SmartSkills Sanskriti School

SMART SKILLS

2021 - 2022

CHEMISTRY

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INDEX

[Link]. CONTENTS page no

1. Syllabus cbse (Theory and practical, suggestive project) 4-15

2. Question paper design 16-18

Assignments :

3. Unit I Solid State 19-22

4. Unit II Solutions 23-28

5. Unit III Electrochemistry 29-33

6. Unit IV Chemical Kinetics 34-39

7. Unit V Surface Chemistry 40-56

8. Unit VI General Principles and processes of Isolation of Elements 57-68

9. Unit VII p -Block Elements 69—104

10. Unit VIII d -and f -Block Elements 105-126

11. Unit IX Coordination Compounds 127-132

12. Unit X Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 133-141

13. Unit XI Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 142-147

14. Unit XII Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 148-154

15. Unit XIII Organic Compounds containing Nitrogen 155-160

16. Unit XIV Biomolecules 161-163

17. Unit XV Polymers 164-166

18 Unit XVI Chemistry in Everyday Life 167-177

19. Practice paper ( Electrochemistry, Kinetics, p-block) 178-180

20.. First Term paper (2020-21): google form, PDF 181-192

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21. Question Bank ( short and long answer type) 193-199

22. Question bank ( objective questions: VSA, MCQ, A/R based) 200-201

23. Question Bank ( source based/ case based question) 202-228

24. Preboard paper I and II (2020-21) 229-248

25. CBSE BOARD EXAM: 2020 ( set 1) 249-257

26. CBSE Sample Paper-2021 258-277

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CBSE SYLLABUS
Unit I: Solid State 10 Periods

Classification of solids based on different binding forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic
solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea). Unit cell in two dimensional and three
dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, packing efficiency, voids,
number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and magnetic properties.
Band theory of metals, conductors, semiconductors and insulators and n and p type
semiconductors.

Unit II: Solutions 10 Periods

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases

in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure, Raoult's
law, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of
molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor.

Unit III: Electrochemistry 12 Periods

Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations
of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis
(elementary idea), dry cell -electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, EMF of a cell,
standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to chemical cells, Relation
between Gibb’s energy change and EMF of a cell, fuel cells, corrosion.

Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics 10 Periods

Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment). Activation energy, Arrhenius equation.

Unit V: Surface Chemistry 08 Periods

Adsorption - physisorption and chemisorption, factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids,

catalysis, homogenous and heterogenous activity and selectivity; enzyme catalysis colloidal state
distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspension; lyophilic, lyophobic multimolecular
and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement,
electrophoresis, coagulation, emulsion - types of emulsions.

Unit VI: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements 08 Periods

Principles and methods of extraction - concentration, oxidation, reduction - electrolytic method

and refining; occurrence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc and iron.

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Unit VII: p-Block Elements 12 Periods

Group 15 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation states,

trends in physical and chemical properties; nitrogen - preparation, properties and uses;
compounds of nitrogen: preparation and properties of ammonia and nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen
(structure only); Phosphorous-allotropic forms; compounds .of phosphorous: preparation and
properties of phosphine, halides (PCI3, PCls) and oxoacids (elementary idea only)

Group 16 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence,

trends in physical and chemical properties, dioxygen: Preparation, Properties and uses,
classification of Oxides, Ozone, Sulphur -allotropic forms; compounds of Sulphur: Preparation
Properties and uses of Sulphur-dioxide, Sulphuric Acid: industrial process of manufacture,
properties and uses; Oxoacids of Sulphur (Structures only).

Group 17 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence,

trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens, Preparation, properties and
uses of Chlorine and Hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, Oxoacids of halogens
(structures only).

Group 18 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, trends in physical

and chemical properties, uses.

Unit VIII: "d" and "f" Block Elements 12 Periods

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,

general trends in properties of the first row transition metals - metallic character, ionization
enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial
compounds, alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid

contraction and its consequences.

Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.

Unit IX: Coordination Compounds 12 Periods

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic

properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding,
Werner's theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, importance of coordination
compounds (in qualitative inclusion, extraction of metals and biological system)

Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes. 10 Periods

Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C -X bond, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of

substitution reactions, optical rotation.

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Haloarenes: Nature of C -X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in
monosubstituted compounds only).

Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,

iodoform, freons, DDT.

Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 10 Periods

Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of
dehydration, uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.

Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature
of phenol, electrophilic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.

Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 10 Periods

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation,

physical and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha
hydrogen in aldehydes: uses.

Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.

Unit XIII: Organic compounds containing Nitrogen 10 Periods

Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical

properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

Cyanides and Isocyanides - will be mentioned at relevant places in text.

Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

Unit XIV: Biomolecules 12 Periods

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccahrides (glucose and fructose), D-L
configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch,
cellulose,glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.

Proteins -Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure
ofproteins - primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea
only),denaturation of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.

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Vitamins - Classification and functions.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.

Unit XV: Polymers 08 Periods

Classification - natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and

condensation),copolymerization, some important polymers: natural and synthetic like polythene,
nylon polyesters, bakelite, rubber. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers.

Unit XVI Chemistry in Everyday life 06 Periods

Chemicals in medicines - analgesics, tranquilizers antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials,

antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines.

Chemicals in food – preservatives , artificial sweetening agents, elementary idea of antioxidants.

Cleansing agents- soaps and detergents, cleansing action.

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PRACTICALS
Evaluation Scheme for Examination Marks

Volumetric Analysis 08

Salt Analysis 08

Content Based Experiment 06

Project work 04

Class record and viva 04

Total 30

PRACTICALS SYLLABUS 60 Periods

Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments.

Wherever possible, such techniques should be used.

A. Surface Chemistry
(a) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol
Lyophilic sol - starch, egg albumin and gum
Lyophobic sol - aluminium hydroxide, ferric hydroxide, arsenous sulphide.
(b) Dialysis of sol-prepared in (a) above.
(c) Study of the role of emulsifying agents in stabilizing the emulsion of different oils.

B. Chemical Kinetics
(a) Effect of concentration and temperature on the rate of reaction between Sodium
Thiosulphate and Hydrochloric acid.
(b) Study of reaction rates of any one of the following:
(i) Reaction of Iodide ion with Hydrogen Peroxide at room temperature using different
concentration of Iodide ions.
(ii) Reaction between Potassium Iodate, (KIO3) and Sodium Sulphite: (Na2SO3) using
starch solution asindicator (clock reaction).

C. Thermochemistry
Any one of the following experiments
i) Enthalpy of dissolution of Copper Sulphate or Potassium Nitrate.
ii) Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid (HCI) and strong base (NaOH).
iii) Determination of enthaply change during interaction (Hydrogen bond formation)
between Acetone and Chloroform.

D. Electrochemistry
Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+|| Cu2+/Cu with change in concentration of
electrolytes (CuSO4 orZnSO4) at room temperature.

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E. Chromatography
i) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by paper chromatography and
determinationof Rf values.
ii) Separation of constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing two cations only
(constituents having large difference in Rf values to be provided).

F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds

i) Preparation of double salt of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate or Potash Alum.
ii) Preparation of Potassium Ferric Oxalate.

G. Preparation of Organic Compounds

Preparation of any one of the following compounds
i) Acetanilide
ii) Di -benzal Acetone
iii) p-Nitroacetanilide
iv) Aniline yellow or 2 - Naphthol Aniline dye.

H. Tests for the functional groups present in organic compounds:

Unsaturation, alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (Primary)
groups.

I. Characteristic tests of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure samples and their detection in
givenfood stuffs.

J. Determination of concentration/ molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a standard

solution of:
i) Oxalic acid,
ii) Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
(Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing themselves).

K. Qualitative analysis
Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt.
Cation- NH4+, Pb2+, Cu2+ As3+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Mg2+
Anions-CO32-, S2-, SO32-, SO42-, NO2-, NO3-, Cl-, Br-, I-, PO43-; C2O42_ CH3COO-,
(Note: Insoluble salts excluded)

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PROJECT

Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other
sources.

A few suggested Projects.

● Study of the presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening.
● Study of quantity of casein present in different samples of milk.
● Preparation of soybean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to
curd formation, effect of temperature, etc.
● Study of the effect of Potassium Bisulphate as food preservative under various
conditions (temperature, concentration, time, etc.)
● Study of digestion of starch by salivary amylase and effect of pH and temperature on it.
● Comparative study of the rate of fermentation of following materials: wheat flour, gram
flour, potato juice, carrot juice, etc.
● Extraction of essential oils present in Saunf (aniseed), Ajwain (carum), Illaichi
(cardamom).
● Study of common food adulterants in fat, oil, butter, sugar, turmeric power, chilli
powder and pepper.

Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be
chosen with the approval of the teacher.

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MONTHWISE SYLLABUS DISTRIBUTION

MONTHS: March, April

Unit III: Electrochemistry (Periods 14)

Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity

variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and laws of
electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell- electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells; lead
accumulator, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its
application to chemical cells, fuel cells; corrosion.

Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics (Periods 12)

Rate of a reaction (average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction;

concentration, temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction; rate law and
specific rate constant, integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order
reactions);

MONTH : JUNE, JULY

Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics ( continued)

concept of collision theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment), Activation energy,
Arrhenious equation

Unit II: Solutions (Periods 12)

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of

gases in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour
pressure, elevation of Boiling Point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure,
determination of molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass,
Van’t Hoff factor.

Unit I: Solid State 10 Periods

Classification of solids based on different binding forces: molecular, ionic, covalent and
metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea). Unit cell in two
dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in
solids, packing efficiency, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point
defects, electrical and magnetic properties.
Band theory of metals, conductors, semiconductors and insulators and n and p type
semiconductors.

Unit V: Surface Chemistry

Adsorption - physisorption and chemisorption, factors affecting adsorption of gases on
solids, colloids distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspension; lyophilic ,

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lyophobic multimolecular and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall
effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, coagulation, emulsion - types of emulsions.

Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes (Periods 12)

Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C-X bond, physical and chemical properties,

mechanism of substitution reactions.
Haloarenes: Nature of C-X bond, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for
monosubstituted compounds only). Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane,
trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT.

Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers (Periods 12)

Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of

primary alcohols only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols;
mechanism of dehydration, uses of methanol and ethanol
Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic
nature of phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.
Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

Practicals:

EXPERIMENT- 1-6

Qualitative analysis
Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt.

Cations - Pb2+ Cu2+ As3+ Al3+ Fe3+ Mn2+ Zn2+ Co2+ Ni2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+ Mg2+ NH4+
Anions – CO32-, S2-, SO32-, SO42-, NO2-, NO3-, Cl-, Br-, I-, PO43-; CH3COO-
(Note: Insoluble salts excluded)

PROJECT WORK

MONTH : AUGUST

Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids (Periods 12)

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation.

physical and chemical properties mechanism of nucleophilic addition.
Aldehydes and Ketones : Reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes, chemical reactivity;
uses.
Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and
chemical properties; uses.

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Unit XIII: Organic compounds containing Nitrogen (Period 10)

Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and

chemical properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Cyanides and Isocyanides - will be mentioned at relevant places in context.
Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic
chemistry.

EXPERIMENT No.: 7-8

Determination of concentration/molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a

standard solution of:
i) Oxalic acid,
ii) Ferrous ammonium sulphate
(Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing themselves).

EXPERIMENT No.: 9, 10

Effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate and

hydrochloric acid

Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric
acid

MONTH: SEPTEMBER- OCTOBER

Unit VI: p-Block Elements (Periods 14)

Group 15 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation

states, trends in physical and chemical properties; nitrogen - preparation, properties and
uses; compounds of nitrogen: preparation and properties of ammonia and nitric acid,
oxides of nitrogen (structure only); Phosphorous-allotropic forms; compounds .of
phosphorous: preparation and properties of phosphine, halides (PCI3, PCls) and oxoacids
(elementary idea only)

Group16 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states,

occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; dioxygen: preparation, properties
and uses; simple oxides; Ozone. Sulphur - allotropic forms; compounds of sulphur:
preparation, properties and uses of sulphur dioxide; sulphuric acid: industrial process of
manufacture, properties and uses, oxoacids of sulphur (structures only).

Group 17 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, trends

in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens: preparation, properties and

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uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, oxoacids of halogens I
(structures only).
Group 18 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration. Occurence, trends in
physical and chemical properties, uses.

Unit IX: Coordination Compounds (Period 12)

Coordination 'Compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic

properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds.
bonding; isomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in qualitative analysis,
extraction of metals and biological systems).

Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements (Period 14)

General introduction ,electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition

metals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals - metallic character,
ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour catalytic property, magnetic
properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7
and KMnO4.
Lanthanoids - electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid
contraction.
Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states.

Experiment No. 11,12

Preparation of Potassium Ferric Oxalate.

EXPERIMENT No.: 13-18

Tests for the functional groups present in organic compounds:

Alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (primary) groups.

EXPERIMENT No.: 19-20

Preparation of lnorganic Compounds:
i) Preparation of double salt of ferrous ammonium sulphate
ii) Preparation of double salt of potash alum.

EXPERIMENT No.: 20-21

Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol.
(a) Lyophilic sol- starch
(b) Lyophobic sol- ferric hydroxide.

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EXPERIMENT No.: 21-23
Characteristic tests of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure samples and their detection
in given food stuffs.

EXPERIMENT No.: 24
Chromatography
To separate the constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing Fe3+ and Cu2+
using paper chromatography and determination of their Rf values.

EXPERIMENT No.: 25
Preparation of Di-benzal Acetone

MONTH: NOVEMBER

Unit VI: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements (Periods 8)

Principles and methods of extraction - concentration, oxidation, reduction electrolytic

method and refining; occurrence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc
and iron.

Unit XV: Polymers (Periods 8)

Classification - natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and

condensation), copolymerization. Some important polymers: natural and synthetic like
polythene, nylon, polyesters, bakelite, rubber. Biodegradable and non- biodegradable
polymers.

Unit XVI: Chemistry in Everyday life (Period 8)

Chemicals in medicines - analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials,

antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistanlines.
Chemicals in food - preservatives, artificial sweetening agents.
Cleansing agents - soaps and detergents, cleansing action

Unit XIV: Biomolecules (Periods 12)

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccal1rides (glucose and

tfuctose), oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); importance.
Proteins - Elementary idea of a - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins,
structure of amines-primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (
qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins; enzymes.
Vitamins -Classification and functions. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.

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CHEMISTRY (CODE-043)
QUESTION PAPER DESIGN
CLASS - XII (2021-22)
Time 3 Hours Max. Marks: 70

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QUESTION WISE BREAK UP

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Assignment
Chapter 1: Solid State

Learning Outcomes: The learners-

● communicates the findings and conclusions effectively, of different types of solids based
on its classification
● exhibits creativity in designing models of solids
● derives formulae, and does calculations
● calculates using the data given
● describes importance of solid state in daily life
● describes general characteristic s of solid state;
● distinguishes between amorphous and crystalline solids;
● classifies crystalline solids on the basis of the nature of binding forces;
● defines crystal lattice and unit cell;
● distinguish between unit cells of different types of crystal lattices;
● explains close packing of particles

1. In which pair most efficient packing is present?

(i) hcp and bcc
(ii) hcp and ccp
(iii) bcc and ccp
(iv) bcc and simple cubic cell

2. Which kind of defects are introduced by doping?

(i) Dislocation defect
(ii) Schottky defect
(iii) Frenkel defects
(iv) Electronic defects

3. (a) An element has atomic mass 93 g mol–1 and density 11.5 g cm–3. If the edge length of its
unit cell is 300 pm, identify the type of unit cell.
(b) Write any two differences between amorphous solids and crystalline solids.

4. (a) Calculate the number of unit cells in 8.1 g of aluminium if it crystallizes in a f.c.c.
structure. (Atomic mass of Al = 27 g mol–1)
(b) Give reasons :
(i) In stoichiometric defects, NaCl exhibits Schottky defect and not Frenkel defect.
(ii) Silicon on doping with Phosphorus forms n-type semiconductor.
(iii) Ferrimagnetic substances show better magnetism than antiferromagnetic substances.

5. What is the maximum possible coordination number of an atom in

(a) hcp crystal structure
(b) ccp crystal structure of an element?

6. a) What is meant by ‘doping’ in a semiconductor?

b) Account for the following:
(i) Impurity doped silicon is a semiconductor.
(ii) alkali metal halides sometimes coloured, which are otherwise colourless

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7. Which point defect in crystals
(i) does not alter the density of the solid
(ii) decreases the density of the solid
(iii) Increases the density of the solid?

[Link] each of the following solids as ionic, metallic, molecular, network (covalent) or
amorphous.
a) tetra phosphorus decaoxide (P4O10) (c) Graphite
b) Brass (d) Ammonium Phosphate
e) Rb (f) SiC

9. Examine the illustration of a portion of the defective crystal given below and answer the
following questions.
(a) What are these type of vacancy defects called?
(b) How is the density of a crystal affected by these defects?
(c) What type of ionic substances show such defect?
(d) How is the stoichiometry of the compound affected?

10 . In an ionic compound the anion (N-) form cubic close type of packing. While the cation
(M+) ions occupy one third of the tetrahedral voids. Deduce the empirical formula of the
compound and the coordination number of (M+) ions.

11. What is the formula of a compound in which the element Y forms the ccp lattice and atom X
occupy 1/3rd of the tetrahedral voids?

12. (i) What type of magnetism is shown in the following alignment of magnetic moment?
↑ ↓↑↓ ↑ ↓↑↓ ↑↓
(ii) What type of semiconductor is produced when boron is doped with silicon?
(iii) What type of magnetism is shown by a substance if magnetic moments of domains are
arranged in same direction ?

13. Tungsten crystallizes in body centred cubic unit cell. If the edge of the unit cell is 316.5 pm,
what is the radius of tungsten atom? (r = 137 pm)

14. An element with density 11.2 gcm-3 forms a f.c.c. lattice with edge length of 4 X 10-8 cm.
Calculate the atomic mass of the element. (Given: NA= 6.022 x 1023 mol-1)

15. An element crystallizes in a f.c.c. lattice with cell edge of 250 pm. Calculate the density if 300
g of this element contain 2 X 10-24 atoms.

16. Analysis shows that metal oxide has the formula M0.96O. What fractions of metal exist as
M+2 and M+3 ions? (M2+ =0.916; M3+ = 0.08)

17. Iron has a body centred cubic unit cells with cell edge of 286.65 pm. The density of iron is
7.874 g cm-3. Use this information to calculate Avogadro’s number. (At. Mass of Fe = 55.845
gmol-1) (6.02 x 1023 mol-1)

18. Which of the following is an amorphous solid?

a) Graphite (C)
b) Quartz (SiO2)

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c) Chrome alum
d) Silicon carbide (SiC)

19. Iodine molecules are held in the crystal lattice by :

a) London Forces
b) dipole-dipole interactions
c) covalent bonds
d) coulombic forces
20. Cations are present in the interstitial sites in

a) Frenkel defect
b) Schottky defect
c) vacancy defect
d) metal deficiency defect

21. Silicon doped with electron rich impurity forms

a) p-type semiconductor
b) n- type semiconductor
c) intrinsic semiconductor
d) insulator

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding

statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

22. Assertion: The total number of atoms present in a simple cubic unit cell is one.

Reason: Simple cubic unit cell has atoms at its corners, each of which is shared between eight
adjacent unit cells.

23 Assertion: Graphite is a good conductor of electricity however diamond belongs to the

category of insulators.

Reason: Graphite is soft in nature on the other hand diamond is very hard and brittle.

24. Assertion: The packing efficiency is maximum for the fcc structure.

Reason: The coordination number is 12 in fcc structures.

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More Practice
Solid State

1. The well known mineral fluorite is chemically calcium fluoride. It is known that in one unit
cell of this mineral there are 4 Ca2+ ions and 8F- ions and that Ca2+ ions are arranged in a fcc
lattice. The F- ions fill all tetrahedral holes in the face centred cubic lattice of Ca2+ ions. The
edge of the unit cell is 5.46X10-8 cm in length. The density of the solid is 3.18g cm-3. Use this I
information to calculate Avogadro’s number (Molar mass of Ca F2 = 78.08 g mol-1)

2. Analysis shows that Nickel oxide has the formula Ni0.98O. What fractions of metal exist as
Ni+2 and Ni+3 ions?

3. Aluminium metal forms a ccp crystal structure. Its atomic radius is 125 x 10-12 m.

i) Calculate the length of the side of the unit cell.

ii) How many such unit cells are there in 1.00 m3 of Aluminium?

4. An element has a body centered cubic structure with a cell edge of 288 pm. The density of the
element is 7.2g/cm3. Calculate the number of atoms present in 208 g of the element.

