– 33 –

Geometry (Grades 11 & 12)

 Theorems
 Point of intersection theorems*
 Summary of reasons
 Method
 Proofs of theorems

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 34 –
Geometry theorems: Grades 8 & 9

Lines of intersection Parallel lines

Vertically opposite s Corresponding s


 


s on a straight line Alternate s


  
 +  = 180

Revolution (s around point) Co-interior s

y
x

x + y = 180

Triangles Conditions for congruence ( ≡ )

Isosceles   side, side, side

(s opposite equal sides)
 , , side

 side, included , side

 
 90, hypotenuse, side

Equilateral : s = 60


Area, circumference and volume
   Area rectangle = base  height

Right-angled : (Pythagoras’ theorem)  Area  = ½ base  height

c  Area O = .r 2
a
b  Area trapezium
a + b2 = c2
2 = ½ (sum of // sides)  height

 Circumference O = 2.r
Sum of interior angles of  = 180
 Volume (cylinder / prism)
= base area  height
Exterior  of  = sum of interior opposite s

x x+y

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 35 –

Geometry theorems: Grade 10

Quadrilaterals

 The sum of the interior s of quadrilateral = 360

Properties Rectangle Rhombus Parm Square Kite Trapezium Quadrilateral

One pair of // sides     

Two pairs of // sides    

s = 90  

All sides equal  

Two pairs of adjacent
  
sides equal
Diagonals equal  
Diagonals bisect each
   
other
Diagonals bisect each
  
other rectangularly

AB║CD  Area ABC = Area ABD Area ABC = Area ABD  AB║CD
(same base & same // lines) (same base & areas equal)
C D C D

A B A B

AD = DB & AE = EC BC║DE & AD = DB  AE = EC

 BC║DE & DE = ½ BC
(line from centre & // lines)
(centre theorems)
A A

D E D E

B C B C

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 36 –
Geometry Theorems: Grade 11

Geometry I: Angles & chords

Theorem 1(a) HG/SG Theorem 1(b) HG/SG

Line through centres of O
O Line from centre  chord O
and chord

Theorem 2 HG/SG
O
 at centre = 2   at
circumference

Theorem 3(a) Theorem 3(b)

 in semi O Chord spans 90 diameter

Theorem 4(a) Theorem 4(b)

s at circumference in the AD spans
same O segment equal s

Prove a cyclic quadrilateral

Geometry II: Cyclic quadrilateral

Theorem 5(a) HG/SG = 180 Theorem 5(b) HG/SG

+ + = 180
Opposite s
Opposite s of cyclic supplementary
quadrilateral

Theorem 6(a) Theorem 6(b)

Exterior  = interior Exterior  = interior
opposite  opposite 

Geometry III: Tangents to circles

Theorem 7(a)
Tangent  radius Theorem 7(b)
Line  radius

Theorem 8
Tangents from the same point

Theorem 9(a) HG/SG

 between tangent & chord Theorem 9(b) HG/SG
 between line & chord

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 37 –
Point of intersection theorems *

Point of
Definition Sketch Property
intersection

A median is a line drawn Third

from the vertex of a 1 splitting
Median Median point
triangle to the centre of 2 point of
the opposite side. median

An altitude of a triangle
is a line drawn from the Divides  in
Altitude vertex of the triangle Orthocentre 3 cyclic
perpendicular to the quadrilaterals
opposite side.

A perpendicular bisector
of a line segment AB is a
Perpendicular Centre of Centre of
perpendicular line
bisector circumcircle circumcircle
dividing the line segment
AB.

**
Bisector of an A bisector of an angle is Centre of Centre of
angle a line halving the angle. incircle  incircle


Theorem 10 *: The medians of a triangle intersect at one point, namely the

median point.
(Medians of )

Theorem 11 *: The bisectors of the angles intersect at one point, namely the
centre of the incircle.
(Bisectors of s of )

Theorem 12 *: The perpendicular bisectors of a triangle intersect at one point,

namely the centre of the circumcircle.
(Perpendicular bisectors of sides of )

Theorem 13 *: Altitudes of a triangle intersect at one point, namely the

orthocentre.
(Altitudes of )

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 38 –
Geometry theorems: Grade 12
Proportionality & parallelism

Theorem 1a (HG & SG): (Line to side of ) Theorem 1b (HG): (Line divides sides of 
AX AY proportionally)
XY BC  
XB YC AX AY
A   XY BC A
XB YC

