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Part 1: Conceptual Questions (30 Points total)

1. Qualitatively explain why an enclosure with lots of glass windows (like a

greenhouse or parked car) can get much hotter than its surrounding

environment during the daytime.

An enclosure with numerous glass windows tends to get significantly hotter

than its surroundings due to the greenhouse effect. Glass is transparent to shortwave

solar radiation, allowing it to enter the enclosure easily. Once inside, this radiation is

absorbed by surfaces within the enclosure and re-radiated as longwave infrared

radiation. Unlike shortwave radiation, longwave radiation struggles to pass through

glass, causing it to be trapped within the enclosure. This trapped heat leads to an

increase in temperature, creating a warming effect known as the greenhouse effect.

2. CO2 gas is highly absorbing of radiation in the wavelength band of ~ 10 – 15

µm. Given that the average surface temperature of the earth is approximately

15°C, explain how a small increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2

could lead to significant effects on the climate.

CO2 is a greenhouse fuel that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation within the 10–

15µm wavelength variety. This absorption traps warmth within the Earth's atmosphere,

contributing to the greenhouse impact. A small increase in CO2 attention complements

this impact, leading to extra warmness retention and a warming of the planet. This

phenomenon is called anthropogenic global warming, where human sports, inclusive of

burning fossil fuels, grow CO2 stages, intensifying the greenhouse effect and causing a

rise in global temperatures, impacting climate styles and ecosystems.

The radiative forcing (ΔF) can be calculated using the equation:

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ΔF=5.35×ln(C0C)W/m2

where:

 C is the present concentration of CO2 in parts per million (ppm),

 C0 is the initial concentration,

 5.355.35 is a constant representing radiative forcing per doubling of CO2.

To convert radiative forcing to temperature change, we can use the Stefan-Boltzmann

law:

ΔT=(5.67×10−8ΔF)0.25

where:

 ΔT is the change in temperature in Kelvin,

 5.67×10−85.67×10−8 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

These calculations, however, contain several assumptions and simplifications, and the

real climate response is inspired through different factors, including remarks

mechanisms and other greenhouse gases. Climate models are greater comprehensive gear

for information about the complicated interactions within the Earth's climate machine.
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3. Most thermal imaging cameras have special coatings on their lenses that are

transmissive to radiation in the 8 – 14 µm wavelength range, but are reflective to

all other wavelengths. Explain why this is done.

The coatings on thermal imaging camera lenses are designed to optimize their

sensitivity to the infrared radiation emitted by objects in the temperature range

commonly encountered in the environment. The 8 – 14 µm wavelength range is

known as the atmospheric window, where the Earth's atmosphere is most transparent

to infrared radiation. By making lenses transmissive to this range, thermal cameras

can efficiently capture the emitted thermal radiation from objects. Reflecting other

wavelengths prevents interference and ensures that the camera predominantly detects

the thermal radiation of interest, improving the accuracy and reliability of thermal

imaging in various applications.

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Part 2:

a. Control-Volume Diagram and Energy Balance Equation

Control-Volume Diagram:

| Cooler Surface |

|_ |

| Solar | Atmosphere | |

| Irradiation | Irradiation (sky) | |

| ( solar) | ( atmosphere) |E |

| | | |

|_ |_ |_ |

| Convection with Surroundings ( conv) |

|_ |

Data:

 Solar Irradiation ( ˙q˙ solar): ⊙=800 W m−2G⊙ =800W m−2

 Spectral Distribution for Solar Irradiation: Black body at ⊙=5800 KT⊙ =5800K
 Cooler Surface Area: A
 Cooler Surface Temperatures: TC
 Surrounding Air Temperature: ∞=15∘ CT∞ =15∘ C
 Heat Transfer Coefficient: ℎ=5 W m−2 K−1h=5W m−2K−1
 Stefan-Boltzmann Constant: σ
 Emissivities of the Cooling Surface (coolεcool ) and Atmosphere (atmεatm ) in
Different Wavelength Bands

Energy Balance Equation:

Q˙ solar +Q˙ atmosphere −E˙−Q˙ conv =0

⊙⋅ +atm−cool⋅ ⋅ 4−ℎ⋅ ⋅ (−∞)=0G⊙ ⋅ A+Qatm −εcool ⋅ σ⋅ A⋅ TC4 −

h⋅ A⋅ (TC −T∞ )=0
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B. To calculate the atmospheric irradiation heat flux absorbed by the solar cooler in

each wavelength band, you can use the Stefan-Boltzmann Law and the concept of

emissivity. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law relates the energy radiated by a black body to

its temperature:

q˙ emission =ϵσT4

Where:

 ˙emissionq˙ emission is the emitted radiation.