5. Sodium has a bcc structure with nearest neighbor distance 365.9pm. Calculate its density.(Na =
23u)

Page 22 Class XII CHEMISTRY

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Assignment
Chapter 2: Solutions

Learning Outcomes
● explains processes and different methods of measuring concentration.
● Learners will be able to understand the Concentration of solution in different units
● measures concentration of solutions using appropriate apparatus, instruments, methods and
formulaes,
● Differentiate between different types of solutions
● applies learning to hypothetical situations - knowledge of colligative properties to finding molar
mass of electrolytes
● will be able to draw connections between their previous knowledge of solubility and apply it to
solubility of solids and gases in liquids.
● calculates using the data given,
● exhibits values of honesty, objectivity, rational thinking, while sharing experimental results and
doing numerical calculations
● understand and classify solutions as ideal and non-ideal on the basis of Raoult’s law
● explain Henry’s law and Raoult’s law and find difference and similarity between the two.
● Describe colligative properties of solutions and calculate the molar masses of the solutes

1. An ideal solution of two liquids is a solution in which each component obeys Raoult’s
law which states that the vapour pressure of any component in the solution depends on
the mole fraction of that component in the solution and the vapour pressure of that
component in the pure state. However, there are many solutions which do not obey
Raoult’s law. In other words, they show deviations from ideal behavior which may be
positive or negative. However, in either case, corresponding to a particular composition,
they form constant boiling mixtures called azeotropes.

(a) Give an example of a mixture showing positive deviation and negative deviation
from Raoult’s law?

(b) When an azeotropic solution of two liquids has boiling point lower than either of
the two liquids, what type of azeotrope will it be?

(c) A solution has a 1:4 mole ratio of pentane to hexane. The vapour pressures of the
pure hydrocarbons at 20oC are 440mm of Hg for pentane and 120mm of Hg for
hexane in the vapour phase. Calculate the mole fraction of pentane in the vapour
phase? (0.478)

2. van’t Hoff factors x,y,z for association, dissociation and no change of solute in the
solution respectively are n the order:

(a) x <y < z (b) x > z > y (c) x < z < y (d) x > y > z

3. At equilibrium the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a volatile liquid solvent is:

a) Less than the rate of crystallization

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b) Greater than the rate of crystallization

c) Equal to the rate of crystallization

d) Zero.

4. V
Value of Henry’s constant KH:
a
a) Increases with increase in temperature
l
u b) Decreases with increase in temperature

c) Remains constant

d) First increases then decreases

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a

corresponding statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the
following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for

assertion.

(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation

for assertion.

(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion: 0.1 M solution of glucose has higher increment in the freezing point than 0.1
M solution of urea.

Reason: Kf for both has different values.

6. Assertion: Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.

Reason: The volume of a solution changes with change in temperature.

7. A
Assertion: When methyl alcohol is added to water, boiling point of water increases

Reason: When a volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, elevation in boiling point is
observed.

8. Assertion: When NaCl is added to water a depression in freezing point is observed .

Reason: The lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes depression in the freezing
point.

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9. Assertion: When a solution is separated from the pure solvent by a semipermeable
membrane, the solvent molecules pass through it from pure solvent side to the solution
side.

Reason: Diffusion of solvent occurs from a region of high concentration solution to a

region of low concentration solution.

10. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 60 g of glucose. (Molar mass = 180 g
mol-1) in 250 g of water. ( Kf of water = 1.86 K kg mol-1) (-2.48oC)

11. Give reasons for the following:

(i)Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molar

masses of macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.

(ii)Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.

(iii)Elevation of boiling point of 1M KCl solution is nearly double than that of 1 M sugar
solution.

12. A 10% solution (by mass) of sucrose in water has freezing point of 269.15 K. Calculate the
freezing point of 10% glucose in water, if freezing point of pure water is 273.15 K.

Given : (Molar mass of sucrose = 342 g mol , Molar mass of glucose = 180 g mol )
–1 –1

13. State the formula relating pressure of a gas with its mole fraction in a liquid solution in
contact with it. Name the law and mention its two applications.

14. Two liquids A and B boil at 145 C and 190 C respectively. Which of them has a higher
0 0

vapour pressure at 80 C?
0

15. (a) Why is the vapour pressure of a solution of glucose in water lower than that of
water?

(b) A 6.90 M solution of KOH in water contains 30% by mass of KOH. Calculate the
density of the KOH solution? ( molar mass of KOH = 56 g/mol)

(1.288 g/ml)

16. Explain with suitable examples in each case why the molar masses of some substances
determined with the help of colligative properties are (i) higher (ii) lower than actual
values.

17. Given below is the sketch of a plant for carrying out a process.

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(i) Name the process occurring in the above plant.

(ii) To which container does the net flow of solvent take place?

(iii) Name one SPM which can be used in this plant.

(iv) Give one practical use of the plant.

18. Calculate the freezing point of solution when 1.9 g of MgCl2(M=95 g mol–1) was
dissolved in 50 g of water, assuming MgCl undergoes complete ionization. (Kf for water
2

= 1.86 K kg mol–1)

19. a) Out of 1 M glucose and 2 M glucose, which one has a higher boiling point and why?

b) What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the osmotic
pressure of solution ?

20. State Raoult’s law for solutions of volatile liquids. Taking suitable examples explain the
meaning of positive and negative deviations from Raoult’s law. What is the sign of
∆H for positive deviation?
mix

21. a) Define the term osmotic pressure. Describe how the molecular mass of a substance
can be determined by a method based on measurement of osmotic pressure.

b) Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 0.025g of K2SO4

in 2L of water at 25 C, assuming that is completely dissociated.

o

(R=0.0821 L atm/K/mol, molar mass of K SO = 174g/mol)

2 4

22. 15 g of an unknown molecular material was dissolved in 450 g of water. The resulting
solution was found to freeze at -0.34 C. What is the molar mass of this material? K for
o f

water = 1.86 K Kg mol ).-1 (182 g mol ) -1

23. A solution is prepared by dissolving 1.25g of oil of winter green (methyl salicylate) in
99.0g of benzene has a boiling point of 80.31 C. Determine the molar mass of this
0

compound. (B.P. of pure benzene = 80.10 C and Kb for benzene = 2.53 C kg mol )
0 0 -

(152.21 g/mol)

24. A 1.00 molal aqueous solution of trichloroacetic acid ( CCl COOH) is heated to its boiling
3

point. The solution has the boiling point of 100.18 C. Determine the van’t Hoff factor for
o

trichloroacteic acid (Kb for water = 0.512 K Kg mol ). -1 (i= 0.35)

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More Practice
Chapter 1: Solutions

1. Calculate the temperature at which a solution containing 54 g of glucose, (C H O ), in

6 12 6

250g of water will freeze (k for water = 1.86 k mol Kg).

f -1

2. Why it is better to find molality of a solution than its molarity?

3. The Henry law constant for oxygen dissolved in water is 4.34 x 10 atm at 25 C. If the
4 0

partial pressure of oxygen in air is 0.2 atm. under ordinary atmospheric

conditions. Calculate the concentration (in moles per litre) of dissolved oxygen in water
in equilibrium with air at 25 C.0

4. Define the following terms:

a ) Mole fraction
b) Isotonic solutions
c) Van’t Hoff factor
d) ideal solution.
e) Colligative properties
f) molality

5. What is the Van’t Hoff factor for a compound which undergoes tetramerization in an
organic solvent?

6. Benzoic acid completely dimerizes in benzene. What will be the vapour pressure of a
solution containing 61 g of benzoic acid per 500 g benzene when the vapour pressure of
pure benzene at the temperature of experiment is 66.6 torr? What would have been the
vapour pressure in the absence of dimerisation?

7. Two elements A and B form compounds having molecular formulae AB and AB . When 2 4

dissolved in 20 g of benzene, 1 g of AB lowers the freezing point by 2.3 K whereas 1g of

2

AB lowers it by 1.3 K. The molar depression constant for benzene is 5.1 K Kg mol .
4 -1

Calculate the atomic masses of A and B.

8. Phenol associates in benzene to a certain extent to form a dimer. A solution containing

20 X 10 kg of phenol in 1 kg of benzene has its freezing point lowered by 0.69K.
-3

Calculate the fraction of phenol that has dimerised (K = 5.1 KKg mol )
f -1

9. 100 g of a protein is dissolved in just enough water to make 10.0 ml of solution. If this
solution has an ostomic pressure of 13.3 mm Hg at 25 C, what is the molar mass of the
0

protein?

10. Calculate the amount of KCl which must be added to 1 Kg of water so that the freezing
point is depressed by 2K. (Kf for water = 1.86 /K Kg mol ) -1 (40.05 g)

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11. A decimolar solution of K [Fe(CN) ] is 50% dissociated at 300K. Calculate the osmotic
4 6

pressure of the solution in atm.

12. Heptane and Octane form an ideal solution at 373 K. The vapour pressures of the pure
liquids at this temperature are 105.2 KPa and 46.8 KPa respectively. If the solution
contains 25 g of heptane and 28.5 g of octane, calculate

(i) vapour pressure exerted by heptane.

(ii) vapour pressure exerted by solution.
(iii) mole fraction of octane in the vapour phase.

13. A solution is made by dissolving 30 g of a nonvolatile solute in 90 g of water. It has a

vapour pressure 2.8 KPa at 298 K. At 298 K, vapour pressure of pure water is 3.64
KPa. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.

14. What type of azeotrope is formed on mixing nitric acid and water?

15 An antifreeze solution is prepared from 222.6 g of ethylene glycol (C H (OH) ) and 200 g
2 4 2

of water. Calculate the molality of the solution. If the density of this solution be 1.072 g
ml , what will be the molarity of the solution?
-1

(9.1 M; 17.95 m)

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Assignment
Chapter 3: Electrochemistry

Learning Outcomes: The learner-

● draws labelled diagrams, flow charts and concept maps of commercial cells.
● Derive relation between standard potential of the cell, Gibbs energy and its equilibrium
constant and solve numericals
● derives formulae and laws of conductance and electrochemical cells
● plans and conducts experiments to arrive at and verify the facts, principles, phenomena or to
seek answers to queries on their own, such as factors affecting rusting and relate the various
types of conductance on the basis of a formulae and verify it.
● communicates the findings and conclusions effectively and calculates using the data given,
● will be able to understand to calculate the emf of galvanic cell and .Gibbs energy of reaction and
its equilibrium constant.
● exhibits values of honesty, objectivity, rational thinking, while sharing experimental results and
doing numerical calculations.
● Define resistivity, conductivity , molar conductivity, conductivity at infinite dilution and solve
related numerical. Enunciate Kohlrausch law and learn its applications.
● will be able to understand the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity of solutions
with change in their concentration

1. If the Eocell for a given reaction has a negative value, then which of the following gives the
correct relationships for the values of G0 and Keq?

(a) G0 >0 ; Keq<1 (b) G0 >0 ; Keq>1 (c) G0<0 ; Keq>1 (d) G0 <0 ; Keq<1

2. The metal that cannot be obtained by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of its salt is
(a)Ag (b) Na (c) Cu (d) Hg

In Q3 and Q4, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding statement

of reason (R) just below it. Of the statements mark the correct answer as:
(i)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(ii)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(iii)Assertion is a correct statement but reason is wrong.
(iv)Assertion and reason both are incorrect statements.
(v)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

3. Assertion: Conductivity of all electrolytes decreases on dilution.

Reason: On dilution, number of ions per unit volume decreases.
4. Assertion:Current stops flowing when Ecell=0.
Reason: Equilibrium of the cell reaction is attained.

5. Write the cell reaction and calculate the e.m.f of the following cell at 298 K.
Sn(s)|Sn2+(0.004 M) ||H+ (0.020 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt (s)
(Given : Eo Sn2+/Sn = -0.14 V) (0.11 V)

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6. For the reaction
2AgCl (s) + H2 (g) (1 atm) 2Ag(s) + 2 H+(0.1M ) + 2Cl- (0.1M)
G0 = -43600 J at 25oC. Calculate the emf of the cell.
(0.344 V)
7. Give reasons:
a) On the basis of E0 values, O2 gas should be liberated at anode but it is Cl2 gas which is
liberated in the electrolysis of aqueous NaCl.
b) Conductivity of CH3COOH decreases on dilution.

8. Calculate the mass of Ag deposited at cathode when a current of 2 amperes was passed
through a solution of AgNO for 15 minutes.
3

(Given : Molar mass of Ag = 108 g mol 1F = 96500 C mol )

–1 –1

9. Calculate the degree of dissociation (α) of acetic acid if its molar conductivity (Λ ) is 39.05
m

S cm2mol-1. Given λ (H+) = 349.6 Scm2mol-1and λ (CH COO-) = 40.9 Scm2 mol-1
o o 3

10. i. Define molar conductivity and conductivity of a solution and write their units and
the relation between the two.
ii. How does molar conductivity change with change in concentration of solution for
weak and strong electrolyte. Why does the conductivity of an electrolyte solution
decrease with the decrease in concentration?
iii. Define limiting molar conductivity.

11. Define fuel cells? Give electrode reactions of H -O fuel cell. Name any other fuel which
2 2

can be used instead of H . Write its two advantages.

2

12. From the given cells :Lead storage cell, Mercury cell, Fuel cell and Dry cell
Answer the following :
(i) Which cell is used in hearing aids ?
(ii) Which cell was used in the Apollo Space Programme ?
(iii) Which cell is used in automobiles and inverters ?
(iv) Which cell does not have long life ?

13. The resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0.001 M KCl solution is 1500 Ω at 298K.
What is the cell constant, if the conductivity of 0.001 M KCl solution at 298K is 0.146X10 -3

Scm ? -1 (0.219 cm ) -1

14. Account for the following :

1. Alkaline medium inhibits the rusting of iron.
2. Iron does not rust even if the zinc coating is broken in a galvanized iron pipe.

15. Three iron sheets have been coated separately with three metals ( A, B and C) whose
standard electrode potentials are given below:
Metal A B C Iron
E values
o -0.46 V -0.66 V -0.20 V - 0.44 V
Identify in which case rusting will take place faster when coating is damaged.

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16. Write the reactions occurring during the electrolysis of ;
a) Solution of dil. Sulphuric acid using platinum electrodes.
b) Aqueous Silver Nitrate solution using Silver electrodes.
c) Aqueous Sodium Chloride solution.
17.
Cu 2+ + 2e - Cu E = +0.34 V
o

Ag + + e - Ag E = +0.80 V
o

a. Construct a galvanic cell using the above data.

b. For what concentration of Ag ions will the emf of the cell be zero at 25 C, if
+ o

the concentration of Cu is 0.01 M ? [ log 3.919 = 0.593] (calc. not reqd.)

2+

18. (i) State Kohlaursch law of independent migration of ions. Write an expression for the
molar conductivity of acetic acid at infinite dilution according to Kohlrausch law.
(ii) Calculate Λ for acetic acid. ( Given that Λ0m HCl = 426 Scm mol Λ0m NaCl = 126
0m 2 -1

Scm mol 2 Λ0m CH COONa = 91 Scm mol )

-1 3 2 -1 (391 Scm mol ) 2 -1

19. What type of battery is lead storage battery? Write the anode and the cathode reactions
and overall reaction occurring in a lead storage battery when current is drawn from it.

20. Following reactions occur at the cathode during the electrolysis of aqueous silver chloride
solution:
Ag + e + - Ag E = +0.80 V o

H + e
+ - ½H E = +0.00 V
2 o

On the basis of standard reduction potential values, which reaction is feasible at the
cathode and why?

Hands –on / IT Enabled work:

1) working of Cu-Zn daneill cell
[Link]
2) batteries:
[Link]
3) Demonstration of electrochemical cell.

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More Practice
Chapter 3: Electrochemistry

1. Conductivity of 0.00241 M acetic acid is 7.896 X 10 Scm . Calculate its molar -5 -1

conductivity. If Λo for acetic acid is 390.5 Scm mol , what is its dissociation constant? 2 -1

2. Explain with examples the terms weak and strong electrolytes? How can these be
distinguished? With the help of a diagram explain the difference in the variation of
molar conductivity with concentration for strong and weak electrolytes

3. Calculate the emf of the cell Mg|Mg (0.1 M)||Cu (0.0001 M)|Cu at 298 K. Given 2+ 2+

E oMg2+/Mg = -2. 37 V and E oCu2+/Cu = + 0. 34 V.

4. A voltaic cell is set up at 25 C with the following half –cells; o

Al| Al (0.001 M) and Ni| Ni (0.50 M)

3+ 2+

Calculate the cell voltage [E 0Ni2+|Ni = -0.25 V, E 0Al3+|Al = -1.66 V] (1.45 V)

5. The following chemical reaction is occuring in an electrochemical cell

Mg(s) + 2Ag (0.0001 M)

+ Mg ( 0.10 M)
2+ + 2Ag(s)

The E values are Mg /Mg = -2.36 V and Ag / Ag = 0.80V

o +2 +

For this cell calculate / write

(a) The carriers of current within this cell.

(b) E value for the electrode 2 Ag /2 Ag .

o +

(c) Standard cell potential E ocell .

(d) Cell potential E cell

(e) How will the value of E change if the concentration of Ag (aq.) is increased?
cell +

(f) Symbolic representation of the above cell.

(g) Will the above cell reaction be spontaneous?

6. In the button cell , widely used in watches , the following reaction takes place

Zn Ag O + H O
(s) + 2 (s) 2 (l) Zn 2+(aq) + 2 Ag + 2OH (s) -

Determine E and ΔG for the reaction.

0 0

( given: E 0 Ag+ / Ag = 0.80 V , E 0Zn2+/Zn = -0.76 V) (E=1.56 V, ΔG = -301.08 KJ mol )

o -1

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7. Three electrolytic cells A, B and C containing solutions of zinc sulphate, silver nitrate
and copper sulphate, respectively are connected in series. A steady current of 1.5
ampere was passed through them until 1.45 g of silver were deposited at the cathode of
cell B. How long did the current flow? What mass of copper and what mass of zinc
were deposited in the concerned cells? ( Atomic masses of Ag = 108, Zn = 65.4, Cu =
63.5)

8. Calculate the emf of the following cell at 298K:

Fe(s)|Fe (0.001M)||H (1M)|H (g)(1bar), Pt(s)

2+ + 2

Given E =0.44V
ocell

9. How many coulombs of electric charge must be passed through a solution of silver
nitrate to coat a silver sheet of area 100 cm on both the sides with a 0.005 mm thick
2

layer. Density of silver is 10.5 g/cm . Relative atomic mass of silver is 108.
3 (
938.2 C)

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Assignment
Chapter 4: Chemical Kinetics

Learning Outcomes: The learners -

● performs experiments and collects data for different concentration of solutions, w.r.t.,
temperature or rate constants.
● will be able to Understand the Integrated rate expression for zero and first order reaction
● calculates rate constant of zero order and first order reaction and activation using the data given
and also calculate half life
● analyses and interprets graphs and figures
● draws graphs using the given data.
● communicates the findings and conclusions effectively, such as, order of a reaction or activation
energy or rate constant
● exhibits values of honesty, objectivity, rational thinking, while sharing experimental results and
doing numerical calculations
● Explain the dependence of rate or reactions on concentration, temperature and catalyst
● Distinguish between elementary and complex reactions.
● Differentiate between the molecularity and order of a reaction

1. Which of the following statements is not correct for the catalyst?

(a) It catalyses the backward and forward reaction to the same extent.
(b) It alters ΔG of the reaction.
(c)It is a substance that does not change the equilibrium constant of a reaction.
(d)It provides an alternate mechanism by reducing activation energy between reactants and
products.

2. Rate law for the reaction, A + 2B �C is found to be Rate = k[A][B]. Concentration of reactant
‘B’ is doubled, keeping the concentration of ‘A’ constant, the value of rate constant will be
(a)the same (b)doubled (c) quadrupled (d) halved

In Q3 and Q4, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding statement of

reason (R) just below it. Of the statements mark the correct answer as:
(i)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(ii)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(iii)Assertion is a correct statement but reason is wrong.
(iv)Assertion and reason both are incorrect statements.
(v)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

3. Assertion: The hydrolysis of methyl acetate by dilute HCl is a pseudo first order reaction.
Reason: HCl acts as a catalyst for hydrolysis.

4. Assertion: The order of a reaction can have fractional value.

Reason: The order of reaction cannot be written from the balanced chemical equation.

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5. For the reaction:

2N2O5 (g) � 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)

The rate of formation of NO2 (g) is 2.8 X 10-3 M s-1. Calculate the rate of disappearance of
N2O5 (g). (1.4 X 10-3 M/s)

6. A first order reaction is 50% completed in 40 minutes at 300 K and in 20 minutes at 320 K.
Calculate the activation energy of the reaction. (Given: log 2 = 0.3010, log 4 =0.6021, R =
8.314 JK-1mol-1) (27.66 kJ/mol)

7. For a reaction R ––> P, half-life (t1/2) is observed to be independent of the initial concentration
of reactants. What is the order of reaction ?

8. For a reaction :
2NH3(g) Pt N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Rate = k
(i) Write the order and molecularity of this reaction.
(ii) Write the unit of k.

9. Explain the following terms:

(i) Rate constant (k)
(ii) Half life period of a reaction(t1/2)
(iii) Order of the reaction
(iv) pseudo first order reaction.

