuron indicate sound. fovea attaches to a single bipolar cell and a
single ganglion cell known as a midget ganglion
THE EYE AND ITS CONNECTIONS TO THE BRAIN cell.
• Light: • Each cone in the fovea has a direct line to the
- Enters the eye through an opening in brain which allows the registering of the exact
the center of the iris called the pupil. location of the input.
- Is focused by the lens and the cornea
onto the rear surface of the eye known The Placement of Receptors on the Retina
as the retina, which is lined with visual
receptors. The Periphery of the Retina
- The left side of the world strikes the • In the periphery of the retina, a greater
right side of the retina and vice versa. number of receptors (primarily rods) converge
- From the above strikes, the bottom half into ganglion and bipolar cells.
of the retina and vice versa. • Detailed vision is less attuned in peripheral
vision
Route Within the Retina—Bipolar Cells • Presence of rods allows for greater perception
• Photoreceptors at the back of the eye receive of much fainter light in peripheral vision
visual info and send it to bipolar cells, which are
located closer to the center of the eye. Visual Receptors: Rods and Cones
• These cells send messages to ganglion cells • The vertebrate retina consists of two kinds of
that are even closer to the center of the eye. receptors:
- The axons of ganglion cells join one another to - Rods - most abundant in the periphery
form the optic nerve that travels to the brain. of the eye and respond to faint light
(120 million per retina).
Route Within the Retina—Amacrine Cells - Cones - most abundant in and around
• Additional cells that receive information from the fovea (6 million per retina).
bipolar cells and send it to other bipolar, o Essential for color vision and
ganglion, or amacrine cells. more useful in bright light
• Control the ability of the ganglion cells to • Though cones are outnumbered, they provide
respond to shapes, movements, and other about 90 percent of the brain’s input.
specific aspects of visual stimuli. • On average, 120 million rods and 6 million
cones converge onto 1 million axons in the optic
The Optic Nerve nerve.

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• The ratio of rods to cones is higher in species lighting, is not easily explained by these
that are more active at dim light. theories.

Photopigments Retinex Theory

• Chemicals contained by both rods and cones • Suggests the cortex compares information
that release energy when struck by light. from various parts of the retina to determine
• Consist of 11-cis-retinal (a derivative of the brightness and color for each area.
vitamin A) bound to proteins called opsins,
which modify the photopigments’ sensitivity to Color Vision Deficiency
different wavelengths of light. An impairment in perceiving color differences.
o Gene responsible is contained on the
Color Vision X chromosome.
• Visible light is the portion of the o Caused by either the lack of a type of
electromagnetic spectrum cone or a cone that has abnormal properties.
• Perception of color depends on the o Most common form is difficulty
wavelength of the light distinguishing between red and green.
• Visible wavelengths depend on the species' • Results from the long- and medium-
receptors. wavelength cones having the same
Specificity of Color Vision photopigment.
-Depends on specific receptors within the eye
-We don't have a dedicated receptor for every How the Brain Processes Visual Information
color we perceive and we don't know how many Neuroscientists’ senses, such as vision, provide
receptors we have and how they enable us to psychological experiences. Have developed a
perceive color. relatively detailed understanding of the vision.
Understanding the mechanisms of vision
Two Major Interpretations of Color Vision provides a model of what it means to explain
TRICHROMATIC THEORY something in biological terms.
• Color perception occurs through the relative
rates of response by three kinds of cones: An Overview of the Mammalian Visual System
o Short wavelength • Rods and cones of the retina make synaptic
o Medium-wavelength contact with horizontal cells and bipolar cells.
o Long-wavelength • Horizontal cells are cells in the eye that make
• Each cone responds to a broad range of inhibitory contact with bipolar cells.
wavelengths, but some more than others. • Bipolar cells make synapses onto amacrine
The Opponent-Process Theory cells and ganglion cells
• Suggests that we perceive color in terms of • Different cells are specialized for different
paired opposites. visual functions.
• The brain has a mechanism that perceives • Ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve.
color on a continuum from red to green and • The optic chiasm is the place where the two
another from yellow to blue. optic nerves leaving the eye meet.
o A possible mechanism for the theory • In humans, half of the axons from each eye
is that bipolar cells are excited by one set of cross to the other side of the brain.
wavelengths and inhibited by another. • Most ganglion cell axons go to the lateral
Limitations of Color Vision Theories geniculate nucleus, a smaller amount to the
• Both the opponent-process and trichromatic superior colliculus, and fewer to other areas.
theory have limitations.
o Color constancy, the ability to The Path of Visual Input
recognize the same color despite changes in