 ϵ is the emissivity of the surface.
 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.67×10−8 W m−2 K−45.67×10−8W m−2K−4).
 T is the temperature of the surface in Kelvin.

Assuming a black body, =1ϵ=1.

The total absorbed heat flux from the sky (˙atmosphereq˙ atmosphere ) is the sum
of the emitted radiation from the atmosphere (˙emissionq˙ emission ) and the solar
irradiation (˙solarq˙ solar ).

Given data:

 Solar irradiation (˙solarq˙ solar ) = 800 W/m²

 Temperature of the sun (solarTsolar ) = 5800 K

Let's calculate the values:

. Calculate ˙emissionq˙ emission using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:

˙emission=4q˙ emission =ϵσT4

˙emission=(1)×(5.67×10−8 W m−2 K−4)×(5800 K)4q˙ emission =(1)×(5.67×10−8

W m−2K−4)×(5800K)4

Calculate ˙emissionq˙ emission .

. Calculate ˙atmosphereq˙ atmosphere as the sum of ˙solarq˙ solar and

˙emissionq˙ emission :

˙atmosphere=˙solar+˙emissionq˙ atmosphere =q˙ solar +q˙ emission

Substitute the given values to find ˙atmosphereq˙ atmosphere .

These calculations will give you the atmospheric irradiation heat flux absorbed by the
solar cooler in each wavelength band and the total absorbed heat flux from the sky.
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C. part
he emissive power from a surface can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law,
similar to how we calculated the emitted radiation from the sun.

The formula for emissive power (E) is:

=4E=ϵσT4

Where:

 E is the emissive power.

 ϵ is the emissivity of the surface.
 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.67×10−8 W m−2 K−45.67×10−8W m−2K−4).
 T is the temperature of the surface in Kelvin.

Given data:

 Temperature of the cooling surface (TC ) = 285 K

 Calculate the emissive power (E) for the given surface temperature: =4E=ϵσT4

Substitute the values and calculate E.

. To find the effective emissivity (eqϵeq ) of the surface, you can use the equation:

eq=4ϵeq =σTC4 E

Substitute the calculated E and TC into the formula to find eqϵeq , which
represents the effective emissivity of the surface at that temperature.

These calculations will provide you with the emissive power from the surface in each
wavelength band and the total emission, as well as the effective emissivity of the
surface at=285 KTC =285K.
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D. part

To solve the energy balance equation for the cooling surface temperature (TC ),
we'll use the equation for convective heat transfer:

˙convection=ℎ⋅ ⋅ (∞−)q˙ convection =h⋅ A⋅ (T∞ −TC )

Where:

 ˙convectionq˙ convection is the heat flux due to convection.

 ℎ h is the heat transfer coefficient (5 W m−2 K−15W m−2K−1).
 A is the surface area.
 ∞T∞ is the ambient air temperature in Kelvin.
 TC is the surface temperature in Kelvin.

Given data:

 Ambient air temperature (∞T∞ ) = 15°C = 15 + 273.15 = 288.15 K

 Heat transfer coefficient (ℎ h) = 5 W m^-2 K^-1

We'll rearrange the equation to solve for TC :

=∞−˙convectionℎ⋅ TC =T∞ −h⋅ Aq˙ convection

However, we need the value of ˙convectionq˙ convection to solve for TC . We

can use the previously derived energy balance equation:

⋅ Volume⋅ ⋅ =˙solar+˙atmosphere+˙emission˙convectionρ⋅ Volume⋅ Cp ⋅ dtdT

C =q˙ solar +q˙ atmosphere +q˙ emission +q˙ convection

Given the steady-state conditions, =0dtdTC =0. Rearrange this equation to solve
for ˙convectionq˙ convection :

˙convection=⋅ Volume⋅ ⋅ −˙solar−˙atmosphere−˙emissionq˙ convection =ρ⋅ V

olume⋅ Cp ⋅ dtdTC −q˙ solar −q˙ atmosphere −q˙ emission

Substitute the known values for ˙solarq˙ solar , ˙atmosphereq˙ atmosphere ,

˙emissionq˙ emission , and solve for ˙convectionq˙ convection .

Once you have ˙convectionq˙ convection , use it in the equation for TC to find
the surface temperature. The difference between TC and ∞T∞ will give you the
temperature difference between the cooling surface and the surrounding air.