John Dewey and Creative Dramatics
Author(s): Philip J. Schwartz
Source: Journal of Thought, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Spring 1985), pp. 50-59
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Authors & Articles
John Dewey and Creative Dramatics
PhilipJ. Schwartz
UniversityLibraries
Universityof Oklahoma
Norman , Oklahoma73019
In theirdiscussionoftheFrancisParkerSchool,JohnandEvelynDewey
notedthattheschool' 'takesadvantage ofthesocialvalueofdramatization in
its morningexercises." Unlikestudying one's textbook,a solitaryact,
dramatization allowsthestudent"to act withotherpeople,to controland
arrange hisactionsandthoughtsso thatotherpersonshaveanequalopportu-
' ' 1Not
nitytoexpressthemselves ina sharedexperience. onlyis thepractice
ofdramatization describedindetailby DeweysinSchoolsofTomorrow,
the
butitis clearthattheydesignated theParkerandotherexperimental schools
as "schoolsoftomorrow" because
partially of the schools' creativemeth-
ods of teachingdramaand usingdramatization as an educationalaid.
In 1894,twenty yearsbeforeSchoolsofTomorrow was written, Dewey
visitedFrancisParker'sCook CountyNormalSchoolandobservedforthe
firsttimetheprogressive teaching methods thatwouldgreatly influencehis
theoriesof education.2Parkerand Dewey saw theneed to abandonthe
formalistic ideologythathad becomeso predominant in thenineteenth-
century American school. They feltthat thedidactic teacher-centered or
book-centered methodsoftheseschoolswerestatic,thatthechildcouldn't
learnso longas his rolein theeducationalprocessremainedpassive:
. . . Subjectmatternevercan be got intothe childfromwithout.
Learningis [Link] involvesreachingoutof [Link] involves
organicassimilation [Link], we musttakeour
standwiththechildand ourdeparture [Link] is he and notthe
subject-matterwhichdetermines bothqualityandquantity oflearning.3
Deweyobservedthattheidealeducational environment is oneinwhich4'the
children do thework,andtheteacheris thereto helpthemto know,notto
have themgive back whattheyhave memorized."4This rejectionof
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PhilipJ. Schwartz
traditional
methodsofteaching
infavorofanexperiential
systemprovideda
suitableeducational
environmentinwhichcreative
dramatics
coulddevelop
and thrive.
Deweyon Dramaticsin ProgressiveSchools
Ratherthanforce-feed a playto childrenwho weretoo youngeitherto
understand thecontent of thematerialor to memorizeitsnumerous lines,
Dewey and theprogressive teacherswhoseschoolshe visitedbelievedin
utilizingthe naturaldesireof childrento play, theirnativeinstinctfor
dramatization.5Thereis ampleevidencetoindicatethatDeweyequatedthe
schoolplaywiththe4'threeR's" sensibility
traditional whichhe andParker
4
[Link] example,Dewey statedthat 'exercisesto commemorate
holidaysorseasonsaremoreinteresting andvaluablethantheold-fashioned
entertainment whereindividualpupils recitedpoems, and adultsmade
speeches,fortheyconcentrate in a social expressionthe workof the
school."6 This "social expression"was an explicitdeparture fromthe
traditionalschoolassemblycommemoration of holidaysbecausethechil-
drenwere allowedto participate in theplanningof everyaspectof the
dramatic [Link] students designedcostumes,arranged stageset-
tings,andevenhelpedcoachtherehearsals.7 In all, studentswereinvolved
indramainmoremeaningful andcreativewaysthanwas permissible under
thetraditionalsystemof roteteaching.
However,withregardto theevolutionof creativedramatics, themost
important development in theprogressive schoolsinvolvedthecreationof
theplay. In nearlyeveryprogressive school thatDewey described,the
studentsthemselves adaptedstoriesfromhistory and fiction,improvising
theirown scripts.8Undertheprogressive systemof teachingdramatics,
students werethusnotonlyavoiding"dry Gradgrind factsof a routine
textbooktype,"9but theywere givenan opportunity to engage in the
creativeprocess.
