A Unit Lesson Plan for

High School Psychology Teachers

Don Kober, MA; Scott Reed, MEd;

Hilary Rosenthal, MEd; and
Allyson J. Weseley, EdD

Stephen L. Chew, PhD, Samford University

 RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS

National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula

CONTENT AND PERFORMANCE STANDARDS SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

CONTENT STANDARD 1:
A Four-Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology Teachers

National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula

1.1 Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology.

Define systematic procedures used to improve the validity of research findings, such

CONTENT STANDARD 2:

CONTENT STANDARD 3:

Activity 5.1: Statistical Significance

Define descriptiv

Define for

3.3 Define correlation coefficients and explain their appropriate interpretation.

3.5 Explain other statistical concepts, such as statistical significance and effect size.

PROPOSED NUMBER OF DAYS/HOURS FOR LESSON:

5*
6 5
3 4.5

II
PROCEDURAL TIMELINE 1

INTRODUCTION 3

CONTENT OUTLINE 5

ACTIVITIES 35

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 64

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 65

III
Activity 1.1: Sampling or Assignment?

Activity 1.2: A Tasty Sample(r): Teaching About Sampling

Activity 1.3: Do Cookies/Donuts Improve Memory?

Errors in Methodology

Activity 2.1: Counting Fidgets: Teaching the Complexity of

Naturalistic Observation

Activity 3.1 Pattern Recognition

Activity 4.1: Research Ethics

1
3
Psychological Science

Overview:
edge and test hypotheses using scientific research methods. Understand

surements and the formulation of testable and falsifiable explana

B. The scientific method is actually a set of multiple methods.

Using the scientific method, psychologists make systematic, precise

5
 Theories

Hypotheses

variable

Independent variables

Dependent variables
ADVANCED

3. There are two types of independent variables:

true independent variable

quasi-independent variable

Sampling

6
 gy majors, the results might not reflect the views of the general

Population

Sample

Representative sample—this kind of sample reflects the

Random sampling

Convenience sampling

Sampling or Assignment?

III. The Research Process

operationally defined.

7
 is a definition of a variable or condition
in terms of the specific operation, procedures, or observable be

institutional review board (IRB)

research, collect and analyze the data, and report the findings.

Descriptive statistics

Inferential statistics

The final step in any scientific process is making findings pub

replication

Do Cookies/Donuts Improve Memory? Errors in Methodology

IV. Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research

8
 3. Evolutionary change and influence

5. Such research benefits nonhuman animals as well

Critical Thinking Exercise

3. Identify two operational definitions of variables.

9
 Research Methods

Overview:

I. Research Methods Can Be Qualitative or Quantitative

ADVANCED

Qualitative

Quantitative

II. Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research methods

cannot

case study

The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

searchers inflate the importance of events that, in retrospect,

10
 Naturalistic observation

actors that might influence

pecially for rare events—a common practical difficulty.

Counting Fidgets: Teaching the Complexity

of Naturalistic Observation

Surveys or questionnaires

tered and are efficient for gathering large amounts of data.

11
 ADVANCED
III. Qualitative Research Methods

interviews

Narratives

focus group

12
 ADVANCED
Critical Thinking Exercises

13
 Research Methods, Continued

Overview:

I. Correlational Research Methods

Correlational methods

Correlations between two variables

ADVANCED

14
 ADVANCED
Illusory correlations

ship between two variables. Correlation coefficients are expressed

positive

negative

The closer the absolute value of the coefficient is to 1.0, the

Scatterplots

15
 x
y

relation. The figure below reflects a negative correlation be

tween two traits, disorderliness and efficiency. In this example,
as a person’s disorderliness level increases, the efficiency

Figure 1

16
 tion. The figure below reflects a positive correlation between

Figure 2

Figure 3

17
 II. Experimental Methods

Experimental methods

experiments
independent variable
dependent variable

experimental group

control group

placebo

Random assignment

True experiments

18
 ADVANCED
Quasi-experiments

lab experiments

environment) is sacrificed, and

realism is maximized but control is sacrificed.

