Cross-Age Tutoring: Why Does It Help the Tutors?
Author(s): Charles N. Nevi
Source: The Reading Teacher , May, 1983, Vol. 36, No. 9 (May, 1983), pp. 892-898
Published by: International Literacy Association and Wiley
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Cross-age tutoring:
Why does it help the tutors?
Researchers have generated multiple theories as to why
students learn to read better when they tutor others. After
a survey of the options, Nevi suggests that the answer may
be the amount of time spent on task.
Charles N. Nevi mented, inconclusive, and noncumu
lative."
Bargh and Schul (1980, p. 593)
Current research on cross-age tutor agree, and feel strongly that such a
ing indicates that the academic skills theoretical base has not yet been
of the tutors improve as much or established: "Despite the widespread
more than the skills of the tutored. belief that teaching is an excellent
Support ranges from Cloward's (1967) method of learning, there has been
impressive study of 10th and 11th surprisingly little systematic investi
graders tutoring 4th and 5th graders, gation of why such gains occur,
to the variety of supporting studies
especially for the tutor." It might be
added that in addition to establishing
enthusiatically described by Gartner,
K?hler, and Riessman (1971), to more credibility for the research, a
Ehly and Larsen's (1980) book de theoretical basis for tutoring might
scribing the benefits of tutoring provide insights into the reading
programs and offering specifics on process and the teaching-learning
how to set one up. process.
Despite this support, concerns Actually, despite the above con
have been expressed regarding the cerns, a careful review of the literature
lack of a theoretical basis for tutoring. indicates that a wide variety of
Feldman et al. (in Allen, 1976, p. 249) theories have been advanced as to
stress that research needs a strong why cross-age tutoring should improve
theoretical base to assure its validity. the academic skills of the tutor, but
Otherwise, the research will be "frag the theoretical basis for a program or
892 The Reading Teacher May 1983
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research study is usually not presented Thelen (1969, p. 230) emphasizes
as the primary topic. As a result, the the importance of the role being
theories are often more implicit than created and recognized by those in
explicit, often not fully developed, authority, saying that what is "salient
and in some instances, more accurately is the helping relationship between
thought of as theoretical consider students which is newly created and
ations rather than fully developed formally legitimized by the school
theories. authorities."
In fact, many authors cited in this Willis and Crowder (1974) add a
review have not presented fully unique consideration that does not
developed theories, as such. Their seem to support the role theory. In
comments should more accurately be their study of cross-age tutoring the
labeled as speculation on the causes tutors did not show any gains over
of the tutor improvement. Also many the controls. Tutors in the program
authors do not speculate on only a received considerable training, and
single cause; they consider many the tutoring was done in a highly
different causes, all of which may structured situation. In speculating
interrelate. However, there still re on why the tutors did not show the
mains a need for a theoretical base, expected gains, the authors suggest
and there is considerable value in that the structure and training inter
treating the speculation as theory fered with the relationship between
and in isolating each consideration the tutor and the tutored. They posit
and assessing its value as theory. that less structure would have helped
develop "positive, flexible relation
The tutor's role ships" between the tutor and the
The role played by the tutor is the tutored and would perhaps have
basis for one theory explicitly presented helped tutors gain more academically
as such and not just as speculation. (p. 69). This suggests that a less
"Role theory is employed as the formal role, more that of a friend
general conceptual orientation in the than a teacher, might allow for more
present research project because it tutor development.
appears to be particularly appropriate An objective assessment of the role
for analysis of cross-age tutoring" theory raises some concerns. Enacting
(Allen, 1976, pp. 113-14). This theory the role of teacher may make one act
implies, in effect, that one becomes like a teacher, but it is hard to believe
what one does. By becoming the that enacting the role can develop
teacher, the tutor assumes a teacher's reading abilities that did not previously
characteristics. These may include exist. Yet, the theory may have some
prestige, authority, and feelings of validity since it has elements of a self
competence. The "enactment of a fulfilling prophecy and may help
role produces changes in behavior, tutors develop confidence and esteem.
