Lecture

Earth Processes (Exogenic)

Presentation Outline
➢ Driving forces
➢ Weathering
➢ Erosion
➢ Transportation
➢ Deposition
➢ Denudation
Exogenic Processes/External Processes:
Those which are active on the Earth’s surface or processes come from
forces on or above the Earth's surface, viz. Weathering, Erosion,
Transportation and Deposition, Denudation.
Driving Forces
Exogenic (external origin) processes are driven by the energy
from sunlight. Sunlight causes air to move, water to be lifted into
mountains, and ocean waves to rise. These moving fluids attack the
solid surface, eroding it, carrying the broken pieces far away, and
depositing them to fill low places in the landscape. In other words,
exogenic forces are mountain destroying processes. Gravity plays a
vital role in exogenetic process.
Mountain building (endogenic processes) act much faster than
mountain destroying (exogenic processes). Otherwise, we would not
have mountains at all. Can you see why? Consider the opposite
scenario: that of Jupiter's moon, Europa. It is completely smooth
because the processes that destroy mountains act much more quickly
than the processes that build them.
Weathering

 The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth’s

surface is called weathering.
 A slow, continuous process, it affects all substances exposed to
the atmosphere.

Definition: Weathering is an aggregate of processes involving

physical destruction and chemical decomposition of earth
material on exposure to atmosphere at the site of their
occurrence with little or no transport.
Types of Weathering
Rocks on the Earth’s surface are broken down by two types of
weathering: Mechanical and Chemical

Mechanical/ Physical Weathering/ Disintegration:

Mechanical weathering is the process where physical forces break
rocks into smaller pieces without changing the rock’s mineral
composition.
ROCK BEFORE WEATHERING =
ROCK AFTER WEATHERING (just smaller)

Chemical Weathering/ Decomposition: involves a chemical

transformation of rock into one or more new compounds.
ROCK BEFORE WEATHERING ≠ ROCK AFTER WEATHERING
❑Mechanical and Chemical weathering usually a simultaneous
Phenomena
❑Dominance Controlled by Climate
❑Physical Weathering Increases Surface Area, Making Chemical
Weathering More Likely to Occur.
Mechanical Weathering
 During mechanical weathering, rocks are broken into different
shapes and smaller pieces.
 At the beginning the edges are jagged, as weathering
continues, they become round.
 No change in chemical composition, only in size and shape
 Also called disintegration
There are several agents of mechanical weathering.
 Wind
 Sun
 Water
 Ice
 Rain
 Time
Mechanical Weathering Processes
1. Abrasion - wind & water
2. Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes
3. Exfoliation or unloading –
 rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints which
parallel the ground surface;
 caused by expansion of rock due to uplift and erosion;
removal of pressure of deep burial
4. Thermal expansion -
 repeated daily heating and cooling of rock;
 heat causes expansion; cooling causes contraction.
 different minerals expand and contract at different rates
causing stresses along mineral boundaries.
5. Plant Roots – break rocks apart as they grow
6. Salt Crystal Growth – evaporation, crystals grow between
rocks
Sun (Temperature)/Thermal Expansion
 Rocks can be broken apart by changes in temperature.
 As rocks are heat up in the sun during the day, the outside of
the rock expands. The inside of the rocks remain cool and do
not expand.
 When the air temperature drops at night, the outside of the
rock cools and contracts. This continuing cycle causes particles
to break off.

Ice (Frost Action)

 Unlike most liquids, water expands when it freezes.
 The repeated freezing and melting of water, called frost action,
is another cause of mechanical weathering.
 When water freezes in cracks in the rocks, it expands, making
the crack larger. In time, this causes the rock to break into
pieces.
Wind and Water (Abrasion)
 Wind-blown sand causes mechanical weathering .
 Abrasion is the wearing away of rocks by solid particles carried
by wind, water or other forces.
 In desert regions, the wind easily picks up and moves sand. The
sharp edges of the sand particles scrape off pieces of exposed
rocks.
 Running water also carries loose rocks which scrape against
each other and break.

Crystal growth
❖Growth of salt (and other crystals) in cracks and voids. New
minerals grow (volume change) and induce stresses in the rock
leading to fracture. Just like frost action.
Action of plants and animals:
❑Larger trees and shrubs may grow in the cracks of boulders.
❑Ants, earthworms, rabbits, woodchucks, and other animals
dig holes in the soil.
❑These holes allow air and water to reach the bedrock and
weather it.
Unloading
Due to reduced pressure at earth’s surface rocks will expand but
they will crack because they are brittle.
Mechanical Exfoliation
Mechanical Exfoliation is the peeling off of sheets of rock as they
expand and crack.
Chemical Weathering
 When the chemical makeup of the rocks is changed it is called
chemical weathering.
 During chemical weathering, changes occur in the mineral
composition of rocks.
 Minerals can be added, removed or broken down
(decomposed).
 Many substances react chemically with rocks to break them
down.
Agents of Chemical Weathering
The five agents of chemical weathering are:
(1) Water (H2O) dissolves some minerals and rock;
(2) Oxygen (O2) combines with other elements in the rock in an
oxidation reaction;
(3) Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to make carbonic acid
(H2CO3);
(4) Living organisms produce weak acids that break down or
dissolve rock; and
(5) Acid rain (H2SO4, HNO3,H2CO3) contains acids that break
down rock or dissolve it.
Chemical Weathering Processes
❑Dissolution (or solution)
❑Oxidation
❑Hydrolysis

 Dissolution: dissolving of minerals into a solution (usually

aqueous e.g. water).
 Few minerals are very soluble in pure water. Acidic water
(carbonic, hydrochloric, sulfuric, etc.) helps things in
dissolution.
 Carbonates dissolve readily → chemically made/weathered
rocks (chemical sediment)

CaCO3 + H20 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H+ + HCO3- -> Ca2+ + 2HCO3-

 Oxidation: minerals react with oxygen. Metal cations form
oxides/hydroxides that are more stable at surface free-oxygen
concentrations.
 Important way of altering ferromagnesian minerals.
 Generally slow. Water helps the process.
4Fe + 3O2 -> 2Fe2O3
 Hydrolysis:
 Reaction of minerals and “water ions” (H+ and OH-). H+ can
replace cations in minerals. OH- can substitute for anions.

 Mineral becomes “hydrated” with water in its structure.

 Ions are released
 Mineral structure/properties may change
 Mineral may become soluble
 Example: hydrolysis of feldspar produces clay minerals
 2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + 2HCO3- + H2O ->
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3- + 4SiO2
Soil Formation
The weathering of rocks on the Earth’s surface results in the
formation of soil. Soil is formed when rocks are continuously
broken down by weathering. As rocks weather, they break into
smaller pieces. These pieces are broken down into even smaller
pieces to form soil.
Erosion - process of removing Earth materials from their original
sites through weathering and transportation.
–Three processes must take place:
❖ detachment of particles
❖ lifting them
❖ transporting them
Transporting Agents or Forces
❑Water
❑Rain
❑Streams, rivers and runoff
❑Groundwater
❑Ocean dynamics
❑Ice (glaciers)
❑Wind
❑Gravity
Water Erosion
• Water – most influential force in erosion
 Moves materials
 Transports large objects with fast moving streams
 Wears away rocks:
• rivers
• lakes
• oceans

River Erosional Processes

 River Incision
 Bank Erosion
River Incision
❑Erosion = (discharge, channel width, slope)
❑More water in a narrower channel down a steeper slope means
faster river incision
Bank Erosion
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or
river by flowing waters.
Wave Erosion
 When waves crash into rocks over long periods of time, the
rocks are broken down into smaller and smaller pieces until
they become sand.

 Waves usually play a major role in building up and breaking

down the shoreline. A shoreline is the boundary between land
and a body of water.

 Wave erosion responsible for coastal landforms takes place

during storms.
Ice Erosion (Glaciers)
• Ice – moves and carries rocks, grinding the rocks beneath the
glacier
 Plucking occurs when water enters cracks under the glacier.
• freezing
• breaking off pieces of rock that are then carried by the
glacier
 Abrade (abrasion)
• cuts into the rock under the glacier
• smoothing
• polishing the rock surface
Glaciers—Rivers of Ice
 A glacier is a large mass of moving ice. They are capable of
eroding, moving, and depositing large amounts of rock
materials.

 Glaciers form in areas so cold that snow stays on the ground

year-round. Because glaciers are so massive, the pull of gravity
causes them to flow slowly, like “rivers of ice.”
Wind Erosion
• Winds wears away rocks and is responsible for the creation of
deserts such as the Sahara and the Gobi
- Most effective in moving loose material
 Main effects:
1. Wind lifts small particles and moves them away.
2. Suspended particles may cause erosion on solid objects
by abrasion (rubbing).
 Occurs in areas where there is not enough rainfall to support
vegetation
The Process of Wind Erosion
 Saltation is the skipping and bouncing movement of sand or
other sediments, caused by wind or water.

 Moving sand grains knock into one another, bounce up into the
air, fall forward, and strike other sand grains, causing them to
roll and bounce forward.
The Process of Wind Erosion
 Deflation is a form of wind erosion in which fine, dry soil
particles are blown away, removing the top layer of fine
sediment or soil and leaving behind rock fragments that are too
heavy to be lifted by the wind.

 Deflation may cause desert pavement, which is a surface

consisting of pebbles and small broken rock.
The Process of Wind Erosion
 Abrasion is the grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces
through the mechanical action of other rock or sand particles.

 Abrasion commonly happens in areas where there are strong

winds, loose sand, and soft rocks.
Gravitational Erosion

Mass Wasting/Landslides/ Mass Movement

❑ Downward movement of rock, and sediments under the direct
influence of gravity. Occurs continuously on all slopes. Slow
moving and sudden movement until equilibrium is reached.
❑ The earth materials behave as solids or viscous masses, and
may be consolidated (compacted and cemented) or
unconsolidated (loose and uncemented).
❑ Movement occurs when the force or gravity exceeds the
resisting force (slope stability).
Factors that influence Mass Movements
Nature of Steepness of Water Stability of
Slope Material Slope Content Slope

Shear
Strength

Increase mass and/or slope angle will increase shear force  cause
mass wasting
 Mass Wasting
Two main types
A. Slope Failures B. Sediment Flows

1. Slumps Wet (slurry)

2. Falls • Soliflucation

3. Slides • Debris Flow

• Mud Flow
Dry (granular)
• Earthflow
• Debris Avalanche
• Creep
Mass Wasting Processes Based on Rate of Movement

1. Slow movement: 1mm/day to 1cm/year (Low water content)

Ex: Creep, Solifluction

2. Moderate velocity movement: 1 cm/day to 1 km/year

Ex: Slump, Earthflow, Debris flow, Mudflow

3. Rapid Movement: 1m/sec to 1oo km/hr

Ex: Rockfall, Rock avalanche, Debris avalanche
 Relative Velocity of Slope Processes
Rock
Mudflow Avalanche
Debris flow
Earth flow
Creep

Slow Fast
Description

1. Creep: It is an unusually slow continuous movement of regolith

and soil downhill. Creep occurs on almost all slopes, but the rates
vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in bent trees, offsets in
roads and fences, and inclined utility poles.

2. Solifluction: is slow down slope movement of surface material

by flow. The surface material is saturated with water and may be
highly affected by frost heaving. The process is most important in
regions of permafrost or tundra. The active layer of soil above the
permafrost thaws in summer and refreezes in winter. Poor
drainage makes the active layer water saturated, so it easily flows,
even on gentle slopes.
3. Slump: Slump refers to the downward sliding of a mass of rock
or unconsolidated material moving as a unit along a curved
surface. Usually the slumped material does not travel
spectacularly fast nor very far. This is a common form of mass
wasting, especially in thick accumulations of cohesive materials
such as clay.
4. Earthflow: These form in humid areas on hillsides following
heavy rain or melting snow, in fine-grained materials (clay and
silt). They also occur at the toe of slumps when associated with
heavy rains and remain active for long periods of time. Earthflows
produce a tongue-shaped mass with a hummocky surface and
lobed ends.
5. Debris Flow: Debris flow results from heavy rains. This causes
saturation of the soil and regolith with water, followed by its
flow. Debris flow sometimes starts with slumps and then flows
downhill forming lobes with an irregular surface consisting
of ridges and furrows.
6. Mudflow: It is high velocity mixture of sediment and water
with a consistency of a wet concrete. It differs from a Debris flow
in that fine-grained (sand, silt, and clay) material is predominant.
Mudflows usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is
abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by
streams. Mudflows can travel for long distances over gently
sloping stream beds.
7. Rockfall: This might involve either one or few rocks. Generally,
the rocks detach from part of a steep slope, drop, and bounce as
they move very rapidly down slope. They are quite dangerous as
they can occur without warning, and more so as the rocks are
traveling at high velocity.
8. Rock Avalanche: Rock avalanches are often caused by heavy
rain, melting snow, or quite often by earthquakes. Here steep
slopes are involved. As a fast-moving touches the base of the
mountain, it breaks into thousands of fragments that continue
tumbling down slope at high velocity, this is Rock avalanche.
Among all mass movements, it is one of the most destructive.
9. Debris Avalanche: These are very high velocity flows of large
volume mixtures of rock and regolith that results from the
complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They move down
slope and travel for considerable distances along relatively gentle
slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
Greatest Force and Agent of Erosion
Gravity and Water
Deposition: laying down of sediment that has been transported
by a medium such as wind, water, or ice.

 Process of erosion stops:

• when the moving particles fall out of the transporting
medium and settle on a surface

 Speed of the medium slows or the resistance of the particles

increases, the balance changes and causes deposition

 Speed can be reduced by large rocks, hills, vegetation, etc.

Weathering, Erosion and Deposition
 Weathering – the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces, called
sediments.
 Erosion – the process where the sediments are transported by
wind, gravity, glaciers, man, and running water.
 Deposition – the process whereby these sediments are released
by their transporting agents (dropped).
 Weathering breaks down the rocks, erosion moves the
particles, and deposition drops the sediments in another
location.
Denudation is the long-term sum of processes that cause the
wearing away of the earth’s surface leading to a reduction in
elevation and relief of landforms and landscapes.
 Endogenetic processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and
plate tectonics uplift and expose continental crust to the
exogenetic denudation processes of weathering, erosion, and
mass wasting. Denudation occurs as a result of both weathering
and erosion.

Rocks differ in their resistance to denudation. More resistant

rock tends to form uplands and ridges while weaker rock forms
lowlands and valleys
Denudation Types
 Denudation may be divided into subaerial, or the action of
wind, rain, and rivers; and submarine, or that effected by the
waves of the sea, and its tides and currents.
 Action of wind
 Action of running water

 Factors Controlling Denudation

❑ Climate.
❑ Lithology.
❑ Relief.
❑ Tectonic activity
❑ Biosphere (fauna and flora)
❑ Anthropogenic activity