10. The rate of a particular reaction triples when temperature changes from 500C to 1000C.
Calculate the activation energy of the reaction.
[log 3 = 0.4771, R = 8.314 JK-1 mol-1] ( 22.01 kJ/mol)

11. A reaction, reactant product is represented by the graph below. predict

y

Ln [R]

Time (s) x

(i)The order of the reaction in this case.

(ii)What does the slope of the graph represent?
(iii)What are the units of rate constant k?
(iv)Give the relationship between k and t1/2 (half life period).
(v) Draw the plot of log [R]o/[R] vs. time (s)

12. For the reaction

2 NO(g) + Cl 2(g) 2NOCl (g)
The following data were collected . All the measurements were taken at 263 K:

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Experiment No. Initial(NO) (M) Initial(Cl2) (M) Intial rate of disappearance
of Cl2 (M/min)
1 0.15 0.15 0.60
2 0.15 0.30 1.20
3 0.30 0.15 2.40
4 0.25 0.25 ?

Write the expression for the rate law.

(a) Calculate the value of rate constant and specify in units.
(b) What is the initial rate of disappearance of Cl2 in exp.4 ?
[(a) k= 177.7 M-2 min-1; (b) Rate = 2.8 M min-1]

13. For a certain chemical reaction:

2A + 2 B 2C + D
The experimentally obtained information is tabulated below.
Experiment [A]o [B]o Initial rate of reaction( mol L-1s-1)
1. 0.30 0.30 0.096
2. 0.60 0.30 0.384
3. 0.30 0.60 0.192
4. 0.60 0.60 0.768
For this reaction
(i) derive the order of reaction w.r.t both the reactants A and B.
(ii) write the rate law.
(iii) calculate the value of rate constant k. (k = 3.5 l2mol-2 s-1)
(iv) write the expression for the rate of reaction in terms of A and C.

14. For an elementary reaction

2A + B 3C
the rate of appearance of C at time ‘t’ is 1.3 x 10-4 mol l-1s-1
Calculate at this time
i) rate of the reaction.
ii) Rate of disappearance of A.
{ (i) 4.33 x 10-5 mol/l/s, (ii) 8.66 x 10-5 mol/l/s) }
15. The following data were obtained during the first order thermal decomposition of SO2Cl2 at a
constant volume:
SO2Cl2 (g) SO2 (g) + Cl2(g)

Experiment Time/s-1 Total pressure/atm

1 0 0.4
2 100 0.7

Calculate the rate constant. (Given log 4 = 0.6021, log 2 = 0.3010)

16. For a reaction, A+ B → P, the reaction is of first order in reactant A and second order in
reactant B.
(i) How is the rate of this reaction affected when the concentration of B doubled.
(ii) What is the overall order of reaction if A is present in large excess.

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17. The rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the following
equation:
Log k = 14.2 - 1.0 x 104 K
T
Calculate Ea for this reaction and rate constant k if its half-life period be 200 minutes.
(Given: R = 8.314 JK-1mol-1)

18. The rate constant for a reaction of zero order in A is 0.0030 mol L-1 s-1. How long will it take
for the initial concentration of A to fall from 0.10 M to 0.075 M.
(t= 8.33 sec)
19. The half life for decay of radioactive 14C is 5730 years. An archaeological arttefact containing
wood has only 80% of the 14C activity as found in living trees. Calculate the age of the
artefact. ( 1859.8 years)

20.
Time/s-1 0 30 60
[CH3COOCH3]/mol L -1 0.60 0.30 0.15
For hydrolysis of methyl acetate, the following data were obtained
(i) Show that it follows pseudo first order reaction, as concentration of water remains
constant.
(ii) Calculate the average rate between the time interval 30 to 60 seconds.
( 0.005 mol L-1s-1)

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work:

1) Collision theory [Link]

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More Practice

Chapter 4: Chemical Kinetics

1. Following data are obtained for the reaction :

N2O5�? 2NO2 + ½O2
t/s 0 300 600
[N2O5]/mol 1.6 × 10–2 0.8 × 10–2 0.4 × 10–2
L–1
(a) Show that it follows first order reaction.
(b) Calculate the half-life.
( calculate its concentration after 2 min, if rate costant is 5 x 10-4 s-1
(Given log 2 = 0.3010 log 4 = 0.6021)

2. The decomposition of NH3 on a platinum surface, 2NH3 (g) Pt N2 (g) + 3H2(g) is a

zero order reaction with k = 2.5 x 10-4 MS-1.. What are the rates of production of N2 and
H2 ? ( 2.5 x 10-4 Ms-1, 7.5 x 10-4 Ms-1)

3. A first order reaction takes 69.3 minutes for 50% completion. Set up an equation for
determining the time needed for 80% completion of this reaction.
(Calculation of result is not required).

4. For the reaction :

Cl2 (g) + 2 NO (g) 2NOCl (g)
The rate law is expressed as rate = k [Cl2][NO]2
What is the overall order of the reaction?

5. Answer the following questions on the basis of the curve for a first order reaction
A P

Log [R]o /[R]

Time
a) What is the relation between slope of this line and rate constant?
b) Calculate the rate constant of the above reaction if the slope is 2 x 10-4 S-1

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6. A first order decomposition reaction takes 40 minutes for 30% decomposition. Calculate its
t1/2 value.

7. For the reaction A B , the rate of reaction becomes 27 times when the
concentration of A is increased three times. What is the order of the reaction?
8. At elevated temperatures, HI decomposes according to the chemical equation;
2HI (g) H2(g) + I2(g) at 443oC. The rate of the reaction increases with
concentration of HI, as shown in the following table:
HI (mol/ l) 0.005 0.01 0.02
Rate (mol/l/s) 7.5 X 10-4 3.0 X 10-3 1.2 X 10-2
(a) Determine (i) order of this reaction and
(ii) write the rate expression
(b) Calculate the rate constant and give its units.
9. A first order reaction has a rate constant of 0.0051 min-1. If we begin with 0.10 M
concentration of the reactant, what concentration of reactant will remain in solution after 3
hours?

10. Consider the reaction A k P. The change in concentration of A with time is shown
in the following plot.

time, t (s) x

(i) Predict the order of the reaction.

(ii) Derive the expression for the time required for the completion of the reaction.

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Notes: Chapter 5: Surface Chemistry

● Adsorption:
(i) The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a
solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.
(ii) It is a surface phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration of adsorbate increases only at the surface of the adsorbent.
● Adsorbate: It is the substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of another
substance.
● Adsorbent: It is the substance present in bulk, on the surface of which adsorption is
taking place.
● Desorption: It is the process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on
which it is adsorbed.
● Absorption:
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly distributed throughout
the bulk of the solid.
(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration is uniform throughout the bulk of solid.
● Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously, it is called
sorption.
● Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Since, adsorption occurs with release in energy,
i.e., it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change for the adsorption of one mole
of an adsorbate on the surface of adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of adsorption.

Mechanism of Adsorption
Inside the Adsorbent (in bulk) the force acting between the particles are mutually balanced
but on the surface, the particles are not surrounded by atoms or molecules of their kind on
all sides and hence they posses attraction force so particle stick on the surface of the
Adsorbent.

The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface area per unit mass of the
adsorbent at a given temperature and pressure.

Heat of adsorption: - With increase in heat Adsorption process decreases.

Adsorption equilibrium: - As the molecules of the adsorbate are held on the surface of the
solid adsorbent.

Entropy decreases, i.e. S is negative

For the process of adsorption to occur, G must be negative which is possible only when,
S keeps on decreasing and T S keeps on increasing till ultimately H becomes equal.

To T S so that G = 0, this state is called adsorption equilibrium.

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Types of adsorption: There are different types of adsorption namely,

1. Physical adsorption
2. Chemical adsorption

● Physical adsorption
(i) if the adsorbate is held on a surface of adsorbent by weak vanderwaal forces, the
adsorption is called physical adsorption or physisorption.
(ii) It is non-specific.
(iii) It is reversible.
(iv) The amount of gas depends upon nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable gases like
NH3, CO2, gas adsorbed to greater extent than H2 and He. Higher the critical
temperature of gas, more will be the extent of adsorption.
(v) The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface area, e.g. porous and
finely divided metals are good adsorbents.
(vi) There are weak Vanderwaals’ forces of attraction between adsorbate and
adsorbent.
(vii) It has low enthalpy of adsorption (20 – 40 kJ mol-1).
(viii) Low temperature is favorable.
(ix) No appreciable activation energy is needed.
(x) It forms multimolecular layers.
● Chemical adsorption or chemisorption:

(i) If the forces holding the adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption
process is known as chemical adsorption of chemisorption.
(ii) It is highly specific.
(iii) It is irreversible.
(iv) The amount of gas adsorbed is not related to critical temperature of the gas.
(v) It also increases with increase in surface area.
(vi) There is strong force of attraction similar to chemical bond.
(vii) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption (180 – 240 kJ mol-1).
(viii) High temperature is favorable.
(ix) High activation energy is sometimes needed.
(x) It forms unimolecular layers.

● Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:

a. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in nature and therefore every

gas gets adsorbed on the surface of any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily
liquefiable gases like NH3, HCl, CO2, etc. which have higher critical temperatures are
absorbed to greater extent whereas H2, O2, N2 etc. are adsorbed to lesser extent. The
chemical adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed on specific solid
only if it enters into chemical combination with it.

b. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like aluminum oxide, silica gel
and clay are commonly used adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties
depending upon pores.

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c. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area more will be the extent of
adsorption. That is why porous or finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger
quantities of adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas molecules to
enter.

d. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase in pressure.

● Adsorption isotherm:
● The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at
constant temperature can be expressed by means of a curve is termed as adsorption
isotherm.
● Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between and pressure of the gas
at constant temperature is called adsorption isotherm and is given by

Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular
temperature k and n depends upon the nature of gas

● The adsorption first increase with increase in pressure at low pressure but becomes
independent of pressure at high pressure.

Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,

● If we plot a graph between log x/m and log P, we get a straight line.

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The slope of the line is 1/n and intercept will be equal to log k.

Applications of Adsorption
1) Production of high vacuum
2) Gas masks
3) Control of humidity
4) Removal of coloring matter from solution
5) Separation of inert gases
6) Froth floatation process
7) Chromatographic analysis

● Catalyst: These are substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and they
remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction and the
phenomenon is known as catalysis.

● Promoters: These are the substances which increase the activity of catalyst.
Example – Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst in Haber’s Process.

● Catalytic poisons (Inhibitors): These are the substances which decrease the activity
of catalyst. Example -Arsenic acts as catalytic poison in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid by ‘contact process.’

● Types of catalysis:
● There are two types of catalysis namely,
1. Homogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants are in the same phase, this
kind of catalytic process is known as homogeneous catalysis.

2. Heterogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants are in different phases, the
catalytic process is said to be heterogeneous catalysis.

3. Activity of catalyst:
4. It is the ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a chemical reaction. Catalyst has
an ability to increase the rate of reaction. This ability of catalyst is known as the

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activity of catalyst. It depends upon adsorption of reactants on the surface of
catalyst. Chemisorption is the main factor governing the activity of catalysts. The
bond formed during adsorption between the catalytic surface and the reactants
must not be too strong or too weak.

It must be strong enough to make the catalyst active whereas, not so strong that the
reactant molecules get immobilized on the catalytic surface leaving no further
space for the new reactants to get adsorbed. Generally for the hydrogenation
reaction, from Group 5 to Group 11 metals, the catalytic activity increases. The
catalytic activity is found to be highest for group 7-9 elements of the periodic table.

Pt
H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

5. Selectivity of Catalyst

Catalysts are highly specific compounds. They have an ability to direct the reaction
to yield a particular product. The reaction with same reactants but different catalyst
may yield different products. This is termed as the selectivity of catalyst. Catalysts
are highly selective in nature. They can accelerate a particular reaction while inhibit
another reaction. Hence, we can say a particular catalyst can catalyze one particular
reaction only. It may fail to catalyze another reaction of the same type. For example:
reaction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide yields methane when nickel is used as
catalyst, methanol when a mixture of zinc oxide and chromium oxide is used as
catalyst and methanal when only copper is used as catalyst.

For example: CO and H2 react to form different products in presence of different catalysts
as follows:

(i) CO(g) + 3H2(g) Ni−→ CH4(g) + H2O(g)

(ii) CO(g) + 2H2(g) Cu/ZnO−Cr2O3−→CH3OH(g)
(iii)CO(g) + H2(g) Cu−→ HCHO(g)

● Shape – selective catalysis: It is the catalysis which depends upon the pore structure
of the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and product molecules. Example –
Zeolites are shape – selective catalysts due to their honey- comb structure. They are
alumino silicates with Al-O-Si network. Example- ZSM-5 is a shape selective
catalyst which catalysis dehydration of alcohols to for gasoline.
● Enzymes: These are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced
by living plants and animals. They are actually protein molecules of high molecular
mass. They are biochemical catalysts

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● Steps of enzyme catalysis:

(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex.

(ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product.

● Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:

(i) They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform 106 molecules of
reactants per minute.
(ii) They are highly specific in nature. Example – Urease catalysis hydrolysis of urea only.
(iii) They are active at optimum temperature (298 – 310 K). The rate of enzyme catalysed
reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature called the optimum temperature.
(iv) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.
(v) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes which can be called as
promoters.
(vi) Activators are generally metal ions Na+, Co2+ and Cu2+ etc. They weakly bind to
enzyme and increase its activity.
(vii) Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited or poisoned by the
presence of certain substances.

● True solution:

(i) It is homogeneous.
(ii) The diameter of the particles is less than 1 nm.
(iii) It passes through filter paper.
(iv) Its particles cannot be seen under a microscope.

● Colloids:

(i) It appears to be homogeneous but is actually heterogeneous.

(ii) The diameter of the particles is 1 nm to 1000 nm.
(iii) It passes through ordinary filter paper but not through ultra-filters.
(iv) Its particles can be seen by a powerful microscope due to scattering of light.

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● Suspension:

(i) It is heterogeneous.
(ii) The diameter of the particles is larger than 1000 nm.
(iii) It does not pass through filter paper.
(iv) Its particles can be seen even with naked eye.

● Dispersed phase: It is the substance which is dispersed as very fine particles.

● Dispersion medium: It is the substance present in larger quantity.

● Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed phase and
dispersion medium:

Name Dispersed phase Dispersed medium Examples

Solid sol solid Solid Coloured gem stones

Sol Solid Liquid Paints

Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke, dust

Gel Liquid Solid Cheese, jellies

Emulsion Liquid Liquid Hair cream, milk

Aerosol Liquid Gas Mist, fog, cloud

Solid sol Gas Solid Foam rubber, pumice stone

Foam Gas Liquid Whipped cream

● Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between dispersed

phase and dispersion medium, the colloids are classified into two types namely,

1. Lyophobic sols
2. Lyophilic sols

● Lyophobic sols:

(i) These colloids are liquid hating.

(ii) In these colloids the particles of dispersed phase have no affinity for the dispersion
medium.
(iii) They are not stable.
(iv) They can be prepared by mixing substances directly.
(v) They need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
(vi) They are irreversible sols.

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● Lyophilic sols:

(i) These colloids are liquid loving.

(ii) In these colloids, the particles of dispersed phase have great affinity for the dispersion
medium.
(iii) They are stable.
(iv) They cannot be prepared by mixing substances directly. They are prepared only by
special methods.
(v) They do not need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
(vi) They are reversible sols.

● Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the dispersed phase:

There are three types of colloids based on the type of dispersed phase, namely,

1. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal particles consist of

aggregates of atoms or small molecules. The diameter of the colloidal particle
formed is less than 1 nm.
2. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the dispersed particles are
themselves large molecules (usually polymers). Since these molecules have
dimensions comparable to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called
macromolecular colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose form macromolecular
colloids.
3. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as normal, strong
electrolytes at low concentrations, but show colloidal properties at higher
concentrations due to the formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions.
Such substances are also referred to as associated colloids.

● Kraft Temperature (Tk): Micelles are formed only above a certain temperature
called Kraft temperature.

● Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a particular
concentration called critical micelle concentration.

● Soaps: These are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g., sodium
stearate CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+
● Cleansing action of soap:

When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt
and remove it from the cloth. First, the molecules of soap arrange themselves in
micelle formation and trap the dirt at the centre of the cluster. These micelles
remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal solution.

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Micelles

Methods of preparation of colloids

Chemical Methods:

Bredig's method:

An electric arc is struck between two metallic electrodes

immersed in dispersion medium. The arc produced vaporizes the
metal which on further condensation produces particles of
colloidal size.

Peptization:

Process of converting a freshly prepared precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with
electrolyte in dispersion medium is called as peptization. The electrolyte used for this
purpose is called peptizing agent.

● Purification of colloids:

1. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution

by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.
2. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster by
applying an electric field if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution
is only an electrolyte.
3. Ultrafiltration: It is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent
and soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters,
which are permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles. Ultra filter
paper is made by dipping filter paper in 4% solution of nitro cellulose in alcohol
and ether. This filter paper is hardened by dipping in formaldehyde.

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4. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is taken in a tube which is
placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating the tube at very high speed, the colloidal
particles settle down at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in
solution. The settled particles are mixed with dispersion medium to regenerate the
sol.

● Properties of colloids:
1. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the wavelength of
light scattered by the colloidal particles which in turn depends upon the
nature and size of particles. The colour also depends upon the manner in
which light is received by the observer. Example- Finest gold sol is red in
colour and as the size of the particle keeps increasing its colour changes to
blue, then purple and finally gold.
2. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path. This type
of motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion medium constantly
with colloidal particles.
3. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties (osmotic
pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and
elevation in boiling point) are of small order as compared to values shown
by true solutions at the same concentrations.
4. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal particles is
called Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called the Tyndall cone.
5. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric
charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given
colloidal solution and may be either positive or negative.

Positively charged colloidal particles

(i) These include hydrated metallic oxides such as Fe2O3.H2O, Cr2O3.H2O,

Al2O3.H2O
(ii) Basic dye stuff like malachite green, methylene blue sols.
(iii) Example – Hemoglobin (blood).

Negatively charged colloidal particles:

(i) Metallic sulphides like As2S3, Sb2S3 sols.

(ii) Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl orange, Congo red sols.
(iii) Examples – Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal, egg albumin, etc.

6. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles acquire

negative or positive charge by selective adsorption of one of the ions, it
attracts counter ions from the medium forming a second layer. The
combination of these two layers of opposite charges around colloidal
particles is called Helmholtz electrical double layer.
7. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential difference between
the fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite charges is called
electrokinetic potential or zeta potential.

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8. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an applied
electric potential is called electrophoresis.

9. Coagulation- It is process of settling of colloidal particles. Also called

precipitation of sol

Coagulation of Lyophobic Sols-

Coagulation of lyophobic sols can be done by the following methods:

● By electrophoresis - The colloidal particles move towards oppositely changed

electrodes get discharged and precipitate.
● By mixing two oppositely charged sols - Oppositely charged sols when mixed
together in almost equal proportion neutralize their charges and get partially or
completely precipitated.
● By Boiling- When a sol is boiled the adsorbed layer is disturbed due to increased
number of collisions with the molecules of the dispersion medium. This reduces the
charge on the particles and they ultimately settle down in the form of a precipitate.
● By Persistent dialysis - On prolonged dialysis, traces of the electrolyte present in
the sol are removed almost completely. Colloids become unstable and coagulate.
● By addition of electrolyte - When excess of electrolyte is added, colloidal particles
precipitate as colloids interact with ions carrying charge opposite to that present on
themselves. This causes neutralization leading to their coagulation.

Example- A negatively charged ion when added to a positively charged sol causes
coagulation. The negatively charged ion is called coagulating ion/flocculating ion as it
neutralizes the colloid to cause coagulation.

Coagulation of Lyophillic Sols-

Lyophilic sols are stable because of charge and solvation of colloidal particles. So we
remove these two factors to coagulate them. This is done by

● Addition of an electrolyte
● Addition of a suitable solvent

Protection of colloids -

● Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols

● Lyophilic colloids have a unique ability to protect lyophobic colloids from
electrolytes
● When a lyophilic sol is added to lyophobic sol, the lyophilic particles (colloids)
form a layer around the particles of lyophobic sol
● Lyophilic colloids are also called protective colloids

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Hardy-Schulze Rule-

● The greater the valency of the flocculating ion added, the greater is its precipitation.
● For negative sols, when positive ions are added

Al3+> Ba2+>Na+ is the order in terms of flocculating power

● For positive sols, when negative ions are added

[Fe(CN)6] 4-> PO43->SO42->Cl- is the order in terms of flocculating power

Coagulation Value/ Flocculation value: The number of millimoles of an electrolyte

required to bring about the coagulation of one litre of a colloidal solution is called its
flocculation value.

Emulsions: Emulsions are colloidal solutions where the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium, both , are in liquid state.