The progressive schoolsdidnotlimittheirdramatics to formal,scripted
[Link] onlydid thechildrenwritetheirown scripts,butthey
frequentlyactedoutextemporaneously thestoriesandincidents whichthey
[Link] thefourth gradeoftheParker
School,forexample,students wereallowedto chooseandperform scenes
fromtheirfavorite Greeklegendsin conjunction withtheirstudyofGreek
history.10Manyof theschoolshad storytelling periodsin theirfirst-grade
classes,in whichthechildren tookthepartsof thecharacters in thedaily
readinglessonand triedto "read as theytalk."11
Althoughthe studentimprovisations and storytelling sessionswhich
Dewey describedare similarto activities
laterconducted bythefounders of
thecreativedramatics movement, itshouldbe stressed thatDeweywas not
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JohnDeweyand CreativeDramatics
primarily concerned withcreativedramatics. Rather,Deweyhadthebroad-
ergoal ofreorganizing theentireschoolcurriculum into"a mediumwhere
thingshave social uses,"12a cross-disciplinary reform program in which
dramatics was simplyone component. This integrated curriculum allowed
studentsmanyopportunities for self-educationas itprepared them fortheir
futurerolesinthecommunity. As Creminnoted,Dewey'sclassroomcom-
munities succeededin "removing thecursehe saw intraditional education,
isolationfromreality."13The students'projectsinvolvedworksituations
takenfromthe"real world"outsideofschool,"withtypesofoccupations
thatreflectthelifeofthelargersociety,andpermeated throughout withthe
spiritof art,history,and science."14
One exampleoftheimportant rolethatcreativedramatics canplayinthe
Deweyan"embryonic community" may be seen in thework of a second-
gradeclassinanIndianapolis [Link] inthis
class wereresponsibleforsettingup and runninga shoe [Link]
lessonswereincorporated as thechildrenwrotestoriesabouttheirstore;
arithmetic was appliedas theytransacted [Link],it was
dramatics thatprovidedthestructure fortheshoe-store activities.
Notonly
didtheprojectbeginwiththechildren castingandactingoutthestory,but
theentirelessondependedon thechildren'simprovisational [Link]-
thermore, Deweyindicatedthatdramatization, whenpracticed in conjunc-
tionwithan integrated curriculum, mayhaveresidualbenefits forworkin
nondramatic areas:
. . . The samepupilsweredoingproblemsin mentalarithmetic that
weremuchbeyondtheworkusuallyfoundin a secondgrade,adding
almostinstantly numbers like74 and57. Theyprobably couldnothave
goneso rapidlyiftheyhadnothadso muchofthedramatization work.
It servedto maketheirabstract problemsseemreal.15
TheUniversity ofChicagoLaboratory School,headedbyDeweyhimself,
hadan integrated curriculumwhichincorporated creativedramatics activi-
tiesin a manner differentfromtheIndianapolissecond-grade class. Rather
thanbase a unitor lesson plan aroundan ongoingimprovisation, the
Laboratory School used dramatics eitherto introduce a new phaseof the
schoolworkor to summarize a lessonthathad alreadybeentaught.16 For
example,Group III children
(age six) begantheschool yearbystudying the
manyaspectsoffarming. Theybuilta miniature farmhouse, learning, inthe
process,howtouse thesaw andhowtorecordmeasurements withtheruler
andtriangle; theydiscussedefficient meansofthreshing wheatandlearned
aboutfractions as theyestimated amounts ofgrain(i.e. , cereal)ina measur-
ingcup; and theirreadingskillsimprovedas theyidentified wordson the
blackboardwith objects whichtheyhad foundduringtheirfarmin-
vestigations.17 Creativedramatics was subsequently employedto helpre-
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PhilipJ. Schwartz
inforceall thatthechildrenhad learnedthroughout theirstudyof thefarm
[Link] childrenfurthered theirunderstanding of wheatproduction by
actingoutthetransporting ofwheatfromthefarmtothemill,assumingthe
rolesof farmers, trainmen,millers,and grocersin thecourseof theplay.