X Y X Y

B C B C

Proportionality & similarity

Theorem 2a (HG & SG): (Equiangular s) Theorem 2b (HG): (Sides of s proportional)
KL LM KM
Xˆ  Kˆ , Yˆ  Lˆ , Zˆ  Mˆ   = KL LM KM
XY YZ XZ  =  Xˆ  Kˆ , Yˆ  Lˆ , Zˆ  Mˆ
XY YZ XZ
L
L
Y
Y

*  Z
X
K *  M X Z
K M

* Theorem 3 (HG): (Uniform right-angled s)

AD  BC & Â  90  ABD ||| CAD ||| CBA

1 2

1 2
B C
D

Pythagoras’ theorem

* Theorem 4a: (Pythagoras’ theorem) * Theorem 4b: (Converse of Pythagoras)

2 2 2
Ĉ  90  a + b = c a2 + b2 = c2  Ĉ  90
B B

c c
a a

b b
C A C A

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 39 – 39 –
Reasons for geometry theorems

Lines of Vertically opposite s

intersection s on a straight line
Revolution (s around point)
Triangles s opposite equal sides

Proofs of Theorems 
Equilateral : s = 60
Pythagoras’ theorem
Sum of interior angles of 
Exterior  of  Gr 8 & 9
Parallelism Corresponding s
Alternate s
Co-interior s
Congruence side, side, side
, , side
side, included , side
90, hypotenuse, side
Area of  Same base & same // lines
Same base & areas equal
Centre theorem Gr 10
Line from centre & // lines
Angles & chords
Theorem 1a: Line through centres of O and chord HG & SG
Theorem 1b: Line from centre  chord HG
Theorem 2:  at centre = 2   at circumference HG & SG
Theorem 3a:  in semi O
Theorem 3b: Chord spans 90
Theorem 4a: s at circumference in same O segment
Theorem 4b: AD spans equal s
Cyclic quadrilaterals
Theorem 5a: Opposite s of cyclic quadrilateral HG & SG
Theorem 5b: Opposite s supplementary HG
Theorem 6a: Exterior  = interior opposite 
Theorem 6b: Exterior  = interior opposite  Gr 11
Tangents to circles
Theorem 7a: Tangent  radius
Theorem 7b: Line  radius
Theorem 8: Tangents from the same point
Theorem 9a:  between tangent & chord HG & SG
Theorem 9b:  between line & chord HG
Point of intersection theorems (HG only)
Theorem 10: Medians of  intersect at 1 point
Theorem 11: Bisectors of s of  intersect at 1 point
Theorem 12: Perpendicular bisectors of sides of  intersect at 1 point
Theorem 13: Altitudes of  intersect at 1 point
Similarity and proportionality
Theorem 1a: Line  to side of  HG & SG
Line divides 2 sides of  proportionally
Gr 12
Theorem 1b: HG
Theorem 2a: Equiangular s HG & SG
Theorem 2b: Sides of s proportional HG
Theorem 3: Uniform right-angled s HG
Theorem 4a: Pythagoras

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 40 –

Method to solve problems

Step 1: Mark all given information on the sketch.

 Make parallel lines and tangent lines different colours.

Step 2: Expand on the given information.

 Centre of a circle  line from centre on chord
 radius  tangent
 isosceles  with radii
  at centre = 2   at circumference
  in semi O

 Parallel lines  alternate s

 corresponding s
 interior s
 sides of s proportional (Gr 12)

 Cyclic quadrilateral  opposite s of quadrilateral supplementary

 exterior  of cyclic quadrilateral
 s at circumference in same O segment

 Tangents  tangent  radius

  between tangent and chord
 two tangents from point

Step 3: Examine question: Write in abstract form.

Abstract form means to express what is required in terms of angles in the sketch.

If the following is required:

 Prove that two lines are parallel, then prove:
 alternate s are equal
 corresponding s are equal
 interior s on the same side are supplementary

 Prove that a triangle is isosceles, then prove:

 the opposite angles are equal

 Prove that a quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral (concyclic), then prove:

 opposite angles of quadrilateral are supplementary
 exterior  of quadrilateral is equal to interior opposite 
 line segment spans equal s

 Prove that a line is a tangent, then prove:

 line  radius
  between line and chord is equal to opposite 

Step 4: Perform proof.