Generalizability

reflect real-world events because some important factors

Confounds or confounding variables

are almost always the result of a research design flaw.

Ethical considerations

Participant bias

Experimenter bias
pants differently and influence their behavior according to

19
 ADVANCED
Carryover effect
one task may influence how they act in another task.

longitudinal research

cross-sectional research

Pattern Recognition
ADVANCED

III. Validity in Research

Validity means that an operational definition is a true and accurate reflec

Internal validity means that the results of a study reflect the

blind study

double blind study

20
 ADVANCED
Counterbalancing

comes first. Half of the participants would do typical prepa

ration first while the other half would do visualization first.

External validity

Relevant questions include:

21
 ADVANCED
Critical Thinking Exercises

22
Ethical Issues in Research

Overview:

I. Ethical Framework for Research With Human Participants

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct

lights of the code relating specifically to research include:

d. confidentiality

e. debriefing

APA also publishes ethical guidelines for a variety of specific

[Link]
about/publications/[Link]

Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guide-

lines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research

23
 The current APA Ethics Code is strongly influenced by the Belmont

ADVANCED

c. the confidentiality of the data they provide

authority to approve, require modifications to, or disapprove

RBs must have at least five members with varying back

grounds, in both scientific and nonscientific areas, as well as
one member who is not affiliated with institution.

II. Examples of Research With Ethical Concerns

24
 ADVANCED
III. Standards for the Humane Treatment and Care of Nonhuman
Animals in Research

tific community, to ensure the humane care and treatment of labo

Policy on
Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals Guide
for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of

Laboratory Animals in Research
nonhuman animal use, including justification of the research,

mals, experimental procedures, field research, and the use of

[Link]
ence/leadership/care/[Link]

Guidelines for the Use of Nonhuman Animals in Behavior-

al Projects in Schools (K-12)

[Link]
[Link]/science/leadership/care/[Link]

25
 Research Ethics

Critical Thinking Exercises

26
Statistics

Overview:

ference between means statistically significant?) and make generalizations

I. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics

ADVANCED
II. Frequency Distributions

27
 ADVANCED

III. Quantitative Descriptive Statistics

Note: Instruction on how to calculate statistics are not included here. If you
wish to teach students to compute statistics, it would be best to consult a
book on behavioral statistics for thorough instructions. Some resources
are given at the end of this lesson plan.

Measures of central tendency

mean

28
 median

mode

range

standard deviation is an index of variability that reflects

IV. Describing Frequency Distributions

Frequency distributions

29
 ADVANCED
positive skew

negative skew

x y

30
Figure 4

normal distribution is a specific form of a bell-shaped,

ple, 34% of data fall between the mean and the first standard

first and second standard deviation, and 2% fall between the

31
 Figure 5

V. Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics
study are statistically significant and potentially generalizable beyond the

statistically significant, he or she is concluding that the results are

probability

null hypothesis

32
 ADVANCED
alternative
hypothesis research hypothesis
experimental hypothesis

esis and say the results are not due to chance but must reflect

, a test of significance indicates the proba

This is known as finding

beginning the study, the researcher selects a level of signifi

than or equal to the preselected level of significance, the null

p
p

33
 ADVANCED
There are many tests of significance that are used f

Critical Thinking Exercise

34
Sampling or Assignment?

Allyson J. Weseley, EdD

sample

35
36
Answer Key

37
 A Tasty Sample(r): Teaching About

Randolph A. Smith, PhD

package of plain M&M’s and quantifies the sample by color. Students use

minutes to complete, depending on discussion. Students (and faculty) find

Concept
One concept that causes students some difficulty is sampling. Students

Materials Needed

Instructions

38
provide (see Activity 1.2 Appendix); scratch paper will also suffice. Note

and

Discussion

student has only one orange M&M. Indeed, you will find that the bags,

accurately approximate the population figures. When we combine the data

see those figures and the percentages for the other M&M products on the
official M&M’s website (

39
 If you wish, you can compare the fit of your sample data to the popula

occasions. Interestingly enough, two of the three samples showed signifi

p

of the class’s findings. It is always challenging for students to attempt

to communicate statistical findings in plain and easy-to-understand

40
References and Suggested Readiing
A little illustrated encyclopedia of M&M/Mars.

Why science matters: Understanding the methods of

psychological research.

The psychologist as detective: An introduction to con-

ducting research in psychology

Copyright © 2008 by the American Psychological Association. The official

Favorite activities for the teaching of psychology

No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permis-

sion from the American Psychological Association.

41
 Activity 1.2 Appendix

Frequency Distribution Data Sheet

Blue Brown Green Orange Red Yellow

f

42
Do Cookies/Donuts Improve Memory?
Errors in Methodology

R. Scott Reed, MEd

the methodology of an experiment. I start by allowing the first half of the

students who are locked out. Once the final bell rings. I open the door for

and the first group the “early” group. This frustrates them even more.

“When you’re ready, flip the paper over and write as many words as you

first group to yell out how many they got right.

43
 are done, they are told to give their papers to someone in the first group

Reasons for the Differences Between Groups

Groups should never be organized so that the first half of those who

44
Sometimes we look at AP essays from prior years that include finding
flaws in research, and I hear students say things like, “you cannot put all
the first people in a group like we did in the cookie experiment.”

45
 Word list (cookie group) Word list (no cookie group)

1. Influenced

5. Influenced

Answer Sheet

46
Counting Fidgets: Teaching the Complexity
of Naturalistic Observation

Bernard C. Beins, PhD

Ithaca College

ers to record fidgeting behavior and outlines a simple classroom technique that

operational definitions.]

Concept
Naturalistic observation can play a significant role in the study of social behav

the activity, students count the number of fidgets they observe in classmates and

numbers of fidgets. Students then decide how, as researchers, they would solve

Materials

the fidgets in each of five 1-minute segments.

Instructions
Preparation

Solicit two student volunteers to participate in an as-yet undefined task. They

47
 After choosing the two students, take them into the hallway briefly so you

Try to avoid answering questions about definitions of fidgets because that

Student Activity and Purpose for the 1-Minute Demonstration

Period

Minute Activity During the 1-Minute Purpose

Period

period for number of fidgets.

of fidgets is likely to in

fidgets.

minute in which fidgets begin

Demonstration

five 1-minute segments. During the observation time, the two observers

servers will record very different numbers of fidgets within each 1-minute

or three times as many fidgets as the other. The discrepancy between

48
observers illustrates the difficulty associated with monitoring a behavior
as simple as fidgets. Trying to document more complicated psychological
phenomena is enormously more difficult.

Discussion
Students are often not aware of the difficulties associated with naturalistic

specifically and with observation techniques broadly; if the students do

operational definition. Observations would be more reliable with a set

definition.

Even though an operational definition would help, such a construct

leads to missing some fidgets, whereas some movements that intui
tively do not seem like fidgets would be recorded simply because of
the definition used.

ample, some students log a fidget with every occurrence, taking their

not know the purpose. As a result, they may try to figure out the pur

49
 difficulties inherent in this approach.

Writing Component

lems, but the class discussion extends the listing greatly. As a final writing

Suggested Reading
The practice of social research

Research in psychology: Methods and design.

Research methods in social relations

Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. The official

Beins, B. C. (1999). Counting fidgets: Teaching the complexity of naturalistic observation.

Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology

No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permis-

sion from the American Psychological Association.

50
Activity 2.1 Appendix

Directions to Student Volunteers

I would like you to record the number of fidgets that the students in the

1-minute segments and keep a count of the number of fidgets in each

segment. Keep a written record of the number of fidgets in each segment.

when I say “begin,” start recording the number of fidgets. For the first

continue into the fifth minute.

cord the fidgets separately for each minute.

51
 Pattern Recognition

Jane Halonen, PhD, and Cynthia Gray, PhD

One of the first decisions that psychology researchers must make is how
Correlational methods

among the factors that influence behavior. Correlational methods can be

employed in case studies, surveys, and field work.

experimental methods

specific factor, the experimenter determines the impact of that factor. This

The Problem of Child Abuse

52
systematically. The first week, Charlie exercises vigorously. The second

The Curious Teacher

methods might make the biggest impact on her students. For the first

53
 The Lucky Pen

The Best Neighborhood

The local newspaper publishes the results of a finding that pro
duce a significant impact on the real estate market. Their re

54
Copycat Crime

ished, city officials are dismayed to discover that similar acts of violence

tion. Once he identifies the complaint, the physician slips out of the room

55
 After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

Explain why correlational studies cannot confirm cause-effect

Distinguish between scientific and nonscientific explanations

The Critical Thinking Companion for Introductory Psychology

Answer Key
The Problem of Child Abuse: Correlational

combining many individual case studies and trying to define their common

difficult to do experimental research

child at risk for physical abuse or merely not exercise sufficient protection

Experimental

56
The Curious Teacher: Experimental

final exam to be easier than the midterm. Experimenter effects of this kind

The Lucky Pen: Neither Experimental nor Correlational

this nature because our brains are geared to find patterns even where

The Best Neighborhood: Correlational

This is the risk with correlational approaches: We cannot be confident in

57
 Copycat Crime: Correlational

It may be tempting to conclude that watching a violent film can induce vio
lent behavior, but we do not have sufficient controlled

who see the violent example in the film would be more likely to commit
violent act than teens who had not seen the film. Obviously, we

fect relationship suggested by this finding

Experimental

Answer Key Copyright Notice: The Critical Thinking Companion

for Introductory Psychology,

58
Research Ethics

Allyson J. Weseley, EdD

acceptable. IRBs generally engage in a kind of cost–benefit analysis.

should be a debriefing.

2. Anonymity/confidentiality

The source of the data should be anonymous or kept confidential to

59
 Instructions

Proposal One

with nonsexual topics. After watching the TV shows, all participants will fill

Questions:

What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the

Proposal Two

60
Questions:

What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the

Proposal Three

Questions:

What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the

61
 ADVANCED
Allyson J. Weseley, EdD

statistically significant difference. A statistically significant difference is un

between groups will be statistically significant:

After introducing students to the idea that a statistically significant differ

Example

For the first part of her data collection, Melissa selects two boys and
two girls to study. She finds that the girls raise their hands an average

be statistically significant? Why or why not?

62
 ADVANCED
finds that girls raise their hands an average of 3.1 times per week and

significant? Why or why not?

50 girls. This time, she finds that girls raise their hands an average of

boys’ participation to be statistically significant?

Discussion Questions
Why does the small sample size in the first example increase the

As a researcher, which of the three factors that influence statistical

significance can you most directly influence?

63
 Empirical research using the scientific method is a key difference
between pop psychology and scientific psychology.

64
REFERENCES
Ethical principles of psychologists and
code of conduct. [Link]

National standards for high school

psychology curricula. [Link]
[Link]

Research with animals in psychology.

[Link]

General audience books about statistics, research, and quantitative literacy for
background information and examples

Damned lies and statistics: Untangling numbers from the media,

politicians, and activists

adventures in probability

How to lie with statistics.

Books about behavioral statistics and research methods for more in-depth
discussions of statistical concepts and computation as well as research
methods and design

that can provide sufficient technical information and examples. Here are two:

Introduction to statistics and research methods:

Becoming a psychological detective

The psychologist as detective: An introduction to

conducting research in psychology

65
 ONLINE RESOURCES

Conducting Psy-

Manual

66
68