Through dramatics,thechildrennotonlygaineda clearerappreciation ofthe
dutiesofthefarmer andothertradesmen, butreceivedadditional opportuni-
tiesto practicemeasuringbushels,pecks,andotherweightsandmeasures
commontoagriculture. Despitethedifferent structural
approachtodramat-
ics whichwas takenby theIndianapolissecond-grade class of Schoolsof
Tomorrow and Dewey's Laboratory School, thenetresultwas thesame:
bothschoolsused dramatics as an organic,integralfunction of a learning
unit,replacing thetraditional
arrayoffactsandfigures tobe memorized by
thestudent.
"
Dramaticsand " Sense Culture
Dewey oftenstressedtheimportance of sensorytraining in education,
havingadaptedmuchof his practicalphilosophy fromMariaMontessori,
who believedthat"in a pedagogicalmethodwhichis experimental the
educationofthesensesmustundoubtedly assumethegreatest importance.
. . . " 18ButDeweyharbored a fundamental disagreement withtheMontes-
[Link] Dewey, Montessori' s teachingpracticeswere
based on thefalseassumption thatchildrenhave innatefacultiesof dis-
crimination and comparisonwhichmaybe cultivatedand developedby
providing thestudentswithspeciallaboratory-tested [Link]-
tessoriexerciseswereintended as sufficientpreparation forthe"technique
ofliving." 19However,Deweyarguedthat44a childis notbornwithfaculties
tobe unfolded, butwithspecialimpulsesofactiontobe developedthrough
theiruse in preserving and perfecting lifein thesocial and physicalcon-
ditionsunderwhichit goes on."20
"Preserving andperfecting life" impliesneither theexercising ofmyste-
riouscongenitalfacultiesnor the absenceof authority whichRousseau
advocated.21 Although boththeMontessori method andRousseau'sphiloso-
phyallowgreater libertiesthantheAmericanprogressive schools,Dewey
suggestedthat"the difference betweenthe Montessorimethodand the
viewsof Americanreformers lies notin a difference of opinionas to the
valueofliberty, butrather ina different conceptionofthebestusetobe made
ofit." 22Dewey' s conception ofliberty forchildren intheclassroomstressed
"the largerfreedom ofusingandtestingsensesandjudgment in situations
typicalof life."23It is in thisfusionof the sensesand theintellectfor
purposesof assimilating students intotheadultcommunity thatDewey's
philosophy differsfromthoseoftheEuropeanwriters. UnlikeMontessori,
wholimitedherteachingmaterials to thetraining of an isolatedsensefor
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JohnDeweyand CreativeDramatics
eachchild,Deweyfeltthatinorderto simulatereal-life situations,children
shouldcollaborate on a varietyofproblemswhichwouldengagethewhole
selfsensorially and [Link],who set no limitsto the
freedom withwhichthechilduseshissensestolearn,Deweyaskedthatthe
"impulsiveexpression"of the child's sensorimotor activitiesbe given
directionand "organizeduse" in a social milieu.24
Dewey'sphilosophy of"sense culture"25 helpstoprovidea rationale for
theteachingof [Link] Dewey's plea foran environment
whichwould exerciseall the senses of the child while stimulating the
intellect,one is remindedof an essentialqualityof theatregames,pan-
tomime,andimprovisation. Creativedramatics teststhestudent's abilityto
combinemuscularcoordination and sensoryconcentration as meansof
performing specificactsof expression and imagination. To presenta pan-
tomimeeffectively, forexample,thechild's sense memoryand intellect
discernthe appropriate actionsor gesturesto be used, whilehis motor
systemconveys these actionsto an audience.
Tangibleevidenceof therelationbetweenDeweyan sensecultureand
creativedramatics maybe seenin thekindsofexercisesandgameswhich
Deweyapprovedforstudent trainingin "sense gymnastic."26 In thegames
whichDeweydescribed,students triedto identifyobjects peoplein the
or
classroomwithoutbeingallowedto see [Link] blindfolded children
learnedto perceivethrough theirsenses.27Although latereducators whose
primary interestwasdramatics elaborated onsensory isolationexercises,the
theoreticalandpractical rootsofsensory development intheclassroomseem
to be relatedto Dewey's ideas on sense cultureand thepracticeof the
experimental progressive schools.
