ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL
AMBO UNIVERSITY SPECIAL NON BOARDING
SECONDARY SCHOOL

Prepared by Gamachis A.
Overview:
Electronics is a branch of physics and technology which deals how electrons are flow through
semiconductor medium. So, this lab provides the basic knowledge over the construction and
functionality of the basic electronic devices such as diodes and transistors. It also provides the
information about the uncontrollable and controllable electronic switches and the flow of current
through these switches in different biasing conditions. This lab is intended to describe the different
configurations and modes of controllable switches and how these electronic devices can be
configured to work as rectifiers, clippers, clampers, oscillators and amplifiers.

Out Comes:

Upon the completion of Electronics practical lab, the student will be able to:

1. Construct different types of circuit connections (Series and Parallel).

2. Analyze the diode and transistor characteristics.

3. Understand the principles of rectifier circuits using diodes and implement them using
hardware.

4. Design the biasing circuits like self biasing.

5. Design various amplifiers like CE, CC, common source FET amplifiers and implement
them using hardware and also observe their frequency responses.

6. Understand the concepts of unipolar junction transistor and observe its characteristics.

7. Understand the concepts of SCR and observe its characteristics.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS

1. Students are required to attend all labs.

2. All bags must be left at the indicated place.
3. All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own negligence.
4. Students have to bring the lab manual along with them whenever they come for lab
work.
5. Should take only the lab manual, calculator (if needed) and a pen or pencil to the
work area.
6. Should learn the prelab questions. Read through the lab experiment to familiarize
themselves with the components and assembly sequence.
7. Should utilize 1 hour’s time properly to perform the experiment and to record the
readings.
8. If the experiment is not completed in the stipulated time, the pending work has to be
carried out in the leisure hours or extended hours.
9. Should submit the lab report according to the deadlines set up by the lab assistant.
10. For practical subjects there shall be a continuous evaluation during lab.
11. Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.
12. Report immediately to the Lab Assistant if any malfunction of the accessories, is
there.

Before leaving the lab

 Place the chairs properly.

 Turn off the system properly

ELECTRONICS LAB SYLLABUS

Recommended Systems/Software Requirements:

Electronic components, CRO, Digital Multimeters, Regulated power supply and Multisim
software (accessed on Desktop or PC).

S. No. List of Experiments

1. Measuring voltage drop and current flow through circuit.

A. Series connection B. Parallel connection

2. PN Junction diode characteristics A. Forward bias

B. Reverse bias.
3. Zener diode characteristics and voltage regulator
4. Halfwave Rectifier with and without filter.
5. Fullwave Rectifier with and without filter.
6. Transistor CB characteristics (Input and Output).

7. Transistor CE characteristics (Input and Output).

8. Frequency response of CE Amplifier

9. Frequency response of CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower).
10. UJT characteristics.
11. SCR characteristics.
12. FET Characteristics
PART –A
ELECTRONICS LAB PRACTICE
1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 Identification, specifications, testing of R, L, C components (Color Codes), potentiometers,
switches (SPDT, DPDT and DIP), relays, breadboards, PCBs.
 Identification, specifications and testing of active devices, diodes, BJTs, Low power JFETs,
MOSFETs, power transistors, LEDs, LCDs, optoelectronic devices, SCR, UJT, DIACs.

1. RESISTOR:
Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an
electric circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω(omega).
They are available in different values, shapes and sizes.
Every material has some resistance. Some materials such as Rubber, Glass and air have
very high opposition to current to flow .These materials are called insulators. Other
materials such as Copper, Silver and Aluminum etc, has very low resistance, they are
called Conductors.

Resistor Colour Codes

 Colour-code bands on a resistor.

Applications:
It is widely used in electronic circuits to limit the current

2. CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast,
batteries store energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated
by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices.
Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them, some are
marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above
for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked
with an
“C” on a circuit board.

