ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The overall metabolism of organisms is under the control of endocrine or ductless

glands which discharge their internal secretions into the peripheral circulation.

Location of the endocrine glands in the human body

Structure and functions of Endocrine Organs

1. The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland or the hypophysis, as it is called, is a composite gland which is
situated at the base of the brain.
Anatomically, the pituitary is divided into three parts, namely the anterior lobe,
posterior lobe and the intermediate lobe.
(i)The Anterior Pituitary

The anterior lobe of the pituitary is also called adenohypophysis. It is highly secretory in
activity. It secretes the following hormones

Growth hormone: Growth hormone or somatotrophic hormone stimulates tissue

growth. Excessive secretion of the growth hormone, before the union of epiphyses
causes gigantism due to acceleration of bone growth.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone: The hormone controls the function of adrenal cortex

by adjusting the glucocorticoid output of the adrenal cortex.
ACTH also acts on adipose tissue and increases fatty acid concentration in the blood.
It also regulates the ACTH secretion from the hypophysis. Larger doses of ACTH would
inhibit its production from the adenohypophysis.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): The thyroid stimulating hormone controls

thyroid function by stimulating formation of thyroxine and its release from the thyroid
gland and the synthesis of thyroxine.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): It leads to growth and maturation of graffian
follicles with estrogen production in females. In males, it induces development of the
germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules

Luteinizing hormone (LH): This hormone is known as interstitial cell stimulating

hormone (ICSH). In females, it promotes formation of corpus luteum which secretes
progesterone. In the male, it stimulates the interstitial cells of the testis to produce
testosterone.

Luteotrophic hormone (LTH) or Prolactin: LTH or prolactin, also sometimes called

lactogenic hormone, is responsible for maintaining corpus luteum of pregnancy. It
promotes development of mammary glands and the formation and secretion of milk
during post-natal period. Its action in males is not known.
(ii) Intermediate Lobe
This lobe secretes a hormone which is known as intermedin or melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH). It gives skin colour. The regulation of the hormone is controlled by the
sunlight.

(iii) Posterior Pituitary

It secretes;

Oxytocin: The hormone has a stimulating effect on the musculature of the uterus
and promotes labour. Physicians sometimes use it during child birth. It also stimulates
secretion of milk from the breasts and the stimulus is obtained from the suckling of the
baby.

Vasopressin: This hormone is also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The hormone
promotes water retention in the kidneys, hence the name antidiuretic hormone.
 2. Thyroid Gland

Thyroid hormone:
Thyroid function: Thyroid hormone, mostly in the form of thyroxine and functions as
follows:
i. Promotes normal growth, skeletal maturation and mental development.
Inadequate thyroid secretion retards growth and mental development. In
tadpoles, it hastens metamorphosis. Children suffering from its deficiency have
weak musculature, stunted growth and abnormal abdomen.
ii. Thyroxine stimulates oxygen consumption of the body cells
iii. Thyroxine increases basal metabolic rate (BMR
iv. Thyroxine increases protein synthesis and helps in regulating lipid metabolism. It
stimulates cholesterol synthesis.
v. Thyroxine influences the cardiac output. Decreased amounts of the hormone
decrease the heart rate and the force of contraction. Hyperthyroidism causes
increased cardiac output which sometimes results in the cardiac failure.
vi. Thyroxine enhances the rate of glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal
tract. Hyperthyroidism causes blood sugar level to rise.
vii. Deficiency in thyroid secretion retards the normal formation of myelin sheath
and also reduces the number and size of the neurons.

3. Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid hormones: Two hormones are now believed to be produced by these

glands;
 Parathormone: In small doses, the hormone is responsible for calcification of
bones by stimulating osteoblastic activity
 Calcitonin:. This hormone lowers blood calcium. This is probably achieved by
increasing incorporation of calcium into bone.

4. The Adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are two in number, which lie just above the anterior surface of the
kidney on either side. It secretes corticol hormones;
(a) Glucocorticoids (metabolocorticoids): affects carbohydrate and protein
metabolism.
(b) Mineralocorticoids: They effect the metabolism of sodium and potassium, e.g.
aldosterone.
(c) Androgens: These are sex and anabolic hormones.

