XI PHYSICS

Prepared by:
Harikumar. K, GHSS, Chittar
Siby Mathai, AMM HSS, Edayaranmula
Lijo Varghese, KRPM HSS, Seethathode
Shinoj Varughese, St. John’s HSS, Eraviperoor
Suja Sara John, St. Thomas HSS, Kozhencherry
Mathew. V. Samuel, St. Thomas HSS, Eruvellipra
 1
Chapter - 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Units
Measurement of a physical quantity is by comparing with a common standard and that
standard is known as unit.
There are Fundamental units and Derived units.
Eg. metre, kilogram, second etc are fundamental units.
meter2, metre/second, kilogram/metre3 etc are derived units.
Systems of Units
The base units for length, mass and time are as follows:
1.CGS system: centimetre, gram and second
2.FPS system: foot, pound and second
3.MKS system: metre, kilogram and second
SI System
In SI system there are seven fundamental units and two supplementary units.
Fundamental units Supplementary units

Physical quantity Unit Symbol

Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Plane angle radian rad
Mass kilogram kg
Solid angle steradian sr
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Significant figures

Measurement Significant Rule

figures
a. 4.213 All non-zero digits are significant
b. 18.95 4
c. 5179
a. 0.003 Zeroes before and after the
b. 0.0002 1 decimal point are not significant,
c. 0.000005 if the figure begins with zero
 2
a. 7.50 Last zeroes of a decimal point are
b. 37.0 3 significant
c. 0.300
a. 417000 Last zeroes without decimal are
b. 20300 3 not significant
c. 583000
a. 16.24x104 Power of 10 is not significant
b. 82.13x10-21 4
c. 9123x1058

Dimensions
Dimension of the fundamental quantities are,
mass [M], length[L], time[T], temperature[K], electric current[A] etc.
Physical quantity Equation Dimension
Velocity v = distance / time [LT-1]
Momentum p = mass x velocity [MLT-1]
Density D= mass / volume [ML-3]
Acceleration a = velocity / time [LT-2]
Force F = mass x acceleration [MLT-2]
Impulse I = force x time [MLT-1]
Work or energy W= force x displacement [ML2T-2]
Gravitational constant G = F r2 / m1 m2 [M-1L3T-2]
Modulus of elasticity E = stress / strain [ML-1T-2]

Principle of homogeneity
Dimensions of all terms on both sides of an equation are same. OR Equation is dimensionally
correct.
Uses of dimensional analysis
1. To check the correctness of an equation.
2. To derive relationship between physical quantities.

1. Check whether the following equations are correct or not.

a. S = u t + ½ a t2 b. v = √𝐺𝑀/𝑟 c. ½ m v2 = m g h
Answer:
a. [ S] = [ u t ] = [ a t 2 ] b. [v2 ] = [GM/r] c. [mv2] =[mgh]
[L] = [LT-1 T] = [LT-2 T2] [(LT-1)2] = [M-1L3T-2 M L-1] [M(LT-1)2] = [M LT-2L]
[L] = [L] = [L ] [L2 T-2] = [L2 T-2] [ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
In all these equations [LHS] =[RHS] hence by principle of homogeneity, equations are
correct.
 3

2. a. Derive the expression for centripetal force experienced by a body which depends on
mass m, speed v, and radius R
Answer :
Let F ∝ ma vb Rc F = k ma vb Rc
Applying dimensions, [MLT-2] = [Ma] [(LT-1)b] [Lc]
= [Ma Lb+c T-b]
Comparing powers, a = 1, b +c = 1, b = 2 ie, c = -1
Therefore, F = k m1 v2 R-1 = k mv2/R
b. Derive the expression for period of oscillation of a simple pendulum which depends
on mass of the bob m, length of the pendulum l, acceleration due to gravity g.
Answer:
Let T ∝ mx ly gz T = k mx ly gz
Applying dimensions, [T] = [Mx] [Ly] [LT-2]z
= [Mx Ly+z T-2z]
Comparing powers, x= 0, y+z =0, -2z = 1 ie, z = -½, y = ½
T = k m0 l1/2 g-1/2

T= k √𝑙/𝑔
 1 4

Chapter 2

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

One dimensional motion also known as Straight line motion

Eg: 1. 1.
A Atrain
train moving
moving onon
thearail
straight track.
2. A freely falling2. A freely falling body.
body.

Distance and displacement

Distance Displacement
It is the actual length of path It’s the shortest distance between
travelled by the body. initial and final points.
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Always positive or zero. Can be positive, negative or zero

Q: A body Moves in a semicircular path of radius ‘ R ’. What is the distance and displacement?

Ans: Distance = 𝜋R. Displacement = 2R.

R R
Speed and Velocity

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = Velocity =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Speed Velocity
It is the distance travelled by the It is the displacement of the body in 1
body in 1 second. second.
Scalar quantity. Vector quantity.
Value is always positive or zero Value may be positive, negative or zero.

Acceleration :­ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 V  final velocity

𝑎=
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
U  initial velocity
𝒗−𝒖 𝚫𝒗
a= = t  time taken
𝒕 𝚫𝐭

Acceleration is a vector quantity. It’s unit is m/𝑠 2 .