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 41 –
Proofs: Grade 11 geometry theorems

Theorem 1a (HG & SG): The join of the centre Theorem 1b (HG): The normal from the centre
of a circle and the centre of a chord is normal to of a circle to any chord bisects the chord.
the chord.
Given: OX  AB
Given: AX = XB To prove: AX = XB
To prove: OX  AB Construction: Join OA and OB.
Construction: Join OA and OB.

B
B O
O 2
1
2 X
1 X
A
A In AOX and BOX:
In AOX and BOX: OX = OX (common)
OX = OX (common) OA = OB (radii)
OA = OB (radii) X̂ 1 = X̂ 2 = 90 (given)
AX = XB (given)
 AOX  BOX (90, side, side)
 AOX  BOX (side, side, side)
 AX = XB (congruence)
 X̂ 1 = X̂ 2 (congruence)
but X̂ 1 + X̂ 2 = 180 (s on straight line)
 X̂ 1 = X̂ 2 = 90
 OX  AB

Theorem 2 (HG & SG): The angle spanning an

arc of a circle at the centre is double the angle
that it spans at any point on the circumference.

To prove: AOˆ B  2 ACˆ B

Construction: Join O with C.

C C
1 2
1 2
A B
O O O C Oˆ 2  KOˆ B
1 2 1 2 K 12
1 2
& Cˆ 2  KCˆ B
B
B
A A
Sketches 1 & 2:
Sketch 3:
Oˆ 1  Aˆ  Cˆ 1 (exterior  of ) (OA = OC; radiusse)
Oˆ  Aˆ  Cˆ (exterior  of )
Oˆ  2Cˆ
1 1
1 1 (OA = OC; radii)
Oˆ 1  2Cˆ 1 (OA = OC; radii)
Similarly Oˆ 2  2Cˆ 2
Similarly Oˆ 2  2Cˆ 2
 Ô1 + Ô 2 = 2( Ĉ1 + Ĉ 2 )
 Ô 2 – Ô1 = 2( Ĉ 2 – Ĉ1 )
 AOˆ B  2 ACˆ B
 AOˆ B  2 ACˆ B

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 42 –
Theorem 5a (HG & SG): The opposite angles of Theorem 5b (HG): If a pair of opposite angles of
a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary. a quadrilateral is supplementary, then the
quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Given: ABCD a cyclic quadrilateral
To prove: Â + Ĉ = 180, B̂ + D̂ = 180 Given: Â + Ĉ = 180
Construction: Join OB and OD. To prove: ABCD a cyclic quadrilateral
B A

A
C D
O
2 1 B 1

1
X
C
D
Assume that C does not lie on the circle.
Oˆ 1  2 Aˆ & Oˆ 2  2Cˆ ( at centre = 2   at circumference) Now draw a circle through A, B and D. Join DX.
Therefore  + Ĉ = 180 (given)
 Oˆ  Oˆ  2( Aˆ  Cˆ )
1 2
and  + X̂ 1 = 180 (opp. s of cyclic quad ABDX)
but Oˆ 1  Oˆ 2 = 360 (revolution)
 Ĉ = X̂ 1
 2( Aˆ  Cˆ ) = 360
This is impossible because X̂ 1 = D̂1 + Ĉ (ext.  of )
 Â + Ĉ = 180  Assumption was wrong.
 B̂ + D̂ = 180 (sum of interior s of quadrilateral)  C lies on circle, therefore ABCD a cyclic
quadrilateral.

Theorem 9a (HG & SG): The angle formed by a

tangent to a circle and a chord drawn from the
tangent is equal to an angle in the opposite circle
segment. Theorem 9b (HG): If a line through the
terminal of a chord forms an angle with the
Given: AC is a tangent. chord equal to an angle in the opposite segment,
 = D̂  = Ê then the line is a tangent to the circle.
To prove: a) B1 1 b) B 4
F  = D̂
Given: B 1
To prove: AC is a tangent.
E
2
D  E
1

D
3 2
4 1
A B C R
1
a) Draw diameter BF and join FD.
 = 90 A B 2 C
 +B
B (radius  tangent)
1 2
T
D̂1 + D̂2 = 90 ( in semi O)
 = D̂ Assume that AC is not a tangent, but RT is one.
but B 2 2 (s at circumference on FE)
B +B = D̂ ( between tangent & chord)
 1 2
 B = D̂1 1

but B = D̂ (given)
 + B̂ ) + Ê = 180 (interior s of ) 1
b) D̂1 + ( B2 3
B +B  = B  (both equal to D̂ )
 +(B  = 180 (s on straight
 + B̂ ) + B 1 2 1
B 1 2 4
3
This is false.
line)  Assumption that RT is a tangent is false.

but B1 = D̂1 (already proved)  AC is a tangent.

