Lecture 5 Notes

GPS Surveying Fundamentals

5.0 What is GPS and GPS Surveying?

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a highly accurate navigation system using signals
from satellites to determine a location on the Earth's surface, irrespective of weather
conditions. It is dependent on GPS satellites high above the Earth which transmit signals
containing the time and location of the satellite.

GPS is a satellite-based system that uses a constellation of 24 satellites to give a user an

accurate position. It is important at this point to define ‘accurate’. To a hiker or soldier in
the desert, accurate means about 15m. To a ship in coastal waters, accurate means 5m.
To a land surveyor, accurate means 1cm or less. GPS can be used to achieve all these
accuracies in all of these applications, the difference being the type of GPS receiver used
and the technique employed. GPS was originally designed for military use at any time
anywhere on the surface of the earth. Soon after the original proposals were made, it
became clear that civilians could also use GPS, and not only for personal positioning (as
was intended for the military). The first two major civilian applications to emerge were
marine navigation and surveying. Nowadays applications range from in-car navigation
through truck fleet management to automation of construction machinery.

GPS Configuration

The total GPS configuration is comprised of three distinct segments:

1. The Space Segment-Satellites orbiting the earth.

2. The Control Segment-Stations positioned on the earth’s equator to control the

satellites

3. The User Segment-Anybody that receives and uses the GPS signal.
How GPS works

There are several different methods for obtaining a position using GPS. The method used
depends on the accuracy required by the user and the type of GPS receiver available.
Broadly speaking, the techniques can be broken down into three basic classes:

a) Autonomous Navigation using a single stand-alone receiver. Used by hikers,

ships that are far out at sea and the military. Position Accuracy is better than 100m
for civilian users and about 20m for military users.

b) Differentially corrected positioning-More commonly known as DGPS, this gives

an accuracy of between 0.5-5m. Used for inshore marine navigation, GIS data
acquisition, precision farming etc.

c) Differential Phase position. Gives an accuracy of 0.5-20mm. Used for many

surveying tasks, machine control etc.

This is the simplest technique employed by GPS receivers to instantaneously give a

position and height and/or accurate time to a user. The accuracy obtained is better than
100m (usually around the 30-50m mark) for civilian users and 5-15m for military users.
The reasons for the difference between civilian and military accuracies are given later in
this section. Receivers used for this type of operation are typically small, highly portable
handheld units with a low cost.

All GPS positions are based on measuring the distance from the satellites to the GPS
receiver on the earth. This distance to each satellite can be determined by the GPS
receiver. The basic idea is that of resection, which many surveyors use in their daily work.
If you know the distance to three points relative to your own position, you can determine
your own position relative to those three points. From the distance to one satellite we
know that the position of the receiver must be at some point on the surface of an imaginary
sphere which has its origin at the satellite. By intersecting imaginary spheres, the receiver
position can be determined.

The problem with GPS is that only pseudoranges and the time at which the signal arrived
at the receiver can be determined. Thus, there are four unknowns to determine; position
(X, Y, Z) and time of travel of the signal. Observing to four satellites produces four
equations which can be solved, enabling these unknowns to be determined. The user
requires at least four to position him/her accurately on the earth surface.
Minimum GPS Satellites required for accurate positioning

GPS Errors

1. Ionospheric and atmospheric delays- As the satellite signal passes through the
ionosphere, it can be slowed down, the effect being similar to light refracted through a
glass block. These atmospheric delays can introduce an error in the range calculation as
the velocity of the signal is affected. (Light only has a constant velocity in a vacuum).

The ionosphere does not introduce a constant delay on the signal. There are several
factors that influence the amount of delay caused by the ionosphere. These include:

a. Satellite elevation.
b. The density of the ionosphere is affected by the sun
c. Water Vapour also affects the GPS signal.

2. Satellite and Receiver Clock Errors- Even though the clocks in the satellite are very
accurate (to about 3nanoseconds), they do sometimes drift slightly and cause small
errors, affecting the accuracy of the position. The US Department of Defense monitors
the satellite clocks using the Control Segment and can correct any drift that is found.

3. Multipath- Multipath occurs when the receiver antenna is positioned close to a large
reflecting surface such as a lake or building. The satellite signal does not travel directly
to the antenna but hits the nearby object first and is reflected into the antenna creating a
false measurement.

Multipath can be reduced by use of special GPS antennas that incorporate a ground plane
(a circular, metallic disk about 50cm (2 feet) in diameter) that prevent low elevation signals
reaching the antenna.

For highest accuracy, the preferred solution is use of a choke ring antenna. A choke ring
antenna has 4 or 5 concentric rings around the antenna that trap any indirect signals.

Multipath only affects high accuracy, survey type measurements. Simple handheld
navigation receivers do not employ such techniques.

4. Dilution of Precision- The Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a measure of the strength of

satellite geometry and is related to the spacing and position of the satellites in the sky.
The DOP can magnify the effect of satellite ranging errors.

5. Selective Availability (S/A)- Selective Availability is a process applied by the U.S.

Department of Defense to the GPS signal. This is intended to deny civilian and hostile
foreign powers the full accuracy of GPS by subjecting the satellite clocks to a process
known as.’dithering’ which alters their time slightly. Additionally, the ephemeris (or path
that the satellite will follow) is broadcast as being slightly different from what it is in reality,
t4he end result is a degradation in position accuracy.

It is worth noting that S/A affects civilian users using a single GPS receiver to obtain an
autonomous position. Users
of differential systems are not significantly affected by S/A.

6. Anti-Spoofing (A-S)- Anti-Spoofing is similar to S/A in that its intention is to deny civilian
and hostile powers access to the P-code part of the GPS signal and hence force use of
the C/A code which has S/A applied to it. Anti-Spoofing encrypts the P-code into a signal
called the Y-code. Only users with military GPS receivers (the US and its allies) can de-
crypt the Y-code.

Use and limitations of the GPS

GPS has numerous advantages over traditional surveying methods:

1. Inter-visibility between points is not required.

2. Can be used at any time of the day or night and in any weather.

3. Produces results with very high geodetic accuracy.

4. More work can be accomplished in less time with fewer people.

Limitations

In order to operate with GPS, it is important that the GPS Antenna has a clear view to at
least 4 satellites. Sometimes, the satellite signals can be blocked by tall buildings, trees
etc. Hence, GPS cannot be used indoors. It is also difficult to use GPS in town centers or
woodland.

Due to this limitation, it may prove more cost effective in some survey applications to use
an optical total station or to combine use of such an instrument with GPS.