Average velocity
total displacement 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
Average velocity, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
time taken 𝑡1 + 𝑡2
S1 S2
𝑢 +𝑣
If acceleration is a constant then 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = t1 t2
2
 2 5
EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

(1) Relation connecting u , v , a and t.

(3) Relation connecting v, u, a and s.
change in velocity
We know, acceleration =
time taken We know v = u + at.
𝑣−𝑢
i.e. 𝑎 = Squaring this, V2 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)2
𝑡

 V = u + at We get V2 = 𝒖𝟐 + 2 a s

(2) Relation connecting s, u, a and t.

Displacement = Average velocity x time S – Displacement

U – initial velocity
1 2 a – acceleration
S = ut + 𝑎𝑡
2 t ­ time

For a freely falling body:­ For a body projected vertically upwards

u = 0 and a = +g v = 0 (at the maximum point)
a =­g u≠0

Position – time or Displacement – Time Graph

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Slope = = velocity
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

S For a position time graph or displacement time

graph , slope gives velocity.

Velocity­ Time graph

Consider a constant accelerated motion .
Then the v – t graph will be a straight line with a slope

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Slope = = acceleration
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
V

∴ In a velocity time graph , slope gives acceleration.

t
 3
6
Area of v – t graph = displacement (without acceleration )

V
Area = v t = s

Area under the v – t graph of a body with uniform

acceleration ‘ a ‘ & initial velocity ‘ u ‘ = displacement

𝟏
[ Proof of 𝐒 = 𝐮𝐭 + 𝟐
𝒂𝒕𝟐 ]

Area of Rectangular portion A 1 = u t

V
Area of Triangular portion A2 = ½ b h

A2 = ½ at2 = ½ (v – u) t = ½ a𝑡 2
U
∴ Total area = A1 + A2 = ut + ½ a𝑡 2 = S
A1 = u t
i.e. in a v – t graph area gives displacement
t

Q: From the given position time graph which one

have grater velocity body A or body B B

Ans: In position time graph slope gives velocity . In the given X

graph slope of B is grater than slope of A. So v B > vA A

t
Q : Give an example for a body having velocity zero but acceleration not zero

Ans : Eg.1 : At the maximum height of a body projected vertically upward.

Eg.2 : At the extreme position of an oscillating pendulum or oscillating spring

 Chapter – 3 7

MOTION IN A PLANE
Scalars & Vectors: scalar has magnitude only & vector has both magnitude and direction.
Position Vector: Vector drawn from an arbitrary origin indicating the position of a particle.
Unit Vector: A vector having unit magnitude. Eg: n^ .
⃗A
Any vector divided by its magnitude always give a unit vector. i.e., = ^n
|⃗A|
Null Vector: A vector having zero magnitude.
Orthogonal Unit Vectors: Unit vectors along the X, Y and Z directions are
^ ^j, k^ & |i^|=|^j|=|k^|=1
called orthogonal unit vectors. They are: i,
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition:
If two vectors acting at a point are represented both in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant is represented both in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
drawn from that point.
Vector Addition – Analytical Method
Here, OS 2=ON 2+ SN 2
or R2= A 2+B2 +2 AB cos θ
2 2
∴ R= √ A + B +2 AB cos θ ... (1)
−1 B sin θ
& α =tan [ ] .... (2)
A+ B cos θ
Projectile Motion
A body projected into air and then allowed to move under the influence of gravity alone, is
called a projectile. The path of a projectile is a parabola.
• The x-component of velocity (uX = u cos θ) remains constant throughout the motion
• The y- component of velocity (uY = u sin θ) changes through out the motion of a projectile.
• At maximum height, v y =0 & v x=u cos θ
i) Time of flight (T): It is the time taken by the projectile to
cover the horizontal range.
Substituting u=u y =u sin θ , t=T , a=−g &

1 2 1
S=0 in S=ut + a T , we get g T 2=T (u sin θ )
2 2
2 u sin θ
or T= .....(1)
g
 8
ii) Maximum Height or Vertical Height (H): It is the maximum vertical height reached by the
projectile during its motion. Substituting v =v y =0 , u=u y =u sin θ , a=−g & S=H
u2 sin 2 θ
in v 2−u 2=2 aS we get 2 g H =u2 sin 2 θ or H= .....(2)
2g
iii) Horizontal Range (R): It is the distance travelled during the time of flight.
Horizontal Range=Horizontal velocity x Time of flight
2 u sin θ u2 sin2 θ
i.e., R=u cos θ x or R= .....(3)
g g
u2
When θ =450 , Rmax= .....(4)
g
i.e., for a given value of initial velocity (u), the range is maximum when θ =450
Uniform Circular Motion: Motion of an object in a circular path with constant speed.
Here, θ =angular displacement , angular velocity , ω= θ & angular acceleration , α = ω
t t
Linear velocity (v) and angular velocity (ω) are related by the equation, v =r ω
Linear acceleration (a) and angular acceleration (α) are related by the equation, a=r α
A body in uniform circular motion experiences an acceleration, which is directed towards
the centre along its radius. This is s called centripetal acceleration.
If ‘r’ is the radius of circular path, then centripetal acceleration,
v2 2
a C= =r ω =v ω
r
mv 2
Centripetal force: The force on a body in circular motion. FC =
r
........................
 9
Chapter – 4
LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law of Motion – Law of Inertia: Every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line unless compelled by an external force.
Inertia: Inability of a body to change its state by itself. Measure of inertia – Mass.
Types of inertia: 1) Inertia of rest 2) Inertia of motion and 3) Inertia of direction
Momentum: p=m v vector quantity SI Unit: kg m s−1
Second Law – Law of Force: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional
to the applied force.
v – velocity
dp dv
Equation of force from First Law: F∝ F=m aF=m a – acceleration
dt dt m – mass
Impulse: I =F x dt=dp , change in momentum. SI Unit: kg m s−1
or N s & [I ]=[ M L T −1]
Third Law – Law of Action: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Since action and reaction are on different bodies, they do not cancel each other.
Law of Conservation of Momentum: In the absence of external force, linear momentum remains
constant.
Law of Conservation of Momentum from Newton’s Second Law
dp dp
Proof: F= If F = 0, =0 then p=Constant
dt dt
Recoil of a gun (backward motion of gun during firing)
Principle: 1) Law of conservation of momentum & 2) Newton’s third law.
mb v b mb – mass of bullet v b – velocity of bullet
V g =−
Mg Mg – mass of gun vg – velocity of gun