 B = Ê4

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 43 –
Proofs: Grade 12 geometry theorems

Theorem 1a (HG & SG): A line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two in proportional
sections.
A
Given: DEBC
AD AE
To prove: = h
BD EC
D E
Construction: Draw DC and BE.

B C
AreaADE 1
AD.h AD (same height h)
 2

AreaBDE 1
2
BD.h BD

AreaADE AE
Similarly 
AreaDEC EC
But area BDE = area DEC (s on the same base and parallel lines)
AreaADE AreaADE
 =
AreaBDE AreaDEC
AD AE
 =
BD EC

Theorem 1b (HG): If a line divides two sides of a triangle proportionally, then the line is parallel to the
third side.

A
AD AE
Given: =
BD EC
To prove: DEBC h

Construction: Draw DC and BE. D E

AreaADE 12 AD.h AD
  (same height h)
AreaBDE 12 BD.h BD B C

AreaADE AE
Similarly 
AreaDEC EC
AD AE
But = (given)
BD EC
AreaADE AreaADE
Therefore =
AreaBDE AreaDEC
 Area BDE = Area DEC
 DEBC (same base DE)
 – 44 –

Theorem 2a (HG & SG): If two triangles are equiangular, then the lengths of their corresponding sides are
proportional.

Given: XYZ & KLM with Xˆ  Kˆ , Yˆ  Lˆ , Zˆ  Mˆ

KL LM KM
To prove:  =
XY YZ XZ

Construction: Mark off LA = XY and LB = YZ on LK and LM. L

Y
LAB  YXZ  s,  , s
 
 A  X
1

But Xˆ  Kˆ (given)   Z A 1
B
X
 A 1  K

 AB KM (corresponding s) K  M
KL LM
  (AB KM)
AL LB
But AL = XY and LB = YZ
KL LM
 
XY YZ
KL KM
Similarly, by marking off XY and XZ on KL and KM, it can be shown that 
XY XZ
KL LM KM
  =
XY YZ XZ

Theorem 2b (HG): If the lengths of the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then the two
triangles are equiangular.

KL LM KM
Given: XYZ & KLM with  = L
XY YZ XZ
To prove: Xˆ  Kˆ 1 , Yˆ  Lˆ , Zˆ  Mˆ 1

Draw KMN on KM so that Xˆ  Kˆ 2 , Zˆ  Mˆ 2 , Yˆ  Nˆ

Y
 XYZ and KNM are equiangular.
1 1

KN
=
KM
(equiangular s) K M
2 2
XY XZ * 
* 
KL KM X Z
but = (given)
XY XZ
 KL = KN
Similarly ML = MN
N
Therefore KLM  KNM (side, side, side)
 Kˆ 2  Kˆ 1 (congruence)
but Xˆ  Kˆ (given)
2

 Xˆ  Kˆ 1
Similarly Zˆ  Mˆ 1 and Yˆ  Lˆ
  XYZ /// KLM (, , )
Therefore Xˆ  Kˆ 1 , Yˆ  Lˆ , Zˆ  Mˆ 1

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005

 – 45 –

Theorem 3 (HG): The normal from the right angle vertex of a right-angled triangle on the hypotenuse
divides the triangle in two triangles that are uniform to each other and to the original
triangle.

Given: ABC with Aˆ 2  Aˆ1  90 and D̂1 = 90

To prove: ABD ||| CAD ||| CBA

A

Bˆ  Aˆ1  90 ( Dˆ 1  90 ) 1 2

Aˆ 2  Aˆ1  90 (given)

 Bˆ  Aˆ 2 Similarly Aˆ1  Cˆ
1 2
In ABD, CAD and CBA: B C
D
B̂ = Â2 = B̂ (proved)

Â1 = Ĉ = Ĉ (proved)

D̂1 = D̂2 = BAˆ C (proved)

 ABD ||| CAD ||| CBA (uniform s)

Deductions (NB: Memorise)

 CBA ||| ABD  AB2 = [Link]
 ABD ||| CAD  AD2 = [Link]
 CBA ||| CAD  AC2 = [Link]

Copyright  Gerrit Stols 2005