● Types of emulsions:
1. Water dispersed in oil (W/O): When water is the dispersed phase and oil is
the dispersion medium. E.g. butter
2. Oil dispersed in water (O/W): When oil is the dispersed phase and water is
the dispersion medium. E.g. milk
● Emulsification: It is the process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an
emulsifier.

● Emulsifying agent or emulsifier: These are the substances which are added to
stabilize the emulsions. They form an interfacial layer between the dispersed phase
and dispersion medium. Examples – soaps, gum for O/W type emulsion and lamp
black and long chain alcohols act as emulsifying agents for W/O type

● Demulsification: It is the process of breaking an emulsion into its constituent

liquids by freezing, boiling, centrifugation or some chemical methods.

Certain reasons related to colloids around us:

● Sky appears blue due to scattering of light by air molecules, water droplets,
and other colloidal particles in the sky. Blue colour scatters the most.
● Deltas are formed when river carrying silt, clay colloidal particles meets sea,
as there a lot many salts dissolved in sea water, they neutralize the charge on
colloidal particles leading to the coagulation of clay and silt forming deltas.
● Albimunoids in blood are negatively charged colloids. If there is bleeding
happening from a cut in the body, rubbing with alum (phikari), FeCl3 salt
leads to coagulation of blood due to neutralization of charged albimunoid
colloidal particles.
● Artificial rain can be produced by spraying oppositely charged sol on the
clouds which are colloids leading to their precipitation.

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Applications of Colloids

Electro precipitation of smoke – The smoke is led through a chamber containing plates
having a charged opposite to that carried by smoke particles. The particles on coming in
contact with these plates lose their charge and get precipitated. The particles settle down
on the floor of the chamber. The precipitator is called Cottrell precipitator.

2. Purification drinking water – Alum is added to impure water to coagulate the

suspended impurities and make water fit for drinking.

3. Medicines – Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature. Colloidal medicines are
more effective because they have a larger surface area and are more easily absorbed
by the body. Eg- Argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion, milk of magnesia is
used to cure stomach disorders, Antimony sol is used to cure Kalazaar, Gold sol is
used in intramuscular injections.

4. Tanning – Animal hides are colloidal in nature. When a hide that has
positively charged particles is soaked in tannin/chromium salts, which contains
negatively charged particles , mutual coagulation takes place. This results in the
hardening of leather. This process is termed as tanning.

5. Cleansing action of soaps- already explained

6. Photographic plates and films – Photographic plates and films are prepared by
coating an emulsion of the light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates
or celluloid films.

7. Rubber industry- Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are

negatively charged. Rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex.

8. Industrial products- Paints inks, synthetic plastics, rubber, cement, graphite

lubricants are all colloids.

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work:

Whole chapter will be done with the help of power point presentation.

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Assignment

Chapter 5: Surface Chemistry

Learning Outcomes: The learners-

● explains the cause and effect of adsorption and relationship between the terms in freundlich
adsorption isotherm.
● will be able to understand the differences between physical and chemical adsorption
● take initiative to know about scientific phenomena related to colloids around us , analyse it
and give reason for it.
● classifies and compares different types of colloids.
● will be able to understand the various types of catalysis - homogeneous and heterogeneous
● explains adsorption process and phenomena,
● understand the applications of adsorption in daily life.
● Describe preparation, properties and purification of colloids

1. Extent of physisorption of a gas increases with ___________.

(i) increase in temperature.

(ii) decrease in temperature.
(iii) decrease in surface area of adsorbent.
(iv) decrease in strength of van der Waals forces.

2. In Physisorption adsorbent does not show specificity for any particular gas because:

○ Involved vander Waals forces are universal

○ Gases involved behave like idal gases
○ Enthalpy of adsorption is low
○ It is a reversible process.

3. Which of the following is an example of absorption?

a) Water on silica gel

b) Water on calcium chloride
c) Hydrogen on finely divided nickel
d) Oxygen on metal surface

4. At high concentration of soap in water, soap behaves as ____________.

(i) molecular colloid

(ii) associated colloid
(iii) macromolecular colloid
(iv) lyophilic colloid

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In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding
statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion : Coagulation power of Al3+ is more than Na+ .

Reason : Greater the valency of the flocculating ion added, greater is its power to cause
precipitation (Hardy Schulze rule).

6. Assertion : Colloidal solutions do not show brownian motion.

Reason : Brownian motion is responsible for stability of sols.

7. Assertion: An ordinary filter paper impregnated with collodion solution stops the flow of
colloidal particles.
Reason: Pore size of the filter paper becomes more than the size of colloidal particle.

8. Assertion: Colloidal solutions show colligative properties.

Reason: Colloidal particles are large in size.

9. Assertion: Detergents with low CMC are more economical to use.

Reason: Cleansig action of detergent involves in the formation of micelles. These are
formed when the concentration of detergent becomes equal to CMC.
10. What happens when

(i) a freshly prepared precipitate of Fe(OH)3 is shaken with a small amount of FeCl3
solution?
(ii) persistent dialysis of a colloidal solution is carried out?
(iii)size of dispersed phase changes in gold sol.

11. (a) Define adsorption. Write any two features which distinguish physisorption and
chemisorption. Which has higher enthalpy of adsorption?
(b) Write one similarity between Physisorption and Chemisorption.
(c) List four applications of adsorption.

12. Write one difference in each of the following :

(i) Lyophobic sol and Lyophilic sol

(ii) Solution and Colloid

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13. (a) How can a colloidal solution and true solution of the same colour be distinguished from
each other?
(b) Why is ferric chloride preferred over potassium chloride in case of a cut leading to
bleeding?
(c) Name the physical states of dispersed phase and dispersion medium of froth?
(d) CO(g) and H2(g) react to give different products in the presence of different catalysts.
Which ability of the catalyst is shown by these reactions?

14. How does an increase in temperature affect both physical and chemical adsorption?

15. What causes Brownian movement in a colloidal solution?

16. Explain the following observations:

a) Lyophilic colloid is more stable than lyophobic colloid.

b) Coagulation takes place when sodium chloride solution is added to a colloidal solution
of ferric hydroxide.

c) Sky appears blue in colour.

d) Adsorption of a gas on the surface of solid is generally accompanied by a decrease in

entropy, still it is a spontaneous process.

e) Enzyme catalysts are highly specific in their action.

f) The enthalpy in case of chemisorption is usually higher than that of physisorption.

g) Cottrell’s smoke precipitator is fitted at the mouth of the chimney used in factories.

h) Physical adsorption is multilayered, while chemisorption is monolayered.

17. (i) Differentiate between adsorbtion and absorption.

(ii) Out of MgCl2 and AlCl3, which one is more effective in causing coagulation of
negatively charged sol and why ?
(iii) Out of sulphur sol and proteins, which one forms multimolecular colloids ?

18. A colloidal solution of AgI is prepared by two different methods shown below:-

(A) (B)

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(a) What is the charge of AgI colloidal particles in the two test tubes (A) and (B)?
(b) Give reasons for the origin of charge.

19. What are the two classes of emulsion? Give one example of each class.

20. Describe the following giving an example each:

a) Mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis. Give a point of difference between Homogeneous

catalysis and Heterogeneous catalysis.
b) Hardy Schulze Rule
c)Emulsification

21. Consider the adsorption isotherms given below and interpret the variation in the extent of
adsorption ( x/m) when:

(a) (i) temperature increases at constant pressure.

(ii) pressure increases at constant temperature.
(b) Name the catalyst and the promoter used in Haber’s process for manufacture of
ammonia.

22 In reference to Freundlich adsorption isotherm write the expression for adsorption of gases
on solids in the form of an equation.

Based on type of particles of dispersed phase, give one example each of associated colloid
and multimolecular colloid.

23. Give reason for the following observations;

(i) Leather gets hardened after tanning.

(ii) It is necessary to remove CO when ammonia is prepared by Haber’s process.

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Notes- Chapter -6
PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS

Minerals: These are naturally occurring chemical substances which are obtained from earth’s crust
by mining. In minerals metals are present in either native state or combined state.
Ores: The mineral from which metal can be economically and conveniently extracted is called ore.
Metallurgy: The entire scientific and technological process used for isolation of the metal from the
ores is known as metallurgy. The major steps for extraction and isolation of metals are:--
● Concentration of the ore
● Isolation of metal from the concentrated ore
● Purification of metal

I) CONCENTRATION OF ORES
Removal of unwanted materials (ie; clay, sand etc.) from ores is known as concentration. These
earthly or undesirable impurities are called GANGUE. Some important procedures are:-

1) Hydraulic washing: This is based on the difference in gravities of the ore and the gangue
particles. In this an upward stream of running water is used to wash the powdered on .
The lighter gangue particles are washed away and heavier ores are left behind.

2) Magnetic Separation: This is base on the differences in the magnetic properties of the ore
components. One of the two, ore or gangue is capable of being attracted by magnetic field.

3) Froth Floatation process: This method is used to remove gangue from sulphide ores. A
suspension of powdered ore is made with water. To it collectors (E.g- Pine oil) and Froth
stabilizers (e.g., cresol, aniline) are added. Collectors enhance wettability of pine oil and
froth stabilizers froth. Mineral particles wetted by oil are carried away with froth and
gangue particles move into water.

Two sulphide ores can be separated using depressants. For eg. NaCN is used to separate
ZnS and PbS present in a ore.

4) Chemical Methods(Leaching):
a) Leaching of Alumina from Bauxite: Bauxite contains SiO2, iron oxides and titanium
oxide as impurities. Powdered ore is treated with concentrated solution of NaOH at
478-523 K and 35-36 bar pressure.
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq.) + 3H2O(l) 2Na[Al(OH)4] (aq.)

The aluminate solution is neutralized by passing CO2 gas and hydrated Al2O3 separated
out.
2Na[Al(OH)4](aq.) + CO2(g) Al2O3.xH2O(s) + 2NaHCO3g)

The sodium silicate remains in the solution and hydrated alumina is filtered, dried and
heated to give pure Al2O3.

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Al2O3.xH2O (S) Al2O3 (s) + x H2O (g)
b) Other example: In metallurgy of silver and gold, the respective metal is leached with
dilute solution of NaCN or KCN in presence of air (Or O2)

4M(S) + 8 CN-(aq.) + 2H2O(aq.) + O2(g) 4[M(CN)2]-(aq.) + 4 OH-(aq.)

2[M(CN)2]- (aq.) + Zn(s) [Zn(CN)4]2- + 2 M(s) (M=Ag or Au)

II) CALCINATION/ROASTING: The concentrated ore is then converted to its oxide form by
heating .
If the concentrated ore is heting strongly in the absence of air to get rid of impurities, and
the ore changes to oxide form, it is called calcination. It is generally observed for carbonate
ore. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
If the concentrated ore is heated in the presence of oxygen, ore gets converted to oxide
form and small molecules like SO2 are released. It generally takes place for sulphide ore.
ZnS+ O2 ZnO + SO2

III) REDUCTION

Reduction of oxide to metal:

This involves heating of the oxide with a reducing agent like C or CO or even another
metal based on reactivity of the metal to be extracted.
MxOy + yC xM + yCO

Extraction of iron from its oxides

FeO(S) + C(s) Fe(S/l) + CO(g)
(Discussed later under extraction of Iron)

Extraction of copper from cuprous oxide:

The sulphide ores are roasted/smelted to give oxides (Most sulphide ores contain iron)
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
The oxide is then reduced to metallic copper using coke.
Cu2O + C 2Cu + CO
In actual process, the ore is heated in a reverberatory furnace after mixing with silica. The
iron oxide slags off as iron silicate and copper is produced in the form of copper matte.
This contains Cu2S and FeS.
FeO+ SiO2 FeSiO3 (slag)

Copper matte is then charged into silica lined convertor. Some silica is also added and hot
air blast is blown to convert the remaining FeS, FeO and Cu2S/Cu2O to metallic copper.
The reactions taking place are:
2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2

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The solidified copper obtained has blistered appearance due to evaluation of SO2& so is
called blister copper.

Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide:

The reduction of zinc oxide is done using coke. For the purpose of heating, the oxide is
made into brickettes with coke and clay.
ZnO + C coke, 673K Zn + CO
The metal is distilled off and collected by rapid chilling.

Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy:

Gibb’s energy is described by the equation ΔG = ΔH –TΔS.
For any reaction, this change can be described by ΔG = -RTlnK
Negative ΔG implies positive K and this can happen when reaction proceeds towards
products.
(i) If ΔS is positive, on increasing T the value of TΔS would increase (ΔH < TΔS) and
ΔH<TΔS) and ΔG becomes negative.
(ii) If reactants and products of two reactions are put together in a system and net ΔG
is negative, overall reaction would occur. So the process involves coupling of two
reactions and getting sum of their ΔG as negative.
For eg: In reduction of FeO
FeO (s) Fe(s) + ½ O2 (g) [ ΔG(FeO, Fe)]
C (s) + ½ O2 (g) CO (g) [ ΔG (C, CO)]
We couple the two so that net Gibb’s energy change becomes
ΔG(C,CO) + ΔG (FeO, Fe) = ΔG
The resultant will have ΔG as negative.
According to Ellingham diagram, the ΔGo Vs. T plot representing the reaction goes upward
and that representing C CO goes downward. At [Link] 1073 K the (C,CO) line
come below the Fe, FeO line [ ΔG(C, CO) < ΔG( Fe, FeO)]. So coke will be reducing FeO
and is itself oxidized to CO.

IV) REFINING

A metal extracted by any method is usually contaminated with some impurity. Some
methods are
a) Distillation: The impure metal is evaporated to obtain pure metal as distillate. Used
for low boiling metals like Zn and mercury.
b) Liquation: The low melting metal, like tin is separated from high melting impurities
by this method. The metal is made to flow on sloping surface.
c) Electrolytic refining: In this method impure metal is made to act as anode. A strip of
same metal in pure form is made cathode. The electrolyte used contains soluble salt of
the same metal. The more basic metals remain in the solution and less basic form
anode mud.
For e.g. Copper is refined by electrolytic method. Anode is impure copper and pure
copper strips are taken as cathode and electrolyte is acidified solution of copper sulphate.

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Anode: Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
d) Zone refining: It is based on the fact that melting point of a substance is lowered by
the presence of impurities. Consequently when an impure metal in molten state is
cooled, crystals of pure metal are solidified first and impurities remain behind in the
molten metal which crystallizes later. The semiconductors –silicon and germanium are
purified by this method.
e) Vapour Phase refining: This method is used for preparing ultrapure metals by
forming vapours of the compound of metal and later decomposition to get pure metal.
Eg- 1) Mond process for refining Ni
Ni + 4CO 330-350 K Ni(CO)4
volatile complex- nickel tetracarbonyl
At higher temperature,
Ni(CO)4 450-470 K Ni + 4CO

2) Van Arkel method for refining of Zr or Ti : This method is useful for

removing all oxygen and nitrogen present as impurity. Crude metal is heated in
evacuated vessel with iodine.
Zr + 2I2 ZrI4
Metal iodide is then heated on a tungsten filament to about 1800 K.
ZrI4 ∆ Zr + 2I2

f) Chromatographic methods: This method is based on the principle that different

components are differently adsorbed on adsorbent. The mixture is put in a suitable
solvent and applied on top of the column. The adsorbent is packed in a glass column.
The adsorbed components are removed (eluted) out using suitable solvent (eluent).
The weakly adsorbed component is eluted first followed by the more strongly
adsorbed and so on. This is called column chromatography. This method is used for
purification of elements available in minute quantities and impurities not very different
in chemical properties.

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM:

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore, Al2O3.2H20. It involves two steps:

1. Concentration (by Baeyer’s Process) : Purification of Bauxite ore is done by Baeyer’s process.
This Chemical method is called leaching.
(Explained under methods of concentration)
2. Reduction { byElectrolysis of fused alumina (Hall-Heroult process)}: The purified alumina is
dissolved in molten cryolite and is electrolyse in an iron tank lined inside with carbon. The
molten cryolite decreases the melting point to about 1173 K and also increases conductivity.
The anode consists of a number of carbon rods which dip in fused electrolyte. The electrolyte
is covered with a layer of powdered coke.

2Al2O3 + 3C 4Al + 3CO2

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Reactions at electrodes are:
At Cathode: Al3+ (melt) + 3e- Al(l)
At Anode: C(s) + O (melt)
2- CO(g) +2e-
C(s) + 2O2- (melt) CO2 (g) + 4e-
Therefore, aluminium is liberated at the cathode and gets collected at the bottom of the tank from
where it is removed. The oxygen evolved combines with carbon of anode to form CO or CO2 and
escapes out. Because of reaction at carbon anodes, these need to be replaced periodically.
3. Refininig of Aluminium:
The aluminium metal obtained above is 99% pure, which is further purified by Hoop’s electrolytic
method. The process is carried out in an iron tank lined with carbon. It has 3 layers of molten
liquid having different densities.
(i) The top layer consists of pure Al having carbon electrodes dipping in it. The carbon
electrodes act as cathode.
(ii) The middle layer has fluorides of sodium, barium and Aluminium in molten state.
This acts as an electrolyte.
(iii) The bottom layer consists of impure Al along with the carbon lining acts as anode.

On passing electric current aluminium ions from the middle layer are discharged at cathode as
pure Al. The pure Al is removed from the tapping hole. An equivalent amount of Al from bottom
layer moves into the middle layer leaving behind impurities.

EXTRACTION OF IRON
Iron is the second most abundant element occurring in earth’s crust. The common ores are:
Haemite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Limonite Fe2O3.3H2O
Iron Pyrites FeS2
Siderite FeCO3
Cast Iron is usually extracted from its oxide ore (haematite). It involves the following steps---
1) Concentration: The ore is first crushed and crushed ore is concentrated by gravity
separation; ie hydraulic washing
2) Calcination: The concentrated ore is calcined, ie, heated strongly in limited supply of air in
a reverberatoryfurnance. The following changes take place:
i) Moisture is removed
ii) Impurities of S, P4 and As are converted to their gaseous oxides; sO2 , As2O3 and
P4O10 which are volatile and escape out.
3) Reduction (by Smelting) : The calcined ore is reduced with carbon, ie smelted in a blast
furnance. It is a tall cylindrical furnance made of steel llined with fire bricks. It is narrow
at the top and has cup and cone arrangement for the introduction of charge and outlet for
waste gases. At the base of furnace, it is provided with ---
i) Tuyeres arrangement for introduction of hot air
ii) A tapping hole for withdrawing molten iron and
iii) An outlet through which slag is flown out.

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The calcined ore ( 8 parts ) is mixed with coke (4 parts) and limestone (1part) is introduced from
top. At the same time a blast of hot air preheated at 1000 K is blown upwards with the help of
tuyers arrangement. The added coke acts as a reducing agent and lime serves as flux. The
burning of coke to carbon monoxide supplies most of the heat required for working temperature
of furnace and give temp. upto 2200 K at the bottom of furnace. As the gases move up, they meet
the descending charge and temp. falls. At the bottom reducing agent is carbon but at the top the
reducing agent is CO.

The reactions occurring are:---

1) Combustion zone: At the base coke burns to produce CO2 which starts rising upward. The
reaction is exothermic and heat produced raises the temperature to about 2200 K.
C + O2 CO2 ∆H = -393.4 KJ
2) Fusion zone: As CO2 rises upward, it comes in contact with coke and gets reduced to CO.
CO2 + C 2CO ∆H = +63.2 KJ
The reaction is endothermic , the temperature is lowered to 1570 K. The iron produced in the
upper region melts. Any Fe2O3 if present is reduced by hot coke to iron.
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO + heat
3) Slag formation zone; In the middle temperature is about 1270K. In this region limestone
decomposes.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2

The lime acts as flux and combines with silica (present as an impurity) to produce slag.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
The molten slag forms a separate layer above molten iron.
4) Reduction Zone: The temperature near the top of furnace is 875 K. The oxide is reduced by
carbon monoxide to iron.
FeO + CO Fe + CO2
3Fe2O3+ CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

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Fe3O4 + 4CO 3Fe + 4CO2
Fe2O3 + CO 2FeO + CO2
The spongy iron produced moves down slowly and melts in fusion zone.
At lower hotter part, reaction is
FeO + C Fe + CO.
It dissolves some carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese and forms a layer at the
bottom. The iron obtained is called Pig iron.
Cast iron is different from Pig Iron and is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and
coke using hot air blast. It has slightly less carbon content (about 3%) . It is extremely
hard but brittle.
Wrought iron is purest form of iron and is prepared from cast iron by oxidizing impurities
in reverberatory furnace lined with haematite. Haematite oxidizes carbon.
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
Limestone is added as flux and S, Si and P are oxidized and passed into slag. The metal is
then removed.