Impulse-Momentum Principle (IM Principle): Impulse = Change in momentum.

dp
IM Principle from Newton’s Second Law: F= or dp=F dt p – momentum
dt
i.e., I =dp , Impulse = Change in momentum.
Car on a circular level road
mv 2
=μ s N ( μ s N =f s )
R
and m g=N ∴ v =√ μ s R g
Car on a banked road
mv 2
=N sin θ +f s cos θ & mg=N cos θ −f s sin θ
R
μ s +tan θ
√
∴ v = R g(
( 1−μ s tan θ )
)
 10
Car on a banked road without friction

mv 2
=N sin θ & mg=N cos θ ∴ v =√ R g tan θ
R

Laws of Static friction

1. Independent of area. 2. Depends on the nature of objects in contact.
3. f s=μ s N fS – static friction, μS – co-efficient of static friction
fK – kinetic friction, μK – co-efficient of kinetic friction
Laws of Kinetic friction N – normal reaction
1. Independent of area. 2. Depends on the nature of objects in contact.
3. f k =μk N
................................................................................................................................................................
Questions
1. When a horse suddenly starts moving, the rider falls backward.
a) Name and state the law used to explain the above situation.
b) State the law of conservation of linear momentum and prove it on the basis of second law of
motion.
2. State Newton’s second law of motion. Using it derive an equation for force.
3. Sketch the schematic diagram of a vehicle on a banked road with friction and mark the various
forces

...............
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Chapter – 5
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Work: W =F d cos θ Unit: joule.
Positive work: θ =0 W =F d
Eg. Work done by gravitational force on freely falling body.
Negative work: θ =180 W =−F d
Eg. Work done by gravitational force on a body projected vertically upwards.
Zero work: θ =90 W =0 , F perpendicular to d or d = 0.
Eg. Work done by centripetal force.
Work done by a man with a bag walking on the platform.
Kinetic Energy (K): Energy possessed by a body due its motion.
v2 −u2 1 2 1 2
W =F S=(ma)( ) if u = 0, W = mv i.e., K= m v
2a 2 2
Work-Energy Theorem: Work=Change of Kinetic Energy
1 1 1 1
m v 2− mu2= m(v 2−u2 )= m(2 a s )=m a s=W i.e., K f −K i=W
2 2 2 2
Potential Energy: Energy possessed by a body due to its position. W =F S=mg h or U=mg h
Potential Energy of a Spring:
Work done = Area under force-displacement graph.
1 1 1 1
W = F x = (kx )x= kx 2 or U= kx2
2 2 2 2
Free fall – Conservation of Energy
The total mechanical energy of a system is a constant.
At A: E=K + U=0+ mgh=mgh
At B: E=K + U=mgx+ mg (h−x)=mgh
At C: E=K + U=mgh+0=mgh

E – Total Energy K – Kinetic Energy U – Potential Energy

Conservative force: Force depending only on initial and final positions.

Eg. Gravitational force, magnetic force, etc.
Non-Conservative force: Force depending on the path between initial and final positions.
Eg. Frictional force, viscous force, etc.
Collisions: 1) Elastic: momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
2) Inelastic: momentum conserved, kinetic energy not conserved.
Work
Power: P= P=Force x velocity Unit: watt (W) & horse power 1 HP=746 W
time
 12
CHAPTER – 6
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Centre of Mass
Centre of mass of a body is a point where whole mass of body is assumed to be concentrated.
𝑚 1 𝑟1 + 𝑚 2 𝑟2 m2
Position vector of centre of mass 𝑅= m1 c
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚 1 𝑥1 + 𝑚 2 𝑥2 R
X co-ordinate of centre of mass 𝑥= 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
r1 r2

𝑚 1 𝑦1 + 𝑚 2 𝑦2
Y co-ordinate of centre of mass 𝑦 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

Translatory or Linear Motion Rotational analogue Relation

Mass ( m) Moment of Inertia ( I ) I = m r2
Displacement ( S ) Angular displacement ( θ ) S=rθ
𝑠
Velocity ( 𝑣 = ) Angular velocity ( =
θ
) V=r
𝑡 𝑡

Acceleration ( 𝑎 =
𝑉
) Angular acceleration ( α = ) a=rα
𝑡 𝑡

Force ( F = m a ) Torque (  = I α )  =rxF

Momentum ( p = m v ) Angular momentum ( L = I  ) L = r x p
Kinetic energy ( E = ½ m v2 ) Kinetic energy ( E = ½ I 2 )
F
Couple
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action F
is known as a couple. A couple produces rotation without
translation.

