PHOTOGRAMMETRY

(MAPPING AND PHOTOGRAPHS)

INTRODUCTION:

Photogrammetry is a field that has seen exponential advancement along with the use of
software that can cater to the specific need of the user. Its compact size and ease to use is
an added incentive that makes it the best option to use for structural analysis and 3D
representations of any site.

The high precision measurements it offers with the computational benefits has allowed for
the incorporation of photogrammetric techniques in various fields. This is a growing
technology and will see numerous advancements and changes with the increasing
digitization and use of complex software.

Definition of photogrammetry:

The term “Photogrammetry” is composed of the words “photo” and “meter”

meaning measurements from photographs.

- Photogrammetry is defined as the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable

information about physical objects and the environment, through processes of
recording, measuring and interpreting images on photographs.
or
- Photogrammetry is the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable spatial
information about physical objects and the environment through the process of
recording, measuring and interpreting images and patterns of electromagnetic
radiant energy.

Photogrammetry is art, because obtaining reliable measurement requires certain

skills, techniques and judgments to be made by an individual.

It is a science and a technology because it takes an image and transforms it, via
technology into meaningful results.

Modern photogrammetry includes image forms, other than photographs, such as

radar images.

The photogrammetric process consists of:

- Project planning,
- Image acquisition
 - Image processing
- Control data for image orientation
- Data compilation
- Presentation of an end product.

The end product of the photogrammetric process can be coordinate values of individual
points, a graphic representation of the ground surface (topographic map) or a rectified
image of the ground surface with map-like characteristics (orthophoto)

Components of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry has three (3) major components

1. Image acquisitions
2. Image control
3. Product compilation

Definition of remote sensing.

Remote sensing is the measurement or acquisition of information of some property or

phenomenon (something that exists and can be seen, felt, tasted etc) by a recording device
that is not in physical contact or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under
study.

Example:
The utilization at a distance (as from air craft, space craft or ship) of any device and its
attendant display for gathering information pertinent to the environment, such as
measurement of force fields, electromagnetic radiation or accoustic energy. The technique
employs such devices as the camera, lasers, radio frequency receivers, radar systems,
sonar, seismographs, gravimeters, magneto meters and scintillations countery.

(Seismographs are used to measure the strength of earthquake).

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY.

These depend on the position of the taking camera or distance from which the camera is
taking the photograph. They include:

1. Aerial photogrammetry
2. Terrestrial photogrammetry
3. Close-range photogrammetry
4. Extra- terrestrial photogrammetry
 i. Aerial Photogrammetry

In this type of photogrammetry, features on the earth are photographed using a camera
located in an aerial position a distance greater than 300m

ii. Terrestrial photogrammetry.

In this type of photogrammetry, features on the earth are photographed by a camera

held on a ground position, mostly on a tripod.

A common combination of camera and theodolite is called photo theodolite

iii. Close-Range Photogrammetry

In this type of photogrammetry, the camera could either be in an aerial position or

ground position but the features to be photographed are less than 300m from the
camera.

iv. Extra-Terrestrial Photogrammetry

This type of photogrammetry involves the study of features outside the earth; that is, in
space.

They include photographs of the moon, stars etc

APPLICATIONS/USES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

They include:

i) Mapping e.g - map revision

- Cadastral maps e.g photo index diagrams (P.I.D)
- Topo maps
ii) Engineering
- Highway Design
- Urban planning
- Research
- Structural engineering
iii) Medical purposes
- Dentistry
- X-rays
iv) Study of accident scenes
v) Military intelligence
vi) Geological work on vertical faces and application in rock mechanic and shape
stability problems.
vii) Recording of architectural features and conditions including the plotting of
facades (side)
viii) Measurement o river flows
ix) Measurement of verticality of towers during constructions
x) Sports.
xi) Film making and entertainment
xii) Real estate
xiii) Forensics

Advantages and disadvantages of photographs.