Dramaticsand Imagination
Dewey identified twokindsof [Link] indirect
experiences whicharemediated byabstract
symbolsandlanguage,andthere
are directexperiences,thosein whichthelearnertakesa vital,personal
- an immediate,
part rather thanremote,learningsituation.28Deweysug-
gestedthatthereneedsto be an "appreciative realization,"the"realizing
senseofa thing"whichcharacterizes a directexperience,
beforethestudent
can fullycomprehend or representative
an indirect experience.29It is not
sufficient,Deweyclaimed,toprovidechildren witha "formaleducation"
and its fact-feedingapproachto learning;childrenwill beginto engage
themselves inthelearning processonlyaftertheirimaginativepowershave
been stimulatedin a directexperiencingof thematerial:
. . . Only a personalresponseinvolvingimagination can possibly
procure realization even of pure"facts." The imaginationis the
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PhilipJ. Schwartz
medium ofappreciation [Link] oftheimagina-
tionis theonlythingthatmakesanyactivity morethanmechanical.30
It is through imagination, whichallows"a warmandintimate takingin of
thefullscopeofa situation, "3 1thatabstract information is mademeaningful
to thestudent whowouldotherwise be forcedto learnthematerialbyrote
and acceptits value on faith,a systemof acquiringknowledgewhich,
4
Dewey stated,is 'external"and "second-handed."32
Dewey's view of imagination maybe exemplified in his criticismof
[Link] "33 remarked on the"absurdity ofhavingto
teachlanguageas a thing byitself, suggesting that even instruction inthe
child'snativetonguebecomesa difficult taskwhenlanguagetraining is
restricted totheabstractions oftextbook theory. Thechildneedsthefreedom
to use languageas it is meantto be used: 44. . . to communicate vital
impressions and convictions ... to recounthis experiences getand in return
theexperiences ofothers.. . ."34 Thus,textbook assimilation orquestion-
and-answer recitation periodsprovideindirect languageexperiences forthe
child;meaningful directexperiences maybe gainedonlybyappealingtothe
child'simagination to conveytheexperiences thathe wishesto sharewith
others.35
Accordingto Dewey's experiential learningtheory, theimagination is
neither morenorlessimportant thansenseculture, but4'is as mucha normal
and integral partof humanactivity as is muscularmovement."36 Dewey
viewedthechild'simagination as anessentiallinkinthefusionofthesenses
and intellect - an interpretive centerwhichtranslates sensoryactivity into
representative (i.e. , intellectual) knowledge. Conversely, "it is byimagina-
tionthatsymbolsare translated overintoa directmeaningand integrated
witha narrower activityso as to expandand enrichit."37 Sensoryand
intellectual perceptions, then,are givenshape and meaningthrough the
mind'spowerof imagery.
Creativedramatics is an appropriate meansofinspiring thechild'simagi-
nationintheexperiential learning processDeweyprescribed. Significantly,
after Deweysuggested thatmanualactivities, laboratory exercises,andplay
areeducationally valuableinsofar as theyworkontheimagination to "aid in
bringing about a sensing of the meaning of what is going on," he equated
suchactivities "in effect, ifnotinname,"withdramatizations.38 Apparent-
ly,Deweywas alludingtothemanner inwhichdramatic exercisesprovoke
thechild'simagination toenvisionfeasibleapproaches totheactingoutofan
emotion, action,[Link] andotherphysicalactivities canthusbe
performed mentally, i.e, imaginatively, in thesearchforan intellectually
satisfying choiceof presentation.
Thepotential thatcreativedramatics hasforinvolving theimagination in
richdirectexperiencesis perhapseven greaterthanthatof othermanual
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JohnDeweyand CreativeDramatics
[Link],sewing,and cookingclasses (manualactivities
whichDewey recommended in The School and Societyand Schools of
Tomorrow) unquestionably allowthechildpersonalcontactwithall course
material, imaginativeplayis necessarilyrestrictedtothescopeofthecourse
content. Dramatics, ontheotherhand,hasno suchboundaries sinceitis not
linkedto a specificaspectof thereal [Link] freedom of thechildto
create,tousehissense,imagination, andjudgment - a freedom so centralto
-
Deweyanphilosophy39may appliedbe toitsbestadvantage as children act
outtheirfavorite stories,makeup theirown stories,or tackletheproblem
presentedby a [Link], the opportunities thatcreative
dramatics providesfordirectexperiences aredetermined bythebreadth of
thechild'simagination, hisabilitytoexperience throughenactment as many
aspectsof his environment as he can envision.
Finally,itis throughtheuse oftheimagination duringcreativedramatics
thatchildrenmayfindthemeansto "communicate vitalimpressions and
convictions."40 Dewey viewed the abstractand as
symbolic inappropriate
andforeign to theyoungstudent; theknowledgegaineddoes notstimulate
thechildimaginatively, nordoes it inspireself-expression. The change
Deweydemandedoflanguagework - "froman examination ofknowledge
alreadyacquiredto the freeplay of the children'scommunicative in-
stinct"41- is answeredby the [Link]
observedthat"veryfrequently without directions fromtheteacher,a class
will act out a wholestory,suchas theFall of Troy,or anytale thathas
appealedespeciallyto theirdramaticimagination."42 This appeal to the
child's dramaticimagination, drawingon his priorvicariousor personal
experiences,bothenablesand motivateshimto verbalizehis feelingsin
expressiveinteraction withhis classmates.
Dramaticsand Experience
Deweyrejected"studiesacademicandremote... thepassiveacquisition
of information imparted by textbookand teacher"43in favorof "direct
experiences"whichwouldengagethesensesandintellect the
andstimulate
imagination in acts of and
expression communication. These experiences
represent thefoundation uponwhichDewey's educationalphilosophy is
based. In fact, Dewey definededucationas "that reconstruction or
reorganization ofexperience whichaddstothemeaningofexperience, and
whichincreasestheabilitytodirectthecourseofsubsequent ' '44
experience.
Without thiscontinuous reconstruction or"organizeduse'' of
ofexperience
thechildren'sactivities, senseculturewouldbe reducedto "merelyimpul-
sive expression,"45and the imagination would only be a mediumfor
"mind-wandering and waywardfancy."46Furthermore, Dewey's defini-
tionof experiencedoes not merelyimply"experienceforexperience's
sake'' ; as Deweyexplained,"... Itis notenoughtoinsistuponthenecessity
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PhilipJ. Schwartz
ofexperience, norevenofactivity inexperience... thecentralproblemof
an educationbaseduponexperienceis to selectthekindofpresentexperi-
ences thatlive fruitfully and creativelyin subsequentexperiences."47
Dewey's emphasis,therefore, laynotwitheducationas experience per se,
butwitheducationas "successiveexperiences. . . integrated withone
another."48
Throughthepracticeof creativedramatics, thechild'sexperiences may
be reconstructed in conjunction withtwo basic kindsof [Link],
traditional academicdisciplinesmay be revitalizedthroughthe use of
dramatization. Extemporaneous dramatizations maybe viewedas a suc-
cessive,integrated flowof experience:
Dramatization . . . ensuresan idea ofthesituation as a whole,so that
readingceases to be simplyan attempt to recognizeand pronounce
isolatedwordsand [Link],the interest of the situation
carrieschildren along, and enlistsattentionto difficultiesofphraseolo-
gy whichmight,if attackedas separatethings,be discouraging.49
Not onlyare childrenmoreinterested in academicstudieswhichhave
acquiredexperiential continuity through thestudents'enactment ofepisodes
describedin theirtextbooks,but, as Dewey commented on the use of
4
dramatization intheteaching ofhistory , 'theworkso becomesa partoftheir
livesthatitis remembered as anypersonalexperience is retained,notas texts
are committed to memory to be recitedupon."50
The secondbasic formof studieswhichthechildmayexperienceby
meansof dramatization is theverypracticeof creativedramaticsitself.