Torque or Moment of Force

Torque is the cross product of applied force and distance from the axis.
Y F
 = r x F = r F sinθ
θ
Torque causes an object to rotate around an axis. Its unit is N-m.
r
It is the rotational analogue of force.
x
Angular momentum ( L )
Angular momentum L = r x p
it is a vector quantity. It is rotational analogue of linear momentum.

Relation connecting Torque and Angular momentum

Angular momentum , L = r x p
Differentiating the above equation dL
i.e, Torque,  =
dL d dp dt
= rxp =rx = r x F =  , torque
dt dt dt
 13
Law of Conservation of angular momentum. Proof
dL
If torque acting on a body is zero the We know  =
dt
angular momentum remain constant.
dL
When  = 0 , =0  L = constant
Application of Conservation of Angular Momentum dt

I  = constant
In the case of ballet dancer
Torque  = 0
 L = I  = constant Radius of Gyration
 I increases  decreases.
I = m K2

Principle of moments d1 d2 𝐼
𝐾=
𝑚
By principle of moments
F1 d1 = F2 d2
F1 F2

Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia depends on
Moment of Inertia is the rotational analogue of mass. Mass
Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia Axis
Shape
Moment of Inertia of a particle
The moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about an axis is

I = m r2 where ‘ r ‘is the distance from the axis

r m
2
Moment of Inertia of a rigid body, I =  m r

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RING

(a) About an axis passing through the centre and  r to the plane Z
I =  m R2
= M R2
M
Z
R
(b) About the diameter Y
IZ = IX + IY = 2 IX = 2 Id [ Since IX = IY = Id ]
X
Iz 𝑀𝑅 2
Id = 2
= 2
Z
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A DISC
(a) About an axis passing through the centre and  r to the plane

𝑀𝑅 2
Icentre = where R is the radius and M is the mass of the disc.
2

Z
(b) About an axis passing through the diameter Y
Axis through centre
Id = ½ Icentre
X
I centre 𝑀𝑅 2
I= =
2 4
 14

Chapter – 7
GRAVITATION
Kepler’s laws of Planetary Motion
1. Law of orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci.
2. Law of areas: The areal velocity of the planet around the sun is constant.
dA
i.e., =constant
dt
The law of areas obeys conservation of angular momentum.
3. Law of periods: The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.
T – Time period
i.e., T 2 ∝a3 a – Length of semi-major axis
Universal law of gravitation: Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
m1 m2
F=G , G=6.67 x 10−11 N m2 kg−2 is the ‘universal gravitational constant’.
r2
[G]=[M −1 L3 T −2 ] Gravitational force is the weakest force.
Acceleration due to gravity of the earth: It is the acceleration of a freely falling body.
Mm GM
F=G .....(1) F=mg .....(2) ∴ g=
R2 R2
Acceleration due to gravity near the surface of earth, g = 9.8 m s – 2.
GM 1
Variation of ‘g’ due to the shape of earth: g= 2
or g∝ 2
R R
The equatorial radius of earth is greater than polar radius. i.e., RP < R E & ∴ gP >g E
i.e., the acceleration due to gravity at the pole is greater than that at the equator & when a body is
taken from equator to the pole, its weight increases or acceleration due to gravity is maximum at
the poles and minimum at the equator.
4 4
Variation of ‘g’ with depth: g= π GR ρ .....(1) gd = π G( R−d) ρ .....(2)
3 3
d
∴ gd =g(1− ) .....(5) ⇛‘g’ decreases with depth.
R
At the centre of earth, d=R ∴ gd =0 ....(6) & weight of a body at the centre of earth is ‘zero’.
GM GM
Variation of ‘g’ with altitude (Height): g= 2
.....(1) & gh= 2
.....(2)
R ( R+ h)
2h
∴ gh=g( 1− ) ⇛‘g’ decreases with height.
R
 15

Gravitational potential energy: Work done in bringing a body from infinity to that point.
−GMm
U=
r
Gravitational potential: Work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.
−GM
i.e., V =
r
Gravitational Potential Energy depends on the mass of the body. But Gravitational
Potential at a point is independent of the mass of the body.
Escape speed: Minimum speed with which a body is projected so that it escapes from the earth.
1 2 GMm 2 GM
mv =
2 e R
∴ ve= (
R √
) or v e = √2 gR=√ 2 v o Escape velocity is independent of mass

the escaping body. On the earth v e =11.2 km/s & on the moon v e =2.3 km/ s

Moon has no atmosphere. Why? The r.m.s. velocity of gas molecules is greater than the escape
velocity on moon (2.3 km/s). So they easily escape from the surface of the moon.