EXTRACTION OF COPPER:

Copper is mainly extracted from copper pyrites (CuFeS2). The various steps are:
1) Crushing and concentration: The ore is crushed in haw crushers and is finally powdered. It
is concentrated by froth floatation process.
2) Roasting: The concentrated ore is roasted ,i.e, heated strongly in the presence of excess of air
in a reverberatory furnace.
a) Moisture is removed from ore and it becomes dry.
b) The impurities of S, P4, As and Sb are removed as their volatile oxides.
S + O2 SO2
P4 + 5O2 2P2O5
4As + 3O2 2As2O3
4Sb + 3O2 2Sb2O3
c) Copper pyrites is converted to ferrous sulphide (FeS) and cuprous sulphide (Cu2S)
2CuFeS2 + O2 Cu2S + FeS + SO2
2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
3) Smelting: The roasted ore is mixed with powdered coke and sand and is strongly heated in a
blast furnace . The blast furnace is made of steel and is lined with fire bricks. A blast of hot air
is introduced at the lower part of the furnace and changes occurring are:
a) Ferrous sulphide is oxidized to ferrous oxide which combines with silica to form slag.
2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
FeO+ SiO2 FeSiO3 (slag)
The slag being lighter forms the upper layer and is removed from time to time.
b) During roasting if any oxide of copper is formed, it combines with FeS and is changed back
into its sulphide
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2

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Cu2O + FeS Cu2S + FeO (This changes to slag by combining with SiO2)
As a result two separate layers are formed at the bottom of furnace. Upper layer is slag
which is removed as waste. The lower layer of molten mass contains mostly cuprous
sulphide and some traces of ferrous sulphide. It is called matte and is taken out from
tapping hole at bottom.

4) Bessemerisation: The molten matte from Blast-furnace is transferred to Bessemer converter.

The vessel is silica lined from inside. A blast of hot air is mixed with sand is blown into
molten matte. During this process ….
a) Traces of ferrous sulphide present in matte are oxidized to FeO which combines with silica
to form slag.
2 FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
FeO+ SiO2 FeSiO3 (slag)
b) Copper sulphide is oxidized to cuprous oxide which further reacts with remaining copper
sulphide to form copper and sulphur dioxide.
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2
After the reaction has been completed, the converter is tilted and molten copper is put in
moulds. The copper thus obtained is 99% pure and is known as blister copper. The name
blister is given because as metal solidifies, the dissolved SO2 escapes out producing blisters
on metal surface.

5) Refining: Blister copper is purified by:

a) Poling: Heating strongly in a reverberatory furnace in the presence of excess of air.
Impurities are either converted to oxides or converted to slag. Some copper also changes
to cuprous oxide. This is reduced back to copper by stirring the molten metal with green
poles of wood. This gives 99.5 % pure Cu, which is then purified by electrolytic refining.
b) Electrolytic refining: A thin sheet of metal is made cathode and block of crude metal is
made as anode. Both the electrodes are placed in an acidified CuSO4 solution when
electric current is passed through the solution, impure Cu from anode goes into the
solution and pure Cu from the solution gets deposited on the cathode.
At anode: Cu Cu2+ +2e-
At Cathode Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
The impurities of Zn, Ni, Fe etc. gets collected below as anode mud.

EXTRACTION OF ZINC

Principal ore of Zinc is Zinc Blende. Extraction is carried out in the following steps:-
1) Concentration: Ore is concentrated by froth floatation process.
2) Roasting: Concentrated ore is roasted in excess of air at about 1200 K andZnS is converted to
ZnO.
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
3) Reduction: ZnO is reduced by heating with crushed coke at 673 K. For the purpose of
heating, the oxide is made into brickettes with coke and clay.
ZnO + C coke, 673K Zn + CO

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The metal is distilled off and collected by rapid chilling.
4) Refining: Impure metal is refined by electrolysis. In this process, impure zinc is made the
anode and a plate of pure zinc is made the cathode. The electrolyte is zinc sulphate with little
dil. H2SO4. On passing current zinc is deposited at cathode while equal amount of zinc from
anode goes into electrolyte. Thus, pure zinc is obtained on cathode.

Some extractions based on oxidation:

1) EXTRACTION OF CHLORINE FROM BRINE
Chlorine is abundant in sea water and hence is obtained from electrolysis of brine solution.
2Cl- (aq.) + 2H2O (l) 2OH- (aq.) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
ΔGo = +422 KJ and using ΔGo =-nFEoCell , Eo=-2.2 V .
So it requires emf greater than 2.2 V. But electrolysis requires an excess potential to overcome
some hindering reaction. Thus, Cl2 is obtained by electrolysis giving out H2 and aqueous
NaOH as by products.

2) EXTRACTION OF GOLD AND SILVER:

Extraction of Gold involves leaching the metal with CN- (OXIDATION)
4Au(s) + 8CN-(aq.) + 2 H2O (aq.) + O2 (g) 4[Au(CN)2]-(aq.) + 4OH- (aq.)[oxidation,
NaCN here acts as a leaching agent or complexing agent.
2[Au(CN)2]-(aq.) + Zn (s) 2Au(s) + [ Zn(CN)4]2- (aq.) [ Reduction , Zn acts as a
reducing agent]

Similarly for Silver

4Ag(s) + 8CN-(aq.) + 2 H2O (aq.) + O2 (g) 4[Ag(CN)2]-(aq.) + 4OH- (aq.)
2[Ag(CN)2]-(aq.) + Zn (s) 2Ag(s) + [ Zn(CN)4]2- (aq.)

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work

Whole chapter is taught with the help of a presentation with animations.

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Assignment
Chapter 6: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements

Learning Outcomes: The learner

● differentiates between different types of, phenomena of concentration of ores, methods to prepare
oxides, based on properties or characteristics of ores of metals.
● classifies between different methods of refining based on properties and characteristics of metals
obtained
● Understand the principles of oxidation and reduction and apply to the extraction procedures
● describes scientific discoveries and inventions, such as economical metallurgical processes
● Apply the thermodynamic concepts like that of Gibbs energy and entropy to the principles of
extraction of Al, Cu, Fe & Zn.
● explains why specific reducing agents , like CO, are used for the reduction purposes,

1. In the extraction of copper from its sulphide ore, the metal is formed by the reduction of Cu2O
with

(a)FeS (b) CO (c) Cu2 (d) SO2

2. In the metallurgy of aluminium….

(a)Al3+ is oxidized to Al(s)

(b)graphite anode is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
(c)oxidation state of oxygen changes in the reaction at anode
(d)oxidation state of oxygen changes in the overall reaction involved in the process

3. In the extraction of chlorine by electrolysis of brine….

a) Oxidation of Cl- ion to Chlorine gas occurs

b) Reduction of Cl- ion to Chlorine gas occurs
c) For overall reaction ∆G0 has negative value
d) A displacement reaction takes place

4. When copper ore is mixed with silica, in a reverberatory furnace copper matte is produced. The
copper matte contains

a) sulphides of copper (II) and iron (II)

b) sulphides of copper (II) and iron (III)
c) sulphides of copper (I) and iron (II)
d) sulphides of copper (I) and iron (III)

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding

statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.

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(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. 5Assertion: Ag and Au are extracted by leaching their ores with a dilute solution of NaCN.

Reason: Impurities associated with these ores dissolve in NaCN.

6. Assertion: Carbonate and hydroxide ores are concentrated by froth floatation process.

Reason: In froth floatation process, mineral oil is used because it preferentially wets the gangue

particles.

7. Assertion: Sulphide ores are concentrated by froth floatation method.

Reason: Cresols stabilize the froth in froth floatation method.

8. Assertion: Zone refining method is very useful for producing semiconductors

Reason: Semiconductors are of high purity.

9. Write the chemical reactions involved in the process of extraction of Gold. Explain the role of
dilute NaCN and Zn in this process.

10. (a) Write the principle of method used for the refining of germanium.
(b) Out of PbS and PbCO3 (ores of lead), which one is concentrated by froth floatation process
preferably?
(c) What is the significance of leaching in the extraction of aluminium?

11. 2What do you understand by the following terms?

(a) Roasting (b) Flux (c) Calcination (d) Smelting (e) Slag

12. a) In the extraction of Al, impure Al2O3 is dissolved in conc. NaOH to form sodium
aluminate and leaving impurities behind. What is the name of this process ? also write
the reactions involved

b) What is the role of coke in the extraction of iron from its oxides?

13. 5Write the reactions occurring in the different zones of blast furnance during extraction of iron
from concentrated Haemetite ore.

14. 6Explain Hall Heroult process of reduction of aluminium oxide. What is the role of graphite and
cryolite in electrometallurgy of aluminium?

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15. 7(a) Why is the froth floatation method selected for the concentration of Sulphide ores? Write
reactions taking place in the extractions of zinc from zinc blende.

(b) An ore sample of galena (PbS) is contaminated with zinc blende (ZnS). Name one chemical
compound which can be used to concentrate galena selectively by froth floatation method.
What are such substances called?

16. 8(a) What is the role of silica in the extraction of copper?Explain electrorefining of copper. Name
the common metals present as anode mud in electrorefining of copper.

17. 1Account for the following facts :

a) The reduction of a metal oxide is easier if the metal formed is in liquid state at the
temperature of reduction.
b) The reduction of Cr2O3 with Al is thermodynamically feasible, yet it does not occur at room
temperature.
c) Pine oil is used in froth floatation method

18. 1a) Indicate the principle behind the method used for refining of [Link] of C and CO, which
is a better reducing agent at the lower temperature range in the blast furnace to extract iron
from the oxide ore?

b) Which form of iron is the purest form of iron?

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p- block Elements

General Configuration: ns2 np1-6

Maximum oxidation state = Group 10

Across a period: Covalent radii and metallic character decreases, but electro negativity, electron
affinity, oxidizing power and ionization energy increases.

Down the group: Covalent radii and metallic character increases, but electro negativity, electron
affinity, oxidizing power and ionization energy decreases.

Inert pair effect: While going down the group, the ns2 electrons become more and more reluctant
to participate in bond formation. This is because down the group bond energy decreases and so
the energy required to un-pair ns2 electrons is not compensated by the energy released in forming
two additional bonds.

Group 15

N 2s2 2p3 Non

P 3s2 3p3 Metals ● Solids and show allotropic modifications

As 4s2 4p3 ● s-orbitals in these elements are completely filled and p-

Metalloids orbitals are half filled, making their electronic
Sb 5s2 5p3 configuration extra stable.

Bi 6s2 6p3 Metal

Down the group covalent radii increases and electro negativity decreases, Ionization energy
decreases and hence metallic nature increases. Nitrogen has maximum electro negativity.

There is considerable increase in covalent radius from N to P. However from As to Bi only a small
increase in covalent radius is observed.

Successive ionization enthalpy: ∆iH1 < ∆iH2 < ∆iH3

Boiling point (bp) increases from top to bottom, but mp increases upto As and decreases upto Bi.

Except N all elements show allotropy.

Chemical properties of group 15

Oxidation State and Trends in group 15

N -3, +3

P -3, +3, +5 ● Covalent character decreases down the group.

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As -3, +3, +5 ● Most common oxidation state are -3, +3 and +5

Sb +3, +5 ● -3 O.S decreases down the group due to increase in size and metallic
nature.
Bi +3, +5

● The stability of +5 O.S decreases due to inert pair effect down the group. Only Bi(V)
compound is BiF5
● Nitrogen exhibits +1, +2 and +4 O.S also when it reacts with oxygen. All these O.S tend to
disproportionate in acid solution.E.g
3HNO2 → HNO3 + H2O + 2NO
● Nitrogen is restricted to a maximum covalency of 4 since 4 orbitals (ons s and three p) are
available for bonding.
● Phosphorous exhibits nearly all intermediate O.S from +5 and -3.
● The heavier elements have vacant d-orbitals which can be used for bonding as in PF6-

Anomalous properties of nitrogen

● Nitrogen differs from the rest of the members of this group due to its smaller size, high electro
negativity, high ionization enthalpy and non-availability of d-orbitals.
● Nitrogen can form pπ-pπ multiple bond.
● Nitrogen exists as diatomic molecule with a triple bond.
● Heavier elements do not form pπ-pπ bonds as their atomic orbitals are so large and differs that
they cannot have effective overlapping.
● P, As and Sb form P-P, As-As and Sb-Sb single bonds whereas Bi forms metallic bonds.
However, N-N single bond is weaker than P-P single bond, because of high inter electronic
repulsion of non-bonding electrons owing to small bond length.
● Catenations tendency is weaker in N as N-N bond is much weaker than P-P, As-As and Sb-Sb
due to inter electronic repulsions because of small bond length.
● Except nitrogen, the heavier elements can form dπ-pπ bonds, e.g R3P=O or R3P=CH2 and also
when transition elements like P(C2H5)3 and As(C6H5)3 act as ligands; they form dπ-dπ bonds.

1) Reactivity towards hydrogen: Form hydrides of formula EH3

● Structure pyramidal
● Bond angle decreases down the group due to decrease in electro negativity.
● Stability decreases due to increase in size.
● Reducing character increases due to decrease in stability. NH3 is a mild reducing agent
while BiH3 is strongest.
● Basic character decreases in the order: NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3.
2) Reactivity towards oxygen: Form two types of oxides of the formula: E2O3 and E2O5. The oxide
in the higher oxidation is more acidic than that of lower oxidation state. Acidic character
decreases down the group.
N2O3, P2O3 � Acidic
As2O3, Sb2O3 � Amphoteric
Bi2O3 � Basic oxide
3) Reactivity towards halogens: They form halides of the formula: EX3 and EX5.
● Nitrogen does not form pentahalide due to absence of the d orbitals.
● Pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides.
● All trihalides except those of nitrogen are stable. Only NF3 is stable. Trihalides except
BiF3 are predominantly covalent.

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4) Reactivity towards metals: All these elements react with metals to form their binary
compounds exhibiting –3 oxidation state, such as, Ca3N2 (calcium nitride) Ca3P2 (calcium
phosphide), Na3As2 (sodium arsenide), Zn3Sb2 (zinc antimonide) and Mg3Bi2 (magnesium
bismuthide).

Dinitrogen

Preparation

1. Dinitrogen is prepared commercially by the liquefaction and fractional distillation of air.

2. In the laboratory, dinitrogen is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride with sodium nitrite.
NH4CI(aq) + NaNO2(aq) → N2(g) + 2H2O(l) + NaCl (aq)
3. (NH4)2Cr2O7 Heat N2 + 4H2O + Cr2O3
4. Pure nitrogen is obtained by the thermal decomposition of sodium or barium azide.
Ba(N3)2 → Ba + 3N2
2NaN3 →2Na + 3N2

Properties

1. Dinitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-toxic gas.

2. It is inert at room temperature because of the high bond enthalpy of N ≡ N bond.
3. At high temperature, it directly combines with some metals to form ionic nitrides and with
non-metals to form covalent nitrides.
6Li + N2 Heat 2Li3N
3Mg + N2 Heat 2Mg3N2
4. It combines with hydrogen at about 773 K to form ammonia:
N2(g) + 3H2 (g) 773K 2NH3(g); ΔfHo = –46.1 kJmol–1
5. It combines with dioxygen only at about 2000 K to form nitric oxide, NO.
N2 + O2(g) Heat 2NO(g)

Thermal decomposition of sodium azide gives dinitrogen gas. (2NaN3 �2Na +3N2)

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Ammonia

Preparation

Ammonia is present in small quantities in air and soil where it is formed by the decay of
nitrogenous organic matter e.g., urea.

On a small scale ammonia is obtained from ammonium salts which decompose when treated with
caustic soda or lime.

On a large scale, ammonia is manufactured by Haber’s process.

The optimum conditions are a pressure of 200 × 105 Pa (about 200 atm), a temperature of ~ 700 K
with iron oxide and small amount of K2O and Al2O3 as catalyst.

HABER’S PROCESS

Properties

1. Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent odour.

2. In the solid and liquid state there exists H-bond, which accounts for its higher melting and
boiling points.
3. It is trigonal bipyramidal with three bond pairs and 1 lone pair.
4. Highly soluble

(weakly basic in aq. Solution)

5. Forms ammonium salts with acids, e.g., NH4Cl, (NH4)2 SO4, etc. It precipitates the hydroxides
of many metals from their salt solutions. For example,

6. Presence of a lone pairs makes it a Lewis base. It donates the electron pair and forms linkage
with metal ions.

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Uses

To produce nitrogenous fertilizers and manufacture of inorganic nitrogen compounds. Liquid

ammonia is also used as a refrigerant.

Oxides of Nitrogen

Formula Oxidatio Resonance Structures Common Methods of

n Preparation

state

+1

+2

+3

+4

+4

+5

NITRIC ACID
Preparation

1. In the laboratory, nitric acid is prepared by heating KNO3 or NaNO3 and concentrated H2SO4
in a glass retort.
NaNO3 + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HNO3
2. On a large scale it is prepared mainly by Ostwald’s process.

3. 2NO(g) +O2(g) 2NO2(g)

4. 3NO2(g) + H2O (l) � 2HNO3 (aq) + NO (g)
5. NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous HNO3 can be concentrated by distillation upto ~
68% by mass. Further concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with concentrated
H2SO4.

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Properties

1. A colourless liquid. In gaseous state it has a planar structure.

2. In aq. Solution, behaves as a strong acid.
HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
3. Conc. HNO3 is a strong oxidizing agent and can react with metals and non-metals.
3Cu + 8HNO3 (dil) Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + H2O
Cu + 4HNO3 (conc) � Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
4Zn + 10HNO3 (dil) � 4Zn(NO3)2 + 5H2O + N2O
Zn + 4HNO3 (conc) � Zn(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2N2O

With Non-metals

Brown Ring Test: Aq. Solution of nitrate ion + dil. FeSO4 solution + conc. H2SO4 along the sides
of the test tube.

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PHOSPHORUS

Occurrence: Occurs as fluoroapatite Ca5(PO4)3F and hydroxyapatire ca5(PO4)3(OH)

Preparation:

● Calcination of phosphate rock.

● Reduction with coke and sand
2Ca(PO4)3 + 6SiO2 +10C 1773K, electric arc P4 + 6 CaSiO3 + 10CO

Vapours condensed to solid under water

Allotropes:

1. White Phosphorus:

Condensation of gaseous or liquid state. It glows in dark (chemiluminescence). It is a waxy

solid, insoluble in water, soluble in CS2 and benzene. It is stored under water as it ignites
spontaneously in air. It shows phosphopescence.

● Each ‘P’ located at the corner of a tetrahedron is

attached to 3 other ‘P’ atoms.

● Angle is 60o. P4 units face lot of angle strain.

● It readily catches fire in air to give white dense fumes

of P4O10

P4 +5O2 � P4O10

● It dissolves in NaOH (boiling) to give phosphine.

P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O � PH3 + 3NaH2PO2 (sodium

hypophosphite)

2. Red Phosphorus:

White P 570K,inert atm. Red P

It is insoluble in water and CS2.

It does not glow in the dark.
It has a high melting point (870K), amorphorus, less reactive.
Red P is less reactive than white P.
Safe to handle and shows a polymeric structure.

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3. Black Phosphorus:

It has two forms: α-black phosphorus and β-black phosphorus.

Red P 803k Black P (α-form)
White P 473k, high pressure Black P (β-form)
It is the most stable variety with an extended layer structure

Uses:

In the form of phosphatic fertilizers.

Manufacture of food grade phosphates.
Detergents, pharmaceuticals, water industry.
Manufacture of organo phosphorus compounds used as pesticides.

Compounds: Hydrides: (MH3)

NH3 – Ammonia, most stable, shows H-bonding. Therefore, soluble in water

PH3 – Phosphine : When pure, it is non inflammable but becomes inflammable owing to the
presence of P2H4 or P4 vapours. To purify it from the impurities, it is absorbed in HI to form
phosphonium iodide (PH4I) which on treating with KOH gives off phosphine.
PH4I + KOH → KI + H2O + PH3
AsH3
SbH3 no H-bond insoluble in water. Strong reducing agent and poisonous.
BiH3

Preparation of PH3:

Ca3P2 + 6HCl 3CaCl2 + 2PH3

Ca3P2 + 6H2O 2PH3 + 3Ca(OH)2
P4 + 3KOH 3H2O PH3 + 3KH2PO2 (Potassium hypophosphite)
/NaOH /3NaH2PO2

Preparation of AsH3, SbH3:

M=As, Sb
Zn3M2 + 6HCl 2MH3(g) + 3ZnCl2
● Basic character of hydrides decrease down the group due to decrease in charge density. NH3 is
the most basic whereas ASH3, SbH3, BiH3 do not show any basic properties.
● Thermal stability decreases down the group as the size of the central atom increases and the
tendency to form stable M-H bond decreases.
● Reducing character increases down the group, because thermal stability of hydrides decreases.

Properties of Phosphine:

It is a colourless gas with rotten fish smell and is highly poisonous. It explodes in contact with
traces of oxidising agents like HNO3, Cl2 and Br2 vapours.