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a) one path to the thalamus, another to • Found throughout the retina

the superior colliculus,
b) retinotopic organization of retinal Characteristics of Receptive Fields
axons. • Cells of the lateral geniculate have a receptive
field similar to those of ganglion cells:
Lateral Inhibition in the Retina o An excitatory or inhibitory central portion and
• Sharpens contrasts to emphasize the borders a surrounding ring of the opposite effect
of objects.
• The reduction of activity in one neuron by The Primary Visual Cortex (1 of 2)
activity in neighboring neurons. • The primary visual cortex (area V1) receives
• The response of cells in the visual system information from the lateral geniculate nucleus
depends upon the net result of excitatory and and is the area responsible for the first stage of
inhibitory messages it receives. visual processing
• Some people with damage to V1 show
Processing in the Retina blindsight: an ability to respond to visual stimuli
• The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) that they report not seeing
o Part of the thalamus o Specialized for • Hubel and Weisel (1959, 1998) distinguished
visual perception various types of cells in the visual cortex
o Destination for most ganglion cell o Simple cells
axons o Complex cells
o Sends axons to other parts of the o End-stopped/hypercomplex cells
thalamus and to the visual areas of the occipital *Beyond this level of analysis it is not possible
cortex to link specific cortical cells or regions to
• The cortex and thalamus constantly feed particular visual stimuli
information back and forth to each other.
Simple Cells
Primate Receptive Fields • Fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones
• Ganglion cells of primates generally fall into • The more light that shines in the excitatory
three categories zone, the more the cell responds
o Parvocellular neurons • The more in the inhibitory zone, the less the
o Magnocellular neurons cell response
o Koniocellular neurons • Bar-shaped or edge-shaped receptive fields
with vertical and horizontal orientations
Parvocellular Neurons outnumbering diagonal ones
• Mostly located in or near the fovea
• Have smaller cell bodies and small receptive Complex Cells
fields • Located in either V1or V2
• Highly sensitive to detecting color and visual • Has a large receptive field that cannot be
detail mapped into fixed excitatory or inhibitory zones
• Responds to a pattern of light in a particular
Magnocellular Neurons orientation and most strongly to a moving
• Distributed evenly throughout the retina stimulus
• Have larger cell bodies and visual fields
• Highly sensitive to the large overall patterns End-Stopped or Hypercomplex Cells
and moving stimuli • Similar to complex cells but with a strong
inhibitory area at one end of its bar-shaped
Koniocellular Neurons receptive field
• Have small cell bodies

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• Respond to a bar-shaped pattern of light o Ends with the onset of chemicals that
anywhere in its large receptive field, provided inhibit axonal sprouting
the bar does not extend beyond a certain point o Changes that occur during critical
periods require both excitation and inhibition of
Properties of Simple, Complex, and End- some neurons
Stopped Cells • Cortical plasticity is greatest in early
life, but never ends.
Columnar Organization of the Visual Cortex
• In the visual cortex, cells are grouped together Stereoscopic Depth Perception
in columns perpendicular to the surface. • A method of perceiving distance in which the
• Cells within a given column process similar brain compares slightly different inputs from the
information. two eyes
o Respond either mostly to the right or left eye, o Relies on retinal disparity or the
or respond to both eyes equally discrepancy between what the left and the right
o Do not consistently fire at the same time eye sees
o The ability of cortical neurons to
**When an electrode passes perpendicular to adjust their connections to detect retinal
the surface of the cortex (first part of line A), it disparity is shaped by experience
encounters a sequence of neurons responsive to
the same orientation of a stimulus. (The colored Strabismus
lines show the preferred stimulus orientation • A condition in which the eyes do not point in
for each cell.) When an electrode passes across the same direction
columns (B, or the second part of A), it o Usually develops in childhood
encounters neurons responsive to different o Also known as “lazy eye”
orientations. Column borders are drawn here to
illustrate the point; no such borders are visible Parallel Processing in the Visual Cortex
in the real cortex. Neuroscientists have identified many different
brain areas that contribute to vision in different
Visual Cortex Cells as Feature Detectors ways.
• Cells in the visual cortex may be feature One part of your brain sees its shape, another
detectors, neurons whose response sees color, another detects the location, and
• Prolonged exposure to a given visual feature another perceives movement.
decreases sensitivity to that indicates the
presence of a particular feature/stimuli. Feature The Ventral and Dorsal Paths
• The secondary visual cortex (area V2) receives
Development of the Visual Cortex information from area V1, processes
• Animal studies have greatly contributed to the information further, and sends it to other areas.
understanding of the development of vision. • Information is transferred between areas V1
• Early lack of stimulation of one eye: leads to and V2 in a reciprocal nature.
synapses in the visual cortex becoming gradually
unresponsive to input from that eye. The Ventral and Dorsal Streams (1 of 2)
• Early lack of stimulation of both eyes: cortical • The ventral stream refers to the path that goes
responses become sluggish but do not cause through the temporal cortex.
blindness. o The “what” path
Critical Periods in Development o Specialized in identifying and
• Sensitive/critical periods are periods of time recognizing objects
during the lifespan when experiences have a
particularly strong/enduring effect.