Orbital velocity: Velocity of a satellite revolving round the earth in a fixed orbit.
mv2O GMm GM
=
(R+h) (R+h)2
∴ vO= (
R+h √
) ⇛Orbital velocity decreases with height ‘h’.

GM
if R>>h, v O =
√ R
= √ gR

Time Period of a satellite: Time taken by a satellite to revolve once around the planet in a fixed
orbit.
3
2 π ( R+h)
Time Period=
Circumference of the orbit
Orbital velocity
or T =
R
(
√ g
)

R
For minimum orbit (orbit very close to earth), R≫h & T 0=2 π ( )
g √
Energy of an orbiting satellite
1 GM
The kinetic energy at distance (R+h) from the centre of the earth is KE= m( )
2 R +h
−GMm
The potential energy at distance (R+h) from the centre of the earth is PE=
( R+h)
1 GMm
∴ TE=KE+ PE or TE=−( )
2 ( R +h)
The negative sign in the total energy implies that the satellite is bound to the Earth and it
cannot escape from the Earth.
.......................
 16

CHAPTER 8
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
ചില വ��ളിൽ �േയാഗി�� ബലം നീ�ം െച�ാൽ, അത് അതിൻെറ �ാരംഭ ആ�തിയി�ം
വ���ി�ം എ�ിേ��� . ഈ സവിേശഷതെയ ഇലാ�ികത (elasticity) എ�് വിളി�� .
െ��്(Stress)
ഒ� വ�വിെന �പാ�ര ബല�ിന് വിേധയമാ�കയാെണ�ിൽ അതിൽ �ന�ാപന ബലം(restoring
force) സംജാതമാ��. ഒ� �ണി�് ഏരിയയിൽ ഉ�ാ�� �ന�ാപന ബലമാണ് െ��്.

ഒ� ഖരപദാർ��ിൽ ബാഹ�ബലം �േയാഗി�േ�ാൾ ��് രീതിയിൽ അതിൻെറ ആ�തിയിൽ മാ�ം

വ��
1.േലാ�ിട�ഡിനൽസ് െ�ടസ
� ്
ഒ� വ�വിെന വലി� നീ�േ�ാൾ ഉ�ാ����് ആണ്
� ്.
േലാ�ിട�ഡിനൽസ് െ�ടസ

നീള�ി��ാ�� വ�ത�ാസം “△L “യഥാർഥ നീളം” L”ഉം

ത�ി�� അ�പാതെ� േലാ�ിട�ഡിനൽ െ�യിൻ എ�
വിളി��.

2. ഷിയറിം�് െ��്
സിലി�റിൽ ടാൻെജന് ഷ�ൽ(tangential) ബലം �േയാഗി��� �ലം സംജാതമാ�� െ��്

തൽഫലമായി ഉ�ാ�� െ�യിൻ ഷിയറിംങ് െ�യിൻ

3 .ൈഹേ�ാളിക് െ��് (hydraulic stress )

�ാവക�ിൽ ��ിയിരി�� ഒ� േഗാള�ിൽ അ�ഭവെ���
െ��്.ഇത് മർ��ിന് �ല�മാണ്.
ഇ��ലം ഉ�ാ�� �പമാ�െ� േവാളിയം െ�യിൻ '
(volume strain)എ�് വിളി��

��് നിയമം(Hooke’s Law )

െചറിയ �പ മാ��ൾ�് െ��ം െ�യി�ം േനർ അ�പാത�ിലാണ് ഇതിെന ��് നിയമം എ�്
വിളി��
Stress ∝ Strain, stress = k × strain 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬/ 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = k
K െയ ഇലാ�ികതാ േമാ�ലസ് ( elastic modulus) എ�് വിളി��.
െ��്- െ�യിൻ �ാഫ്(Stress-Strain Curve )
 17

A : Proportional limit
B : Elastic limit or yield point
D: Ultimate stress point
E : Fracture point

ഇലാ�ിക േമാ�ല�കൾ(elastic modulus)

െ��ിെ�യും െ�യിനിെ��ം ഹരണഫലെ� ഇലാ�ികത�െട േമാ�ലസ് എ�് വിളി��.

യ�സ് േമാ�ലസ്(Youngs Modulus)

േലാ�ിട�ഡിനൽസ് െ�ടസ
� ് െ�യും േലാ�ി ട�ഡിനൽ െ�യിനിെ�യും ഹരണ ഭലെ� യ�സ്
േമാ�ലസ് എ� വിളി��.

േചാദ�ം:
�ീല് , റ�റിേന�ാൾ ഇലാ�ിക് ആണ് എ�െകാ�്?
ഉ�രം: �ീലിെ� യ�സ് േമാ�ലസ് ��തലാണ്. ഇ�ാരണ�ാൽ.

ഷിയർ േമാ�ലസ്(shear modulus)

ഷിയിറ�െ��ിെ��ം അ��ാ�� െഷയറിങ് െ�യിനിെ�യു അ�പാതെ� ഒ� പദാർ��ിെ�
റിജിഡി�ി േമാ�ലസ് എ�് വിളി�� .