Symbol:
Applications:

1. In tuned circuits.
2. As bypass capacitors to by pass ac through it.
3. Blocking capacitor to block dc components.

3. INDUCTORS
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component
which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor
such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is
stored in a magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor
changes, the timevarying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor,
according to Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law
opposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are
color coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can
measure inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit
board.

Applications:
1. Filter chokes for smoothing and pulsating currents produced by rectifiers.
2. Audio frequency chokes, to provide high impedance at audio frequencies.
4. POTENTIOMETERS:
The variable resistors are usually called Rheostats and the smaller variable resistors
commonly used in electronic circuits are called potentiometers called pot.
 symbol

The arrow indicates a movable contact on a continuous resistance element. A

potentiometer can be either linear or non-linear.

Applications:
Pots are used to change the volume of sound and brightness of picture.

5. SWITCHES:
A switch is a device which can connect two points in a circuit (or) disconnect two
points. If the switch is acting so has to connect two points. It is said to be in ON
position. If the switch is acting so has to disconnect two points. It is said to be in OFF
position.

SPDT:- (Single Pole Double Throw):

If there are two independent circuits to be connected using two throws but still
connecting one poll then it is called single pole double throw.

DPDT: (Double Pole Double Throw):

This switch is capable of connecting the receiver to either Antenna-I or Antenna-II at the
same time and it connects two poles hence the DPDT switch.

6. RELAYS:
Switches closes its contacts by the mechanical activation of its lever, the relay do this by
an electromagnetic coil pulling its contacts current and wound over a core of soft magnet.
The moving armature of core causes the contact closure.
 Relays can have several poles and several contacts. Types of Relays are
1. Reed Relays
2. Solid State Relays
3. Over load relays etc.
Applications:
In telephone networks

7. BREAD BOARDS:
This is the platform (or chasis) on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide inter
connections between electronics components and devices.
The advantage of bread board is, the components can be connected (or) disconnected
easily. It has holes both horizontally and vertically as shown in the figure.
The horizontal holes at the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the
remaining part vertical holes are shorted internally.

8. PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD ):

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects
electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from
copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components (e.g. capacitors,
resistors or active devices) are generally soldered on the PCB.
9. DIODE:
A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by combining P & N type
semiconductor materials. The doped regions meet to form a P-N junction. Diodes are
unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through them in one direction only. The
schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in fig-1. The P-side of the diode is
called the anode (A), while the N-side of the diode is called the cathode (K).

Figure : symbol of P-N diode.

Diode specifications:
Breakdown voltage rating VBR
The Breakdown voltage rating VBR is the voltage at which avalanche occurs. This rating
can be designed by any of the following: Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV); Peak Reverse
Voltage
(PRV); Break down voltage rating VBR
Average forward – current rating, IF
This important rating indicates the maximum allowable average current that the diode
can handle safely, the average forward current rating is usually designated as IF
Maximum reverse current, IR1N4007 silicon diode specifies a typical IR of 0.05 A for a
diode junction.
Temperature TJ of 250C and a reverse voltage VR of 100 V.
The maximum rating of a diode should never be exceeded.
Testing of diode:
Using an ohmmeter to check a diode: when using an ohm meter, check the resistance of
the diode in one direction , then reverse the meter leads and measure the resistance of the
diode in the other direction. If the diode is good it should measure a very high resistance
in one direction, and a low resistance in the other direction. For a silicon diode the ratio
of reverse resistance RR , to forward resistance RF should be very large, such as 1000:1
or more. Note: If the diode is shorted it will measure a low resistance in both the
directions. If the diode is open, it will measure a high resistance in both the directions.
Using a DMM to check a diode: Most digital multimeters provide a special range for
testing the diodes. This range is called the diode range. This is the only range setting on
the DMM that can provide the proper amount of forward bias for the diode being tested.
It is important to note that when the digital multimeter forward biases the diode being
tested, the digital display will indicate the forward voltage dropped across the diode
rather that the forward resistance, RF.
Identification:
APPLICATIONS:
• Rectifiers, Clippers and Clampers.
• Signal detector.
• Digital logic gates.