attitudes, and self-perceptions con
sistent with expectations associated Tutoring and self-esteem
with the role" (Allen and Feldman, Closely related to the role theory is
1973, p. 1). the idea that cross-age tutoring
Somewhat less explicitly, this theory develops academic skills by enhancing
seems to be supported by Gartner, self-esteem. Gartner, K?hler, and
K?hler, and Riessman (1971, p. ix) Riessman (1971, p. 63) speak of the
who feel that "Children and youth importance of the "building of self
learn far more when performing the respect" in the learning process, and
teaching role than when acting as McWhorter and Levy (1971, p. 221)
students in the classroom. This prin stress that a tutor "experiences success
ciple has been known for centuries." in an adademic situation" and that
Cross-age tutoring 893
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the success can help a tutor develop motivation and learning for the
positive attitudes toward self and tutor" (p. 336).
reading. These theorists seem to be on safe
However, these researchers, as ground when claiming that tutoring
well as others, are understandably enhances esteem. It probably does
cautious about equating esteem and for a variety of students, but little or
academic performance. Although the no hard evidence indicates that the
relationship between the two seems esteem developed in cross-age tutoring
intuitively undeniable, it is difficult carries over directly into academic
to establish with evidence from improvement, especially in reading
research: "The relationship between achievement.
self-confidence and cognitive growth
is complicated" (Gartner, K?hler, Reinforcement
and Riessman, 1971, p. 65). Also presented as a full-fledged
Lippitt and Lohman (1965, p. 113 theory is reinforcement. Hartup, a
14) have tried to avoid the sticky behaviorist, is one exponent (Allen,
problem of the relationship between 1976). Looking at four nonhuman
esteem and cognitive growth by primate species?langurs, chimpan
saying that an appropriate education zees, baboons, and vervet monkeys?
should have two interrelated parts, Hartup studied the effects of cross
the "process of socialization" and the age contacts and same-age contacts
"process of subject-matter learning." during their socialization. He initially
Cross-age tutoring helps tutors earn found that same-age contacts were
respect and trust and helps them more common and more positive,
work through "problems of relation apparently because same-age indi
ships. . .at a safe emotional distance." viduals were less likely to dominate,
restrict, or control each other. One
Locus of control conclusion is that same-age contacts
Not unrelated to esteem is the are more natural and that cross-age
concept of "locus of control," which contacts, such as those in a tutoring
is the basis for a theory offered by program, must be monitored carefully
Chandler (1975). According to this and the opportunities for negatively
theory, individuals who feel they are reinforcing events carefully controlled.
in control of their lives and environ However, after looking at some
ment (so-called internals) tend to be cross-cultural studies of small societies,
more academically successful than Hartup finds that cross-age contacts
those who believe more in luck or do have the potential for improving
chance or who tend to be dependent the socialization of children who are
on others (so-called externals). The poorly adjusted socially. Apparently
need, according to Chandler, is for a the socially inadequate child gains a
program that moves the externals more optimal balance of reinforce
"toward internal locus of personal ments from the cross-age contacts
control," and he sees tutoring by low than from same-age contacts and this
achieving externals as a way to effect improves socialization skills. How
this change (p. 335). A willingness to ever, Hartup cautions that this as
"study hard" and take responsibility sumption still requires empirical
for one's own learning is seen as a demonstration.
"manifestation of a willingness to Hartup feels that socially inade
concede responsibility for one's fate" quate children in a cross-age setting
(p. 337). The act of tutoring will help can practice and develop the social
a student, at least an external, skills that should have been learned
become more active in the learning at an earlier age, and can do so
process and may result in "increased without ridicule or criticism from
894 The Reading Teacher May 1983
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same-age mates. He concludes that learning, their results indicated that
"deliberately designed cross-age in the act of tutoring itself (when the
teractions may facilitate socialization reinforcement from the tutored would
for children who have encountered be expected) did not improve the
certain kinds of developmental dif tutor's learning. Thus although rein
ficulties (Allen, 1976, p. 54). forcement was considered by some
Hartup, of course, does not speak researchers as a factor that would
to academic tutoring or reading. His enhance a tutor's learning, its effect
focus is on socialization, but if one was not substantiated either with
substituted "reading skills" for "social primates or with humans.
