BIOLOGY DIGEST Operculum – a bony plate that covers the gills

LESSON 2.1 The gills are supported by gill arches that contain gill
filaments composed of numerous plate-like structures
The Need to Respire and Exchange Essential Gases
called lamellae.
 All organisms in the planet need oxygen to
Countercurrent exchange
survive. The oxygen comes from the
atmosphere, which contains a mixture of gases - A mechanism that dissolved oxygen from the
that blankets the planet. The air that you breathe water that enters the mouth diffuses across the
is composed of 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent gill surfaces into the capillaries, with carbon
nitrogen, about one percent carbon dioxide, dioxide diffusing in the opposite direction to the
and minute proportions of other gases. outside environment.
 Respiratory and circulatory systems work  Fishes breathe through their gills, which help
cooperatively to maintain this homeostasis. The them to adapt to aquatic environment
circulatory system moves blood to all parts of  Frogs breathe from their skin. Aside from their
the body to bring vital supplies to the cells and skin, frogs breathe through a pair of thin-walled
take away the wastes. lungs that act like a big air sac.

Respiration Pulmocutaneous respiration is a type of respiration

that uses both skin and lungs.
- Obtaining sufficient oxygen and expelling
excessive amounts of carbon dioxide. Avian lung has evolved into three components:

In animals, there are four major types of gas exchange 1. Posterior air sacs
systems that allow them to obtain oxygen from the 2. Anterior air sacs
environment: body surface (skin), gills, tracheae, or 3. Parabronchi are air passageways through the
lungs. lungs of birds.

Ventilation Crosscurrent flow – the bird’s lungs is always fully

oxygenated and the blood flow is a 90-degree angle.
- The process involved in the bringing of
oxygenated water or air into contact with
respiratory organs.
FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE
Integumentary exchange or cutaneous respiration
1. Respiratory surfaces must be moist.
- A type of respiration that uses their skin as a 2. Atmospheric Pressure
way of respiration. 3. Temperature
4. Presence of other solutes that may influence the
Spiracles – tiny openings of insect’s body.
solubility of gases
Tracheae – these are sturdy tubes arising from the
spiracles.
 Animas have evolved respiratory pigments
Tracheal system – uses these fine air-conducting tubules
contained inside the red blood cells of
to carry out gas exchange.
vertebrates or in the hemolymph of
Tracheoles – smaller tubes of tracheae. invertebrates

Gills – are found in more advanced marine invertebrates  Hemocyanin is the copper-containing pigment

and vertebrates. that gives insect`s blood a bluish tint

 Hemoglobin is the major iron-containing
- These are thin sheets of tissues that wave
pigment that gives blood its red color when
through the water, increasing the surface area
oxygenated
available for diffusion.

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  Hemoglobin can obtain up to 4 oxygen  Before the air reaches the lungs, inhaled air must
molecules because it contains 4 polypeptide be filtered out and moistened through the
subunits nostrils where coarse hair with mucus trap dust
and other particles that may damage your ling
tissue.
 Carbon Dioxide then turns into carbonic acid
in the red blood cells, due to an enzyme called
as carbonic anhydrase. Pharynx

- a muscular tube in the upper throat that divides

 Dissociates into Hydrogen (H+) and
into the passageways for food and water.
bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions.
Larynx – also known as voice box that leads air into the
lungs.
 Mammals in particular, use their lungs to obtain
oxygen and expel carbon dioxide by receiving Epiglottis – a flap of cartilage that directs the air down

deoxygenated blood from the heart and returning the respiratory path, while food and water are directed to

oxygenated blood to the heart. the digestive tract.

Cellular Respiration Trachea or windpipe

- It is the energy-releasing process that is fueled - a tubelike structure, made up of flexible rings of

by oxygen. cartilage
- connects the larynx to the lungs
Respiratory System

- Responsible for performing the task of getting

oxygen into the body and removing carbon Internal Respiration

dioxide out of the body. - involves the body cells that take up oxygen from

Respiration the blood and release carbon dioxide to the

blood.
- The overall exchange of gases between the
- Is gas exchange at the level of body cells
atmosphere, the blood, and the cells.
- It is responsible for bringing oxygen from your
Breathing lungs to all the other tissues in your body and
taking out carbon dioxide from the tissues back
- Refers to the act of taking air in and out of the
to your lungs as a waste product.
lungs.
BREATHING MECHANISM OF Bronchi (singular: bronchus)
DIFFERENT ANIMALS
- Where the air reaches the trachea that branches
 Amphibians ventilate their lungs by positive
into two tubes.
pressure breathing that forces air down the
trachea Bronchioles - tiny tubes like the size of twigs

 Birds use a system of air sacs as blowers to keep Alveoli - a grapelike air sac
air flowing in one direction.
- About 600 million alveoli are surrounded by
 Mammals including humans, ventilate by
- These are gateways for oxygen in the body.
negative pressure breathing, puling air into the
lungs with the aid of diaphragm contraction and
expansion of rib muscles.
 Leaves is the primary organ for photosynthesis
 Medulla oblongata is a part of the brain
 Cuticle is a thin waterproof coating found in the
responsible for controlling breathing
leaves

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  Stomata – where the gas exchange in plants - A gas exchange that occurs both in the lungs and
takes place. the skin.
 Stomata are mostly found in the lower parts of
Incomplete Double Circulation
the leaves.
 Guard Cells – two-bean shaped cells that - Where the blood is pumped twice, the

control the exchange of gases ang prevent the amphibian circulation.

plant from losing too much water. - Only some blood is actually pumped twice.

 Lenticels – the tiny openings in the stem, which

are waterproof and lined with parenchyma cells
 The heart of mammals and birds have four
 Root Hairs – tiny outgrowths that covers the
chambers consisting of two atria (singular:
roots
atrium) and two ventricles.
 Pneumatophores – lateral breathing root, which
 The right side of the heart takes care of the
are extensions for underground root system
oxygen-poor blood.
 The left side takes care of the oxygen-rich blood

Closed Double Circulatory System

LESSON 2.2
- The blood is pumped into the largest vessel, the
Amoeba – a one-celled organism aorta, and to the other parts of the body

Open Circulatory System Cardiovascular System

- Is pumped through open ended vessels and - kardia (heart) and vascular (vessels)
transported among the cells with no distinction - the closed circulatory system in humans
between the circulating fluid (blood) and the consisting of the four-chambered heart, blood,
interstitial fluid (hemolymph) and blood vessels that carry blood to every part
- More common on mollusks and arthropods. of the body and the lymphatic systems

Tubular Heart THREE PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS OF

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- A muscular tube that pumps hemolymph through
a network of channels into chambers and drains 1. Transportation
back to the central cavity. - Transports three types of substances essential for
cellular metabolism in the following forms:
Closed Circulatory System
respiratory (oxygen and carbon dioxide),
- Where blood circulates in one direction and nutritive (nutrients in the form of food
passes through the animal’s respiratory system molecules), and excretory (metabolic waste
such as excess water and ions).
Aortic Arches
2. Regulation
- A series of heart-like structures that are - Transports hormones and participate in heat
connected to two main blood vessels in Annelids regulation

Single Circulation 3. Protection

- Protects the body from injury during blood
- The kind of circulation in which blood travels to
clotting and plays a role in the immune defense
the heart only once in each complete circuit
against toxins and pathogenic organisms
through the body.
 The human heart has two pumps, one on the
Pulmocutaneous Circuit left and other is right.

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  The right side of the heart pumps blood to the Blood
lungs to receive oxygen.
- a collection of cells in the form of a fluid by
 The left side of the heart pumps blood to other
which oxygen and nutrients reach the body’s
parts of the body
cells and waste materials taken away
Heart - it is composed of plasma and blood cells
(RBC,WBC and platelets)
- A muscular organ positioned behind the rib cage
and between the lungs that pumps blood THREE TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS
throughout the circulatory system
1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
Septum - Also called as erythrocytes
- Makes up 44 percent of the blood transport
- A wall that divides the heart in half and prevents
oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the
blood from flowing between the two atria and
body
two ventricles.
- Adult male has 5.5 million red blood cells per
 Oxygen-poor blood coming from the
ml of blood while adult female has about 4.5
body flows to the right side of the heart
million red blood cells.
into the right atrium.
 The right atrium receives oxygen-poor Hemoglobin – an iron-containing protein that binds with
blood from the superior vena cava, oxygen that give the blood its red color when
which drains blood from the jugular oxygenated.
vein that comes from the upper part of
2. White Blood Cells (WBCs)
the body (brain and arms)
- Also called as leukocytes
 Inferior vena cava receives blood from
- WBC are colorless and do not contain
the lower part of the body (lower organs
hemoglobin.
and the legs)
- One in every 1000 erythrocytes.
 The right atrium also receives from the
- Irregular in shape and contains a nucleus.
coronary sinus that drains oxygen-poor
- Is the one to protect the body from the diseases
blood from the heart itself.
caused by bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
 Blood then flows into the right ventricle
substances.
via atrioventricular valve known as
3. Platelets
tricuspid valve.
- Also called as thrombocytes
Tricuspid Valve - they play a part in blood clotting to prevent

- a flap of connective tissue that opens in only one blood loss

direction, preventing the backflow of the blood - thrombocytes are not true cells but fragments of
cytoplasm from certain large bone marrow
Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve
called megakaryocytes.
- it also prevents the backflow of the blood
Fibrin – a long sticky strands of a substance
located at the left side of the heart to prevent
backflow from the left ventricle to the left Arteries – are blood vessels that move blood away from

atrium. the heart

Arterioles – smaller arteries which branches off arteries

 Aortic semilunar valve or the aortic valve into the capillaries.
prevents backflow of blood into the left ventricle
Capillaries – these are elaborate, narrow, and thin-
Double Circulation walled tubes

- a process in which blood circulates through the Venules – smaller blood vessels that moves to the heart
heart twice

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Veins – larger blood vessels that moves blood to the 7. The left ventricle contracts, oxygen-rich blood
heart. is forced into the aorta, the largest artery in the
body. The aorta carries oxygen-rich blood away
- these are blood vessels that move blood-carrying
from the heart to smaller arteries form where it
waste products toward the heart
flows to all the;
Valve – a flap of tissue found in veins that prevents the 8. Body`s organs and tissues, returns to the heart
backflow of blood and it keeps its flow in one direction through the veins.
9. Blood from the head and neck returns to the
heart through the superior vena cava. Blood
from the abdomen and lower parts of the body
returns to the inferior vena cava. After delivering
oxygen to tissues and absorbing wastes, such as
carbon dioxide, the systematic circulation
returns oxygen-poor blood to the heart,
specifically
10. Right atrium, and then contracts and forced
2 PARTS OF CIRULATORY SYSTEM blood into the right ventricle and the process

1. Pulmonary Circulation begins again.

- The pumping of the blood from the heart to the  Marcello Malpighi is an Italian scientist who

lungs and back discovered a sweet-tasting fluid that comes out

after removing the bark and other layer of tissue

2. Systemic Circulation around the tree trunk.

- The pumping of the blood from the heart to the  Transport or Vascular Tissues are vessels

rest of the body which distribute water and carry nutrients up and
down the plant.
 Tracheid a type of xylem cell, present in all
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD vascular plants.
 Vessels is an extra xylem cell found in flowering
 Pulmonary Circulation
plants
 About 99% of water conducted into these
1. Right Ventricle contracts, the blood is forced
vessels evaporate through transpiration.
though;
2. The two pulmonary arteries and into the 3 Theories that explain the transport mechanism of
lungs. water among plants:
3. Gas exchange happens in the alveoli and
capillaries B where oxygen and carbon dioxide
a. Root Pressure
are released to be exhaled. During inhalation the
- Where the root creates pressure that forces water
blood is replenished and becomes rich with fresh
to move upward. This process is known as
oxygen (becomes bright red) which flows into
Guttation.
the;
b. Capillary Action
4. Pulmonary veins and into the;
- Makes use of adhesion’s property
5. Left atrium.
- It is the ability of a substance to draw or stick
6. Contraction of the left atrium forces the blood
another substance into it.
into the left ventricle
c. Cohesion Tension
- Also known as transpiration pull.

 Systematic Circulation - Relies in the attraction between water molecules

where water is pulled up from below.

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 -  Innate Immune System
- Defends the body against pathogens and
Transpiration Pull or cohesion tension
chemicals in a nonspecific or stereotypic
- A process that explains how water moves up a manner, and it does not confer long-lasting
tall plant immunity.
 The phloem tissue conducts manufacture food
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
(sucrose and amino acids) as well as hormones
from the green plants especially the leaves, to  It consists of a surface barrier and internal
the other parts of the plants. structures that employ physical and biochemical
strategies to get rid of many microorganisms
Translocation
before they invade body tissues.
- The process of transporting manufactured food  Skin accounts 15 percent of your body weight
through the phloem tissue and its dead skin layers, which provides a

Vascular Bundles nearly impenetrable barrier that helps against the

entry of microorganisms.
- Bundles that contain xylem and phloem
 The skin`s dry outer layer contains a tough,
Heartwood – the wood in the center of the mature stem indigestible keratin that is not accommodating
of the tree trunk place for most microorganism.
 Good bacteria that symbiotically live on the
Sapwood – lies outside the heartwood, contains vessel
skin digest skin oil, then produces acids as a
cells that can conduct water, contains vessel cells that
barrier together with sweat form an acidic layer
can conduct water.
that inhibits growth of pathogens.
 Two entry ways: the digestive tract and

Mass-flow theory – a theory which combines the respiratory tracts.

concept of osmosis and dynamic pressure in the  Lysozyme an enzyme from saliva, tears and

movement of the materials. nasal secretion that helps breakdown bacterial

walls
 Mucus which are found in the linings of both
CHAPTER 3 respiratory and digestive tracts acts as a
protective barrier that blocks bacteria from
sticking to the inner epithelial cells
 The Immune system is composed of special  Cilia hair-like substance that lines in the
cells, proteins, tissues, and organs that protect bronchial tubes with its beating motion leads the
the body from the potential dangers of foreign pathogen into the mucus away from the lungs.
bodies, thus keeping the body healthy and free  When the airway is infected, extra mucus is
from infection secreted, which triggers more coughing and
 Immune Response – the collective and sneezing responses to these microbes will be
coordinated process performed by immune forced outside the body.
system upon the introduction of foreign  Diarrhea and vomiting are usual defense
substance. mechanisms to get rid of toxins when invaders
 Lack of sleep and too much stress can cause enter the digestive system.
confusion to your immune system. Stress can  Pathogens may enter the boy through the skin
release hormone, cortisol which destroys the abrasions, wounds and punctures.
capacity of the immune system to do its job.
Infection – the successful invasion of a pathogenic
 During high level of stress, cortisol suppresses
organism inside the body.
the immune cells to stop fighting, so your body
is susceptible to diseases.

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 SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE Histamines and Prostaglandins – chemical alarm
signals
 Lymphatic system also known as the other
circulatory system, which collects and recycles Antibodies – are specialized proteins that circulate in
fluids that leaked from the circulatory system. It blood plasma and lymph.
also plays an important role in fighting bacterial
Three mechanisms which antibodies inhibit infection:
and viral infections.
 Neutralization – antibodies prevent a virus or
Lymph nodes – these are organs, nodes, and tiny bean
toxic protein from binding their target
structure
 Opsonization – a pathogen tagged by antibodies
Lymph – the leaked fluid passes by diffusion into the is consumed by a macrophage or neutrophil.
lymphatic vessels  Complement activation – antibodies attached
to the surface of a pathogen cell activate the
Lymphocytes – nodes that are filled with white blood
complement system
cells
Five General Types of Antibodies

 IgA (immunoglobulin alpha) – found in

WHITE BLOOD CELLS
mucosal areas such as gut, respiratory tract, and
a. Macrophages – are large, irregularly shaped urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by
WBCs that patrol and ingest microorganisms pathogens.
through phagocytosis.
 IgD (immunoglobulin delta) – functions
b. Neutrophils – are the most abundant circulating
mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that
WBCs similar to macrophages.
have not been exposed to antigens.
c. Natural killer cells – are cells that do not attack
 IgE (immunoglobulin epsilon) – protects
the microbes directly.
against parasitic worms.
Perforins – proteins that released by natural
 IgG (immunoglobulin gamma) – the only
killer cells.
antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give
d. Dendritic cells – are phagocytes that process
passive immunity to fetus.
and alert the adaptive immune system when an
 IgM (immunoglobulin mu) – eliminates
antigen is present.
pathogens in the early stages of B cell humorial
e. Eosinophils – are granular WBCs with enzymes
immunity before the secretion of sufficient Ig.
that target parasitic worms.
f. Basophils – are granular WBCs that contain
histamines, which cause inflammation during
immune responses and allergic reactions.
g. Mast cells – are granular WBCs that also
contain histamines and other substances that
anchor themselves in response to injury or
allergic reaction, together with basophils.
h. Lymphocytes – are responsible for specific
immunities.

Antigen – toxins or substance that can trigger an

immune response.

Cytokines – cell signaling proteins

Interferon – cellular defense that is released by virus-

infected cells.

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