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• The dorsal stream refers to the visual path in

the parietal cortex. Motion Perception
o The “how” path • Involves a variety of brain areas in all four
o Important for visually guided lobes of the cerebral cortex.
movements • The middle-temporal cortex (MT/V5) responds
to a stimulus moving in a particular direction.
• Normal behavior makes use of both pathways • Cells in the dorsal part of the medial superior
in collaboration. temporal cortex (MST) respond to the
• Damaging either stream will produce different expansion, contraction, or rotation of a visual
deficits. stimulus.
o Ventral stream damage: can see where
objects are but cannot identify them Motion Blindness
o Dorsal stream damage: can identify objects • The inability to determine the direction,
but not know where they are speed, and whether objects are moving likely
caused by damage in area MT
Detailed Analysis of Shape • Some people are blind except for the ability to
• Receptive fields become larger and more detect which direction something is moving.
specialized as visual information goes from
simple cells to complex cells and then to other Saccades
brain areas. • Several mechanisms prevent confusion or
• The inferior temporal cortex contains cells that blurring of images during eye movements.
respond selectively to complex shapes but are o Saccades are a decrease in the activity of the
insensitive to distinctions that are critical to visual cortex during quick eye movements
other cells. o Neural activity and blood flow decrease 75
• Cells in this cortex respond to identifiable milliseconds before and during eye movements
objects.
**Additional inputs from Ma’am Sharm**
Visual Agnosia ● Damage to the Primary Virtual Cortex -
• The inability to recognize objects despite cannot visualize in dreams; they don’t
satisfactory vision. have visuals in their dreams.
• Caused by damage to the pattern pathway ● Losing Vision - can still visualize in
usually in the temporal cortex dreams.
● Strabismus can be corrected (through
Recognizing Faces corrective eyeglasses) - it’s important to
• Face recognition occurs relatively soon after detect it as early as childhood.
birth. ● Astigmatism is more hereditary - not
o Newborns show a strong preference for a really caused by reading in poor light,
right-side-up face and support the idea of a staring at your phone for too long, etc.
built-in face recognition system ● Fusiform Gyrus - the ability to recognize
• Facial recognition continues to develop faces from any angle (ex. side profile)
gradually into adolescence. ● Parahippocampal Cortex - the ability to
recognize places (ex. kitchen, bedroom)
Prosopagnosia and features of a face (ex. eyes, nose,
• The impaired ability to recognize faces. lips).
• Occurs after damage to the fusiform gyrus of
the inferior temporal cortex CHAPTER 6 OTHER SENSORY SYSTEM
• The fusiform gyrus responds much more
strongly to faces than anything else

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Each species responds to the most useful kinds Ordinarily: We attend hearing in order to extract
of information. useful information. If you hear footsteps in your
EXAMPLES: home or a snapped twig in the forest, you know
• Birds - have receptors to detect magnetic you are not alone. If you hear breathing, you
fields, (useful information when orienting north know some person or animal is close. Then you
and south during migration) hear the sound of a familiar friendly voice, and
• Green tree frog (Hyla cinerea) - its ears are you know that all is well.
most sensitive to sounds at the frequencies
prominent in the adult male’s mating call. Physics and Psychology of Sound
• Mosquitoes evolved a special receptor that
detects the odor of human sweat—and Sound waves - are periodic compressions of air,
therefore helps them find us and bite us. water, or other media.
• Bats locate insects by emitting sonar waves at > vary in amplitude (intensity) and frequency.
20,000 to 100,000 hertz (Hz, cycles per second),
well above the range of adult human hearing, In general, sounds of greater amplitude seem
and then locating the insects from the echoes. louder, but exceptions occur.
Bats hear the calls they use for localizing things **For example, a rapidly talking person seems
better than they hear any other sounds. louder than slow music of the same physical
• Moths jam the signals by emitting similar amplitude.
high-frequency calls of their own
• Humans - our sense of taste alerts us to the The frequency of a sound is the number of
bitterness of poisons but does not respond to compressions per second, measured in hertz
substances such as cellulose that neither help (Hz, cycles per second).
nor harm us. Pitch is the related aspect of perception. Sounds
- Our olfactory systems are unresponsive to higher in frequency are higher in pitch.
gases that we don’t need to detect (e.g.,
nitrogen) but highly responsive to the smell of Most adult humans hear sounds starting at
rotting meat. about 15 to 20 Hz and ranging up to almost
Opposite: bats—which find insects by 20,000 Hz.
echolocation—must be very different from that Children hear higher frequencies than adults,
humans. because the ability to perceive high frequencies
decreases with age and exposure to loud noises
Evolution has been described as “thrifty.” After
it has solved one problem, it modifies that As a rule:
solution for other problems instead of starting larger animals - hear best at lower pitches
from scratch. small animals - hear higher pitches, including a
range well above what humans hear.
Sound and the Ear
Under optimum conditions: In addition to amplitude and pitch, the aspect of
Human hearing is sensitive to sounds that sound
vibrate the eardrum by less than one-tenth the Amplitude - the intensity of sound
diameter of an atom, and we can detect a Pitch - the highness or lowness of tone
difference between two sounds as little as 1/30 timbre (TAM-ber) - meaning tone quality or
the interval between two piano notes. tone complexity.