Advantages

- Below is a list of a few of the advantages that photogrammetry offers as

compared to traditional methods.
1. The ease and speed of data collection: with the use of UAV, UAS or satellite
imagery, photogrammetry can help in capturing images, analyze the data to get
the measuments and convert them to a 3D map in no time and least cost.
2. The photogrammetric techniques yield results that are highly accurate making it
very reliable to use for mapping or other purposes.
3. It offers a wide or broad view of the mapped area but utilizing both topographic
and cultural features of the land surface. This allows for other studies to use
corresponding data more efficiently.
4. The data that is collected is permanent and accurate and records the condition
that existed at the time the photographs were taken in both the pictorial and
metric forms.
5. Due to the fact that the information collected is permanent, it is much easier to
re-survey or re-evaluate the site again to get any of the missing information
without the loss of time.
6. With the use of UAV, UAS or satellite imagery in photogrammetry, it is easy to
take photos of remote areas and hard to reach locations with accuracy in
dimensions. This also lowers the threat to the safety of the crew surveying
places that may be dangerous.
7. While surveying roads with photogrammetry, the photos and measurements can
be done without disrupting the flow of the traffic or endangering the lives of the
crew. Once the features of the road are recorded it can be used in planning for
future projects.
Disadvantages of photogrammetry

1. Major disadvantage is that the photogrammetric survey is not possible in the

absence of light.
It cannot project its own light source which makes it difficult to take photographs
when the source of light is low.
2. It cannot be used for accurate measurements when there are visibility constraints
in the area which can be caused by seasonal occurrences like snow fall or rainfall. If
there is a vegetationor tree the canopy that can block the line of sight of the camera
then the accuracy of the measurements is not possible.
3. The accuracy of measurements depend highly on the flight height.
4. The digital aspect of the photogrammetry surveys makes it susceptible to hacks
and loss of data due to viruses.

NOTE: Photogrammetry has made life much easier and simpler in the various fields of
science. Despite its few disadvantages, people are taking much of the advantages of
photogrammetry and collaboration with the latest softwares and technology has made
its uses at the peak.

PHOTOGRAPH

A photograph is a record of electromagnetic gradient energy received from an object.

The result is an image of the object.

It is the major component of photogrammetry. The electromagnetic energy is recorded

on a light sensitive material (Emulsion) through an instrument called a camera.

THE CAMERA

A camera will basically constitute a lens, a screen or emulsion surface and the box that
excludes all other light a part from that coming from the object. Cameras used for
ordinary purposes other than measurement are called non- metric cameras. While
those used from purposes of measurements of photography are called metric cameras.

Comparison of properties of a vertical photograph with a topographical map/plan

Photograph Topo map

- It shows every item of detail which is - A map is made for a particular
visible from the lens i.e therefore it is purpose and the objects which
incomplete since some objects will be are shown are carefully chosen
hidden by others possibly less important with an overall objective in mind,
objects much information is therefore
omitted deliberately

- Photographs are continuous tone images - A map is a line diagram so that;

and lines are formed where one tone precision cannot be better than
gives way to another the thickness of the lines.
- For important objects this may be a line - Since the line has thickness short
having virtually no thickness hence short distances are inaccurately
distance are accurately measured measured.
- photographic distortions are very small - There are a lot of distortions and
and are only true error in photographic the features are not overlapping
image and there is overlapping
- contour accuracy is poor and gives only a - High contour accuracy
general impression of the shape of the
land
- Is less preferred as bases for indicating - are usually preferred as bases for
the location of other facts e.g buildings, indicating the location of other
only a light toned orthophoto can play the facts such as proposed
role developments e.t.c
CLASSES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

In aerial photography, we have classes of aerial photographs; these are:

i) vertical aerial photographs

ii) titled aerial photographs
iii) low oblique aerial photographs
iv) high oblique aerial photographs
a) vertical aerial photographs
- These are photographs taken with the camera principal axis following the plumb
line or gravity.
- The photograph is a horizontal photograph parallel to the ground being imaged.
b) Tilted Aerial Photograph
- These photographs are also called near vertical Aerial photographs.
- The photograph is one taken with the optical axis (principal axis) and un
intentionally tilted from the vertical by a small amount not exceeding 3 o (three
degrees)
- These are the most common photographs for mapping
c) Low oblique aerial photograph
A low oblique aerial photograph is one taken with the camera axis deliberately titled
from the vertical by a large amount but not so large as to allow the photograph to
contain the image of the horizon.

d) High Oblique Aerial Photograph

- A high oblique Aerial photograph is one taken with a camera axis deliberately
tilted from the principal axis by an amount that is so large as to ensure that the
photograph contains the image of the horizon.
- These are commonly used in espionage (intelligent purposes/spying).
CLASSIFICATION OF CAMERAS