11.BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):

A transistor has three doped regions there are two types of transistors one is npn and
other is pnp. Notice that for both types, the base is narrow region sandwiched between
the larger collector and moderate emitter regions.
In npn transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and
collector, while the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in
the pnp transistor where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and
collector, and the majority current carriers are free electrons in the base.
1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector

Schematic symbols for transistors (a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor.

In order for a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be
forward biased and the collector base junctions must be reverse biased.
Transistor lead Identification:
There are three leads in a Transistor called collector, emitter and base. When a transistor
is to be connected in a circuit it is necessary to identify the leads of transistor before
connecting in a circuit. The identification of the leads of transistor varies with
manufacturer.
There are three systems in general.
 When the lead of a transistor is in the same plane and unevenly as in above fig., they are
identified by the position and spacing of leads. The central lead is the base lead. The
collector lead is identified by the large spacing existing between it and the base lead. The
remaining is the emitter.
When the leads of a transistor are in the same plane but evenly spaced, the central lead is the
base, the lead identified by dot is the collector and the remaining lead is the emitter.

When the leads of a transistor are spaced around the circumference of a circle, the three leads
are generally in E-B-C order clockwise from a notch.

SPECIFICATIONS:
In all cases, the maximum ratings are given for collector-base voltage, collector emitter
voltage, emitter base voltage, collector current and power dissipation.
Power dissipation rating Pd (Max):
The product of VCE and IC gives the power dissipation, Pd of the transistor. The product
of VCE x IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation rating, Pd (Max) of the
transistor is nearly 1Watt.
Derating factor:
Manufacturers usually supply derating factors for determining the power dissipation
0 0
rating at any temperature above 25 C. The derating factor is specified in Watt/ C. For

0 o
example if a transistor has a derating factor of 2 mW/ C, then for each 10 C rise in

junction temperature the power rating of the transistor is reduced by 2 mW.

Breakdown voltage ratings;
A data sheet lists the breakdown voltage ratings for the emitter- base, collector-base, and
collector-emitter junctions. Exceeding these voltage ratings can destroy the transistor.
BVCBO is 60V, BVCEO is 40V and BVEBO is 6V.
Testing of BJTs:
Checking a transistor with an ohmmeter:
 To check the base-emitter junction of an npn transistor, first connect the ohmmeter and
then reverse the ohmmeter leads. The resistance indicated by the ohmmeter should be low
since the base emitter junction is forward biased. The resistance indicated by the
ohmmeter should read high because the base emitter junction is reverse biased. For a good
pn junction made of silicon the ration RR/RF should be equal to or greater than 1000:1.
To check the collector-base junction, repeat the process described for the base-emitter
junction.

Shorted and open junctions:

A low resistance across the junction in both directions implies that the emitter-base or
collector-base junctions are shorted. If the ohmmeter indicates a high resistance in both
directions, then the junctions are open. In both cases the transistor is defective and must
be replace.
Checking a transistor with a Digital Multimeter (DMM):
Insert the transistor in the provided slots, position the knob of DMM in hFE mode and
check the hFE value.
Applications:
•Amplifiers. • Oscillators.
•Switches.
12.FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETS):
The field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal device similar to the bipolar junction
transistor. The FET, however, is a unipolar device, which depends on only one type of
charge carriers; either electrons or holes. There are basically two types of FETs. The
junction field effect transistor, abbreviated JFET, and the metal oxide semiconductor
field effect transistor, abbreviated MOSFET.
A junction field effect Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current
conduction is by one type of carriers i.e., electrons or holes.
There are two basic types of FET‟s
1. Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
2. Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)
Schematic symbol of JFET
 Specifications:
i. A.C. drain resistance (rd): Drain resistance has a large value, ranging
from 10kΩto
1MΩ
ii. Transconductance (gm): It is expressed in mA/V iii. Amplification factor
(µ): It is product of A.C drain resistance and transconductance.