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Two musical instruments playing the same note Tympanic membrane (eardrum) - connects to
at the same loudness sound different, as do two three tiny bones that transmit the vibrations to
people singing the same note at the same the oval window, a membrane of the inner ear.
loudness. For example, any instrument playing a - is about 20 times larger than the footplate of
note at 256 Hz will simultaneously produce the stirrup, which connects to the oval window.
sound at 128 Hz, 512 Hz, and so forth, known as (a membrane of the inner ear)
harmonics of the principal note. The amount of
each harmonic differs among instruments. 3 smallest bones in the body:
English names
People communicate emotion by alterations in • Hammer
pitch, loudness, and timbre. • Anvil
Prosody - Conveying emotional information by • Stirrup
the tone of voice.
**For example, the way you say “that was Latin names
interesting” could indicate approval (it really • Malleus
was interesting), sarcasm (it really was boring), • Incus
or suspicion (you think someone was hinting at • Stapes
something).
Cochlea (KOCK-lee-uh), the snail-shaped
STRUCTURE OF THE EAR structure of the inner ear.
Rube Goldberg (1883–1970) drew cartoons of Hair cells - auditory receptors, lie between the
complicated, far-fetched inventions. basilar membrane of the cochlea on one side
**For example, a person’s tread on the front and the tectorial membrane on the other
doorstep might pull a string that raised a cat’s - stimulate the cells of the auditory nerve, which
tail, awakening the cat, which then chases a bird is part of the eighth cranial
that had been resting on a balance, which
swings up to strike a doorbell. The functioning Place theory - the basilar membrane resembles
of the ear is complex enough to resemble a the strings of a piano, with each area along the
Rube Goldberg device, but unlike Goldberg’s membrane tuned to a specific frequency.
inventions, the ear actually works. Downfall of this theory:
That the various parts of the basilar membrane
The outer ear includes the pinna, the familiar are bound together too tightly for any part to
structure of flesh and cartilage attached to each resonate like a piano string.
side of the head. By altering the reflections of Frequency theory:
sound waves, Pinna helps us locate the source The entire basilar membrane vibrates in
of a sound. We have to learn to use that synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve
information because each person’s pinna is axons to produce action potentials at the same
shaped differently from anyone else’s. frequency.
Downfall of this theory: The refractory period of
Rabbits’ large movable pinnas enable them to a neuron, though variable among neurons, is
localize sound sources even more precisely. typically about 1/1,000 second, so the
maximum firing rate of a neuron is about 1000
Middle ear and inner ear – its structures Hz, far short of the highest frequencies we hear.
develop effective hearing on land, animals
needed to evolve a way to amplify sound
vibrations. How do we perceive sounds?
• At low frequencies: - the basilar membrane
vibrates in synchrony with the sound waves, and

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each responding axon in the auditory nerve ● Both visual and auditory cortices need
sends one action potential per sound wave. (up normal experience early in life to develop
to about Hz). normal sensitivities.

• At intermediate frequencies: -no single axon Auditory system - has a pathway in the anterior
fires an action potential for each sound wave, temporal cortex specialized for identifying
but different axons fire for different waves, so a sounds, posterior temporal cortex and the
volley (group) of axons fires for each wave(100- parietal cortex – pathway specialized for
4000 Hz). The frequency of impulses identifies locating sounds.
the pitch, and the number of firing cells **Ex: Damage in area MT become motion blind
identifies loudness. while damage in parts of the superior temporal
cortex become motion deaf (they hear sounds,
• At higher frequencies: - the sound waves but they do not detect that a source of a sound
cause maximum vibration for the hair cells at is moving)
one location along the basilar membrane.
(above 4000 Hz). However:
A neuron might fire on some of the waves and damage to the primary visual cortex (areaV1)
not others. Its action potentials are phase- leaves someone blind, damage to the primary
locked to the peaks of the sound waves. (i.e., auditory cortex does not produce deafness.
they occur at the same phase in the sound **Ex: People with damage to the primary
wave). auditory cortex have trouble with speech and
music, but they can identify and localize single
Volley principle - the auditory nerve as a whole sounds
produces volleys of impulses for sounds up to
about 4000 per second, even though no Cortex- not necessary for hearing, but for
individual axon approaches that frequency. processing the information.
However, beyond about 4000 Hz, even Tonotopic- a striking feature of the mammalian
staggered volleys of impulses cannot keep pace auditory cortex and underlie the representation
with the sound waves. of complex sounds, such as speech. This spatial
separation of frequencies originates in the inner
The Auditory Complex ear, where high frequencies are processed in
Primary auditory cortex - part of the temporal the base of the cochlea and low frequencies in
lobe that processes auditory information, the apex.
performing basic and higher functions in
hearing, such as possible relations to language Evidence that human concepts rely on activation
switching. of the relevant sensory or motor areas of the
cortex:
The organization of the auditory cortex parallels - People with damage to the auditory cortex
that of the visual cortex: regard many sound related words like
How? “thunder”, as if they were non words.
● The visual system has separate pathways for
identifying objects and acting upon them. Sound Localization - is less accurate than visual
● Areas in the superior temporal cortex analyze localization
the movement of both visual and auditory
stimuli
● Visual cortex is essential for visual imagery Cues for auditory location:
and the primary auditory cortex is essential for 1. difference in time of arrival at the two
auditory imagery. ears - A sound coming directly from one

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side reaches your closer ear about 600 ● auditory cortex appears to be
microseconds (μs) before the other. A approximately normal, but it has fewer
smaller difference in arrival times than average connections to the frontal
indicates a sound source nearer to your cortex, deficit is not in hearing itself but
midline. (difference between the times in poor memory for pitch and perhaps
sounds reach the two ears) Time of poor attention to pitch.
arrival is useful for localizing sounds ● Transcranial alternating current
with a sudden onset. applied to the scalp is a noninvasive way
2. difference in intensity between the to stimulate the underlying area of the
ears - best for high-frequency sounds brain. When this procedure was applied
because low-frequency sounds are not to part of the right prefrontal cortex of
attenuated much by the head. sound people with amusia, their ability to
shadow – head casting high-frequency remember pitch improved to almost
sounds, with a wavelength shorter than normal levels.
the width of the head, making the
sound louder for the closer ear. Implication: Amusia results from either
3. Phase difference between the ears an impairment of the prefrontal cortex
- sound coming from anywhere other or input to it from the auditory cortex
than straight ahead or straight behind
reaches the two ears at different phases Absolute pitch (or “perfect pitch”)
of the sound wave. The difference in ● ability to hear a note and identify
phase is a signal to the sound’s it( “That’s B flat “)
direction. With high-frequency sounds, ● more common among people who
the phases become ambiguous. speak tonal languages, such as
Vietnamese and Mandarin Chinese
- provide information that is useful for ● Genetic predisposition contributes,
localizing sounds with frequencies up to but early musical training is also
about 1500 Hz in humans. important. Not everyone with musical
training develops absolute pitch, but
Humans localize low frequencies by almost everyone with absolute pitch
phase differences and high frequencies had early musical training
by loudness differences.
Deafness
Individual Differences 2 categories of hearing loss:
Amusia 1. Conductive deafness or middle-ear
● commonly called “tone deafness” deafness - when Diseases, infections, or
● Although not really unable to detect tumorous bone growth can prevent the
differences in tones, they generally do middle ear from transmitting sound
not detect a change less than about the waves properly to the cochlea.
difference between C and C-sharp Sometimes temporary. If it persists, it
● have trouble recognizing tunes, can be corrected by surgery or by
cannot tell whether someone is singing hearing aids that amplify sounds.
off-key, and does not detect a “wrong” Because people with conductive
note in a melody. deafness have a normal cochlea and
● have trouble gauging people’s mood, auditory nerve, they readily hear their
such as happy or sad, from the tone of own voices, conducted through the
voice bones of the skull directly to the
cochlea, bypassing the middle ear.

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Because they hear themselves clearly, quick, crisp response to each one.)
they may accuse others of mumbling or Therefore, the response to one sound
talking too softly. partly overlaps the response to another.

2. Nerve deafness, or inner-ear Attention improves if the listener

deafness - results from damage to the watches the speaker’s face.
cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory lip-reading -helps to lock attention onto
nerve. the corresponding sounds.
> common among rock band
members because their frequent MECHANICAL SENSES
exposure to loud noises causes damage - Responds to pressure, bending, or
to the cells of the ear. other distortions of a receptor. They
include touch, pain, and other body
If it is confined to one part of the sensations, as well as vestibular
cochlea, it impairs hearing of certain sensations which detects the position
frequencies and not others. Nerve and the movement of the head.
deafness can be inherited, it can result Audition
from disease, or it can result from - Also a mechanical sense because the
exposure to loud noises. hair cells are modified touch receptors.
It is considered separately because of
Tinnitus (tin-EYE-tus) - is frequent or its complexity and importance.
constant ringing in the ears. (similar to
phantom limb) VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
- provides a sense of balance and
Hearing, Attention, and Old Age information about body position that
hearing aids - aids make the sounds allows rapid compensatory movements
loud enough, but people still have in response to both self-included and
trouble understanding speech, externally generated forces.
especially in a noisy room or if someone - detect the direction of tilt and the
speaks rapidly. amount of acceleration of the head.
**EXAMPLE: Mice with impairment of vestibular
Many older people have hearing sensation frequently lose their balance and fall
problems despite wearing hearing aids. down. They cannot swim or float because they
Explanation: are often upside down.
● The brain areas responsible for
language comprehension have become THE VESTIBULAR ORGANS
less active. ( might be natural • consists of the saccule, utricle, and three
deterioration or reaction to prolonged semicircular canals
degradation of auditory input.
● relates to attention ❑ The vestibular receptors are modified touch
● Many older people have a loss of receptors.
inhibitory neurotransmitters in the ❑ Calcium carbonate particles, called otoliths,
auditory portions of the brain.( they press against different hair cells depending on
have trouble suppressing irrelevant the tilt and acceleration of the head.
sounds. Also, because of decreased ❑ The three semicircular canals, oriented in
inhibitory transmission, the auditory perpendicular planes, are filled with fluid and
cortex has gradual, spread-out lined with hair cells.
responses to each sound instead of a

