A | 3 BeSonic pagar Field Me (Ape) Add ANDRE dinid4t— BEAGAS (dss) ee ie we. chal a yo ee ° dnd cat Tol cans © goad — 7 Sue Buch a Antlety ox | a a a) nes) An Hoe & acter | seeds easy. bes ee ww ante ~ aera poarng,, rimH om : a “ acty peek capats Me /LE Tha nd wall ees a den Ao leapt ee eet he Cam tm om = aE. A1o1e Gacy medals hee « yank cous leet fe ae oN ° alte Se ee aatae ata Z within te rece. Aering ots % onlae Ste tow «Tes ae A wea, ofetrdien te be nor a2 ates ine NorDaR OAK BEA CAS Te Un seesa| woof Lene amd ened — Ap gpenesy cnet. aa dew Se Commiréal atentt ieee te eee tL peafowl oes. Ee cleicee andlce Gor Sack jae qe rose. hecems ae alto kwnwn 40 fy E eae hey A oe bette we Serer \ileratts did Oa) RUE sare mye ieee iz ie: \ ton eh. tienartads -bs & oe — Corbina and (poduce a Video pation beRaxe Bom Pap“a fondtetinal yee ett prtin ta addttiny te He dredewal i gpa into pods ree diate se tee Reseiteta ae Gndaenna: Ht mre ee Godeine a null Ve ee te anbeme— arcnonacs wall ptt dof cide * toa pa Brecied FADIADIRECTION FINDING DIRECTION FINDING Direction finding represents the earliest use of radio for navigational purposes; it continues to perform a useful function particularly in those parts Of the world that have not yet adapted the more specialized navigation aids. its chief attraction lies in the fact that with the proper receiving equipment the direction of any transmitter can be found, Such transmitters do not necessarily have to be specially designed for direction finding; they can be broadcast stations, communication stations, navigation stations, or any other Jind of radiating system. Direction finders for aircraft navigation may be grouped into two broad classes: 1. Ground-based direction finders, which take bearings on airborne transmitters and then advise the aircraft of its bearing from the ground station. Such stations can afford the necessary complex equipment, but the operation is obviously cumbersome and time consuming, and requires an airborne transmitter and communication link. 2. Air bone direction finders, which take bearings on ground transmitters. ‘These direction finders can afford only the simplest of system and must therefore tolerate large errors. However, even the largest bearing error will not present an aircraft from horning in om the souree of that bearing — though not necessarily by the direct route. Direction finding therefore continues to be used as a backing aid to move precise system. ‘These direction finders serve many purposes. They are used for instance, to Jocate thunderstorms and illicit ransmitters, to spy on the enemy in wartime 10 help locate lost aircraft, and to aid in traffic control. For navigational uses/purpose the ground based direction finder is associated with a communication link by which the airerafi may be advised of its bearing as seen by the ground-based direction finder. Such communication links generally use voice, It has been generally thought that if the communication links could be automated so as to instantaneously provide a vehicle with it bearing, the use of ground ~ based direction finders might significantly increase. However, such automatic links have been used only to @ very limited extent and there are no worldwide standards governing them.Wad OF Rice powk ta Called tha rll postion, and Aa cp acer. deci pel acto Go mada airline UA Gumer peachiete uldcactn Ads op hie omrpmok Th. toads A unils ey be tuned oe tating He [nao of paccbarr forte tm po aac ee on ciad. a rfl wesley ae eae I eh te Ane systeas Sth yom See avlthis Gy Dede, weer ipa Ded saheainly pablo GEAR. fecal Sr ie ace arth ‘oot. ped 7a eee PEE a prseatly apaplantd in Commuientetio® ria weasel = pny diet cickarasietil ond dankoditin ae ee ostiek, ee at ae tae, 000 vay (2-44 Sp0km|h) Aven ami sr. fn fon Lela Sh ve ak ersten ann ol Be dharadd a He. asttonns ii eo Jeol Se at a allagace teks | onthe. rma arene mossy be dictiimmsd. Ua Loop arinna & peed ot ade » portance tat Deak 98 te te chiedom of we Aaavel aipa\ and sport ~elkages tl be cbucolo tho Gas ‘ot te oa tw Pogue bebe he ~o ll han RAncad ofa boop UL cane onal. etn e Ake He Lag ot lene , He me 3 OfedaTONpow et th. Loop = tee beatin of rave pepyyees hate ennll. be tr. dalton Hea. Dineen ef a —midin Libba set \ mecurete ts woo “He Aut ADE Com fad ATS ; Te fs el units of on ADE i are 4 Fado Hey which mda des qe art a. ole, abchetc bs a Lach ondldmns, @ Send. dufenna gadis majraix 2 pes (La, wh a jem — Cocks| wick or Cocks] pat =e loan Ouitinna ve Old Syctin oc aptetd ebeatarenlly andl to by nelw0 ee