PH3(aq) light Red P + H2

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3CuSO4 + 2PH3 → Cu3P2 + 3H2SO4
3HgCl2 + 2PH3 → Hg3P2 + 6HCl
(mercury chloride)

Phosphine is weakly basic and gives phosphonium compounds with acids e.g.,
PH3 + HBr → PH4Br
Halides:
MX3 (known for all) MX5 (except N)
N: 2s22p3, It can easily form 3 covalent bonds and 1 coordinate bond. Thus total 4 bonds.
Since there is non-availability of d-orbital, it cannot extend its coordination number beyond 4.
However, for P and other group 15 elements, 5 covalent bonds can also be formed due to
availability of d orbitals. (sp3d hybridization).
MX3
NX3 ● Ionic character increases down the group, because of increased size of
central atom, the electro positive character increases.
AsX3
Covalent ● MX3 have pyramidal structure.
SbX3
● They are hydrolysed by water. (except NX3)
BiX3 – ionic

Preparation:
P4 + 8SOCl2 → 4PCl3 + 4SO2 + 2S2Cl2
P4 + 6X2 4PX3 ;

PF3 is pyramidal
(in gas phase)

PCl3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HCl (gives fumes)

PCl3 fumes in moisture due to formation of HCl(g)
2PCl3 + O2 2POCl3 (phosphoryl chloride)
3CH3COOH + PCl3 3CH3COCl + H3PO3
3C2H5OH + PCl3 3C2H5Cl + H3PO3

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MX5
PX5 PF5 PCl5
PBr5
AsX5 AsF5 AsCl5
SbX5 SbF5 SbCl5
BiX5 BiF5
Structure: Trigonal bipyramid

PF5 exist as PF5 molecule in gas and solid state. There are 2 kinds of bond lengths, 3 equatorial and
2 axial bonds.
PCl5 exist as PCl5 molecule in gas or liquid and as [PCl4]+ [PCl6]- in solid state.
PCl5 reacts with organic compounds.
C2H5OH + PCl5 C2H5Cl + POCl3 + HCl
CH3COOH + PCl5 CH3COCl + POCl3 +HCl

Finely divided metals on heating with PCl5 give corresponding chlorides.

2Ag + PCl5 2AgCl + PCl3
Sn + 2PCl5 SnCl4 + 2PCl3

Preparation:
PCl3 + Cl2 PCl5
P4 + 10Cl2 4PCl5

Hydrolysis:
PCl5 + H2O POCl3 + 2HCl
PCl5 + 3H2O (excess) H3PO3 + 2HCl
Oxides:
E2O3 and E2O5 [E=P to Bi]
But due to the reluctance of P-Bi to form pπ-pπ bonding, they actually form dimers E4O6 and E4O10

● Bi4O10 is unstable.
● Basic character increases down the group with atomic number.
● P4O6 – Acidic As4O6 – Acidic
● Sb4O6 – Amphoteric Bi4O6 – Basic
Bi2O3 + 6HNO3 2Bi(NO3)3 + 3H2O

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Preparation:
P4 + 3O2 P4O6
P4 + 5O2 P4O10

They dissolve in water to give acids.

P4O6 + 6H2O 4H3PO3
P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3PO4

Due to affinity of P4O10 for H2O, it is a good dehydrating agent.

P4O10 + 4HNO3 2N2O5 + 4HPO3
P4O10 + 6H2SO4 6SO3 + 4H3PO4

Oxoacids:

All oxoacids have at least oneP=O and one P-OH bond. They have cyclic or linear structure.

● Monoprotic acid
● Phosphorus acid
● Hypophosphorous or Phosphinic acid
● Diprotic acid, forms 2 series of salts:
NaH2PO3 & Na2HPO3

● Orthophosphoric acid ● Diphosphonic acid or Pyrophosphoric

acid
● Triprotic acid, Na2HPO4, NaH2PO4,
Na3PO4

● Used for manufacture of phosphatic

fertilizers.

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● Cyclotrimetaphosphoric acid
● Polymetaphosphoric acid

+3 oxidation state
4H3PO3 3H3PO4 + PH3
The acids with P – H bond have strong reducing properties.
4AgNO3 + 2H2O + H3PO2 4Ag + 4HNO3 + H3PO4
That is why H3PO2 imparts reducing characteto the acid as it has 2H atoms bonded to P.

Group 16

Elements in group 16 are Oxygen (O), Sulphur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) and Polonium
(Po). Also called Chalcogens.

Occurrence:
1. Oxygen is the most abundant element.
2. Sulphur exists as gypsum CaSO4.2H2O, Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O or galena PbS, Zinc blende
ZnS etc.
3. Selenium and Tellurium as Selenides and Tellurides in sulphur ores.
4. Polonium exists as decay product of thorium and uranium minerals.

Electronic Configuration:
General electronic config – ns2np4

Atomic and Ionic Radii:

Due to increase in number of shells, atomic and ionic radii increase from top to bottom in the
group.

Ionization Enthalpy:
1. Decreases down the group due to increase in size.
2. Group 16 elements have lower ionization enthalpy than corresponding elements of group 15
due to stability of half filled p-orbital electronic configuration in group 15.

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Electron Gain Enthalpy:
1. Oxygen has less negative electron gain enthalpy due to its compact nature.
2. Sulphur onwards the value again becomes negative upto Po.

Electronegativity:
Oxygen is the second most electronegative element, next to fluorine. Within a group electro
negativity decreases with increase in atomic number.

Metallic Character:
Increase from oxygen to polonium.

Physical Properties:
O,S - Non-Metals 1. All of them exhibit Allotropy.

Se, Te - Metalloids 2. M.P and B.P increases with increase in atomic number but there
is large difference in m.p of O and S due to its atomicity – O2 and
Po - Metal S8 .

Chemical Properties:
1. Stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group.
2. Oxygen shows only negative oxidation state of -2 and in case of OF2, oxidation state of +2.
3. Other elements of the group easily show +2, +4, and +6 oxidation state.
4. Stability of +4 oxidation state increase down the group due to inert pair effect.
Reactivity with Hydrogen:
All the elements form hydrides of the formula H2E (E = S, Se, Te, Po).

H2O 1. Acidic nature increases from H2O to H2Te due to decrease in bond dissociation
enthalpy.
H2S
2. Thermal Stability decreases from H2O to H2Po.
H2Se
3. All hydrides except water posses reducing property and this characteristic
H2Te increases from H2S to H2Te.
H2Po

Reactivity with Oxygen:

All these elements form oxides of the formula EO2 and EO3 where E = S, Se, Te or Po.
1. SO2 is gas but SeO2 is solid.
2. Reducing property decreases from SO2 and TeO2. SO2 is reducing and TeO2 is an oxidising
agent.
3. Also form EO3 type oxides. Both types are acidic.

Reactivity towards halogens:

1. Form halides of the formula EX6, EX4 and EX2.

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2. Stability of halides decrease in the order F- > Cl- > Br- > I-.
3. Among hexahalides, hexafluorides are only stable. They (hexafluorides) are gaseous
octahedral in nature. Most stable is SF6 due to steric reasons.
4. Amongst tetrafluorides, SF4 is gas, SeF4 is liquid and TeF4 a solid. They have Sp3d
hybridization and have trigonal bipyramidal structures and are regarded as see-saw geometry.
5. All elements except Se form dichlorides and dibromides. Dihalides have Sp3 hybridisation.
6. Monohalides are dimeric in nature. E.g – S2Fe, S2Cl2, S2Br2, Se2Cl2 and Se2Br2. Dimeric halides
undergo disproportionation as:- 2Se2Cl2→ SeCl4 + 3Se

DIOXYGEN
Methods of Preparation:
1. By heating chlorates, nitrates and permanganates.

2. Thermal decomposition of oxides.

3. 2H2O2→ 2H2O + O2 Catalyst used – finely divided metals and manganese dioxide.
4. On large scale, prepared by electrolysis of water.
5. Industrially, from air → first carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed and remaining
gases liquefied are fractionally distilled.

Properties of DIOXYGEN:

1. Colourless and odourless gas.

2. Directly reacts with nearly all metals and non metals except Au, Pt and some noble gases. Its
combination with other elements is exothermic.

3. Some reactions with metals and non-metals are :

2Ca + O2 2CaO
4Al + 2O2 2Al2O3
P4 + 5O2 P4O10
C + O2 CO2
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
4. Some compounds are catalytically oxidized.
2SO2 + O2 V2O5 2SO3
4HCl + O2 CuCl2 2H2O

Uses:
1. Importance in normal respiration and combustion.
2. Oxyacetylene welding.
3. Manufacture of steel.
4. Oxygen cylinders are used in hospitals, high altitude flying and in mountaineering.
5. Combustion of fuels, e.g, hydrazine in liquid oxygen provides thrust in rockets.

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OXIDES

A binary compound of oxygen with another element is called oxide.

Oxides can be simple (MgO, Al2O3) or mixed (Pb3O4, Fe3O4). Simple oxides can be acidic, basic or
amphoteric oxides.

An oxide which combines with water to give an acid is termed as acidic oxide. (e.g SO2, CO2,
N2O5)
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (Non metal oxides are acidic)
The oxide which gives a base with water is called basic oxides. Metal oxides are basic (e.g- Na2O,
CaO, BaO)
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
Some metal oxides exhibit dual behavior. They show characteristics of both acidic as well as basic
oxides. They are known as amphoteric oxides. E.g Al2O3

Al2O3 + 6HCl + 9H2O 2[Al(H2O)6]3+ + 6Cl-

Al2O3 + 6NaOH + 3H2O 2Na3[Al(OH)6]

Some oxides are neither acidic nor basic. E.g CO, NO and N2O

OZONE

Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. It is too reactive to remain at sea level. At a height of 20km above
sea level it is formed from atmospheric oxygen in the presence of sunlight. The ozone layer
protects earth’s surface from excessive concentration of UV radiation.

Preparation:
When silent electric discharge is passed through dry oxygen, ozonised oxygen (10%) is produced.
3O2 2O3 (∆H=142KJMol-1)

Properties:

1. Pale blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet black solid.
2. In small concentrations, it is harmless and if concentration rises above 100ppm breathing
becomes uncomfortable.
3. Ozone is thermodynamically unstable. Its decomposition to oxygen results in liberation of heat
and increase in entropy. The two effects results in negative Gibb’s energy change for
conversion into oxygen. High concentration of ozone can be dangerously explosive.
4. Acts as good oxidising agent because [O3→ O2 + O] due to liberation of nascent oxygen.
PbS + 4O3 PbSO4 + 4O2
2I + H2O + O3
- 2OH- + I2 + O2
This reaction can be used for estimating O3 gas. I2 liberated titrated against standard Na2S2O3
solution helps in estimation.

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5. Nitrogen oxides emitted from exhaust system of supersonic aeroplanes might be slowly
depleting ozone layer in upper atmosphere.
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
6. Ozone layer is also depleted by refrigerants and aerosol sprays.
7.

Bond length is 128pm and bond angle is 117o.

Uses:

1. Used as germicide, disinfectant and sterilizing water.

2. Used for bleaching oils, ivory, flour and starch.
3. Acts as oxidising agent in manufacture of KMnO4.

SULPHUR

Allotropic forms of Sulphur:

1. Yellow rhombic sulphur (α-sulphur)

2. Monoclinic sulphur (β-sulphur)

Rhombic is stable at room temperature which transforms to monoclinic when heated above 369k.
Rhombic sulphur is yellow in colour, insoluble in water and dissolves to some extent in benzene,
alcohol and ether. It is readily soluble in CS2.

Monoclinic sulphur is stable above 369K and α-sulphur below 369K, called transition temperature,
both forms are stable. Both exist as S8 molecules. At high temperature (~1000k), S2 is dominant and
it is para magnetic.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE

Preparation:
1. S + O2 SO2 Suplhur burnt in air or oxygen gives SO2 along with a little (6-8%) SO3.
2. Suplhites with dilute sulphuric acid.
SO32-(aq) + 2H+ (aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)
3. By product of roasting sulphide ores.
4FeS2 + 11O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)

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Properties:
1. Colourless gas with pungent smell.
2. Highly soluble in water.
3. Liquifies at room temp. under a pressure of 2atm and boils at 263K.
4. SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) (sulphurous acid)
5. NaOH + SO2 Na2SO3 (sodium sulphite) + H2O
Na2SO3 + H2O + SO2 2NaHSO3 (sodium hydrogen sulphite)
6. Reacts with chlorine in the presence of charcoal as catalyst to give sulphuryl chloride.
SO2(g) + Cl2(g) SO2Cl2(l)
7. Oxidised to sulphur trioxide in the presence of V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) V2O5 2SO3(g)
8. Moist SO2 behaves as reducing agent. Converts Iron(III) ions to Iron(II) ions and
2Fe3+ + SO2 + 2H2O 2Fe2+ + SO42- + 4H+
decolourizes acidified KMnO4 solution
5SO2 + 2MnO4- + 2H2O 5SO42- + 4H+ + 2Mn2+
9. SO2 is angular.

Uses of SO2:
1. In refining petroleum.
2. In bleaching wool and silk.
3. As an anti-colour, disinfectant and preservative.
4. Sulphuric acid, NaHSO3 and Ca(HSO3)2 are manufactured from sulpur dioxide.
5. Liquid SO2 is used as a solvent to dissolve a number of organic and inorganic chemicals.

OXOACIDS OF SULPHUR
Forms oxoacids of the formula H2SO3, H2S2O3, H2S2O4, H2S2O5, H2SxO6 (x=2 to 5), H2SO4, H2S2O7,
H2SO5, H2S2O8.

SULPHURIC ACID
Manufacture:
By contact process. The steps are:
1. Burning of sulphur or sulphide ores in air to generate SO2.
S + O2 SO2

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4FeS2 (Iron pyrites) + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
2. Conversion of SO2 to SO3 by the reaction with oxygen in the presence of catalyst V2O5.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) V2O5 2SO3(g) ∆Ho=-196.6KJmol-1
This is the key reaction in the process. High yield of SO3 will lead to more production of
H2SO4.
3. Absorption of SO3 in 98% H2SO4 to give Oleum (H2S2O7).
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
4. Dilution of oleum with water to get desired concentration of sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 + H2O 2 H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid prepared is 96-98% pure)

Conditions favouring maximum yield of sulphur trioxide:

Key step in the manufacture of sulphuric acid is catalytic oxidation of SO2 with O2 to give SO3.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) V2O5 2SO3(g) ∆Ho=-196.6KJmol-1
The reaction is exothermic and reversible.
a) Low temperature: Favours oxidation of SO2 as reaction is exothermic (according to Le-
Chateliar’s principle). But it is essential to have a minimum temperature of 720K, to give
maximum yield.
b) High Pressure: Favours oxidation as volume of gaseous products are less. A pressure of 2 to 3
bar is sufficient. Very high may cause corrosion of the vessel.
c) Use of catalyst: V2O5 increases the speed of reaction.

Description of the Plant (Manufacture of H2SO4 by Contact Process):

1. Sulphur burners: Sulphur or Iron pyrites are burnt.

2. Purification unit: The gaseous mixture coming out of sulphur burner is generally impure.
Purified as:
I. Dust Chambers: Steam is introduced to remove dust.
II. Coolers: The gases are cooled to about 373K by passing them through cooling pipes.

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III. Scrubber: Gases are passed into washing tower which dissolves mist and other soluble
impurities.
IV. Drying Tower: A spray of conc. H2SO4 used for drying gases.
V. Arsenic purifier: This chamber contains shelves with gelatinous ferric hydroxide. The
impurities of arsenic oxide are absorbed by ferric hydroxide.
3. Testing Box: The purifies gases are tested by passing a strong beam of light. Impurities present
will scatter the light.
4. Contact Chamber or Converter: Pure gases are then heated to about 723-823K in a pre-heater
and then introduced into contact chamber. It is a cylindrical chamber fitted with iron pipes
packed with catalyst V2O5. In this SO2 is oxidized to SO3.
As the forward reaction is exothermic, the pre-heating is stopped once the oxidation has
started.
5. Absorption tower: It is a cylindrical tower packed with acid proof flint. SO3 escaping out from
converter is led from the bottom of the tower and conc. H2SO4 (98%) is sprayed from top. SO3
gets absorbed by H2SO4 to form oleum or fuming sulphuric acid.
H2SO4 + SO3 H2S2O7 (oleum)
Oleum is then diluted with calculated amount of water to get acid of desired concentration.
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

PROPERTIES OF H2SO4:
1. Colourless, dense and oily liquid.
2. Conc. H2SO4 dissolves in water with evolution of large quantity of heat. Hence conc. H2SO4
must be added slowly in water with constant stirring.
3. Chemical reactions of H2SO4 are as a result of:
a) Volatility
b) Strong acidic character
c) Strong affinity of water
d) Ability to act as oxidising agent
4. In aqueous solution, sulphuric acid ionizes as:
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) Ka1=very large (>10)
H2SO4-(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Ka2=1.2x10-2
Larger Ka1 means – easily dissociated into H+ and HSO4- and is a stronger acid.
5. Forms two types of salt:
Normal sulphates (e.g. sodium sulphate, copper sulphate)
Acid sulphates (e.g. hydrogen sulphate)
6. Can be used to form more volatile acids from their corresponding salts.
2MX + H2SO4 2HX + M2SO4 (X=F,Cl, NO3)
7. Acts as dehydrating agent. Can dry gases and also removes water from organic compounds.
C12H22O11 H2SO4 12C + 11H2O
8. Hot conc. H2SO4 is a strong oxidising agent. Both metals and non-metals are oxidized and itself
is reduced to SO2.
Cu + 2H2SO4 (conc.) CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
3S + 2H2SO4 (conc.) 3SO2 + 2H2O
C + 2H2SO4 (conc.) CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O

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USES:
1. Important industrial chemical.
2. Used in manufacture of fertilizers (e.g. ammonium sulphate, superphosphate)
3. Petroleum refining
4. Paints, pigments and dyestuff
5. Detergent industry
6. Metallurgical applications
7. storage batteries
8. Laboratory reagent
9. In the manufacture of nitrocellulose products

GROUP 17

F, Cl, Br, I, At (radioactive) are called halogens. Most reactive non-metals and most
electronegative.

F2: Pale yellow gas

Cl2: Greenish yellow gas
Br2: Reddish brown liquid, sparingly soluble in H2O
I2: Lustrous, grayish black solid, sublimes on heating sparingly soluble in H2O, soluble in org.
solvents.

Bond Energy:
F2< Cl2> Br2> I2
Anomalous behavior of F2 is due to the fact that the lone pair of electrons are very close which
lead to repulsions.

Electron Affinity:

F < Cl > Br > I

This is because F being small in size repels the incoming electron.
Occurs as:
F – Fluorides
Cl – NaCl in oceans
Br – Bromides
I – Iodides and iodates (IO3-)

Oxidizing power F2> Cl2> Br2> I2

Radii F < Cl < Br < I

I.E F > Cl > Br > I

E.N F > Cl > Br > I

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Preparation of Chlorine:

Cl2:
*Electrolysis of natural brine (NaCl)
* Deacon’s process: Oxidation of HCl(g) in presence of CuCl2 at 723K
4HCl(g) + O2 CuCl2 2Cl2 + 2H2O
By oxidation of HCl by MnO2 or KMnO4 (Lab Method)
MnO2 + 4 HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 +2H2O
2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + Cl2
By oxidation of NaCl
2NaCl + 2H2SO4 + MnO2 Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + Cl2

Trends in Group 17:

F2 F is the most electronegative element i.e. has good acceptance of an electron and is
therefore the strongest oxidizing agent.
Cl2

Br2
Oxidizing character decreases down the group. Thus one halogen oxidises halide ions
I2 of higher atomic number halogens.

Oxidizing Action:
F2 > Cl2> H2SO4> Br2> I2
F2 + 2X- 2F- + X2 (X=Cl, Br, I)
Cl2 + 2X - 2Cl + X2 (X=Br, I)
-

Br2 + 2I - 2Br- + I2
Similar reactions as above cannot be used for the preparation of HBr and HI as H2SO4 is a stronger
oxidizing agent and will oxidize the HBr, HI formed to BR2, I2 respectively.
NaBr + H2SO4 HBr Br2
NaI + H2SO4 HI I2
The decreasing oxidizing ability of the halogens in aqueous solution is evident from their standard
electrode potentials which is dependent on the dissociation enthalpy of X2(g). electron gain
enthalpy of X(g) and hydration enthalpy to form X-(aq).
The relative oxidizing power of halogens can be further illustrated by their reaction with water:
2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H+(aq) + 4F- + O2(g)
X2(g) + H2O(l) HX(aq) + HOX(aq) ( Where X= Cl or Br)
I can be oxidized with O2 in acidic medium:
-

4I-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + O2(g) 2I2(s) + 2H2O(l)

Reverse reaction is true for F.
HX are colourless, irritating gases.
HF has a higher b.p due to H-bonding.

Reactivity of halogens with metals or non-metals decreases down the group. F2> Cl2> Br2> I2
e.g. Mg + Br2 MgBr2
Xe + 3F2 XeF6

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Ionic character of M-X bond decreases down the group. M-F > M-Cl > M-Br > M-I
Low O.S of M MCl2
High O.S of M MCl4 more covalent than MCl2

Acidic Character:
HF << HCl < HBr < HI
Low acidic character of HF is due to strong H-bonding and higher bond dissociation enthalpy. HF
is corrosive and attacks glass.

NF3 is an exothermic compound but BCl3 is endothermic because bond energy of F2 is lower than
Cl2 and N-F bond is smaller and stronger than N-Cl bond.