ബൾ�് േമാ�ലസ്
ൈഹേ�ാളിക് െ��ം അ�െകാ��ാ�� െ�യി�ം ത�ി�� അ�പാതെ� ബൾ�് േമാ�ലസ്

എ�് വിളി�� .
 18

Chapter 9
Mechanical properties of Fluids
മർ�ം

Pascal's Law (പാ�ലിെ� നിയമം)

നി�ലാവ�യി�� �വ�ിെല ഒേര ഉയര�ി�� എ�ാ ബി��ളി�ം ഒേര മർ�ം ആയിരി�ം
ആഴ�ിന�സരി�് ഉ�ാ�� മർ� വ�തിയാനം
ഒ� പാ��ിൽ വ�ിരി�� നി�ലാവ�യി�� �വം
പരിഗണി�ക .ബി� ര�ിൽ നി�ം h ഉയര�ി��
ബി�വാണ് ബി� ഒ�്. ബി�ഒ�ിെല�ം ര�ിെല�ം മർ��ൾ
യഥാ�മം P1
ഉം P2 ആണ് എ�ിരി�െ� .

ρ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Question
Three vessels of different shapes are filled with water to
the same height ‘h’ and their bottom parts are
connected to manometers
measures the same
pressure. The water levels in
all the vessels remaining the
same.
Identity the above
phenomenon.

Ans: Hydrostatic paradox

ൈഹേ�ാളിക് െമഷീ�കൾ
ഒ� പാ��ിൽ ഉൾെ�ാ�ിരി�ു� �വ�ിെ� ഏെത�ി�ം ഭാഗ�് എേ�ാെഴ�ാം ബാഹ�
മർ�ം �േയാഗി��േവാ, ഇത് അേത അളവിൽ തെ� �ല�മായി എ�ാ ദിശകളി�ം വിതരണം
െച�െ���. ഇത് പാ�ൽ നിയമ�ിൻെറ മെ�ാ� �പമാണ്

െചറിയ പിേ�ണിെല മർ�ം, വലിയ പി�ണിെല

മർ�ം,
പാ�ൽ നിയമ�കാരം ഇവ ര�ം ഒ�ാണ്

.
Streamline flow
 19

�ിര�വാഹ�ിെല ഒ� �വഗണിക�െട പാത �ീം ൈലൻ ആണ്

ക�ിന�യി�ി സമവാക�ം(Equation of continuty)

�ാവകം ഒ��േ�ാൾ ഏരിയ �റ� �ലം വ�േ�ാൾ െവേലാസി�ി ��ക�ം ഏരിയ ��േ�ാൾ
െവേലാസി�ി �റ�ക�ം െച��

ബർണൂയിയുെട സി�ാ�ം(Bernoullis Theorem)

െബർണൂലിയുെട തത�ം പറ��ത്, �ണി�് േവാളിയ�ിെല
മർ�ം, �ണി�് േവാളിയ�ിെല ഗതിേകാർ�ം, �ണി�് േവാളിയ�ിെല �ിതിേകാർ�ം
ഇവ�െട ആെക�ക �ിരമായിരി�ം

ബഹിർഗമനേവഗം(speed of efflux):േടാറിെസ�ി�െട നിയമം

ഒ� �റ� ടാ�ിൽ നി�� ബഹിർഗമന േവഗത�െട ��വാക�ം, സ�ത�മായി താേഴ�് വീ�� ഒ�
വ�വിെ� േവഗത�െട ��വാക��ിന് സമാനമാണ്. ഇതാണ് േടാറിെസ�ി�െട നിയമം.

ൈഡനാമിക് ലി�്
വിമാന�ിെ� ചിറക് ,ൈഹേ�ാേഫായിൽ അെ��ിൽ തിരി�� പ�് എ�ിവ �വ�ിൽ �ടി
 20

ചലി�േ�ാൾ അവയിൽ �േയാഗി�െ��� ബലമാണ് ൈഡനാമിക് ലി�്

ഏേറാേഫായിൽ അെ��ിൽ വിമാന�ിറകിെല �കളിേല�� ത�ൽ

വിേ�ാസി�ി
�വ��െട ഒ��ിെനതിെര�� ആ�രിക �തിേരാധം ആണ് വിേ�ാസി�ി.
Stokes law (േ�ാ�് നിയമം)
ഒ� വ� �ാവക�ിൽ �ടി താേഴ�് വീ�േ�ാൾ ആ വ�വിൽ ഒ� മ�ീകരണ ബലം അ�ഭവെ��� .ഈ
ബലം ”F” , വ�വിെ� �േവഗ�ിന് ആ�പാതിക�ം ചലന�ിെ� ദിശ�െ�തിരാെണ�ം കാ��
.വി�സ് ബലം”F”, �വ�ിെ� വിെ�ാസി�ി ” η “െയ�ംേഗാള�ിെ� ആരം”a �ം”ആ�യി��.
വി�സ് ബലം,’
െടർമിനൽ �േവഗം(terminal velocity)
വാ�വി�െട വീ�� ഒ� മഴ��ി�് ഒ� ��ത�ാകർഷണബലം �ലം ആ�ിലേറഷൻ(ത�രണം)
ഉ�ാ�ം. ഈ ത�രണം �ലം മഴ��ി�െട �േവഗം വർ�ി�ുേ�ാൾ അതിേ�ൽ അ�ഭവെ��� മ�ീ
കരണബല�ം വർ�ി�ു�ു. ഒ�വിൽ വി�സ് ബല�ം �വ�മ ബല�ം �ടി ��ത�ം �ല�� ബല�ിന്
�ല�മാ�േ�ാൾ പരിണിത ബല�ം ത�രണ�ം �ജ�ം ആ��. ഈ സമയ�് േഗാളാ�തിയിൽ ഉ�
മഴ��ി �ിര �േവഗേ�ാെട �ടി താേഴ�് പതി�� .ഈ �ിര�േവഗെ� െടർമിനൽ �േവഗം
എ�് വിളി��

െടർമിനൽ �േവഗം ,

�തേലാർജം(surface energy)
Surface tension is a force per unit length (or
surface energy per unit area) on the surface
of liquid.

Angle of Contact
 21

When Angle of contact is Acute,Θ less than 90

,
. Eg: Water on glass or on plastic

When Angle of contact is Obtuse:θ greater than 90

Eg: Water on a waxy or oily surface, Mercury on any
surface

��ിക�ം �മിളക�ം (Drops and Bubbles)

�ാവക��ിക�ം �മിളക�ം േഗാളാകാരം �ാപി��ത് �തലബലം (surface tension)കാരണമാണ്.
ഒ� േഗാളാ�തിയി�� േ�ാ�ി��ിെല അധിക മർ�ം
(Excess Pressure inside a spherical drop)
ഒ� േ�ാ�ി��ിെല മർ�ം �റേ� മർ�േ��ാൾ ��തൽ ആയിരി�ം .
േ�ാ�ി��ിെല ഉ�ിെല മർ�ം=
േ�ാ�ി��ിെല �റെ� മർ�ം=

If the drop expand under pressure,

അധികമർ�ം ,
ഒ� �ാവക �മിള ഒ� �ാവക ��ിയിൽ നി�ം വ�ത�ാസെ��ിരി��.
ഒ� �മിള�് ര�് സ�ർ�മുഖ�ളു�് അതിനാൽ,

േകശിക ഉയർ�(capillary rise)

വ�മായ �ാവക - വാ� സ�ർ� �ഖ�ിെല മർ� വ�ത�ാസ�ിെ� ഫലമായി,��ത�ാകർഷണം
ഉ�ായി��ി�ം ഒ� ഇ��ിയ ട�ബിൽ ജലം ഉയ��. ഇതിെന കാ�ിലറി ൈറസ് (capillary rise)എ�്
വിളി��.
 22

മർ�വ�ത�ാസം=

,
Some important questions
Why liquid drop is spherical?
Answer: Due to surface tension,liquid drop tries to minimise the area .For a given volume
,sphere has the least surface area .
Why terrace of the house is coated with waterproofing agents to avoid leak?
Answer: Waterproofing agents increases the angle of contact. so water cannot with the
surface .
ക�ാ�ിലാരി�ി�മായി ബ�െ�� �ധാനെ�� േചാദ��ൾ
1.ഉണ�് സമയ�് �ഷിയിട�ൾ കിള�ി��തിെ� കാരണെമ�ാണ്?
2.��� ��് ത��തിേന�ാൾ സ�ാദി�മാ��ത് എ�െകാ�ാണ്?
3.മെ�� വിള�ിെ� തിരിയിൽ �ടി മെ�� �കളിേല�് ഉയർ�ു വ��തിെ� പി�ിെല തത�ം
എ�ാണ്?
ഉ�രം : ക�ാ�ിലാരി�ി
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
 31
Chapter 13
OSCILLATIONS
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
To and fro motion with restoring force is directly proportional to displacement and is
directed to mean position.
F ∝ -x
F = -k x
a ∝ -x
SHM and uniform circular motion
From the figure, x(t) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (ɷ𝒕 + ɸ), This is the equation for SHM.
A – amplitude ɷ - angular frequency ɸ - phase constant
When ɸ=0, x(t) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (ɷ𝒕) , equation of displacement of SHM
Velocity of SHM
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
v= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
A cos (ωt ) = – ωA sin (ωt) = ω√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
velocity is maximum at mean position and minimum at extreme position .

Acceleration
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
a = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
-Aɷ sin(ωt ) = - ɷ2x

acceleration is maximum at extreme positions and minimum at mean position .