Pinch off voltage:

The value Vp is the start of the interval VP to VDS max during which ID remain constant.
As VDS is increased from 0V to Vp called the pinch off voltage, ID increases from 0 to the
maximum drain current that can be attained without destroying the JFET, the voltage
IDSS.
VGS(off):
Maximum drain current flows when VGS = 0 and minimum drain current when
VGS = VGS (off).
Testing:
In case of FET, drain to source should be a fixed resistance in either direction.
Gate to drain or gate to source should be an open circuit or a very high resistance.

Applications:
Used in tuners of radio and TV receivers
Amplifiers and Voltage variable resistor.

13.MOSFETs:

The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor has a gate, source and drain just like
JFET. Like a JFET, the drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source
voltage VGS. There are two basic types of MOSFETs. The enhancement type and
depletion type. The enhancement type MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET
and the depletion type MOSFET is referred to as a D-MOSFET.
The key difference between JFETs and MOSFETs is that the gate terminal in a MOSFET is
insulated from the channel. Because of this, MOSFETs are sometimes referred to as
insulated gate FETs or IGFETs. Because of the insulated gate, the input impedance of a
MOSFET is many times higher t that of a JFET.
 Types of MOSFET’S:
(a) n-channel D- MOSFET (b) P-channel D-MOSFET
(c)n-channel E-MOSFET (d) p-channel E-MOSFET

Specifications:
A typical MOSFET is the 3N200 made by BEL. It has two independent gates against only
one in a common MOSFET. Its specifications are drain to source voltage VDS= 0.2V to
20
V. Gate 1 to source voltage V G1S = 0.6 V to +3 V
Gate 2 to source voltage V G2S = 0.6 V to +6 V Drain to gate 2 voltage VDG2 = +20V
Drain current ID = 50 mA
Transistor dissipation PT = 330 mw Derating = 2.2 m2/0C
Testing:
1.In case of MOSFET, drain to source should be a fixed resistance in either
direction
2.Gate to drain or gate to source should be an open circuit or a very high
resistance (greater than FET).

The device under test in the given circuit is a depletion type N- channel JFET, with the
gate circuit kept open, the magnitude of the drain current is sufficient to make the ID R2
drop large enough. So that the BJT is forward biased and driven into its ON state.
Therefore the lamp glows. The switch SW is now closed. The bias on the FET gate then
causes depletion of its channel.
This lowers the IDR2 drop to the point where conduction through the BJT output circuit fails
to keep the bulb glowing. All this will happen if the FET is in good condition. On the
other hand, a short circuited FET will deep the lamp On in either position of switch SW,
while an open FET will fail to switch the indicator lamp ON.
Power Transistors:
The two types of power transistors made with of the alloy junction type and the silicon
planar type. However, large power means a high current circulating through the device,
requiring bigger areas for a given current density, the active emitter and collector areas
can be over 10

Identification:

SL100
Specifications:
One way to distinguish transistors is by the number marked on them. Thus low frequency,
low power transistors bears the numbers AC125, AC126, BC147 and BC148. An
example of a high frequency, low power transistor is BF115; power transistors are
BD138, AD149, 2N3055 etc. Similarly, germanium and silicon transistors are
distinguished by the first letters A and B respectively.

BVCEO : maximum value of voltage across collector-emitter circuit with base open.
BVCBO : maximum value of voltage across collector-base circuit with emitter open.
BVEBO : maximum value of voltage across emitter-base circuit with collector open.
ICmax : maximum value of DC collector current.
PT : max. power dissipation in absence of heat sinks at ambient temperature.
FT : gain bandwidth ICBO: leakage current.
Testing:
Follow the same procedure as the ordinary BJT-testing using multimeter.
The characteristics of a BJT under different configurations can be observed directly on a
CRT screen. The transistors leads are simply inserted in the three sockets of a device
called a curve tracer.
14. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES LEDS:

As opposed to other diodes that give off heat when conducting, LEDs emit light. In the
latter, the recombination of charge carriers across the PN junction releases optical
energy when the electrons fall from the conduction to the valence band. The heat
emission is negligible in light emitting materials like gallium arsenic phosphide and
gallium phosphoide.
LEDs must, of course, be covered in a transparent or translucent material. The
wavelength of the radiation for a given colour is given by the relation = 1.23/Eg.
Where Eg is the energy gap between conduction and valence bands. Its value is 1.45 ev
for GaAs, 3 ev for GaAsP and 2.25 ev for Gap. The colours obtained from these
materials are red, yellow and green respectively.

Figure: symbol of LED.

Identification:

The longer terminal is Cathode and the other is Anode.

Specifications:
1. VF operating : 1.3 v to 2.5 v
2. Forward voltage(max): 5 v.
3. Forward current 5 mA to 15 mA
4. Reverse breakdown : 10 v to 12 V
5. Operating life : 100,000 hours.
6. Turn on time : 10-20 nsec.
7. Turn off time: 80-100 nsec.

Testing:
The diode is simply put across a multimeter to see if the reading is different when the
polarity is reversed. The LED will glow and show a resistance between 30 ohms and 50
ohms when forward biased.
15. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD):
As the name implies, liquid crystals are materials which have the properties of both liquids
and solids crystals. Instead of a melting poing, they have a temperature range called a
mesophase with in which the molecules are mobile as in a liquid although remaining grouped
as in a solid.
Identification:

Specifications of a dynamic light scattering LCD:

1. Operating voltage: 15 V to 30 V
2. Frequency range: 50 Hz to 60 Hz
3. Current required: 60 A.
4. Rise time = 25 x 10 3 S
5. Contrast ratio: 20 :1
 Specification of twisted nematic field effect LCD:
1. Operating voltage: 3 V
2. Operating frequency: 30 Hz to 1500 Hz
3. Effective current : 5 A to 6 A
4. Rise time = 100 x 10 3 S

16.SCR
The basic structure and circuit symbol of SCR is shown below. It is a four layer three
terminal device in which the end P-layer acts as anode the end N-layer acts as cathode and P-
layer nearer to cathode acts as a gate. As leakage current in silicon is very small compared to
Germanium SCRs are made of silicon and not Germanium.
Identification:

When the leads of the SCR are in the same plane but evenly spaced the central lead is the
Gate, left side of the gate is Anode and the other is Cathode.
Specifications:
The following is a list of some important SCR specifications:
1. Latching Current (IL):
Latching current is the minimum current required to latch or trigger the device from its
OFF-state to its ON-state.
2. Holding Current (IH):
Holding current is the minimum value of current to hold the device in ON-state. For
turning the device OFF, the anode current should be lowered below IH by increasing the
external circuit resistance.
3. Gate Current (Ig):
Gate current is the current applied to the gate of the device for control purposes. The
minimum gate current is the minimum value of current required at the gate for triggering
the device the maximum gate current is the maximum value of current applied to the
device without damaging the gate. Move the gate current earlier is the triggering of the
device and vice versa.
Voltage safety factor (Vf) voltage safety factor Vf is a ratio which is related to the PIV,
the RMS value of the normal operating voltage.
 Testing:
• The SCR should be switched on and voltage measured between anode and
cathode, which should be approximately volt and the voltage between gate and
cathode should be 0.7 volt.
• An ohmmeter can also be used to test SCR the gate –cathode of a thyristor has
a similar characteristic to a diode with the gate positive with respect to the
cathode,

a low resistance (typically below 100Ω) should be indicated on the other hand
with the gate negative with respect to the cathode a high resistance (greater
than
100kΩ) will be indicated. A high resistance is indicated in either direction for
the anode to cathode connections.
Applications:
These are used in power control applications such as lamp dimmers motor speed control,
temperature control and invertors. They are also employed for over voltage protection in DC
power supplies.

17. UJT
Identification:
UJT is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. As it has only one PN junction and
three leads it is commonly called as uni- junction transistors.
The basic structure of UJT is as shown below.
Picture

Specifications:(For UJT 2N2646)

• Peak emitter current (Ip) = 2A
• Continuous emitter current (IE) = 50mA
• Inter Base Voltage (VBB) = 35V
• Emitter Base Reverse Voltage (VEB2) = -30V
• Power dissipation at 25°C = 300mW
Testing:
• In case of UJT, emitter to base, (cont1) and emitter to base2 (confg2) should be
exhibit a typical diode characteristics except that the diode resistance in
forward and reverse cases is different for the two configurations.
• The resistance across base1 to base2 should be fixed resistance in either direction.
Applications:
UJT can be used as relaxation oscillator and phase control circuit.

18. DIAC
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in
both forward and reverse polarities. The DIACgains its name from the contraction of the
words DIode Alternating Current. The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a
TRIAC when used in AC switches.

Application of Diac
It can be used mainly in the triac triggering circuit. The diac is connected in the gate terminal
of the triac. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the
gate voltage will be zero and hence the triac will be turned off. The main applications are-
It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit.
• It is used in the heat control circuit.
• It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.
2. Study and operation of Digital Multimeters ,Function generators, Regulated
power supplies and CRO

1)MULTIMETERS
Digital Multimeter:
` A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such
as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter
because it combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may
also have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test
and frequency test.
Parts Of Multimeter
A Multimeter has three parts:
 Display
 Selection Knob
 Ports

The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters
have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.
The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common
and is almost always connected to Ground or „-‟ of a circuit. The COM probe is
conventionally black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other
than color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than
200mA). mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port
allows the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The
probes have a banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe
with a banana plug will work with this meter.
Safety Measures
• Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired
measurement.
• Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged.
• Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied.
• Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A
or 300 mA input jack.
• To avoid damage or injury, never use the meter on circuits that exceed 4800 watts.
• Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and earth ground.
• Be careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such
voltages pose a shock hazard.
• Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making
measurements.
• To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal
injury, replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears.

Input Jacks
The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into the
10 A jack when measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the 300 mA jack when measuring
currents less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other
measurements.

Range Fixing
The meter defaults to auto range when first turned on. You can choose a manual range in V
AC, V DC, A AC, and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of the rotary dial. To
return to autorange, press the button for one second.
Procedure For Measurement Voltage Measurement A.C. Voltage Measurment
1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on
the digital display along with the voltage polarity(if reversed only).

Current Measurement
1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket(for measurements up to 200mA).
For measurements between 200mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the
„10mA‟ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the
load in which current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current
is less than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of
more than 10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit
and turn power on.
Resistance Measurement

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the negative(black)
lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired „OHM Ω‟.
3. If the resistance to be measured ia part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge
all capacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.
6. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge
all capacitors before measurement.

Continuity Test
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify
connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds
continuously.
1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket.

2. Set the selector switch to the position.

3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistence is
Ohms the buzzer will sound.
 4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge
all capacitors before measurement.

Diode Test

1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the „V/mA‟ jack socket and the
negative(black) lead to the „COM‟ jack socket. 2. Set the selector switch tot he
position
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear
on the digital display.

General Operation
Connection of Probes:
All multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on the
meter itself. The Black probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be
connected to terminal marked with :
„V- for voltage measurement.
• „mA‟ or „20A‟ for current measurement (there are two terminals, one for 2A range and the
other for 20A range)
„V- for resistance measurement.
Setting of function:
The multimeter uses different circuits internally to measure different things. Therefore, you
must select the correct function before using it.
Setting of Range:
• You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting different range for measurement.
Set the range to the first range that is higher than the maximum value you expect to
measure. This will give a more accurate reading. If you do not know what to expect, use
the highest range first.
• After a reading is obtained, set the range to the appropriate one to get a better reading.
• When the value measured exceeds the existing range, the display will flash. When this
happens, set the multimeter to a higher range until some values are displayed.

Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2A (if the RED mA and
BLACK COM terminals are used) or 20A (if the RED 20A and BLACK COM
terminals are used). Excessive current will blow the fuse on the 2A range, which must
be replaced. The 20A range, however, is not protected by the fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED V- and BLACK COM terminals), the
maximum input voltage on :
 all DC ranges is 1200V DC or peak AC
 the 20V, 200V and 1000V AC ranges is 1000V rms continuous
 the 2V and 200mV AC ranges is 1000V rms for not more than 15 seconds.
3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input
terminals to any source of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.
Resistance measurement
Procedure
• Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with
„ ‟
• Set function to resistance measurement
• Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
• Connect the two probes‟ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper
wires) to make measurement Note the reading, adjust range if necessary Take the
more accurate reading.

Voltage measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked
with „V‟
2. Set function to voltage measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
 4. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
6. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
7. Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Reading obtained is the voltage of where the red probe touch with reference to where the
black probe touches. This may not indicate the voltage level from ground. To find the
voltage level of a point from ground, black probe should be touching a ground point and the
red probe on the point you want to measure.
Current measurement
Procedure
•Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with „A‟
•Set function to current measurement
•Set to the appropriate range
•Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
•Off the power to the circuit
•Break the path which we want to make measurement
•Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
•On the power
•Note the reading, change range if necessary
•Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Use the 20A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.

Connection Methods to Measure Voltage and Current

2) FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objective
1. To get familiarization and study the operation of a function generator
instrument
2. To identify key function generator specifications
 3. To visualize the types of waveforms produced by a function generator
Equipment Required
1. Oscilloscope
2. Function Generator
3. BNC Connector Table
Theory
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of
waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a
variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a
standard sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two
levels with a standard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator.
It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to
1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.

Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.
 These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment.

Types of Function Generator

Procedure
• Turn on the oscilloscope
• Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
• Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
• Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
• Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-
topeak (p-p) sinusoidal waveform on the screen.

Function Generator connected

Function Generator Controls
Knobs Control Name Functi
Number ons
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms :
 Sine
4 Function  Square
 Triangle
 Ramp
 Pulse
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation. TTL are available.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequenc In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
y on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of
Variable output.
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
not required.
12 Output (BNC Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)

External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external

13 Counter signal when External Counter mode is selected by Menu
(BNC key on the LCD display.
Connector)
14 Modulatio Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.
n Input

3) DC VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is
most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical
energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy
(mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that
controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly
constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power
supply's energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device
that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power
supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:
The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
Power Supplies Types
1. Battery
2. DC power supply
3. AC power supply
4. Linear regulated power supply
5. Switched mode power supply
6. Programmable power supply
7. Uninterruptible power supply
8. High voltage power supply
9. Voltage multipliers
Dc Power Supply Specification
a. Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
b. The design is limit the voltage overload
c. The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
d. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
e. Work temperature: -10oC-40oC
Main Function
1. Output constant current adjustable.
2. Output constant voltage adjustable.
3. LCD voltage and current display.
4. Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
5. Over current protection.
Adjustable power supply
4) CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid,
X&Yplates, and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by
applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a
potential difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted
electrons towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced.
The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing
through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are
responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot Horizontally
across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal.
The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages
produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.
Experimental Figures

Fig 1. Cathode Ray tube Oscilloscope Fig 2. Out Line Diagram of CRO

Procedure
• Turn on the Oscilloscope
• Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
• Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
• Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
• A signal will appear on the screen.
• Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
• Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
• Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
• Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the
peak to peak value as:
 Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Divs

• Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, then
calculate time value as:

Time = No. Horizontal Div * Time/Divs 11.

• Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula:
Freq = 1 /Time