Stability:
Decreases down the group due to decreased bond dissociation enthalpy.
HF > HCl > HBr > I

Reducing Nature:
HF < HCl < HBr < HI

Oxides:
Halogens form many oxides with oxygen. Fluorine forms only OF2 and O2F2 – oxygen fluorides,
they are good fluorinating agents.
Pu + 3O2F2 PuF6 + 3O2 (removed as PuF6)
O2F2 oxidises Pu to PuF6 and the reaction is used in removing Pu as PuF6 from spent nuclear fuel.

Chlorine, Bromide and iodine form oxides where o.s ranges from +1 to +7. The higher oxides of
halogens tend to be more stable than the lower ones.

Chlorine oxides, Cl2O, ClO2, Cl2O6 and Cl2O7 are highly reactive oxidizing agents. ClO2 is used as
bleaching agent for paper pulp and textiles and in water treatment.

Bromine oxides Br2O, BrO2, BrO3 are least stable halogen oxides. They are powerful oxidizing
agents.

The iodine oxides, I2O4, I2O5, I2O7 are insoluble solids and decompose on heating. I2O5 is a very
good oxidizing agent and is used in the estimation of CO.

Reactivity towards Metals:

Halogens react with metals to form metal halides. Mg(s) + Br2(l) MgBr2(s)
Ionic character of the halides decreases in the order: MF > MCl > MBr > MI where M is a
monovalent metal.

If metal exhibits more than one O.S, higher O.S halides are more covalent than low O.S halides

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Oxoacids of Halogens:
Halic (I) acid HOF HOCl HOBr HOI

(Hypohalous (Hypofluorous (Hypochlorous (Hypobromous (Hypoiodous

acid) acid) acid) acid) acid)

Halic (III) acid – HOCIO – –

(Halous acid) – (chlorous acid) – –

Halic (V) acid – HOCIO2 HOBrO2 HOIO2

(Halic acid) – (chloric acid) (bromic acid) (iodic acid)

Halic (VII) acid – HOCIO3 HOBrO3 HOIO3

(Perhalic acid) – (perchloric acid) (perbromic acid) (periodic acid)

Inter Halogen Compounds:

When two different halogens react with each other, interhalogen compounds are formed. E.g. XX′,
XX’3, XX’5 and XX’7 where X is halogen of larger size and X′ of smaller size and X is more
electropositive than X′.

Preparation:

They are prepared by the direct combination or by the action of halogen on lower interhalogen
compounds. For e.g.,

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Properties:

XX′ ClF, BrF, IF (unstable), BrCl, ICl, IBr

ClF3 (Bent T-Shaped,, because it is sp3d hybridized)

XX’3
BrF3 (Bent T-Shaped,, because it is sp3d hybridized)

IF3 (Bent T-Shaped,, because it is sp3d hybridized)

ClF3 (Bent T-Shaped,, because it is sp3d hybridized)

IF5 (Square pyramid)

XX’5
BrF5 (Square pyramid)

ClF5 (Square pyramid)

XX’7 IF7 (Pentagonal bipyramidal)

1. They are all covalent and diamagnetic in nature. They are volatile solid or liquid except ClF
which is a gas.
2. They are more reactive than halogens because X-X’ bond in inter halogens is weaker than X-X
bond in halogens except F-F bond.
3. All these undergo hydrolysis giving halide ion.
XX' + H2O → HX' + HOX the bigger one forms hypohalous acid.

Uses:
The compounds are used as non aqueous solvents. They are useful fluorinating agents. ClF3 and
BrF3 are used for the production of UF6 in the enrichment of 235U.
U(s) + 3ClF3(l) → UF6(g) + 3ClF(g)

Properties of Chlorine:
1. Greenish yellow gas with pungent and suffocating odour.
2. Reacts with metals and non-metals to form chlorides.
2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl
P4 + 6Cl2 4PCl3
S8 + 4Cl2 4S2Cl2

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3. Can react with hydrogen to form HCl.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S
C10H16 + 8Cl2 16HCl + 10C
4. With excess of NH3, chlorine gives nitrogen and ammonium chloride while with excess of
chlorine, nitrogen trichloride is formed.
8NH3 + 3Cl2 → 6NH4Cl + N2; NH3 + 3Cl2 → NCl3 + 3HCl
(excess) (excess)
5. With cold and dilute alkalies chlorine produces a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite but
with hot and concentrated alkalies it gives chloride and chlorate.
2NaOH + Cl2 → NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
(cold and dilute)
NaOH + 3Cl2 → 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
(hot and conc.)
6. With dry slaked lime it gives bleaching powder.
2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 → Ca(OCl)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
The composition of bleaching powder is Ca(OCl)[Link](OH)2.2H2O.
7. Chlorine reacts with hydrocarbons and gives substitution products with saturated
hydrocarbons and addition products with unsaturated hydrocarbons. For example,
CH4 + Cl2 UV CH3Cl + HCl
C2H4 + Cl2 Room temp. C2H4Cl2
8. Chlorine water on standing loses its yellow colour due to the formation of HCl and HOCl.
9. It oxidises ferrous to ferric, sulphite to sulphate, sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid and iodine
to iodic acid.
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + Cl2 → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2HCl
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O → Na2SO4 + 2HCl
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 → H2SO4 + 2HCl
I2 + 6H2O + 5Cl2 → 2HIO3 + 10HCl
10. It is a powerful bleaching agent; bleaching action is due to oxidation.
Cl2 + H2O → 2HCl + O
Coloured substance + O → Colourless substance

Uses:
1. Used for bleaching woodpulp, bleaching cotton and textiles.
2. In extraction of gold and platinum.
3. In manufacture of dyes, drugs and organic compounds.
4. In sterilizing drinking water.
5. Preparation of poisonous gases such as phosgene (COCl2), tear gas and mustard gas.

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HYDROGEN CHLORIDE:
Preparation:

Prepared by heating sodium chloride with concentrated sulphuric acid.

NaCl + H2SO4 420K NaHSO4 + HCl
NaHSO4 + NaCl 823K Na2SO4 + HCl
HCl gas can be dried by passing through concentrated sulphuric acid.

Properties:
1. Colourless and pungent smelling gas. Easily liquefied.
2. Extremely soluble. HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Its aqueous solution is called hydrochloric acid.
3. Reacts with NH3 and gives white fumes. NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
4. 3 parts of conc. HCl and 1 part of con. HNO3 forms aqua regia.
Au + 4H+ + NO3- + 4Cl- AuCl4- + NO + 2H2O
3Pt + 16H+ + 4NO3- + 18Cl- 3PtCl62- + 4NO + 8H2O
5. It decomposes salts of weaker acids, e.g., carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, sulphites, etc.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2
Na2SO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + SO2

Uses:
1. In manufacture of chlorine, NH4Cl and glucose.
2. In medicine and as laboratory reagent.
Uses of halogens and its compounds:

● Manufacture of UF6 for nuclear power generation and SF6 for dielectrics.
F2

● Chemicals obtained are chlorofluorocarbons like Freon used as a refrigerant

and polytetra-fluorethylene called Teflon used in nonstick pans.

HF ● Also used in glass industry as an etching agent and in the manufacture of

fluoride salts.

● Used for fluoridation of water, (1ppm of fluoride in drinking ware prevents

NaF tooth decay)

● Used in fluoride toothpastes.

SnF2

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● Used for bleaching paper, pulp, textiles.

● Used as disinfectant for sterilizing drinking water.

Cl2 ● Used in production of organic compounds- PVC, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
pharmaceuticals.

● Used in production of inorganic compounds. E.g. HCL, PCl3, NaOCl

C2H2Br2 ● Used as gasoline additive.

Br2 ● Used to make AgBr for photography.

I2 ● Used for preparation of iodoform and KI

NaI,
NaIO3
Added to table salt and is called iodised salt. (Insufficient iodine in the diet leads
or to Goitre.
KI, KIO3

GROUP 18
Known as Noble gases as their valance shell orbitals are completely filled and react with a few
elements under certain conditions.
He 1s2 ● Atmospheric abundance of the noble gases in dry air ~1% by volume of
which Ar is major constituent.
Ne 2s22p6
● Helium or Neon is also found in radioactive minerals, e.g. pitchblende,
Ar 3s23p6 monazite, cleveite.
Kr 4s24p6 ● Natural gas is commercial source of helium.
Xe 5s25p6 ● Radon is obtained as decay product of 226Ra.
Rn 6s26p6 226Ra 222Rn + 4He
88 86 2

Electronic Configuration:
General electronic configuration is ns2np6 except He (1s2). Due to fully filled configuration noble
gases are inactive in nature

IonizationEnthalpy:
Due to stable electronic configuration, they have high I.E. Decreases down the group due to
increase in atomic size.

Atomic Radii:
Increases down the group due to increase in number of shells.

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Electron Gain Enthalpy:
Noble gases have stable electronic configuration, so no tendency to accept electron and hence have
large positive values of ∆egH.

Physical Properties:
1. Monoatomic, colourless, odourless and tasteless.
2. Sparingly soluble in water.
3. Low m.p and b.p due to weak dispersion forces.
4. Can be liquefied at low temperature due to weak forces.

Chemical Properties:
Chemically inert due to:
1. Completely filled electronic config. ns2np6 in their valance shell.
2. High ionization enthalpy.
3. More positive electron gain enthalpy.

Uses of Noble Gases:

Helium:
● Non inflammable and light gas. Used in filling balloons for meteorological observations.
● Used in gas cooled nuclear reactors.
● Liquid He (b.p. 4.2K) is used as cryogenic agent for carrying out various experiments at low
temperatures.
● Used to produce and sustain powerful superconducting magnets which form an essential part
of modern NMR spectrometers and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems.

Neon:
● Used in discharge tubes.
● Used in fluorescent bulbs for advertisement display purpose.

Argon:
● Used to provide an inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical processes.
● Used for filling electric bulbs.
● Used in lab for handling substances that is air sensitive.
Kr, Xe:
● Used in light bulbs used for special purposes.

Energy of Compounds of Noble Gases:

In 1962, Neil Bartlett prepared a red compound O2+PtF6–. He realised that the first I.E of O2=1175
kJmol–1 was almost identical to I.E of Xe=1170 k Jmol–1. He prepared a similar red colour
compound by mixing Xe and PtF6.
Xe + PtF6 Xe+[PtF6]-

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After this, a number of compounds of Xe with electronegative elements like fluorine and oxygen
have been synthesised.

Xenon-fluorine compounds

Xenon forms three binary fluorides, XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 by the direct reaction of elements.

Xe (g) + F2 (g) 673k, 1bar XeF2 (s)

(Xe in excess)
Xe (g) + 2F2 (g) 873k, 7bar XeF4 (s)
(1:5 ratio)
Xe (g) + 3F2 (g) 573k, 60-70bar XeF6 (s)
(1:20 ratio)
XeF6 is also prepared as XeF4 + O2F2 XeF6 + O2 at 143K.
Structure:

Properties:
1. XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 are colourless crystalline solids.
2. Sublime readily at 298 K.
3. They are powerful fluorinating agents. They react with fluoride ion acceptors to form cationic
species and fluoride ion donors to form fluoroanions.
XeF2 + PF5 → [XeF]+ [PF6]– ; XeF4 + SbF5 → [XeF3]+ [SbF6]–
XeF6 + MF → M+ [XeF7]– (M = Na, K, Rb or Cs)
4. They are readily hydrolysed even by traces of water.
2XeF2 (s) + 2H2O(l) → 2Xe (g) + 4HF(aq) + O2(g)

Xenon-oxygen compounds:
Hydrolysis of XeF4 and XeF6 with water gives XeO3.
6XeF4 + 12H2O → 4Xe + 2XeO3 + 24HF + 3O2
XeF6 + 3H2O → XeO3 + 6HF
Partial hydrolysis of XeF6 gives oxyfluorides
XeF6 + H2O → XeOF4 + 2HF
XeF6 + 2H2O → XeO2F2 + 4HF

Hydrolysis of XeF6 is not a redox reaction as there is no change in oxidation state.

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Structure:

Hands –on / IT Enabled work:

Whole chapter will be done with the help of presentation.

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Assignment

Chapter 7: p -Block Elements

Learning Outcomes: The learners -

● classifies elements in different groups based on properties and characteristics.
● plans and conducts experiments to arrive at principles of various processes of preparation of
compounds
● relate the structures of compounds to the theories learnt
● uses scientific conventions to represent reactions taking place in p-block elements using symbols,
formulae, and equations,
● takes initiative to know about scientific processes for preparation of compounds, such as ,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid and ammonia.
● plans and conducts investigations to arrive at and verify the facts, principles, and properties or
to seek answers to queries on their own
● Know the chemistry and describe the interhalogen compounds and oxoacids of halogens,
nitrogen and phosphorus.
● Appreciate the importance of these elements and their compounds in our day to day life.

1. The reactions of Cl2 with cold dilute and hot concentrated NaOH in water give sodium salts of
two different oxoacids of chlorine P and Q respectively. The Cl2 gas reacts with SO2 gas, in
presence of charcoal, to give a product R.

(a)Identify P, Q and R.
(b)Write the balanced chemical equations for the above mentioned reactions.

2. The compound with two lone pairs of electrons on the central atom is

(a)BrF5 (b) SO2 (c) XeF4 (d) SF4

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding

statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

3. Assertion: SF6 cannot be hydrolysed but SF4 can be.

Reason: Six F atoms in SF6 prevent the attack of H2O on sulphur atom of SF6.

4. Assertion: HI cannot be prepared by the reaction of KI with concentrated H2SO4.

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Reason: HI has lowest H-X bond strength among halogen acids.

5. (a) Give reasons:

■ When Cl2 reacts with excess of F2, ClF3 is formed and not FCl3.
■ Dioxygen is a gas while sulphur is a solid at room temperature.
(b) Draw the structures of the following:
i. HClO3

ii. H2S2O7

iii. XeF6

6. (a) Arrange the following in the decreasing order of their reducing character:
HF, HCl, HBr, HI
(b) Complete the following reaction:
(i) XeF4 + SbF5
(ii)NH3 + 3Cl2(excess) –––––>
(iii) XeF6 + 2H2O –––––>

7. Give reasons:

(i) Thermal stability decreases from H2O to H2Te.

(ii) Fluoride ion has higher hydration enthalpy than chloride ion.

8. Assign appropriate reason for each of the following observations:

a) Sulphur in vapour state exhibits some paramagnetic behaviour.

b) H2O is a liquid but H2S is a gas.
c) Hydrogen bonding in Hydrogen fluoride is much stronger than that in water, yet water
has much higher boiling point.
d) The majority of known noble gas compounds are those of Xenon.
e) Halogens are strong oxidants.
f) The value of electron gain enthalpy with negative sign for sulphur is higher than that for
oxygen.
g) ClF3 molecule has a T-shaped structure and not a trigonal planar one.
h) O2 and F2 both stabilize higher oxidation states of metals but O2 exceeds F2 in doing so.
i) Structures of xenon fluorides cannot be explained by Valence Bond Approach.
j) SF6 is kinetically inert.
k) All the bonds in SF4 are not equivalent..
l) ICl is more reactive than I2.
m) Despite lower value of its electron gain enthalpy with negative sign, F2 is a stronger
oxidizing agent than Cl2.
n) Bond dissociation enthalpy of F2 is lower than that of Cl2.
o) Ozone is thermodynamically unstable.
p) Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF.
q) Solid PCl5 is ionic in nature.
r) NH3 is stronger base than phosphine.

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s) SbF5 is more stable than BiF5 .
t) PH3 has a lower boiling point than NH3.

9. (a) Write the reaction of preparation of XeF4, XeF6, XeO3

(b) What happens when (i) PCl5 is heated
(ii) H3PO3 is heated

10. Draw the structures of the following:

a) XeF2 b). XeF4 c) XeOF4 d) BrF3 e)XeO3 f) XeOF4 g) SF4 h) H2SO5 i) ClF3 j)
H2S2O7 k) H2S2O8 l) BrF5 m) H3PO3 n) H3PO2

11. Complete the equations:

a. XeF2 + PF5 →

b. F2 (g) + H2O (l) →

c. I-(aq.) + H2O(l) + O3(g) →

d. XeF4 + O2F2 →

e. Xe(g) (excess)+ F2(g) 673K, 1bar

f. P4(s) + NaOH(aq.) + H2O(l) �

12. (i)Compare the oxidizing action of F2 and Cl2 by considering parameters such as bond
dissociation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and hydration enthalpy.
(ii) Write the conditions to maximize the yield of H2SO4 by contact process.
(iii) How is SO2 an air pollutant?

13. Predict the shape and the asked angle(90o or more or less) in each of the following cases:

(a) SO32- and the angle O-S-O.

(b) XeF2 and the angle F-Xe-F.
(c)
14. Which noble gas is used for filling balloons for meteorological observations?

15. How does supersonic jet aeroplanes responsible for depletion of ozone layers?

16. Complete the following reactions :

(i) NH3 + 3Cl2(excess) –––––>
(ii) XeF6 + 2H2O –––––>

What happens when

(i) (NH4)2Cr2O7 is heated ?
(ii) H3PO3 is heated ?
Write the equations.

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17. Arrange the following in the increasing order of property mentioned :

(a)H3PO3, H3PO4, H3PO2 (Reducing character)

(b) NH3, PH3, AsH3, SbH3, BiH3 (Base strength)

18. On adding NaOH to ammonium sulphate, a colourless gas with pungent odour is
evolved which forms a blue coloured complex with Cu2+ ion. Identify the gas.

19. Draw the structures of white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Which one of these two types of
phosphorus is more reactive and why?

20. Which one of PCl4+ and PCl4- is not likely to exist to exist and why?

21. Which of the following elements can be involved in pπ-dπ bonding?

a) Carbon
b) Nitrogen
c) Phosphorus
d) Boron

22 Which of the following acids form three series of salts?

a) H3PO2
b) H3BO3
c) H3PO4
d) H3PO3

23 Maximum covalency of Nitrogen is:

a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6

24 Which of the following statements is wrong?

a) Single N-N bond is strongr than the single P-P bond

b) PH3 can act as a ligang in the formation of coordination compound with transition
elements
c) NO2 is paramagnetic in nature.
d) Covalency of nitrogen in N2O5 is four.

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More Practice
Chapter 7: p -Block Elements

1. Assign appropriate reason for each of the followaing observations:

1) Hydrogen fluoride is a much weaker acid than HCl in aqueous solution.

2) SCl6 is not known where as SF6 is known

3) Halogens are coloured .

4) Dioxygen is a gas but sulphur is a solid.

5) Fluorine forms only one oxoacid, HOF .

6) Sulphur has a greater tendency for catenation than oxygen.

7) The lower oxidation statebecomes more stable with increasing atomic number in group
18.

8) Fluorine exhibits only -1 oxidation state whereas halogens exhibit higher positive
oxidation states also.

9) On addition of ozone gas to KI solution, violet vapours are obtained.

10) Chlorine act as both oxidizing and bleaching properties.

11) Chlorine loses its yellow colour on standing.

12) Bond dissociation energy of F2 is less than that of Cl2.

13) SF4 is easily hydrolysed whereas SF6 is not easily hydrolysed.

14) XeF2 has a straight linear structure and not a bent angular structure.

15) Fluorine does not exhibit any positive oxidation state.

16) Oxygen shows catenation property less than Sulphur.

17) Helium is used in diving apparatus.

2. Describe the steps involved in the contact process for the manufacture of H2SO4.

3. Give Chemical reaction in support of each of the following statements:

a) Bleaching of flowers by Cl2 is permanent while by SO2 is temporary.

b) Fluorine is a stronger oxidizing agent than chlorine.

d) Chlorine reacts with a cold and dilute solution of sodium hydroxide.

e) Orthophosohorous acid is heated.

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f) PtF6 and Xenon are mixed together.

4. Arrange the following in the decreasing order of the property indicated:

a. H2O , H2S, H2Se , H2Te boiling point

b. MF, MBr, MCl, MI Ionic character of the bond

d. HF, HCl, HBr, HI Acid strength

e. H2S, H2O, H2Se, H2Te Thermal stability

f. HClO4, HClO3, HClO2, HClO Oxidizing power

g. Cl2 , Br2 , F2 , I2 Oxidizing power

h. HClO4, HIO4, HBrO4 Oxidising ability

5. With what neutral molecule ClO- is isoelectronic? Also give the formula of a noble gas
species isostructrual with ICl-4 and IBr --.

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d-and f-block elements

d-block of the periodic table contains elements of the groups 3-12 in which the orbitals are
progressively filled in each of the four long periods. The elements constituting the f- block are
those in which the 4f and 5f are progressively in the later two long periods; these elements are
formal members of group 3 from which they have been taken outto form separate f-block of the
periodic table.

The transition metals are those elements which have incompletely filled d-subshells in there
ground stateor in any one of their oxidation state.

Cu,Ag and Au are transition metals because in their commonly occuring states, they have partly
filled d-sub shells. Zn, Cd and Hg of group 12 do not have partly filled d-sub shell in their
elementary state or commonly occuring oxidation state, and hence, are not considered as
transition elements. However, being the end members their chemistry is studied with transition
elements.