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❑ Unlike the saccule and utricle, the The systems for cooling and heating show an
semicircular canals record only the amount of interesting asymmetry:
acceleration, not the position of the head at Cold-sensitive neurons in the spinal cord
rest. They are also insensitive to sustained respond to a drop in temperature. For example,
motion. a cell that responds to a drop from 39° C to 33°
❑ The vestibular organ is nearly the same size C would also respond to a drop from 33° C to
for all mammalian species. Whales are 10 27° C.
million times as massive as mice, but their - Cold-sensitive neurons adapt quickly
vestibular organ is only 5 times as large. and show little response to a constant
Evidently, a small vestibular organ provides all low temperature.
the information we need. For an analogy, small
thermometers can be nearly as accurate as In contrast, heat-sensitive neurons in the spinal
larger ones cord respond to the absolute temperature, and
they do not adapt.
SOMATOSENSATION
The somatosensory system, the sensation of
the body and its movements, is not one sense
but many, including discriminative touch (which
identifies the shape of an object), deep
pressure, cold, warmth, pain, itch, tickle, and
the position and movement of joints.

Somatosensory Receptors
Pacinian corpuscles are receptors that respond
best to sudden displacement of the skin or to
high-frequency vibrations. The onion-like outer
structure provides mechanical support to the
neuron inside it so that a sudden stimulus can
bend it but a sustained stimulus cannot. Our temperature receptors also respond to
certain chemical stimuli:
Merkel disks respond to light touches, such as
when you feel an object. Suppose you feel CAPSAICIN
objects with thin grooves like these, without - Can produce burning or stinging sensations on
looking at them, and try to feel whether the many parts of your body, as you may have
grooves go left to right or up and down. experienced if you ever touched the insides of
hot peppers and then rubbed your eyes.
• On average, women can detect grooves about - Szechuan peppers stimulate the heat receptors
1.4 mm apart, whereas men need the grooves - Menthol and mint stimulate the coolness
to be about 1.6 mm apart. receptor
• It reflects the fact that on average, women
have smaller fingers. Apparently women have TICKLE “Why can’t you tickle yourself? It is for
the same number of Merkel disks as men, but the same reason that you cannot surprise
compacted into a smaller area. yourself.”
• If you compare men and women who have the Somatosensation in the Central Nervous
same finger size, their touch sensitivity is the System
same. - Information from touch receptors in the head
enters the central nervous system (CNS) through
the cranial nerves.

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the medulla, and then to the thalamus, and

- 31 spinal nerves, including 8 cervical nerves, then to the amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal
12 thoracic nerves, Brain Cervical nerves (8 cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex.
pairs) First thoracic vertebra Thoracic nerves (12
pairs) Lumbar nerves (5 pairs) Sacral nerves (5 > Hurt feelings do resemble physical pain in
pairs) Coccygeal nerves (1 pair) several regards.
> Imagine yourself in this experiment: You sit in
- Each spinal nerve innervates (connects to) a front of a computer screen, playing a virtual
limited area of the body called a DERMATOME ball-tossing game with two people your own
age.
- The third thoracic nerve (T3) innervates a strip > Experimenters monitored people’s brain
of skin just above the nipples as well as the activity during this virtual ball-throwing task and
underarm area. found significantly increased activity in the
cingulate cortex, an area responsive to the
- Various types of somatosensory information— emotional aspects of pain.
such as touch, pressure, and pain—travel
through the spinal cord in separate pathways What happens with more intense hurt
toward the thalamus, which then sends feelings?
impulses to different areas of the primary ❑ In this case, the hurt feelings showed up as
somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal activity in both the emotional areas (especially
lobe. the cingulate cortex) and the sensory areas
responsive to physical pain.
DAMAGE TO THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: ❑ You can relieve hurt feelings with pain-
Impairs body perceptions. A patient who had relieving drugs such as acetaminophen (Tylenol)
damage in the somatosensory cortex had People taking acetaminophen also decrease
trouble putting her clothes on correctly. their evaluations of positive experiences.
Opioids and Endorphins
PAIN - is unique among senses because it always ❑ The brain puts the brakes on prolonged pain
evokes emotion, an unpleasant one. through opioid mechanisms.
- Pain and depression are closely linked. ❑ Candace Pert and Solomon Snyder (1973)
- People who are depressed become more discovered that opiates bind to receptors found
sensitive to pain. mostly in the spinal cord and the periaqueductal
gray area of the midbrain.
Stimuli and Spinal Cord Paths - The axons ❑ The transmitters that attach to the same
carrying pain information have little or no receptors as morphine are known as
myelin, they conduct impulses relatively slowly, endorphins.
in the range of 2 to 20 meters per second (m/s).
- Mild pain releases the neurotransmitter > Endorphins are also released during intense
glutamate, whereas stronger pain releases pleasures, such as orgasm, and when you listen
glutamate but also certain neuropeptides to thrilling music that sends a chill down your
including substance P and CGRP (calcitonin spine. Those experiences tend to decrease pain.
gene-related peptide). > Ronald Melzack and P. D. Wall proposed the
- The pain-sensitive cells in the spinal cord relay gate theory (1965) The gate theory was an
information to several sites in the brain. attempt to explain why some people withstand
pain better than others and why the same injury
Emotional Pain hurts worse at some times than others.
Addition to the somatosensory cortex, painful > The spinal cord neurons that receive messages
stimuli also activate a path that goes through from pain receptors also receive input from

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touch receptors and from axons descending - Are modified skin cells inside taste buds in
from the brain. Cannabinoids and Capsaicin papillae on the tongue.
> Cannabinoids— chemicals derived from or - Have excitable membranes and release
similar to marijuana—block certain kinds of neurotransmitters to excite neighboring
pain. Act mainly in the periphery of the body neurons, which in turn transmit information to
rather than the CNS. the brain.
> Capsaicin rubbed onto a sore shoulder, an - Are gradually sloughed off and replaced, each
arthritic joint or other painful area produces a one lasting about 10 to 14 days.
temporary burning sensation followed by a
longer period of decreased pain. Mammalian taste receptors are in taste buds
located in papillae on the surface of the tongue.
Placebos Papilla may contain up to 10 or more taste buds
> In much medical research, an experimental and each taste bud contains about 50 receptor
group receives a potentially active treatment cells.
and the control group receives a placebo, a
drug, or other procedure with no In adult humans, taste buds lie mainly along the
pharmacological effects. edge of the tongue.
> Placebos reduce pain but they produce an
even greater effect on the emotional response How Many Kinds of Taste Receptors?
to pain. - In Western society have described tastes in
Itch terms of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
> We have two kinds of itch that feel about the - To identify taste receptor types is to find
same, although their causes are different. First, procedures that alter one receptor but not
when you have mild tissue damage, such as others Example: Chewing a miracle berry (native
when your skin is healing after a cut. Second, to West Africa) gives little taste itself but
contact with certain plants, especially cowhage temporarily changes sweet receptors. Miracle
(a tropical plant with barbed hairs), also berries contain a protein—miraculin—that
produces itch. modifies sweet receptors, enabling acids to
> Antihistamines block the itch that histamines stimulate them.
cause but not the itch that cowage causes.
> This inhibitory relationship between pain and Further evidence for separate types of taste
itch is clear evidence that itch is not a type of receptors comes from studies of the following
pain. type: Soak your tongue for 15 seconds in a sour
solution, such as unsweetened lemon juice.
TASTE Then try tasting some other sour solution, such
- taste is useful for just one function, telling us as dilute vinegar.
whether to swallow something or spit it out. - You will find that the second solution tastes
Dolphins have almost no taste receptors less sour than usual, and perhaps not sour at all.
because they eat only fish, and swallow them This phenomenon is called adaptation.
whole, they have little need for the sense of - Adaption - a gradual decline of taste intensity
taste. Cats, hyenas, seals, and sea lions have no with prolonged stimulation.
sweetness receptors. - Cross-adaptation—reduced response to one
Taste results from the stimulation of the taste taste after exposure to another.
buds, the receptors on the tongue. When we
talk about the taste of food, we generally mean People have at least four kinds of taste
flavor, which is a combination of taste and smell. receptors, and several types of evidence suggest
a fifth, glutamate, as in monosodium glutamate
TASTE RECEPTORS (MSG).

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❖ The English language had no word for this -most supertasters avoid strong-tasting
taste, so English-speaking researchers adopted or spicy foods, you cannot confidently identify
the Japanese word umami. yourself as supertaster, taster, or non-taster
❖ Perhaps we have a sixth type of taste also, based on just your food preferences.
the taste of fats.
❖ Oleogustus- the term for the taste of fats. Supertaster – 25 papillae
❖ In taste, the temporal pattern is also Tasters – 17 papillae
important, perhaps more important. Non-tasters – 10 papillae

Mechanisms of Taste Receptors Olfaction, the sense of smell, is the response to

- A saltiness receptor, which detects the chemicals that contact the membranes inside
presence of sodium, simply permits sodium ions the nose. For most mammals, olfaction is critical
on the tongue to cross its membrane. Chemicals for finding food and mates and for avoiding
that prevent sodium from crossing the dangers.
membrane weaken salty tastes. ** For example, rats and mice show an
- Sour receptors detect the presence of acids. immediate, unlearned avoidance of the smells
- Sweetness, bitterness and umami receptors of cats, foxes, and other predators. Those smells
resemble the metabotropic synapses. also cause them to release stress hormones.
- People have two types of sweetness receptors
and two types of umami receptors, each with Olfaction also plays an important role in social
somewhat different sensitivities. behavior. You may have heard the expression
- Many bitter chemicals also trigger receptors in “smell of fear,” and research supports that idea.
the nose, provoking coughing and sneezing if
you happen to inhale them. Olfactory Receptors
- The neurons responsible for smell are the
Taste Coding in the Brain olfactory cells that line the olfactory epithelium
- Information from the receptors in the anterior in the rear of the nasal air passages.
two-thirds of the tongue travels to the brain - In mammals, each olfactory cell has cilia
along the chorda tympani, a branch of the (threadlike dendrites) that extend from the cell
seventh cranial nerve (the facial nerve) body into the mucous surface of the nasal
- 40 percent that you would experience taste passage.
“phantoms,” analogous to the phantom limb - Olfactory receptors are located on the cilia.
experience.
- The taste nerves project to the nucleus of the Linda Buck and Richard Axel (1991) identified a
tractus solitarius (NTS) a structure in the family of proteins in olfactory receptors, Like
medulla. metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors, each
- The insula is the primary taste cortex. The of these proteins traverses the cell membrane
insula in each hemisphere of the cortex receives seven times and responds to a chemical outside
input from both sides of the tongue. the cell (here an odorant molecule instead of a
neurotransmitter) by triggering changes in a G
Supertasters - People with more taste buds, protein inside the cell.
tend to dislike strongly flavored foods, especially
foods that taste very bitter to them, but only Implications for Coding
mildly bitter to other people. - We have only three kinds of cones and five
Most people taste low concentrations as bitter, kinds of taste receptors.
but people with the fewest taste buds—are - Each olfactory receptor responds to only a few
misleadingly known as non-tasters. stimuli

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Messages to the Brain - The VNO receptors respond only to

- When an olfactory receptor is stimulated, its pheromones.
axon carries an impulse to the olfactory bulb. - In adult humans, the VNO is tiny and has no
- The olfactory bulb sends axons to the olfactory receptors.
area of the cerebral cortex. A complex - The behavioral effects of pheromones
substance such as food activates a scattered apparently occur unconsciously. That is, people
population of cells react to certain chemicals in human skin even
- Olfactory receptors are vulnerable to damage when they describe them as odorless.
because they are exposed to the air.
- an olfactory receptor has an average survival Synesthesia
time of just over a month. - Synesthesia is the experience some people
- If the entire olfactory surface is damaged at have in which stimulation of one sense evokes a
once by a blast of toxic fumes so that the system perception of that sense and another one also.
has to replace all the receptors at the same **For example, someone might perceive the
time, many of them fail to make the correct letter J as green or say that each taste feels like
connections, and the olfactory experience does a particular shape on the tongue.
not fully recover - In the words of one person, “To me, the taste
of beef is dark blue. The smell of almonds is
Individual Differences pale orange. And when tenor saxophones play,
- Most of the genes controlling olfactory the music looks like a floating, suspended
receptors have variant forms, and on average, coiling snake ball of lit-up purple neon tubes”
two people were chosen at random probably
differ in about 30 percent of their olfactory Synesthesia
receptor genes. - What causes synesthesia? It clusters in
- based on genes, odor sensitivity declines with families, suggesting a genetic predisposition.
age. - People are not born with a letter-to-color or
number-to-color synesthesia.
**For example, sensitivity to mushroom odor - Researchers found 10 people with synesthesia
apparently remains constant as people age, whose associations matched or nearly matched
sensitivity to onion odor declines moderately, the colors of Fisher-Price refrigerator magnets.
and sensitivity to rose odor declines greatly. they had used as children, such as red A, yellow
- A sharp decline in odor sensitivity is often an C, and green D (Witthoft & Winawer, 2013).
early symptom of Alzheimer’s disease or - Only a small percentage of children who play
Parkinson’s disease. with these magnets develop synesthesia, and
- Women detect odors more readily than men, most people with synesthesia have other
at all ages and in all cultures that researchers associations, so the toys represent only one part
have tested. of the explanation
- Young adult women gradually become more
and more sensitive to a faint odor they *additional notes from Ma’am Sharm**
repeatedly attend to, until they can detect it in ● Objects that emit sounds in 20hz (low
concentrations one ten-thousandth of what frequency):
they could at the start. *Open organ pipe (in churches)
*Ocean/Beach waves
Pheromones *Severe weather (faint
- The vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a set of raindrops and/ or rumbles of
receptors located near, but separate from, the thunder)
olfactory receptors.

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● At 4,000hz - you can hear certain

high-pitched consonants (ex. th,
s, and f)
● Amusia
*may be present from birth as
well
*composed of three categories:
[Link] AMUSIA - inability
to play a musical instrument,
sing a song, or write music.
2. RECEPTIVE AMUSIA -
inability to identify familiar
melodies.
3. MIXED AMUSIA -
combination of clinical and
receptive amusia.
● Pain researchers believe that regular
exposure to painful stimuli can increase
one’s pain intolerance.
● Acetaminophen - an analgesic drug
used to relieve mild or chronic
pain & to reduce fever, often as
an alternative to aspirin (ex.
Tylenol).
● Miracle Berries
*includes the protein
“miraculin” - helps enhance
taste.
● Gymmema Sylvestra
*aka Gymer
*means “sugar destroyer” - if
you eat this and chew on a
sweet food (ex. chocolate)
afterwards, you will not taste the
chocolate’s sweetness.
● Aspartame
*can be found in Coke Zero
*if overdosed with it, can lead
to increased risk of heart disease.
● Congenital Anosmia/Anosmia
*inability to smell
*caused by one or more genes
not working correctly.
● Why do we have jobs like Perfumer,
Aromatherapist, and Food Scientist?
- because humans have at least
more than a trillion olfactory
stimuli.

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