ott. Yonce, 20 lag atte, He pote ott tei alse ritiie, ih the, as ; A el antomatic meade re et a be ardinde |llardematiolly tim te a aikcier. * tik provilis tia. Gxedt Seadng | He, Gtatiow on the Roki ~ Pera e of root dk ony anaving dewtca, betta e | wi lant ss eee ena ttt cally. A “ly, Ae, dese mats more, Lowery | us Be Baybwaloot te a—eotatg loop. Re Aden of the Perse. mbna its pond. anh | Byral stich a Ot ef phos vette dea went |Fig. 17-18 Operation of ADF loMost readers uil have coms across the principle on swhieh ADE is based whe Iisening toa tensor fal, Ae the radio i rotated the signal Devomes ‘weaker or stronger, depending on its orientation with seeprct tothe distant transmitter. Of course itis the antenna which is dicecional and this fet has been kaon snes the carly days of radio Jn the 192053 simple oop antenna was used which sould be sovaed by nnd. The pilot would position the loop so that there was a mull inthe Sigal From the satios to which he was tuned, The beanng of the ation could then be read off scale on the loep. Tuning nto another station gave rive to another testing nd consequently a fis. Apart from bosidon-fixing the direction-inding loop could be used for homing on toa particular station. This primitive equipment represented the fst ase of radio for navigation purposes and came t§ be knowa asthe nadie compts. The system has been much develgped since those catly days and in particular ite operation has been ‘simplified. Within the band 100-2000 kHz (Lf./m.f.) there are many broadeast stations and yon digctional beecons (NDB). An airraft today would have toan Aihaartships tao Fore and aft loop Fig 2.1. Loop zateana and goniometer vin. a receivers which, when tuned to twu distinet stations Or Deacons, would automatically drive cwo pointers on 1n instrument called a radio magnetic indteater (RMI) ‘9 thal each pointer gave the bearing of the corresponding station. The alceraft position is where he two directions intersect. Sines such a system requites the mini of pilot involvement the name radio compass iras come to be replaved by outométic ection finder (ADE Basic Principles ‘The Loop Antenna ‘The fist requirement of any ADF is « directional antenna. Early loop antennas were able to be rotated ficst by hand and subsequently by motor, automatically. The obvious advantage of having no ‘moving parts in the aircraft skin-mounted antenna has led to the universal use of 2 fixed Joop and goniometer in modera equipments, although some older types are still in service ‘The loop antenna consists of an orthogonal pair of ‘oils wound on 2 single flat fercite core whi ceneentrates the magnecc (It) fleld component of the em. wave radiated from 2 distant station. The plane Athwartshins 32 Foto: (searen coup‘of one coil is aligned with the aiccratt longitudinal axis wiulle the othe; is aligned with the lateral axis. ‘The current induced in ezeh coil will €epend on the direction of the magnetic field, Whea the plane cof the loop is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, 10 voltage is induced In the Joop since the lines of flux do nat link with it. 1 can be soen ‘hut HF one loop dozs not link with she magnetic field the other will have macimum linkage. Figure 3.1 shows that dhe loop currents low through the stator winding of a goniometer (resolver) where. provid ‘he characteristics of each circu't are identical, die snognetic field detected by the loop will be reereated in $0 far as direction is concerned. We now ‘effectively have 2 rotating loop autenne in the tani fof the goniometer foter or search coil As the ntG ‘tums through 160° there will be two peaks and two nulls of the voltage induced in it. ‘The output of the rotor is the input to the ADF receiver whigh thus sees the rotor as the antenna, Suet an strangemént is known 25 a BelliniTos system. Since we are effectively back with a rotating loop situation we should consider the polar diagram of such en antenna as we are interested in its directional propecties. In Fig. 3.2 we bave a vertically polarized tem, wave from the direction shown, That eomponen: of the H field linking with the loop wil Be Hsin @, soa plot of the loop current against @ produces a sine curve as shown, The polae diagram cBsuch an antena will be asin Fig. 3.3, I can be seen that because of the sinusoidal nature of the plot the nulls are far more sharply defined than the peaks. ‘The above hat assured a vertically polarized wave which is in fact the case with NDBs and most pe lanl Fig. 3.3 Loop acre! pola diagiaey broadcast stations. However a vertically polarized Signal travelling aver noa-homogeneous earth and striking reflecting objecs, including the ionosphere fan ative atthe Loop with an appreciable horizontally polarized component. The carte in the loop will then be due to two sources, the vertical and horizontal components, Which vil in general gi a nen zero resultant nll, not necessarily in the direction of the plane of the antenna. This poletiestion error dictates that ADF should only be sed with ground wave signals which in the Lim bands are useful for several huadzed mies. However. they are contaminated by non-vertcaly polarized sky waves beyond, say, 200 mat 200 kHz and 50 m at 1600 kez, the effec being much, wore a night (oie effee) ‘The Sense Antenna The polar diagram of the Loop (Fig. 3.3) shows that de bearing of the NDB will be given as one of two ’ Plane of tooo H sino 5 Hera] \ v 4 ‘ “ Direction of raeagation ——————> XN | Efiolde | Looe t Fig. 32 Toillustate degree of coupling of ep aerial ‘360° Ge al WIZ —figates, 180” apact, since there aze tw nulls. la trder to determine the correct bearing fasther information i: needed and this is provided by an crnmidireetional sense antenna. Ina verically polarized field an antenna which is omnidirectional in the horizontal plane should be of « type which is excited by the electric (E) field of the te m. wae fe. a capacitance antenna. The output of such an tnenaa will vary with the instantaneous field Svength while the output of loop antenna varies as ihe instantaneous rate of chonge ef field strength (Faraday's Law of induced emf). Asa consequence, regardless of the direction of the tem. syave, the sence antering (J. output will be in phase ‘quadrature with respect to the search coil rf. output thr order co sense the direction of the NDB the nyo amenna dutpets must be combined in such a way a5 teaher to cancel a¢ reinforce, and so either the sense fr the loop signal must be ptase shifted by 90°. A-composite signal made wp of the search cot uiput phase shifted by 90° and the sense antenna futput would appear as if t came fram an antenna the polar diagram of which was the sam of those for the individvel antennas. Now the figure-of-eight polar diagram for the loop can be thought of as being generated as we consider the output of a fixed search foil for various n.6.b. bearings o1 the output of = rotating search coil for a fixed nd b. bearing, either tay the separate halves of the Cguit-of-cight will be T8O" outof phase, As consequente the sense antenna polar diagram will add tae Toop polar ‘iagram for some bearings, and subtract for others. ‘The resultant diagram is a cardiod with only one null, Fig.34 Composite polar diagram although not as clearly defined as the nulls for the figuee-of eight (Fig. 34).Receiver ‘A conventional superhet receiver is used with an if froquéney of 141 kz in the cate of the KR 85: if and 14. gain may be manually controlled but in any case ag is used. An audio amp, with nonmel goin control, amplifies the detected signal and feeds the AIS for identification purposes, A beat fiequency oxcillator (b-fo,) can be switched in to facilitate the sMentification of NDBS transmitting Keyed c.w. The AR [Assume soerch ool ignad with zero beating A NOE a Noe 2 NDB 1 to left NOE 2 to right Indication of Bearing Inall indicetors the pointer is aligned in the divection of the NDB. ‘The angle of rotation clockwise from a Jubber line atthe top of the indicator gives the relative beating of the NDB. Ifthe insirument has a fixed scale its known as a relative bearing indicator (RBI). More commen is a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) which has 2 rotating scale siaved to the compass heading. An RMI will give the magnetic bearing of the NDB on the scale 2s well as the relative bearing by the amount of rotation of the pointer fiom the lubber fine. Figure 38 iliustcates the readings om RBI and RMI for a given NDB relative bearing and aircraft heading. An RMI normally provides for indication of two magaetic headings from a combination of two ADF receivers and two VOR receivers. Figuse 39 shows a typical RMI while Fig. 3.10 shows the RMI ‘circuit and typical switching arrangements which may bbe internal or external to the RMIS. Sources of System Error ‘Automatic direction finding is subject to a number of NB. Wavechapes and relative time (ealee oo not exaelly a5 Shown. Fig. 3.6. Diagram showing ADF phase selationships JAW we noone t Net ANC dg. ‘Switching 7 Le ty 30°, \ veer H 4. MAW ODI a ‘ Composite MA sex —V/V \ , i a _j 4 eee + Reference Fe ard RM.