Electronic Configuration- ( n-1)d 1-10 ns 1-2

Transition series- The d-block elements are called transition elements as they represent change in
properties from most electropositive s-block elements to least electropositive (or most
electropositive) p-block elements.
Transition elements consist of 4 rows: These series are called transition series.

First transition series- 3d series

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

3d14s2 3d 24s2 3d34s2 3d54s1 3d54s2 3d64s2 3d74s2 3d84s2 3d104s1 3d104s2

Second Transition series – 4d series

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

4d15s2 4d25s2 4d45s2 4d5s1 4d65s1 4d75s1 4d85s1 4d105s0 4d105s1 4d105s2

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Third transition Series – 5d series

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg

57 72 73 74 75 76 777 78 79 80

Fourth transition Series- 6d Series

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub

89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

GENERAL POPERIES OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Atomic radii: The atomic radii is intermediate between those of s-and p- block elements. The
following trends are observed:
a) The atomic radii of elements of a particular series decrease with increase in atomic number but
this decrease in atomic radii become small after midway.
Reason- The atomic radii decreases in the beginning because of increase in atomic no., the nuclear
charge goes on increasing progressively, but the electrons enter the penultimate shell and the
added d-electrons screen the outermost s-electrons. The shielding effect is small so that net
electrostatic attraction between the nuclear charge and outermost electrons increases.
Consequently atomic radius decreases. As the no. of d-electrons increase the screening effect
increases. This neutralizes the effect of increased nuclear charge due increase in atomic number
and consequently atomic radius remains almost unchanged after chromium.

b) At the end of each period, there is slight increase in atomic number

Reason- This is because of increased electron-electron repulsions between the added electrons in
the same orbital which exceeds the attractive forces due to increased nuclear charge. Therefore,
electron cloud expands and size increase.

c) The atomic radii increase while going down the group.

Reason – The atomic radii of second transition series is larger than that of first transition series
because of increase in no. of outermost shell.
The third transition series have nearly the same radii as metals of second transition series. This is
because of lanthanide contraction. This is associated with the interventions of 4f- orbitals which
are filled before 5d-series. 4f- orbital have poor screening effect, This results in regular decrease in
atomic radii which compensates the expected increase in atomic size with increase in atomic no.

Ionic Radii- The ionic radii follows the same trend as atomic radii. Since metals exhibit different
oxidation states, radii of ions also differ. The ionic radii decrease with increase in nuclear charge.

Metallic character- All transition elements are metals. They have high density, hardness, high
m.p.& b.p. & high tensile strengths, ductility, high, thermal and electrical conductivity and lustre.

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Reason – The metallic character is due to their relatively low ionization enthalpies and number of
vacant orbitals in the outermost shell. The hardness of there metals suggests the presence of strong
bonding due to overlap of unpaired electrons between different metal atoms. Therefore, they
exhibit high enthalpy of atomization. Enthalpy of atomization is maximum in the middle indicates
one unpaired electron is particularly favorable for strong atomic interaction. Hence, max enthalpy
of atomization.

Density- All metals have high density. Within a period, the densities vary inversely with atomic
radii, ie., densities increase along a period. Also densities increase upon descending down the
group.
Reason – The atomic volumes of transition elements are low because electrons are added in (n-1)d
sub shell and not in ns subshell . Therefore, increased nuclear charge is partly screened by the d-
electrons and outer electrons are strongly attracted by the nucleus. Moveover, electrons are added
in inner orbital. Conequently, densities of transition metals are high.

Melting and boiling points

The transition metals have high m.p. & b.p. The m.p. and b.p. of metals rise to a maximum value
and then decrease with increase in atomic number. However, Mn and Tc have abnormally low
m.p. & b.p.

Reason – The high m.p. &b.p. is due to strong metallic bonds between the atoms of these
elements. The metallic bond is formed due to interaction of electrons in the outermost orbital. The
strength of bonding depends on the number of outer most electrons. Greater is the number of
valance electrons, stronger is the metallic bonding and consequently, m.p. is high.

Therefore metallic strength increase up to the middle till d5 confignation and then decreases with
the decrease in availability of unpaired d- electrons(from Fe onwards) . Therefore, m.p. decrease
after the middle because of increase an pairing of electrons.

The dip in the curve in Mn and Tc is due to the fact that Mn has stable electronic configuration
(3d5 452). As a result 3d electrons are more tightly held by Mn atomic nucleus and this reduces
delocalization of electrons resulting in weaker metallic bonding.

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Ionization Enthalpies- The following trend is observed in the ionization enthalpies of d- block
[Link] ionization enthalpies of d-block elements are lower than those of p-block elements.
The I.E. increase along a series.
Reason - The increase in ionization enthalpy is due to the effect of increasing nuclear charge which
would tend to attract outer electron with greater force. Consequently, ionization enthalpy is
expected to increase. But the addition of electrons take place in last but one d-sub shell and this
increases the screening effect. With the increase in electrons in d-sub shell the outer electrons are
shielded more & more. Thus, effect of increased nuclear charge is opposed by additional screening
effect of the nucleus and ionization enthalpy increases but slowly.
The irregular trend in first I.E. of first transition series elements is due to the fact that removal of
one electron alters the relatives energies of 4s and 3d orbitals. Therefore, there is reorganization
energy which gains in exchange energy due to increase in no. of electrons in dn configuration and
from transference of s-electrons in d- orbital.

Some exceptions observed in ionization enthalpies are:-

a) Cr and Cu have high I.E. This is attributed to their half filled (d5) and completely (d10)
electronic configuration .
b) The value of second I.E. for zinc is low because ionization involves removal of an electron
resulting in stable 3d10 configuration.
c) The trend in third I.E. shows high value for Mn+2 and Zn+2 because of stable 3d5 and 3d10
electronic configuration.
Similarly, I.E3 for Fe <I.E3 for Mn because of stable 3d5 in Fe. In general, third I.E. values are very
high because of filled 4f-orbitals which have poor shielding effect.

Oxidation States-

a) Transition metals exhibit a larger number of oxidation states in their compound.

Reason - This is because of participation of inner (n -1)d electrons in addition to outer ns-
electrons because the energies of ns and ( n -1)d electrons are almost equal.
The elements which gave the greatest number of oxidations states occur in or near the middle of
the series. [Link] ; oxidation states from + 2 & +7

The lesser number of oxidation states at the extreme ends is either due to too few electrons to lose
or share or too many d electrons, hence fewer orbital are available in to available to share
electrons with others, thus higher valence cannot be attained.
eg. Cu can have oxidation state of +1& +2
Zn can have oxidation state of +2 only

Oxidation state of first row transition elements

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

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3d14s2 3d 24s2 3d34s2 3d54s1 3d54s2 3d64s2 3d74s2 3d84s2 3d104s1 3d104s2

+3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2

+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2

+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4

+5 +5 +5

+6 +6 +6

+7

b) Except Sc, the most common oxidation state of first rose correlation elements is +2 which arises
due to loss of 4s- electrons. This means Sc, 3d–orbitals are more stable and lower in energy
than 4s- orbital. As a result electrons are first removed from 4s- orbital.
c) Zinc is +2 in which no d-electrons are involved.
d) Within a group, maximum oxidation state increases with atomic number. For e.g. in group 8 ,
Fe shows +2 and +3 but Rutheniun and Osmium form compounds in +4 , +6 and + 8 oxidation
state .
e) In + 2 and + 3 oxidation state, bonds formed are ionic and in the compounds of higher
oxidation state bonds are covalent.
Transition elements show low oxidation states in some compounds or complexes having
ligands such as CO, for e.g. in Ni (CO)4 , Ni has zero oxidation state.

Standard electrode potential

The magnitude of ionization enthalpy gains the amount energy required to remove electrons from
particular oxidation state of metal in compounds. Smaller the I.E. the metal, the stable is its
compound.
Ni → Ni+2 + 2e- I.E = 2.49 X 103 kJ/mol
Pt → Pt+2 + 2e- I.E = 2.66 X 103 kJ/mol

Ni(II) compounds are thremodynamically more stable thaPt(II) compounds.

Ni → Ni+4 + 4e- I.E = 8.80 X103 kJ/mol
Pt → Pt+4 + 4e- I.E = 6.70 X 103 kJ/mol
Pt(IV) compounds are relatively more stable than Ni(IV) compounds. Stability of the compounds
depend on electrode.
In addition to ionization enthalpy, ∆Hsub , ∆Hhyd energy, explain the stability of a particular
oxidation state.

1) M(s) M(g) ∆subH0

2) M(g) M+(g) + e- 1. E ∆H= ∆sub H + I. E + ∆hyd H
3) M (g)+nH2O
+ M (aq) ∆hyd H
+

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Smaller the value of total energy charge for a particular oxidation state in aqueous solution,
greater will be the stability of that oxidation state. The electrode potential is a measure of total
energy charge.

The lower the electrode potential, ie, more negative the standard reduction potential of the
electrode, more stable is the oxidation state of the transition metal in aqueous solution.
More negative values of E0 for Mn and Zn are due to the stability of half filled (3d5 ) in Mn+2 and
completely filled (3d10 ) configuration in Zn+2 .

Trend in M3+ / M2+ standard electrode potential

Except copper and Zinc, all other elements of first transition series show +3 oxidation states to
from M+3 in aqueous solution.
a) Low value of Sc reflects stability of Sc+3 which has a noble gas configuration.
b) High value for Mn shows that Mn+2 (d5) is particularly stable.
c) Low value for Fe, shows extra stability for Fe+3 configuration.

Trends in stability of higher oxidation states-

The highest oxidation state is generally shown among halides and oxides.
a) Transition metals react with halogens at high temp as they have high activation energies.
High temp is required to start the reaction but heat of reaction is sufficient to continue. The
reaction.
Order of reactivity: F2> Cl2> Br2> I2
b) In general elements of I transition series react in low oxidation state.
c) The ability of fluorine to stabilize the highest oxidation state is due to its high
electronegativity and higher lattice energy as in CoF3 of high bond enthalpy for high
covalent compounds as in VF5 or CrF6.
d) The highest oxidation states are found in TiX4, VF5, CrF6.
e) The +7 oxidation states are not shown by simple halides but MnO3F is known.
f) V(V)is shown by VFs only . Other halides undergoing hydrolysis form oxo halides VOX3.
g) Fluorides are unstable in their low oxidation state. Eg –V forms VX2 (X = C1,Br or I) Cu can
form CuX (X=Cl ,I) Cu (II) halides are known except the iodide.
h) Copper(I) compounds are unstable in aqueous solutions and undergo disproportionation.
2Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu.
i) The ability of oxygen to stabilize the highest oxidation state is exhibited in their oxides. The
highest oxidation states in member of group number. Eg-Sc in Sc2O3 is +3 and is a member
of group 3. Mn in group7 has +7 oxidation states in [Link] forms highest
oxidation state fluorides as MnF4 whereas the highest oxide is [Link] is due to
tendency of oxygen to form multiple bonds. In the covalent oxide Mn2O7 , each Mn is
tetrahedrally surrounded by oxygen atoms and has Mn-O-Mn bridge. Tetrahedral MO4-2
ions are also known for V(V),Cr(VI), Mn(VI) and Mn(VII).

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Formation of colored ions-

Most of the compo undo of transition metals are colored in solid or solution form.
Reason- The colour is due to the presence of incomplete (n-1)d sub shell. Under the influence of
approaching ions towards central metal ion, the d-ordinals of central metal split into different
energy levels. This phenomenon is called crystal field splitting. For e.g. When six ions or molecules
approach the metal ion (octahedral field) , the d-orbitals split into two sets:- One set consisting of
two d-orbital of higher energy (dx2-y2, dz2) end other set consisting of d-orbitals (dxy, dyz & dxz )
of lower energy. The electrons are easily promoted from one to another energy level in the same d-
sub shell. There are called d-d transitions. The amount of energy required to excite some of the
electrons to higher energy states within the same d-sub shell corresponds to energy of certain
colours of visible light. Therefore, when white light falls on the compounds, some part of its energy
corresponding to certain colour is absorbed and the electron gets raised from lower energy to higher
energy & the excess colour is transmited. The observed colour is complementary of colour absorbed.
Eg-Ti+3 (d1) is purple.

Magnetic Properties-
Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons. Diamagnetic substances are repelled
by the applied magnetic field while the paramagnetic substances are attracted whereas the
ferromagnetic substances are attracted the most.
Each unpaired electron has a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular momentum and
orbital angular momentum. For the compounds of the 1st transition series, the contribution of orbital
angular momentum is effectively less and hence is of no significance. For these, the magnetic
moment is determined by the number of unpaired electrons and can be calculated by ‘spin only’

µ = √ n(n+2) BM
N= no. of unpaired e-
µ = Magnetic moment in Bohr magnetron (µb ) units
(µb =eh/ 4m = 9.27x10-24 Am2 or Jt -1)
µ increase with the increasing number of unpaired
Eg- Calculate the magnetic moment of Mn2+ if the at no. =25 ,
Z=25 So, d5 has 5 unpaired electrons , n=5
µ= 5(5+2) =5.92µb

Formations of complex compounds :- The transition metals form a large no. of complex
compounds due to
(i) the comparitively smaller sizes of the metal ions,
(ii) their high ionic charges and
(iii) the availability of d-orbital for bond formation
Eg .[PtCl4]2- , [Cu(NH3)4], [Fe(CN)6]4– etc.

Catalytic Properties-
a) Transition metals show catalytic property because of their ability to adopt multiple oxidation
states. Catalysts at a solid surface involve the formation of bond between reactant molecules
and atoms of the surface of the catalyst. This has the effect of increasing the concentration of

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the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakening of the bonds in the reacting molecules
& the activation energy is lowered, moreover transition metals can change their oxidation
states.
Eg- Fe3+ catalyses the reaction between I2& persulphate ions.
b) The catalytic property of transition metals is due to their tendency to form reaction
intermediates with suitable reactants. These intermediates give reaction paths of low activation
energy and therefore increase the rate of reaction. The reaction intermediates decompose
yielding products and regenerating the original substance. The transition metals form reaction
intermediates due to the presence of vacant orbitals & tendency to form variable oxidation
state.

Formation of interstitial compounds :-

Many of the transition metals form interstitial compounds which are formed when small atoms
like B,H, N or C are trapped inside the crystal lattices of metals. They are usually non-
stoichiomatric and are neither typically ionic nor covalent. There small atoms enter into the void
sites, eg In, Ti. If C enters the void going the composition TiC or TiH1.7, VH0.56 etc.

Physical & Chemical characteristics of these compounds

(i) High [Link], higher than pure metals.
(ii) Very hard , some borides approach diamond in hardness
(iii) Retain metallic conducting
(iv) Chemically inert

Alloy Formation:-
Alloys are homogenous solid solutions in which the atoms of one metal are distributed randomly
among the atoms of the other but the metals should have similar metallic radii within 15% of each
other.
The alloys formed have high [Link] & are hard.
Eg. Alloys of Cr, V, W, Mo, Mn etc, stainless steel is or alloys of Fe, Ni, Cr
Alloys of transition metals with non-transition metals, such as Brass (Cu-Zn), Bronze (Cu- Sn).

Some important compounds of transition elements

Oxides & oxo metals ions
Metal + O2 high/ temp MxOy
The higher oxidation state in the oxides coincides with the group no. eg, Sc2O3(Sc is +3),
Mn2O7(Mn is +7).
Beyond group 7- no higher oxides. Eg- Fe2O3(Fe is +3)
Besides the oxides, oxocations, stabilize V(V) as VO2+, V(IV) as VO2+ and Ti(IV) as TiO2+.
As the oxidation number of metal increases, ionic character decreases .
Mn2O7 is a covalent compound which is green oil.
Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 Acids in high oxidation state CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7
V2O5 is amphoteric, V2O3 is basic and V2O4 is less basic. When dissolved in acidic salts it
gives VO2+ salts.

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CrO is basic and Cr2O3 is amphoteric. (High oxidation states are more covalent and more
acidic).

Potassium Dichromate , K2Cr2O7 –

Preparation - From Chromite ore
Chromates in turn are formed by fusion of Chromite ore( FeCr2O4) with Na2CO3 or K2CO3.
4 FeCr2O4 + Na2CO3 + 7O2 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2.
Excess

Na2CrO4 is filtered and treated with H2SO4 to obtain orange crystals of Na2CrO7.2H2O
Sodium dichromate is more stable than pot. dichromate
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
Chromates and dichromates are interchangeable in aqueous solution depending upon pH of the
solution.
The O.S. of Cr in CrO42- and Cr2O72- is same.
2CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O
(+6) (+6)

Cr2O72- + 2OH- 2CrO42- + H2O

Chromate ion

Dichromate ion

Na2Cr2O7& K2Cr2O7 : Strong oxidizing agents

Chemical properties of K2Cr2O7 :-

In acidic solution, its oxidizing action can be represented as follows –
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Acidified K2Cr2O7 oxidises iodides to iodine, sulphide to S, Sn(II) to Sn(IV), Fe(II) to Fe(II) to Fe(III)
6I- 3I2 + 6e-
3 H2 S 6H+ +3S + 6e-
3Sn2+ 3Sn4+ +6e-
6Fe2+ 6Fe3+ 6e-
The full ionic equation can be obtained by adding half equation for potassium dichromate to half
equation for the reducing agent, for eg.,
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O
Uses – In leather industry, preparation of azo dyes.

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Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)

Preparation – KNO3
2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 ---------→ 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O
3MnO42- + 4H+ 2MnO4- + MnO2 + 2H2O
(+6 (+7) (+4)

Commercially prepared by alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2 followad by the electrolytic

oxidation of Manganate (VI)
Fuse with KOH

MnO2---------------------→ MnO42-
Oxidize with air or KNO3

Electrolytic oxidation

MnO4 2- -----------------------→ MnO4-

in alkaline solution

In the laboratory manganese (II) ion salt is oxidized by peroxodisulplate to permanganate

2Mn+2 + 5S2O82- + 8H2O 2MnO4- + 10SO42- 16H+

Properties-
1. Forms dark purple crystals
2. Not very soluble in water
3. Decomposes when heated at 513K
2KMnO4 K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2

Tetrahedral manganese (green)ion Tetrahedral Permanganate (purple) ion

MnO4 is a strong oxidizing agent, both in neutral & acidic medium

Acidified KMnO4 oxidises oxalates to CO2, Iron(II) to iron (III), nitrites to nitrates and iodides to
free iodine The half reaction of reductants are-
COO-
5 10CO2 + 10e-
COO-
Fe+2 5Fe+3 + 5e-
5NO2- + 5H2O 5NO3- + 10H+ + 10e-
10I- 5I2 + 10e-

Full reactions can be written by adding the half reactions of KMnO4 to half reactions of the
reducing agents and balancing them.

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Acidic solutions –
10I- + 2MnO4- + 16H+ 2Mn+2 + 8H2O + 5I2 (iodides to KI)
5C2O42- + 2MnO4- + 16H 2Mn+2 + 8H2O + 10CO2 (oxalate ions to CO2)
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H Mn+2 + 4H2O + 5Fe2+ (Fe2+(green) to Fe3+ (yellow))
5S2- + 2MnO4- + 16H+ 2Mn+2 + 8H2O + 5S (H2S to S)
5SO32- + 2MnO4- + 6H+ 2Mn+2 + 3H2O + 5SO42 (sulphites to sulphates)
5NO2- + 2MnO4- + 6H+ 2Mn+2 + 3H2O + 5NO3- (nitrites to nitrates)

Neutral medium -
2MnO4- + H2O + I- MnO2 + OH- + IO3- (iodides to iodates)
8MnO4- + H2O + 3S2O32- 8MnO2 + 2OH- + 6SO42 (thiosulphates to sulphates)
MnO4- + 2H2O + 3Mn2+ 4H+ + 5MnO2 (Manganese salt to Mn2+)

Uses- Used as uxidant, used for bleaching wool, cotton, silk and decolorization of oils.

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The Inner Transition elements (f- Block)

Consists of two series:-

Lanthanoides (Ln; general Symbol) Actinoides
(14elements following La ) (14 elements following Ac)

Lanthanoides :-

Electronic Configuration:-

Atomic No. Name Symbol E.C.

57 Lanthanum La 5d1 6s2

58 Cerium Ce 4f15d16s1
59 Praseodymium Pr 4f3 6s2
60 Neodymium Nd 4f4 6s2
61 Promethium Pm 4f56s2
62 Samarium Sm 4f6 6s2
63 Europuim Eu 4f7 6s2
64 Gadolinium Gd 4f7 5d1 6s2
65 Terbium Tb 4f9 6s2
66 Dysprosium Dy 4f10 6s2
67 Holmium Ho 4f11 6s2
68 Erbium Er 4f12 6s2
69 Thulium Tm 4f13 6s2
70 Ytterbium Yb 4f14 6s2
71 Lutetium Lu 4f14 5d1 6s2

Atomic & Ionic Series :- