IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT)

e-ISSN: 2319-2402,p- ISSN: [Link] 15, Issue 7 Ser. II (July 2021), PP 40-53
[Link]

Applications and Effective Production of Bioplastics From Food

Waste
Syed Salma and Priya R Iyer
PG & Research Department of Biotechnology,
Women`s Christian College, Chennai-600006.
(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to the University of Madras)

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Date of Submission: 10-07-2021 Date of Acceptance: 26-07-2021
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I. Introduction
Plastic pollution, regarded a major environmental issue demands great attention as it leads to other
hazardous pollutions due to its long term of degradation process of plastics and release of toxic substances into
the environment during the degradation process. The International union for conservation of nature (IUCN) has
estimated that around 300 million tons of plastic waste is produced in a year which is disposed into the
environment (1).Plastics have favourable properties like high tensile strength, malleability and economically
cheap, hence are widely used for various applications in manufacturing of majority of products from household
products to industrial products. But these are not eco-friendly having high carbon footprint (Samer et al., 2019).
Due to surplus use of plastics, it gets accumulated in the environment. It has been reported that most of plastic
waste that is produced is from the use of the food packaging products and single use plastics. Zalasiewicz et al.,
2016 in their study have reported various methods for the removal of the plastics waste such as deep burial,
recycling and burning(Dhawan et al., 2019), but when continuously buried for a long duration of time
degradation leads to adverse effects on the living organisms and wildlife of that region, and also greatly affects
the aesthetic value. Similarly, Alabi et al., 2019 in their study have anticipated that deleterious pollutants such as
the persistent organic compounds are released into the environment due to the burning of the plastics. Besides,
some literature has focused on finding innovative technology to remediate the pollutants and high organic
compounds containing wastewater. These recycling process also demands high costs and energy values (Chen et
al., 2019).

1.1 BIOPLASTICS
According to the European Bioplastics organization, bioplastics can be defined as plastics obtained
from renewable resources (bio-based) that are rich in the contents of the carbohydrates, proteins and lignin or as
plastics which are biodegradable and/or compostable. (Molenveld, 2010).
Bioplastics are alternative for the plastics derived from the conventional source of petroleumthat
increase hazards of the plastic [Link] biodegradability depends on various factors such as plant biomass
used, and certain environmental conditions(Rajendran et al., 2012). They contribute to sustainability as conserve
fossil fuel resources, and support plant growth if disposed of properly(2).
The advantages of bioplastics arereduces carbon dioxide production and amount of waste sent to
landfillsdecreasing associated environmental problems (Barnett, 2011). It can be mass-produced into the
marketable products(Boonniteewanich et al., 2014).

1.2 RAW MATERIAL FOR BIOPLASTICS PRODUCTION

Food waste generated totals around 1.3 billion tonnes per year globally(Gustavsson et al.,
2011).Presently, these wastes are disposed of in the environment, causing pollution issues. This waste can be
utilised in the production of bioplastics in the large commercial and industrial scale(Amini et al., 2020).
The agro-industrial wasteavailable in large amounts includes citrus skin and pulp (orange, grapefruit,
mandarin/tangerine, lemon, lime), seed waste (mango, grape, pumpkin), skin (potato and banana), peanut husk,
jackfruit, coffee, sugar bagasse,and straw. These wastes possess high contents of organic matter - protein, and
carbohydrates suitable for bioplastics production(Calabrò& Grosso, 2018).
Apart from the food and agro wastes, many of the microorganisms play a vital role in the increased
production of the bioplastics which are Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Aeromonashydrophila,
Rhodopseudomonaspalustris, Burkholderiasacchari, and Halomonasboliviensis.

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
The purpose of this review study is focused on the utilization of inexpensive sources of raw materials and use of
various microorganisms by innovative production methods for the production of bioplastics.

II. Types Of Bioplastics

The biodegradable polymer are placed under two categories:
(i) The agro based polymers (polysaccharides, proteins).
(ii) The bio polyesters (biodegradable polyesters) that includes the poly lactic acid (PLA),
Polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHA),Polyhydroxylbutyrate(PHB) and Polyglycolic acid (PGA) .

2.1CELLULOSE
Cellulose-based bioplastics are produced from wood pulp and crops such as potatoes or maize (Reddy
et al., 2013)are employed to make film-based products such as wrappers. Pure starchabsorbs humidity, so
plasticizers like sorbitol and glycerine are added for more flexibility and widely used for the production of drug
capsules in the pharmaceutical industry.

FIGURE 1: TYPES OF THE BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

2.2POLYLACTIC ACID
Polylactide (PLA), transparent plastic having similar properties like polyethylene and polypropylene, produced
from the fermentation of starch from crops like starch or sugarcane, into lactic acid then polymerized. Its blends
are used in computer and mobile phone casings, foil, biodegradable medical implants, moulds, tins, cups, bottles
and other packaging material (Goldstein & Block, 2000).

2.3POLYHYDROXYALKANOATE (PHA)
PHA,biodegradable thermoplastic polymers, produced by a wide range of microorganisms through
conversion of natural sugars and oils in fermentation methods. Accumulated PHA is extracted the from
microorganisms which is harvested by using solvents such as chloroform, methylene chloride or propylene
chloride (Cyras et al., 2009). It is processed into a number of materials including molded goods, fibre and film
with water resistant coatings(Ratto et al., 1999). They possess good chemical and physical properties(Singh,
2011).

2.4 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE (PHB)

PHB is a transparent film similar to polypropylene, in which more research to expand production
capacity is done by the South American sugar industryon an industrial scale (Innocenti, 2003).
In biodegradable packaging (Peelman et al., 2013), it is used to encapsulate bioactive compounds such as
antioxidants, vitamins, proteins, and lipids (De Morais et al., 2016). In the medical field, PHB used in micro and
nano encapsulation of drugs and bio-compounds withimproved absorption properties to protect compounds from
interacting with the external [Link] biocompatibility of PHB with cells and tissues arises from its
monomer, D-3-hydroxybutyrate, which is a natural constituent of human blood(Bucci et al., 2007)(Lins et al.,
2016).

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
2.5POLYGLYCOLIC ACID (PGA)
PGA,biodegradable aliphatic polyester synthesized from glycolide by ring-opening polymerization has
similar biodegradation profile to cellulose (Hill, 2005; Yamane et al., 2014). The molar mass of the PGA
polymer is determined by time, temperature, concentration of the catalyst and chain transfer agents (Hill, 2005).
PGA-based materials are resistant to most of the organic solvents, but sensitive to hydrolysis (Song et al., 2011).
Currently PGA is used in medical applications and food packaging (Yamane et al., 2014). It isused to form
copolymers, such as poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) due to its intrinsic characteristics such as high
hydrophobicity, rapid degradation, insolubility in most organic solvents and brittleness (Paresh Kumar
Samantaray et al., 2020).

III. Sources For Production

Bio plastic production methods can be divided into four main groups based on raw material origin:
1) Extracted directly from biomass;
2) Produced by natural or genetically modified organisms;
3) Synthesized from bio-based monomers; (Thakur et al., 2018)(Song et al., 2011).
Synthetic biology, an interdisciplinary research field which is a unique combination of life science and
engineering provides new approaches to redesign biosynthesis pathways for the synergistic actions of biomass
conversion leading to cheap and effective processes for conversion of biomass into useful products such as
biopolymers (Pei et al., 2011).

3.1WATER HYACINTH
Water hyacinth arecommon aquatic weeds thatblooms rapidly in all water bodies and abundantly
increases in the lakes, dams and irrigation channels. It causes blockage of waterways, but are rich source of
carbohydrate and can be used to make biodegradable plastic. Water hyacinth derived sugar molecules like
lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses can be successfully converted into poly hydroxyl butyrate (PHB), a polymer
that is a raw material for making biodegradable plastic(Reddy et al., 2013).
The hydro lysate of water hyacinth with a minimal nutrient media used for production of PHA by
different bacterial species like Pseudomonas aeruginosaand Cupravidusnecator. Extraction of PHA from the
fermentation media yielded 65.51% of PHA after 72 hours of incubation(Radhika & Murugesan, 2012).