Energy in SHM
1.Kinetic energy

K = ½ mv2 = ½ mɷ2(A2-x2 ) where v= ω√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2

2.Potential energy
U = ½ k x2 where k= mɷ2
U = ½ m ɷ2 x2
3.Total energy
E = K + U = ½ mɷ2(A2-x2 ) + ½ m ɷ2 x2
E = ½ m ɷ2 A2 = ½ k A2 k is a constant
 32
Problem
1. At what position Kinetic energy = Potential energy of a SHM

Answer: K=U
½ mɷ (A -x ) = ½ m ɷ2 x2
2 2 2

A2 = 2x2
𝐴
x=
√2

Systems executing SHM

1. Derive the period of oscillation of a spring.
Answer: F = -k x

𝑘 2𝜋
F = - m ɷ2 x where k = m ɷ2 ɷ =√𝑚 = 𝑇

𝒎
T = 2π √ 𝒌

2. Derive the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum

Answer : τ = F l = -mg sinϴ = -mgϴ
τ = -m g ϴ l also τ = Iα
Iα = -m g ϴ l
−𝑚𝑔
α= 𝐼
lϴ but a= -ɷ2 x
𝑚𝑔𝑙 2𝜋
ɷ2 = 𝐼
ɷ= 𝑇

𝒍
so T = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈

Problem
What is the length of this pendulum which ticks seconds or seconds pendulum ?
𝑙 𝑙
Answer: T = 2𝜋√ T2 = 4𝜋 2 for seconds pendulum T = 2 s
𝑔 𝑔

therefore, l = 1m
 33
Chapter 14
WAVES
Mechanical waves
They are of two types (i) Transverse wave and (ii) Longitudinal wave.
Progressive waves
A progressive wave along the positive x-axis is represented as
y(x,t) = a sin (kx - ɷt +ɸ),
k wave number
y(x,t) displacement ɷ angular frequency
a amplitude ɸ initial phase constant

eg. y(x,t) = 0.005 sin(80.0x – 3.0t) in which constants are in SI unit.

Find the amplitude , wave length , period , frequency.
Answer : comparing with y(x,t) = a sin (kx - ɷt +ɸ),
2𝜋 2𝜋
a = 0.005m k = 80rad/m = 𝜆
𝜆 = 80
2𝜋 2𝜋 1 3
ɷ=3= 𝑇
T= 3
ν = 𝑇 = 2𝜋

Speed of waves
𝑇
Speed of transverse wave, v = √µ T - tension , µ - mass /unit length

𝐸
Speed of longitudinal wave, v = √𝜌 E – modulus of elasticity , 𝜌 – density of the material
𝐵
1.Speed of longitudinal waves in fluids v = √𝜌 B - Bulk modulus 𝜌 - density of the medium
𝑌
2. Speed of longitudinal waves in solids v = √𝜌 Y – Young’s modulus
𝐵
3. Speed of longitudinal waves in gas v = √𝜌 but for gas B = Pressure P

𝑃
therefore , v = √𝜌 , this is Newtons formula
Laplace corrected formula, B = 𝛾P ,
𝛾𝑃
ie, velocity of sound in gas , v = √ 𝜌 This is known as Laplace correction
 34
Standing waves
A travelling wave in the positive x-axis
y1(x,t) = a sin (kx - ɷt)
reflected wave travelling in negative x direction of x-axis
y2(x,t) = a sin (kx + ɷt)
By superposition principle,
y = y1+ y2 = a sin (kx - ɷt) + a sin (kx + ɷt)
y(x,t) = 2a sin kx cos ɷt is the equation for stationary waves

Nodes – position of minimum amplitude in a standing wave

Antinodes – position of maximum amplitude.
Strain is maximum at nodes and minimum at antinodes where as velocity is zero at nodes and
maximum at antinodes.
Standing waves in a stretched sring with different modes of vibration
Fundamental mode or first harmonic

𝐕 𝐕
𝛖𝟏 = 𝛌𝟏
= 𝟐𝐋

Second harmonic

𝐕 𝐕 𝟐𝐕
𝛖𝟐 = 𝛌𝟐
= 𝐋 = 𝟐𝐋 = 𝟐𝛖𝟏

Third harmonic

𝝂𝟏 : 𝝊𝟐 𝐕 𝟑𝐕
𝛖𝟑 = 𝛌𝟑
= 𝟐𝐋
= 𝟑𝛎𝟏
T
 35

𝛖 𝟏 : 𝛖𝟐 ∶ 𝛖𝟑 = 1 : 2: 3

Modes of vibrations in a closed pipe

First Mode Second Mode Third Mode

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 3𝑉 𝑉 5𝑉
𝜈1 = = 𝜈2 = = = 3𝜈1 𝜈3 = = = 5𝜈1
𝜆1 4𝐿 𝜆2 4𝐿 𝜆3 4𝐿

𝝂𝟏 : 𝝊𝟐 ∶ 𝝊𝟑 = 1 : 3 : 5

Modes of vibrations in a Open Pipe

First mode
𝑽
𝝂𝟏 = 𝟐𝑳

Second mode
𝑽
𝝂𝟐 = 𝑳
= 2𝜈1
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Third mode
𝟑𝑽
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟐𝑳
= 𝟑𝜈1

𝝂𝟏 : 𝝊𝟐 ∶ 𝝊𝟑 = 1 : 2 : 3

Question: Open pipes are preferred to closed pipes in musical instruments why?

Answer: In open pipes all harmonics are present (for open pipe - 𝝂 𝟏 : 𝝊𝟐 ∶ 𝝊𝟑 = 1 : 2 : 3) but
in closed pipes only odd harmonics are present (for closed pipe - 𝝂 𝟏 : 𝝊𝟐 ∶ 𝝊𝟑 = 1 : 3 : 5)