- Cameras used for ordinary purposes other than measurements are called non-
metric cameras
- Cameras used for purposes of measurements are called metric cameras.
Metric cameras used for purposes of measurements of photography can be
classified as:
a) Aerial cameras
b) Terrestrial cameras
c) Close range cameras
d) Stereo metric cameras (extra – terrestrial camera)
i. Aerial Cameras
These are cameras used in aerial photogrammetry and are constructed to conform to rigid
specifications.
Since the terrain is usually photographed from heights ranging is from 800 m – 15,000m
Aerial cameras are of the fixed focus type.
Aerial cameras may be classified as:
- Single lens frame camera
- Multilens frame camera
- Strip camera
- Panoramic camera
- Convergent camera
Diagram showing parts of an aerial camera
The Aerial camera basically constitutes three parts:

a. Camera magazine
b. Camera body
c. Lenscone assembly, this constitutes
- The focal plane
- The filter
- The lens
- Shutters
- The diaphragm
1. Camera magazine
- The magazine houses the film spools i.e take up spool (exposed) and supply
spool (unexposed)
- It also houses the film flattening device
2. Camera body
- It houses the drive mechanism
- The camera body also has gimbals for camera mounting on the aircraft. The
gimbals have shock absorbers which ensure that there is no interference.
3. Lenscone Assembly
- This constitutes the focal plane, the filters, the lens, shutters and the diaphragm.
i. The Focal plane

Is where the film is located. The focal plane is usually of film but occasionally of
glass.

- It is used to receive the images on the ground being photographed.

- The film is coated with light sensitive material on the surface.
ii. Filters
- The filters are used to reduce the effect of haze (thin mist) and to improve
contrast.
iii. The lens
 - Lenses are used to focus the image of the terrain or ground onto the focal plane.
- Combination of lenses may be used in order to reduce aberrations (the
imperfect formation of an image due to lens quality)
iv. The shutters:
- Are used to cut off light from the focal planes.
- They are two types:
i. Between the lens shutters
ii. Focal plane shutters
v. Diaphragm
- The diaphragm controls the aperture (or size of opening) into the camera cone
- It acts like the Irish of the human eye.

CLASSIFICATION OF AERIAL CAMERAS ACCORDING TO ANGULAR VIEW.

Aerial cameras may also be classified according to angular view.

This is the angle subtended by rays of light imaging at the diagonals of photograph.

These are classified as:

i. Small angle camera

ii. Normal angle camera
iii. Wide angle camera
iv. Super wide angle camera
a) Small angle camera:
- Small angle cameras subtended a field of view angle less than 60o
- They are rarely used
b) Normal Angle Cameras
- Normal angle cameras subtended a field of view angle between 60-75o
- They have 210 mm focal length
- Photograph format (dimension) of 180mm x 180mm
- They are used for special tasks
c) Wide Angle Camera
- This subtended a field of view of 75o - 100o
- They have a focal length of 152mm and a photograph format of 230mm by
230mm
- They are the most common (universally used).
d) Super wide Angle Camera.
- Subtend a field of view of 100 o- 120 o
- They have a focal length of 88mm and a photograph format of 230mm by
230mm
- They are used on flat countries.
Calculating the field of view Angle

1. Calculating diagonal ac=bd:

√ 2302 +2302=325.27
2. Ɵ/2 = tan-1325.27÷2 = 46.93 o
152

Ɵ/2 = 46.93 o

3. field of view α = 46.93 o x 2 = 93.9 o

In general field of view therefore is

(Ɵ= 2tan-1 d/2f:) where d= diagonal

f= focal length
Example
Calculating the field of view of cameras of the following types.
1. Focal length 320 mm
Format 180mm x 180mm
2. Focal length 210 mm
Format = 180 mm x 180m
3. Focal length 88 mm
Format 230mm x 230 m

Diagonal =√ ¿ ¿
= 254.56 mm
Field of view = 2tan-1 = 254.56mm/2
 2 x 320 mm
= 43.40
Α = 2 tan -1 √ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

Ɵ= 2tan-1 = √
230 2+ 2302
= 123.2o
2 x 88

QUESTIONS

a) Explain the term angular field of view (AFOV) of an aerial camera ( 4

marks)
b) State an expression for determining camera lens, give its principal
distance and the dimension of the format (4 mks)
c) Given that the focal lengths of two interchangeable camera lens are
88mm and 210mm,calulate the diagonal, angular field of view of each lens
(12 mks)