(FIGURE 2: PREPARATION OF BIOPLASTICS FROM WATER HYACINTH)

([Link]

3.2FISH WASTE
Protein based bioplastics can be produced using different fish waste(for example sardine and mackerel)
in combination with different plasticizers like polyethylene glycol, triethylene glycol and glycerol (Bechtel et
al., 2017).
Fish waste (sardine by product (SBP), mackerel fillet powder (MFP) and mackerel by product powder
(MBP) was processed into protein powders which was transformed into bioplastics by using extrusion and
compression moulding method.
The use of various plasticizers lowers the temperature of thermal decomposition and improves the
elongation at break qualities. Glycerol, due to low molecular weight, high water solubility, and wide protein
miscibility was used that increased the mechanical qualities of the material. The results obtainedusing thermo
gravimetric analysis (TGA) and mechanical testingshowed that plasticizer types and concentration improved the
film properties and their suitability for agriculture applications(Alias &Ishak, 2020).
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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
3.3DATE WASTE
Date waste is used for production of the (Poly 3-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate)PHBV bya
halophilicarchaeonHaloferaxmediterranei.a promising candidatesfor the economical large scale production of
PHA(Alsafadi et al., 2020; Koller, 2019)
H. mediterranei feeds on date fruit waste as a sole carbon sources and accumulates PHBV with high 3-
hydroxyvalerate (18%). Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry(IRMS) is used to investigate biopolymer origin and
biosynthesis mechanisms. H. mediterraneiprefers lighter bonds to break and lighter atoms for biosynthesis(Yue
et al., 2014).
3.4 MANGO SEED
The peel and seedof mango generated as waste materials yields approximately 15.7 million tonnes of mango
waste per annum. The kernel obtained after decortication of the mango seed contains high quantities of
carbohydrates fat, and fibre is used in the production of polysaccharide based biopolymer films using the starch
(carbohydrate) from mango seed waste.(S. A. Sanchez-Vazquez et al.)
3.5TEA LEAVES WASTE
Hydrophobicbio plastic films from tea waste were produced by a green, waste free method whereonly the spent
tea leaves, an industrial by- product of tea brewing industry were used along with citric acid and water all of
which are sustainable. Tea leaves are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, polyphenols, proteins,
carbohydrates, and caffeine (Hussain et al., 2018).
This technique is non-toxic, generates zero waste, and requires mild conditions and short processing times. The
resultant bioplastics were chemically characterized by (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) XPS and HPLC-MS,
mechanically characterized by uniaxial tensile tests,scanning electron microscope (SEM), and confocal
microscopy. Unreacted citric acid acts as a hygroscopic plasticizer exhibited an ultimate tensile strength. The tea
waste bioplastics established strong hydrophobic character quantifying the surface roughness of the films. These
bioplastics are biodegradable and sustainable, that occupies a great place in the sustainable packaging methods
(M. Liu et al., 2020).
3.6 SEWAGE SLUDGE
Large quantities of sewage sludge produced from the waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) is one of the most
critical issues. Recent studies describe primary sludge and Waste activated sludge as carbon sources which are
low-cost substrates for PHAs production can be readily converted into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) during an
acidogenic fermentation, which can be achieved by inhibiting the methanogenic step during the anaerobic
digestion process. (Morgan-Sagastume et al., 2016)(Kleerebezem et al., 2015).
Waste activated sludge has many bacteria that accumulate PHAs. Certainly, PHAs content in Waste activated
sludge has been reported to range from 0.3 to 22.7 mg PHAs/g WAS(Frison et al., 2015; Raheem et al., 2018;
Tyagi & Lo, 2013).
3.7 LEPIDIUM PERFOLIATUM SEED GUM
Bioplastics were produced using the gum extracted from Lepidiumperfoliatum seeds (LPSG), gum is extracted
from the water slurry of seeds (Hernandez-Izquierdo & Krochta, 2008; Seyedi et al., 2014).
The authors believe that preparation of LPSG films without plasticizer addition is impossible. Glycerol had an
essential role in making flexible films and influences physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of
LPSG films. Increased glycerol concentration improved the mechanical and thermal properties. Therefore,
blends of LPSG and glycerol were prepared mixing LPSG (0.6%, w/v) and glycerol (40%, 50%, 60% and 70%,
w/w) had great impact of for packaging a wider variety of food products (Koocheki et al., 2013).
3.8 ORANGE PEEL
Bioplastics in food packaging should be regarded GRAS (generally recognised as safe) by the (Food and Drug
Administration) FDA(Perotto et al., 2018). Orange peel powder, corn starch, modified potato starch, glycerol
and distilled water with hydrochloric acid 1N and 10% NaOH were mixed and reduced the pH of the mixture to
induce polymer formation(Ángel Siles López et al., 2010). Once formed, the pH of the polymer was returned to
a neutral pH of 7.0 so that the acid pH would not interfere with the food while being in contact with the bio
plastic container.
Hauenstein et al. (2016) produced a high tensile thermoplastic polymer from limonene, a compound found in
orange peels that is flexible and degrades in 90 days. In comparison to this, vegetable starch based bio plastic is
transparent and less flexible(Wikandari et al., 2015). This study provides basis for future research using similar
food waste and agro waste.
3.9 JACKFRUIT SEED
In the study conducted by Rajakumari et al., raw materials used include jackfruit seeds powder, glycerol, and
gelatin, for starch based bio plastic preparation. Indian jackfruit seeds collected from local market was prepared
into a jackfruit seed powder and starch was extracted towhich (0.5N) HCL and 1000ml of plasticizer (500ml of
glycerol and 500ml of castor oil) was added to prepare the biofilm.

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
Tensile strength test, Acid and Alkalinity test showed the strength and solubility of the test sample. Flame test
result confirms the biodegradability of test sample. This study was concluded reporting that the synthesis of
starch based bio plasticfrom jackfruit seed powder exhibits good mechanical properties and oxygen barriers.

3.10. PINEAPPLE WASTE

Pineapple (Ananascomosus), an abundant tropical plant generates lignocellulosic fibres. Pineapple leaf
fibres (PALFs),a by-product of pineapple farming can be obtained at a low cost (Faruk et al. 2012). Kim et al.
(2012) created pineapple flour/PLA biocomposites and pineapple leaf fiber bio-composites showed variability.
It was found that 30 wt. % of flour yielded the best overall mechanical properties. Furthermore, (glass transition
temperature)Tg increased with the addition of flour, while Tm was divided into two peaks, likely due to the
quick decrease in molecular weight and rearrangement of polymer chains (W. Liu et al., 2005).

FIGURE 3: Pineapple and jackfruit waste utilization for bioplastic(Asim et al.,

2015)([Link]
IV. Bioplastics From Microorganisms
Biosynthetic pathways has allowed in the construction of the recombinant organisms such as the
microbes, yeasts, and other plants for the large scale production of the bioplastics using bio wastes (Tsang et al.,
2019).Many limitations are faced such as first, the special growth conditions required for the production of
these compounds (usually unbalanced nutrient conditions that cause slow growth); second, the difficulty
involved in synthesising them from inexpensive precursors; and third, the high cost of their recovery (Jose´ M
Luengo et al.,2012).
The production of PHAs from bacterial culture is more economical than production from other living
organisms, especially plants, due to their higher accumulation capacity (Verlinden et al., 2007).
Cupriavidusnecator, R. eutropha, or A. eutropha are the commonly studied bacterial species for the biosynthesis
and generation of PHAs (Vandamme et al, 2004; Vaneechoutte et al., 2004). Recently, production of
economical PHAs using C. necator in fermentation process or PHA synthase genes of [Link], Bacillus sp.,
Pseudomonas sp., Aeromonashydrophila, Rhodopseudomonaspalustris, Burkholderiasacchari, and
Halomonasboliviensishas been reported.
Commercial production of PHB through waste paper, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw by efficient
microbial strain Burkholderiasacchari(Saratale et al, 2015 ) utilizes the sugars found in lignocellulosehydro
lysate mainly glucose and xyloseand accumulates PHB in high amounts (Silva et al., 2004; Lopes et al., 2011).
Among the species of the Pseudomonas genus, several of them have the ability to accumulate PHAs
.An interesting work about a new secretion mechanism of PHAs in Alcanivoraxborkumensis gives us
information that PHAs could be deposited in the extracellular environment (de Smet et al., 1983;Ganapathy et
al., 2018).
Different methods used for extracting PHAs from the CyanobacteriumSpirulina sp. LEB-18 show
different efficiencies. The use of sodium hypochlorite in the initial extraction stage increases polymer
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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
accumulation, while the use of methanol at the end process yield high purity PHAs. The extraction methods
influencesthe molecular mass, degree of crystalinity, and monomeric composition of PHAs. The PHAs extracted
from the Spirulinasp. were composed largely of the 11-hydroxyhexadecanoate monomers and hydroxyl
tetradecanoate, which is a scientific novelty because these building blocks are constituents of completely new
polymers.

4.1 BIO PLASTIC PRODUCTION BY NATURAL OR GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS.

Viral, bacterial, plasmid or genetically modified organisms are used for production of bioplastics using
food waste or other type of organic wastes, pre-treatment procedures must be applied to enhance or modify
biological, chemical or physical properties (Morone et al., 2019; Nayak and Bhushan, 2019; Tsang et al., 2019).
The purpose of the pre-treatment process is to reduce the substrates size and to remove inert materials that are
not suitable for processing (Strazzera et al., 2018; Tsang et al., 2019). Some of the functional parameters like
pH, temperature and hydraulic retention time must be determined specifically to maximize the outcome
(Strazzera et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2020).
It is important to highlight the use of genetically recombinant strains that produce PHAs where the
structural genes of three key enzymes for PHA biosynthesis in R. eutrophaand A. eutrophus have been cloned,
sequenced, and expressed in E. coli to normally produce PHAs.

4.2USING COPOLYMERS AND BIOCOMPOSITES

Bioplastics made from copolymers and biocomposites have improved material properties such as
biodegradability, mechanical properties and cost effectiveness. Common copolymer blends are food gelatin and
potato starch(low cost and available on large scale) with plasticizers such as glycerol and sorbitol (Podshivalov
et al., 2017). The final material is similar to conventional plastics such as polyvinylchloride (Podshivalov et al.,
2017). If the material is produced from food grade raw materials, the final material may also be edible.

4.3ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS OF THE BIOPLASTICS

Although enzymatic synthesis of bioplastics in the laboratory is economically inadvisable,but
knowledge of biosynthetic enzymes and energetic requirements facilitates scaling-up for production of new or
modified bioplastics in bioreactors.
Microbial transglutaminase, a microbial enzyme used to prepare bioplasticsreplaces the high polluting
plastics of petrochemical origin which strengthens the matrix of protein-based bioplastics(Giosafatto et al.,
2020).PHA synthase (PhaC) enzyme has a vital role in the polymerization of the PHA which is obtained from
the Cupriavidusnecator and Chromobacterium sp.(Chek et al., 2019).

V. Methods Of Production Of Bioplastics

A huge variety of bioreactor systems and cultivation systems are used to produce bio polymers of
different molecular architecture by different microbes. Different combinations of production strains and
substrates require different fermentation equipment, bioreactor facilities and feeding regimes. The cultivation
system and process design have to be adapted according to the physiological and kinetic particularities of the
biological system in order to optimize PHA productivity and product quality (Koller, 2018).

5.1 SOLID STATE FERMENTATION FOR PHA PRODUCTION

The fermentation processes preferred for the PHA production is carried out in aqueous phase(Sindhu et
al., 2015). Solid state fermentation describes the cultivation of microbes on wet solid particles in substrate beds
with a low amount of free water present between the solid particles, allows use of inexpensive cultivation media.
This strategy provides an alternative both for waste disposal and for generation of value-added compounds
under reduced costs without downstream processing steps (Oliveira et al., 2004). PHA-containing fermented
solids could directly be used for manufacturing of easily biodegradable composite materials. The benefits of
SSF over submersed fermentation are higher substrate concentration resulting in smaller reactor volumes, or the
easier feasibility of strong ventilation through the spaces between the solid particles (Castilho et al., 2009). A
Gram-positive strain, Bacillus sphaericusfor PHB production on Jack fruit seed hydrolysatecarried out the
process using physical inert solid poly(urethane) foam (PUF) in SSF process(Ramadas et al., 2009).

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste

FIGURE4: A PHA rich microbial cell in a schematic bioreactor and the general chemical structure of the
PHA (Koller, 2019)&Microorganism Filled With Polymer Material ([Link]).

5.2 BATCH SYSTEMS

Batch cultivations for PHA production is simple in operation, but has low [Link]
yields and productivityusing mixed microbial consortia(MMC) processes with either defined substrates like
acetate, or inexpensive complex compounds from wastewater , olive oil mill effluents , sugar cane molasses and
crude glycerol phase (CGP),These complex substrates can either be used directly for PHA production, or have
to be fermented in a anaerobic step towards volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Furthermore, continuous feeding
strategies enable PHA production with the additional effects of a more stable process and altered copolymer
composition(Rhu et al., 2003;Y. Zhang et al., 2018)..

5.2 FED BATCH FERMENTATION

High productivity of PHA is obtained by fed-batch or continuous fermentation wherebacteria such as
Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Aeromonashydrophila, Rhodopseudomonaspalustris, Burkholderiasacchari, and
Halomonasboliviensis, are employed in two step process where in one step no nutrient limitation. When nutrient
limitationoccurs, the cell mass increases because of the intracellular accumulation of PHA (Villano et al., 2014).
Other bacteria like - [Link], Hydrogenomonaseutropha, A. eutrophus, and
Wautersiaeutropha,produce high yield of PHAs since the cell growth and PHAaccumulation need to be
balanced to avoid incomplete accumulation of PHA or premature termination of fermentation at low cell
concentration (Dionisi et al., 2004).
The disadvantage in intracellular accumulation of biopolymers is the cytoplasm capacity and
downstream processing for PHAs recovery from biomass. Whereas, the extracellular PHAs production is not
limited by the cell space and does not require cell breakage procedures making this process less complex.

5.3 CONTINUOUS FED-BATCH SYSTEMS

Continuous fed-batch for PHA production was reported by Du and Yu, used 1.6 L airlift-type bubble
column bioreactor without mechanical stirring, where food waste was digested by an MMC, yielding a cocktail
of organic acids, predominately acetate, propionate, butyrate and lactate(García-Pérez et al., 2018). The acidic
sludge was recycled by a peristaltic pump through a tubular membrane module immersed in the fermentation
broth of the aerobically operated bubble column airlift reactor and enabled permeation of low molecular mass
compounds into the culture broth in the bubble column, but retained biomass(Alias & Ishak, 2020). Gaseous
carbon sources, CH4 (methanotroph production strains) and CO2 (autotrophs like cyanobacteria) are limited by
the solubility of CH4 or CO2, which decreases production costs; this solubility of substrates and substrate
availability for the cells are strongly influenced by parameters like temperature, pH-value, size of gas bubbles
(Valentino et al., 2015).

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
FIGURE 5: CONTINUOUS CULTURE (El-malek et al., 2020)

A long-term process for PHA production based on CH 4 was described by a Methylocystis-dominated

enrichment culture strain Methylocystis sp. WRRC1 was isolated capable of producing PHB from CH4and
PHBHV when co-supplied with CH4 and the 3HV precursorsvalerate or n-pentanol. This organism can
efficiently be cultivated in gas-recycling bubble column bioreactors(Chen et al., 2015).

VI. Additives Used In The Bioplastics

According to the IUPAC, a plasticizers is a substancethat is incorporated into another
materialtoimprove the physical properties of the biopolymer-the flexibility, workability, or distensibility and
reduce the tension of deformation, hardness, density, viscosity and electrostatic charge of a polymer(Natarajan,
2015). Commonly used plasticizer are polyols such as glycerol, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene
glycol and tetraethylene glycol which are effective in plasticized hydrophilic polymers (Peña et al., 2014).
Glycerol (GLY),highly hygroscopic molecule is incorporated hydrocolloid films to prevent film brittleness
(Kristo & Biliaderis, 2006)(Vieira et al., 2011).
There are two major types of plasticizers such as the:
 Agents that interrupt polymer–polymer interactions and maintain a farther distance between polymer
chains.
 Agents involved in the absorption of more water molecules, thus resulting in high moisture content and
greater hydrodynamics radius.

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICIZERS

The type of the plasticizer used affects the film formation from the polymeric aqueous dispersions (Lindström &
Hakkarainen, 2006). Plasticizers are classified into following types:

TABLE 1 : Types of Plasticizers

When plasticizers are used above critical concentration can cause disadvantages like increase in gas,
solute and water vapour permeability and the decrease in cohesion affects mainly mechanical properties(Yang &
Paulson, 2000).The characteristics of films, depend therefore on an equilibrium between the degree of cross
linking of the polymer matrix and the addition of plasticizers for better workability (Silva et al., 2009)

VII. Applications Of Bioplastics

Biopolymers have been utilized in many applications from food industry to medical application
whichpossessproperties of the conventional polymers such as the polyethylene (PE) , polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET)(Kirwan et al., 2011).
The basic steps involved in the processing of any biopolymer by melting of the biopolymer mix followed by
casting, extrusion and blow molding. (Mangaraj et al., 2019)

METHOD PROCESS REFERENCE

Extrusion biopolymers made up of aliphatic esters are processed at low melting point. It (Malathi et al., 2016)

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
includes two methods: single screw extrusion and twin screw extrusion. Single
screw extrusion is most preferred method due to low cost of production and
simple operation
Film blowing The typical film thickness obtained by this method is 0.007-0.125mm have (Avérous & Pollet, 2012)
toughness and resilience. The prepared film when cooled down has better
orientation of the molecular structure
Casting film is usually prepared by drawing molten resin onto rollers for cooling that (van Tuil et al., 2000)
have lower mechanical properties due to the less orientation of the molecular
structure and fast cooling of the film. One advantage of high melting temperature
gives better optical properties. Films made from this method are soft and easy to
stretch
TABLE 2: Steps In Processing Of Bioplastics

7.1 BIOPLASTICS IN FOOD PACKAGING

In food industry, modified atmospheric (MA) food packaging or active packaging is an emerging technique
involves the incorporation of antimicrobials in packaging films to suppress the growth of board spectrum of
microbes that cause the spoilage of the food. It is a simple and economical method used for following reasons:
 Increasing the safety of food by inhibiting the pathogen
 Preservation of the flavour and odour
 Extension of the shelf life (Daeschel, 1989)

7.2 ANTIMICROBIAL COMPOUNDS IN SMART PACKAGING

Different antimicrobial compounds like plant based compounds include cinnamon, clove, thyme, rosemary,
oregano,pepper, cinnamon, coffee and other plants extracts like onion, garlic have better effects on the
[Link], natamycin,chitosan, and pediocin derived from bacterial and fungal origin. When infused on the
biopolymer forms edible films.
Non – edible films where nano silver based chitosan biofilms and Ag-Ion incorporated Nano composites films
enhance food quality and safety by inhibiting contaminant microorganisms. The types of the active packaging:
 Antimicrobial agents/coatings incorporated into sachets/pads
 Polymers having volatile or non-volatile antimicrobial agents
 Ionic or covalent linkages of antimicrobials and polymer by immobilization technique (Jabeen et al.,
2015)

7.4 EFFECTIVENESS OF ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING

 Essential oils and Enzymes
Essential oils include linalool, thymol, carvacol, clove oil, cinnamaldehyde and basil essential oils have high
potential to inhibit a board spectrum of microorgansms. The extract of grape seed incorporated in the soya
isolate films inhibiting the bacterial species Listeria monocytogenes(Marsh & Bugusu, 2007).
Lysozyme enzyme when incorporated into packaging materials repel larger pests and insect larvae. When
incorporated with lactoferrinimproves effectiveness of the lysozyme enzyme.
 With chitosan
Chitosan coated polymers inhibit the Penicilliumexpansum species compared with the Rhizopusstolonifer.
Chitosan blended with lemongrass essential oilscontrols the anthracnose disease of the bell pepper(Bourbon et
al., 2011).
7.5 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF BIOPLASTICS
Bioplastics like the PLA, polylacticcoglycolic acid (PLGA) and their co polymers are utilized in the biomedical
application which are biocompatibleand suitable for stable long term treatment.

TYPE OF APPLICATION REFERENCES

BIOPOLYMER
Polylactic acid (PLA)  Tissue engineering- PLA is considered as one of the most bio (Bostman et al., 1989;
dissolvable polymer in the human body(Bano & Pandey, 2018) Haers et al., 1998; W.
PLA composites showed no toxicity in murine osteoblast (Radhika & Murugesan, Zhang et al., 2008)
2012)

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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
 Wound management – successful trials were carried out in wound
management using PLA by creating surgical sutures, in dental wound healing
process and postoperative adhesions.

 Drug delivery system- PLA shows better properties of (Dalton et al., 2009;
encapsulation,biocompatibility and less toxicity. Freiberg & Zhu, 2004)
 Polymeric drug - three forms- erosion, diffusion, and swelling.
 Orthopaedic devices- PLA based suture anchors, screws and pins used in
bone fracture treatment show better tensile strength and bio compatibility in the
human body.
Polylactic glycolic  Porous PLGA scaffoldsand blends like PLGA/HA showed intensified (Baji et al., 2010; Mouthuy
acid(PLGA) mechanical properties et al., 2010; Zhou et al.,
 Fibrous scaffolds- hollow fibres have good potential in bone tissue 2004)
formation.
 Hydrogels- another type of the scaffolds like the fibrin , where
hyaluronic acid can be blended with PLGA plasticizers
 Injectable microspheres used in the homogenous dispersion.
 Dentistry
Polycaprolactone  PCL blends used for controlled drug delivery being biocompatible gets (Ehrahimian-Hosseinabadi
(PCL) excreted out of the [Link] have high permeability hence mixing with polymers et al., 2011; Goldstein
improves stress &Block, 2000; Merkli et
 Tissue engineering- PCL possess low melting &superior rheological al., 1998)
used in the scaffold preparation have been utilized for cardiovascular purposes.
TABLE 3 :Novel Medical Applications Of Bioplastics

 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF THE BIOPOLYMERS

Life cycle assessment is an important standard to evaluate the sustainability and the performance of the
material with the environmental impacts (Seydim & Sarikus, 2006). LCA can be evaluated by gathering
information on some of important criteria such as the material extraction, manufacturing, waste production,
packaging, transportation, product use and product disposal(La Rosa, 2016).

FIGURE 6: OVERVIEW ON THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE BIOPLASTICS

([Link]

VIII. Conclusion:
This review bring outs the potential of bioplastics produced for management agro waste and food waste
majorly utilized in agricultural, medical field and food industry for the packaging purpose. Innovative strategies
applied to enhance the properties of the biopolymers such as the smart packaging and modified atmospheric
packaging involves incorporation of the antimicrobial substances of both natural and synthetic sources which
preserve the quality and freshness of the food increasing the shelf life of the food by protecting it from
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 Applications And Effective Production Of Bioplastics From Food Waste
contamination by inhibiting the growth of the [Link] this, utilized in wide range of biomedical
fields for the tissue engineering purpose in the preparation of the scaffolds where the biocompatibility and
biodegradability of the material is the biggest concern.
Different agricultural waste, food waste and waste water treatment plant sludge are used as the
renewable sources. Various fermentation methods and number of microorganism species like the bacterial
species and algal species for efficient production of the bioplastics films such as the PLA, PHA and PHB which
also pave way towards sustainability reducing production cost were reviewed and it is clear that continuous
fermentation is most efficient.

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