6.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. Introduction

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the positioning of the
physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives in geometric design
are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and environmental damage. Geometric design also
affects an emerging fifth objective called livability, which is defined as designing roads to foster broader
community goals, including providing access to employment, schools, businesses and residences, accommodate
a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions
and environmental damage. Therefore, the objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in
traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost. The planning cannot be done stage wise in this case like
that of a pavement but must be done well in advance.

The main components that will be discussed are,

• Cross section elements

• Stopping sight distance (SSD)
• Passing sight distance (PSD)
• Minimum radius and other characteristics of circular curves, lateral clearance
• Super elevation and Super elevation development length
• Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment

End Point

Starting Point

Figure 1 - Geometry of the selected segment

 2. Design of Proposed Road Segment

• Carriageway

The Carriageway is the surface of the road on which vehicles are expected to run. Since lane width was not
considered as an input in the Capacity Design, a carriageway with two lanes of 3.3 m lane width was selected as
per AASHTO Green Book to cater to an urban area with restriction (Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, 2001). A cross fall of 2.5% was used as per general practice.

• Shoulders and Sidewalks

The Shoulder width is measured from edge of the carriageway to the edge of the usable formation. Shoulders must
be freely available for vehicles in an emergency. Since any foot cycles were not observed in the area, a separate
cycle lane was not provided. Although it is not very recommended to use shoulders for parking for extended
durations, it is safer than parking vehicles on the carriageway which is currently happening in front of commercial
centers, supermarket, and restaurants in the road section.

Shoulder is designed with a width of 1.8 m and a slope of 4.5% (Usual practice to add 2% to cross fall). There is
a separate sidewalk of width 2 m provided for pedestrians. It is raised from the shoulder and has a Kerb.

• Drains and Pedestrian walkway

Drainage design is needed in the highway design mainly to accommodate in the rainy season. Lack of good
drainage can lead to the ingress of water into the road structure, leading to damages of the road. Improper design
of drainage will cause collection of water on roadside leading to accidents. In countries like Sri Lanka, the water
falling on the entire catchment area has to be accounted. Culverts were present only in some places and a majority
has been damaged.

3. Drainage Design
Cross section of the proposed road

Lane width
Shoulder 3.3m
3.3 m
Side walk width
width 1.8m 1.8m
2.0m 2.0m

0.3m Drain depth

0.4m
0.6m
Drain width

Figure 2 Cross section of proposed road

Figure 3 Geometric Design

4. Sight distances

Sight distance is the distance which a driver can see ahead at any specific time. Sufficient distance should be
allowed for a driver to perceive/react and stop, swerve when necessary.

Stopping sight distance (SSD)

For safety, should provide sight distance of sufficient length so that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object in the traveled way.

𝑡𝑟 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = +
3.6 254 × (μ + 0.01G)

Where,

tr = perception/reaction time = 2.5 s (AASHTO)

V = design speed= 50km/h

μ = coefficient of longitudinal friction = 0.35 for design speed of 50 km/h (AASHTO)

G = longitudinal grade as a percentage (Assume 3%)

2.5 ∗ 50 502
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = +
3.6 254 × (0.35 + 0.01 ∗ 3)
 SSD = 60.624 m

SSD = 66 m is used in the design (Exhibit 3-2, Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001)

Decision sight distance (DSD)

SSD is the distance sufficient allowing drivers to reasonably competent and alert to come to a hurried stop under
ordinary circumstances. It May be inadequate when drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions, when
information is difficult to perceive or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required. Critical Locations
where there is a likelihood for error in either information reception, decision-making, or control actions Some of
desirable locations are interchange & intersection locations, change in cross sections and areas of visual noise.

Assume, avoidance maneuver D: speed/path / direction change on sub urban road-t varies between 12.1s and
12.9s

Decision sight distance (for 50 km/h) = 170m (Exhibit 3-3, Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, 2001)

Passing sight distance (PSD)

Vehicle needs adequate sight distance to overtake a vehicle.

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where vehicle just enters the right lane

𝑡1 𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = (𝑢 − 𝑚 + )
3.6 2

Where,

t1 = time for initial manoeuver (sec)

u = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h)
a = acceleration (km/h/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed vehicle

d2 = distance travelled by vehicle while in right lane

d3 = clearance distance varies from 33 to 90 m

d4 = distance travelled by opposing vehicle during passing manoeuver

Passing sight distance for bituminous and concrete pavements (50km/h) = 280m

(Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001)

Continuation sight distance

This feature must be satisfied to make sure driver can get a decision whether to overtake or not while he has
come to the other lane.

Continuation sight distance= 130m (Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001)

5. Road alignment

Horizontal Alignment

Design has to be based on appropriate relationship between design speed with the road curvature and their
relationship with side friction and super elevation.

Minimum radius of curvature

𝑣2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
127(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

Maximum super elevation rate, emax = 0.06

Maximum side friction factor, fmax = 0.17 (for bituminous surface and for 50km/h)
(Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001)
502
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
127(0.06 + 0.17)
Rmin = 86 m

6. Problems identified in the road section and proposed geometric solutions

2 3 5

1
4

Figure 4- Existing road centerline and geometrical unsatisfied section

Existing road geometry was modelled using Civil 3D software package and the minimum radius of curvature to
be maintained was 90 m; which is more than the theoretical value calculated above (86m). Image shows the
warning signs appeared in the road alignment where the requirements are not being satisfied.

Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here..1 Improvements to radius of curvature

Number Chanage Existing Radius (m) Proposed Radius(m)

1 1+42.97 16.374 110.7
2 3+32.36 28.337 200
3 5+31.73 54.06 86
4 6+07.00 18.6 86
5 8+00.00 49.5 104

Super elevation required for new curves

𝑣2
𝑒= − 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
127∗ 𝑅

Figure.2 Super elevation requirements of curves

Curve number Super elevation required

1 0.016
2 Minus
3 0.035
4 0.049
5 Minus

Maximum super elevation for a flat terrain built up or open area = 6% (RDA). This criterion is satisfied in all the
curves.

Lateral clearance
In order to provide the safe horizontal sight distance, lateral clearance should be maintained. Lateral clearance is
decided based on the stopping sight distance.
 Figure 5 – lateral clearance

Where,
R = Radius of the road
n = w/2 = Distance from the road centerline to center of the inside lane = 1.25 m (Existing lane width ≈ 2.5 m)
S = Sight distance measured along the curve = 66 m (SSD for 50 km/h)
δ = Half the angle subtended by the line of sight

m = Offset distance from the road centerline to the line of sight obstruction

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 = (𝑅−𝑚) / (𝑅−2𝑛)

𝑆 = 2𝛿 (𝑅−𝑛)

Table 3- Checking for lateral clearance existing radius

Curve no Radius of Existing lane 𝛿 (rad) Cos(𝛿) m

existing width
curvature (R)
1 16.374 2.5m 2.18 -0.57 24.28
2 28.337 2.5m 1.22 0.34 19.55
3 54.060 2.5m 0.62 0.81 12.30
4 18.600 2.5m 1.90 -0.32 23.75
5 49.500 2.5m 0.68 0.78 12.84

Existing clearance = lane width + max. (Sidewalk length, drainage)

= 2.5 + 1
= 3.5 m maximum
Therefore, the existing clearance is not satisfactory.
 Table 4- Checking for lateral clearance proposed radius

Curve no Radius of Proposed lane 𝛿 (rad) Cos(𝛿) m

proposed width
curvature (R)
1 110.7 3.3m 0.30 0.96 7.60
2 200 3.3m 0.17 0.99 5.27
3 86 3.3m 0.39 0.92 9.92
4 86 3.3m 0.39 0.92 9.92
5 104 3.3m 0.32 0.95 8.34

After improving the roadway geometry,

Clearance = 3.3 + 1.8 (shoulder length) +2.0 (sidewalk) + 0.225 (kerb) = 7.325 m

Therefore, still the existing clearance is not satisfactory.

Clearance needed areas

Curve no Existing m Clearance needed

1 7.325 7.60
3 7.325 9.92
4 7.325 9.92
5 7.325 8.34

Super elevation development length

The length of roadway required to achieve the change in cross slope from normal cross slope to super elevation
is defined as the super elevation development length. The amount of super elevation is chosen primarily on the
basis of safety. Comfort and appearance also matter when designing the super elevation.

The super elevation that is applied to a horizontal curve should take into account the following,

1. Stability of high laden commercial vehicles

2. Stability of vehicle loads

3. Difference between inner and outer formation level, especially in flat terrain

4. Length available to introduce the necessary super elevation

Super elevation runoff section

Length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from zero to full super elevation.

3.6𝑒
𝐿𝑟 = ( )𝛼
𝐺
e - Full super elevation (%) = 6%
G - Relative gradient (%)
𝛼 - Adjustment factor
G = 0.65 (for 50km/h speed)
𝛼 = 1 (and for two lane undivided highway, AASHTO)

Therefore, super elevation development length required for all the locations,

3.6 ∗ 6
𝐿𝑟 = ( )∗1
0.65

Lr = 33.23 m

Tangent runout section

Length of road way needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from normal to zero.

𝑒𝑁𝐶 × 𝐿𝑟
𝐿𝑡 =
𝑒𝑑

Where,

eNC= normal cross slope rate (%) = 2.5%

ed = design super elevation rate = 6 %
Lr = minimum length of super elevation runoff (result is the edge slope is same as for runoff segment)
2.5×33.23
𝐿𝑡 = 6
= 13.84 m

Again,

Super elevation development length on tangent = Lt + 2/3 Lr

Super elevation development length on curvature = Lr/3
Lr = 33.23 m

Lt = 13.84 m

Super elevation development length on tangent = 36 m

Super elevation development length on curvature = 11 m

Vertical Alignment

The elevation difference between the highest and lowest points in the road section is about 19.6 m. Vertical
alignment is considered under gradient and stopping sight distance criteria.

For a flat terrain, maximum gradient = 6-8%. Minimum gradient for drainage = 0.3% for an urban area. Both the
existing and proposed profiles satisfy these criteria.

Rate of vertical curvature for a design speed of 50 km/h and considering the SSD criteria (K) = 7

(Exhibit 3-76, Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001).

This criterion is violated in a few locations as shown.

 Existing Road
Proposed Road

Figure 6 Vertical Alignment

PVI station PVI elevation K value

0+773.27 96.624 19.126

0+819.83 96.721 10.013

In Proposed road K (SSD) = 7 is satisfied but K (Headlight sight Distance) and K (PSD) = 30 not satisfied
So, in the design should not allowed passing in that area and have to put street light in night times.