5. Adrenal Medulla and its Hormones

The medulla secretes two hormones: epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor-epinephrine
(noradrenaline).
Functions of medullary hormones:
 Both these hormones raise the blood pressure epinephrine by raising the cardiac
output and norepinephrine by increasing the peripheral resistance due to
vasoconstriction.
 Epinephrine helps in raising the systolic pressure (diastolic pressure remains
same), whereas norepinephrine raises both the systolic as well as diastolic
pressures without changing the cardiac output.
 Epinephrine accelerates conversion of liver glycogen into glucose, with a
consequent rise in the blood-sugar level. Muscle glycogen is broken down to
lactic acid.
 Epinephrine increases oxygen consumption and the respiratory quotient is
elevated.
 Epinephrine raises the body temperature and the basal metabolic rate.
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the central nervous system and
produce a state of excitation, alertness and awareness.
 Epinephrine inhibits the smooth muscles of the stomach, intestines, urinary
bladder and uterus, whereas it excites the smooth muscles of ureter, pyloric,
sphincter of bladder and anus.
 Epinephrine causes emotional conditions.

6. The pancreas
It secretes;
A) Insulin
o It enhances the utilization of glucose by the peripheral tissues.
o It helps convert glucose into glycogen in the liver and the skeletal
muscles.
o It inhibits the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose, thus
preventing gluconeogenesis.
o It helps the formation of fat from glucose.
Insulin secretion is principally controlled by the blood-glucose level. Hypoglycemia
(low blood-sugar level) tends to decrease insulin secretion, whereas hyperglycemia
stimulates it.

B) Glucagon
Glucagon stimulates the secretion of glucose by liver and thus maintains blood-glucose
balance. So far, no diseases are known to be caused by glucagon deficiency.

7. Gonads

- Includes ovaries and testes

- Ovaries produce estrogen which stimulate development of female sexual
 characteristics
- Testes produce testosterone causes development of male sexual
characteristics

8. Thymus gland

- Situated by the heart

- Produces hormones called thymosins that stimulate lymphocytes differentiation

9. Pineal gland

- Found in the fore brain

- Hormone melatonin in humans produced between 11 pm and 7am
- Its production is inhibited by bright light
- Affects pigmentation in lower animals e.g. frogs and other amphibians
- In humans it inhibits the release of gonadrophin by the pituitary gland and
gonadrophin releasing hormones by the hypothalamus
 EXCRETION

The major metabolic waste products are carbon dioxide, water and nitrogenous
compounds. These wastes, if retained in the body, will have harmful effects. Hence their
removal becomes necessary. Removal of these wastes from the tissues of the body to
the outside is called excretion.

Nitrogenous Wastes

In living organisms, nitrogen is never eliminated in the form of free nitrogen but results
in the formation of nitrogenous end-products. Proteins are the main nitrogen containing
compounds which are metabolized to form end-products like ammonia, urea and uric
acid.

Nitrogen excretion losses from the body are generally measured by analysis of the urine
and faeces.
1. Ammonia

Ammonia is the chief breakdown product of amino acids and is removed by oxidative
deamination process. Deamination chiefly occurs in the liver, but kidney also helps in
the process.
Ammonia is highly soluble in water and in majority of aquatic animals, it is lost by
diffusion in the surrounding water. In a number of animals ammonia does not form the
excretory waste, but helps in maintaining acid-base balance.

2. Urea
Urea is highly soluble in water and less toxic than ammonia. The human blood normally
contains 18 to 38 mg of urea per 100 ml. However, higher concentrations of urea can be
tolerated by man which, of course, indicates uremic condition.

3. Uric Acid

Uric acid is the most important nitrogenous waste in the urine of birds, reptiles, some
snails and insects.
Uric acid is less toxic and being insoluble in water, may be stored or excreted in
crystalline form. Formation of uric acid is an adaptation for the conservation of water
since its elimination requires very little water.

Patterns of Excretion
Based upon the type of nitrogenous compound excreted, animals have been classified
into several broad categories.

a) Ammonotelic animals. - Animals in which ammonia is the chief metabolic waste

e.g. crustaceans, echinoderms fresh water fishes protozoas etc
b) Ureotelic animals - These excrete most of their nitrogen in form of urea. Mostly
amphibians.

c) Uricotelic animals – excrete most of their nitrogen in form of uric acid. Mostly
terrestrial animals like lizards, snakes, insects and birds.

d) Guanotelic animals – Guanine is a predominant excretory product in some

anthropods.

Renal physiology in vertebrates

 Kidneys are the chief organs for excretion of wastes in vertebrates. Besides their
excretory function, kidneys function in a significant manner in the maintenance
of internal environment of the body
 The Nephron is the functional unit of the mammalian kidney
URINE FORMATION

Three processes contribute to the ultimate composition of urine:-

1. Glomerular filtration.
2. tubular reabsorption
3. selective secretion

a) Glomerular filtration

- After entering the kidney the renal artery divides into smaller arteries and
arterioles
- The afferent arteriole enters each glomenular capsule, then divides into a cluster
of capillaries forming the glomerulus. The blood vessel leading away from the
glomerula is the efferent arteriole. It breaks up into a second capillary network
to supply O2 and nutritional materials to the rest of the nephron.
- Blood pressure in glomerulus is higher than in other capillaries because the
diameter of the afferent arteriole is greater than that of the efferent arteriole.
- The walls of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule consists of a single layer of
flattened epithetical cells thus more permeable than those of other capillaries.
 The initial stage of urine formation is the filtration of plasma and accumulation
of the ultrafiltrate in the lumen of Bowman’s capsule.
 Glomerular filtrate contains all the constituents of the blood except for the blood
cells and proteins of high molecular weight such as Casein and serum globulins
Hydrostatic pressure of blood in the glomerulus force water from the blood into
the tubules.
 Glomerular filtrate contains some essential substance like water, glucose amino
acids, chlorides, sodium ions and other wastes like urea and uric acid.

b) Tubular reabsorption
- Certain substances which appear in normal quantities are reabsorbed completely
but appear in urine if levels exceed. Such substances are known as (threshold
substances e.g. AA, glucose.
 (i) Glucose reabsorbtion.

- Reabsorption of glucose takes place in the proximal part of the tubule by active
transport mechanisms associated with phosphorylation.
- Sometimes considerable amounts of glucose are found in urine, a condition
called glycosuria.
-
(ii) Re-absorption of Inorganic salts

- Sodium chloride and bicarbornate ions are selectively reabsorbed in the

proximal tubular portion. The re-absorption of NaCl helps in the retention of
H2O.
- Re-absorption of Sodium is aided by the adrenal cortical hormone.

(c)Tubular secretion

Tubular secretion is accomplished through active transport in nearly all

substances such as drugs. This is responsible in regulating blood concerntrations.

OTHER EXCRETORY ORGANS

Excretory role of SKIN

The skin plays an important role in excretion in mammals, using sweat glands
i)Sweat Glands
 Sweat glands are highly vascular, simple coiled, tubular glands.
 They separate a number of wastes from the blood and discharge them out in the
form of sweat.
 Sweat is mainly formed of water (99%) inorganic salts (chiefly sodium chloride),
lactic acid, some urea and CO2. Lactic acid is mainly present during heavy
exercise.

Sweat performs two functions:

1) Excretion of excess of salts and water; and
2) Evaporation of sweat causing cooling effect

ii) Sebaceous glands

Sebaceous glands are branched glands opening in hair follicles. These secrete an oily
secretion called sebum formed of lipids like waxes, sterols, a number of hydrocarbons
and fatty acids.

Excretory role of Lungs

Primary function of lungs is to expel foul air (with CO2) during expiration. It also helps in
expelling some water

Excretory role of Liver

Liver is a multipurpose largest gland in the vertebrates. It helps in excretion in the

following ways:
a) Formation of bile pigments (Urochrome) from the haemoglobin of dead RBCs.
b) Changing the excessive and harmful amino acids into urea by deamination and
detoxification by urea.
c) Excretion of cholesterol, inactivated products of steroid hormones, certain vitamins
(e.g: Vitamin C) and many toxic drugs,

Large intestine

-The epithelial cells of colon remove certain salts like calcium phosphate from the blood
and expel them out with faeces.