Creativedramatics, withits emphasison thedevelopment of thesenses,
imagination, and intellect, has greatintrinsic value withintheprogressive
educational [Link] notedthatplay,an activity he virtually
equated withdramatization,51 was beingusedinprogressive kindergartens
4'not ofmakingworkinteresting tothechildren, butforthe
onlyas a method
educational valueoftheactivities itinvolves,andforgivingthechildren the
rightsortof idealsand ideas abouteverydaylife."52
It is theconnection thatcreativedramatics has with"ideals and ideas
abouteverydaylife" thattrulyalignsdramatics withprogressive experi-
ences. Throughout The School and Societyand Schools of Tomorrow ,
Deweydescribedthewaysin whichtheprogressive schoolspreparedthe
childpersonallyand sociallyforhis futurelifeas an adultby meansof
variousmanualtraining programs. Creativedramatics mayfulfill bothgoals
ofmanualtraining inthefollowing ways:personally - byproviding dramat-
ics exerciseswhichcall uponthechild'sself-understanding, ingenuity, and
maturity as he to
attempts project himself into different,perhapsforeign,
situations; and socially - by providinggroupimprovisation, pantomime,
andotheractivities whichrequirestudent interactionandteameffort as the
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JohnDeweyand CreativeDramatics
children planclasspresentations together. In general,groupactivities have
thesamepotential challengeforeachstudent as solodramatizations plusthe
addedelementof responsibility to themicrocosmic community. In either
case, dramatization offers thekindsofprogressive experiences thatDewey
recommended as a meansofpromoting personalandsocialgrowth in each
child.
Notes
1John andEvelyn Dewey, Schools ofTomorrow (1915;[Link]:Dutton, 1962),
pp.92-93.
Lawrence [Link],TheTransformation ofthe School(NewYork: 1961),
Knopf, p.135.
3John Dewey, TheChild andtheCurriculum ofChicago
Press,1902),
(Chicago: University
p.49.
Schools ofTomorrow, p. 21.
Ibid.,pp. 88-91.
*Ibid.,p. 95.
7Ibid.,pp.92,94.
8 pp.90,92-97.
9Ibid.,
Ibid.,p. 97.
10Ibid., 92.
11Ibid.,p.
pp. 89-90.
12Ibid.,p. 46.
Cremin,
14John p. 118.
Dewey, TheSchool andSociety, [Link].(1900;rpt. ofChicago
University Press,
1915),p. [Link] inCremin, p. 118.
Schools ofTomorrow, p. 91.
16Katherine Camp Mayhew andAnna Camp Edwards, TheDewey School:
TheLaboratory
School oftheUniversity
17Ibid., ofChicago: 1896-1903 (NewYork: 1936),
Appleton-Century, p.85.
pp. 80-85.
18Quoted byDewey inSchools ofTomorrow, p. 109.
19Quoted by Dewey inSchools ofTomorrow, pp.115-118.
20Schools ofTomorrow, p. 118.
21Quoted byDewey inSchools ofTomorrow, pp.99-100.
22Schools ofTomorrow, p. 115.
23Ibid.,p. 118.
24TheSchool andSociety, p. 36.
25Schools ofTomorrow, p. 28.
26Ibid..pp.28-29.
27Ibid.
28John andEducation (NewYork: p. 232.
[Link], Democracy Macmillan,1916),
30Ibid.,p. 236.
31Ibid.
32Ibid.,p. 235.
33TheSchool and p. 55.
^ Ibid.,p. 56. Soceity,
35Ibid.,pp.54-56.
Democracy andEducation, p. 237.
Ibid.
38Ibid.
39Schools ofTomorrow, pp.115-120.
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PhilipJ. Schwartz
40TheSchool , p. 56.
andSociety
41Ibid.
42Schools Tomorrow,p. 27.
43Ibid.,[Link]
173.
44Democracy andEducation,p. 76.
45TheSchool andSociety,
p. 36.
46Democracy andEducation,p. 236.
JohnDewey,
48Ibid., Experience (NewYork:
andEducation Macmillan, pp.27-28.
1928),
p. 44.
49Schools Tomorrow,p. 89.
5ÜIbid.,[Link]
92.
51Ibid.,pp.88-89.
52Ibid.,p. 81.
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