skills," Hartup's basic premise might
still seem convincing. Also, the prin Insights developed during the
ciple of reinforcement is used by tutoring process
others in direct reference to academic Another theoretical consideration
gains. Bargh and Schul (1980, p. 595) mentioned by a few writers focuses
working with college students, specu on the insights developed by the tutor
lated that one reason that tutors as a result of the tutoring process. In
might improve their understanding some instances these insights are
or knowledge was the "verbal and related to an understanding of the
nonverbal reinforcement given by subject being taught. As far back as
the student," where "smiles, nods, 1632, Comenius simply stated that
and statements such as.. .T under "the process of teaching in itself gives
stand now' " would enhance the learn a deeper insight into the subject
ing of the tutor. taught" (Gartner, K?hler, and Riess
Sarbin also related the reinforce man, 1971, p. 15). More recently
ment concept directly to tutoring. He McWhorter and Levy (1971, p. 221)
feels that one reason cross-age tutoring stated that tutoring provides the
works for the tutor is that the tutor is tutor with a "new perspective on the
reinforced not only by the student, reading process."
but also by the supervisor and the Lippitt and Lohman (1965, p. 114)
general tutoring situation (Allen, also give credence to the idea of
1976, p. 38). insight, focusing more on insight into
As venerable as reinforcement self or into an understanding of one's
theory has come to be, its use in own abilities and skills rather than
explaining the benefits of cross-age into the subject. Tutoring gives the
tutoring to the tutor is less than tutors an opportunity to "test and
completely convincing. Hartup has a develop their own knowledge."
tendency to describe what has been Others who have speculated on the
observed, claiming that reinforcement insights developed through tutoring
is the cause rather than only one have related them to the learning
possible factor. Also, he is concerned process rather than to the subject or
one's own skills. Morgan and Toy
with socialization rather than tutoring,
and he admits that his view that (1970) feel that tutoring provides
cross-age contacts can improve so "identification with the problems
cialization is an assumption. Finally, and process of teaching" and feel
it must be remembered that his strongly that this process is related
primate studies showed that same directly to learning.
age contacts are more natural and Gartner, K?hler, and Riessman
reinforcing than cross-age contacts.(1971) also speculate at some length
Bargh and Schul did look at about the importance of the relation
academic tutoring and though they ship between teaching and learning.
speculated that reinforcement from Their book opens with the idea that
the tutored may enhance the tutor's "every child must be given the
Cross-age tutoring 895
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opportunity to play the teaching role, understood better. Lippitt and Lohman
because it is through this role that he(1965, p. 114) talk about the "signifi
may really learn how to learn." Later cance" of the knowledge the tutor
the concept is presented more fully. has. Expanding a bit on this concept,
The tutor Gartner, K?hler, and Riessman (1971,
has the opportunity of observing p. 60) stress the utility of the tutor's
another in the process of learning, knowledge, a utility that gives greater
perhaps leading him to reflect upon his significance to the knowledge and
own learning process_This oppor promotes understanding. "One may
tunity may increase his own awareness even call it a social use of knowledge."
of the patterns of learning, for in order
to teach another he may need to call Thelen (1969, p. 241) talks about
upon his own experiences in learning knowledge as currency, using the
and how he learned (1971, p. 62). term in the sense of money?the
Thelen (1969, p. 234) also speaks knowledge having additional value
to this concept, seeing the tutor not because it is the "currency of interac
just as a teacher but as a researcher, tion." "Knowledge has its humane
"conducting an investigation into the uses: for having interactive stimulation,
teaching-learning process." This being able to dominate, being able to
would be action research, "in which reach out and make contact with
one sizes up the situation, decides others through talking about some
what to do, does it, observes the thing interesting to both."
response, and then corrects his This concept of utility has a certain
strategy." intuitive appeal. It is easy to imagine
The insight concept is compelling, a tutor developing a greater respect
in part because so many writers use for knowledge because it is significant,
similar language in presenting it, and useful, and a medium of exchange.
in part because the language used, as However, empirically testing this
well as the concept itself, is rather feeling would be difficult; such con
appealing. However, there seems to cerns may have to be left more to
intuition than research.
be no empirical support for it,
possibly because the concept would
be difficult to research. Insight, as a More study time
positive element of the tutoring A more practical possibility is simply
process, will probably remain specu that tutoring affords the tutor more
lative. opportunities to study the subject,
more time on task. Comenius (Gartner,
Kohlerand Riessman, 1971)referred
Utility theory to the importance of "constant repe
Another theory with intuitive appeal tition," Morgan and Toy (1970) to
might be called the utility theory. the "opportunity to review content
Related to motivation and perhaps material." Bruner (1960, p. 89) pro
less behavioristic than the idea of vides an anecdote: "I went through it
reinforcement, the utility theory refers [quantum theory] once and looked
to how the knowledge is used by a up to find the class full of blank
tutor. Reading skills, for example, faces?they had obviously not under
are used by a tutor not just for stood. I went through it a second
reading but also as the focus of the time and they still did not understand
tutoring session. As such, the knowl it and so I went through it a third
edge or skill takes on greater signifi time, and that time I understood it."
cance; there may be more motivation Other writers, less direct or clever,
for the tutor (who is also a learner) developed some fairly sophisticated
and the result may be that the subject terminology to explain the increased
or skill is more readily learned or learning that comes with tutoring.
896 The Reading Teacher May 1983
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Bargh and Schul (1980) speak of the interaction with another, or the
"efficient schema construction," act of recall for the tutoring session.
"more highly organized cognitive Bargh and Schul (1980, p. 595)
structures," "a better retrieval perfor speculated that the learning would
mance," "a differential organization come from the tutoring interaction,
of the subject matter." Gartner, particularly from the need for dealing
K?hler and Riessman (1971) add the with the material orally. They theo
terms "reperceive" the material and rized that "verbalized stimuli were
"synthesize it into new formulations." more likely to be remembered than
nonverbalized stimuli." However,
Relearning their study failed to support this
A slightly different approach to the theory and they concluded that the
concept of study or review is relearning.
enhanced learning comes from the
In most cross-age situations the tutor's preparation time.
tutors teach material they have been Obviously a review-study-rehearse
exposed to and expected to learn. concept should have some validity.
However, the materials may have Time and again research has shown
been forgotten or not mastered the that time on task is a significant
first time. The tutoring gives exposure consideration in learning. However,
to skills and understandings that may reviewing or studying is not identical
no longer be a part of tutors' normal to tutoring, and the enhanced learn
curriculum or experiences. Gartner, ing, if it indeed occurs, may be more a
K?hler and Riessman (1971, p. 58), result of studying and time on task
for example, quote from an evaluation than the act of tutoring.
of a study in Los Angeles, California.
Materials used
One curious thing that came up again Another important consideration,
and again, from the tutors, was that one not mentioned in any of the
they said that one of the gains was that
the things they had missed in kinder studies reviewed, is the impact of the
garten or first grade came up and they materials used. If a tutor does need
had to learn them for the first time. academic help in the subject being
Such things as alphabetical order, tutored, the help may come from
number concepts, reading, singing,
memorizing, etc. using materials at a level appropriate
to the tutor's skills.
Thelen (1969, p. 231) cites a similar This claim is not necessarily that
concept in a report from University the materials do the teaching. If the
City, Missouri. tutoring material is more appropriate
Students thought that they "knew" to the student's ability level than the
how to do most of the skills taught in regularly available classroom mate
the primary and middle grades. They rials, the material may have an
hesitated about learning primary-level
reading and math skills for their own impact on the tutor's learning. One
benefit, but they were willing to can easily argue that the level of
"relearn" such skills so that they might materials selected for a reading
become tutors.
activity is a significant factor in
Allen and Feldman (1973) have whether or not skills are developed
pointed out that reviewing, studying, appropriately.
or relearning is a complex process In a final analysis, the sheer
and that some consideration should number of possibilities as to why
be given to the point at which tutoring improves the learning of the
learning occurs for the tutor. The tutor is impressive. The theories
learning could, for example, take range from those focusing on the
place at any of various points? tutor (role, esteem, and locus of
during preparation, the tutoring itself. control) to those focusing on the
Cross-age tutoring 897
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process (reinforcement, utility, and References
Allen, Vernon L., ed. Children as Teachers, Theory and
insight into subject or self or the Research on Tutoring. New York, N.Y.: Academic
Press, 1976.
teaching learning process) to those Allen, Vernon L., and R.S. Feldman. "Learning through
focusing on the mechanics of the Tutoring: Low Achieving Children as Tutors." Jour
nal of Experimental Education, vol. 42 (Fall 1973),
situation (time on task, relearning, pp. 1-5.
and the materials used). It may be Bargh, John A., and Yaacov Schul. "On the Cognitive
Benefits of Teaching." Journal of Education Psycho
that each has some validity and that logy, vol. 72 (1980), pp. 593-604.
all work together. Many of the Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. New York,
N.Y.: Vintage Books, Random House, 1960.
writers cited did consider more than Chandler, Theodore A. "Locus of Control: A Proposal
one theory as a possible cause of for Change." Psychology in the Schools, vol. 13 (July
1975), pp. 334-39.
learning. Certainly all seem to be Cloward, R.O. "Studies in Tutoring." Journal of Experi
mental Education, vol. 36 (Fall 1967), pp. 14-25.
related to each other in one way or Ehly, Stewart, and Stephen C. Larsen. Peer Tutoring for
another. Individualized Instruction. Boston, Mass.: Allyn and
Bacon, 1980.
However, some theories do assume Gartner, Alan, Mary Conway K?hler, and Frank Riess
more relative importance. Certainly man. Children Teach Children, Learning by Teach
ing. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1971.
role, insight, locus of control, and Lippitt, Peggy, and John E. Lohman. "Cross-Age Rela
esteem all may play a part in a tutor's tionships?an Educational Resource." Children, vol.
12 (May-June 1965), pp. 113-17.
learning, but perhaps most important Morgan, R.F., and T.B. Toy. "Learning by Teaching: A
is simply time on task. Tutors spend Student to Student Compensatory Tutoring Pro
gram in a Rural School System and Its Relevance to
more time on the activity than the Educational Cooperative." Psychological Re
nontutors, and time then becomes a cord, vol. 20 (Spring 1970), pp. 159-69.
McWhorter, Kathleen T., and Jean Levy. "The Influence
significant variable. Future research of a Tutorial Program upon Tutors." Journal of
Reading, vol. 14 (January 1971), pp. 221-24.
would do well to examine closely the Thelen, Herbert A. "Tutoring by Students." The School
effects of time on task as opposed to Review, vol. 77 (September-December 1969), pp.
229-44.
the effects of the act of tutoring. Willis, Jerry, and Jeane Crowder. "Does Tutoring En
hance the Tutor's Academic Learning?" Psychology
in the Schools, vol. 11 (January 1974), pp. 68-70.
Nevi is Coordinator of Special Pro
grams for the Renton School District
#403, Renton, Washington.
1983 International Conference on Learning Disabilities
The fifth international conference sponsored by the Council for Learning
Disabilities will be held October 6-8, 1983, in San Francisco, California. For
information, contact Gaye McNutt, CLD Executive Secretary, College of
Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA,
telephone (405) 325-4842.
Valuable guidelines for software
Guidelines for Evaluating Computerized Instructional Materials is a handy
32-page guide to obtaining software and documentation, steps for review of
software and its documentation, and suggestions for instructional program
mers. Includes helpful forms. Published in 1982 by the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091,
USA, it is also available through the International Reading Association, P.O.
Box 8139, Newark, Delaware 19714, USA, US$3.75 prepaid.
898 The Reading Teacher May 1983
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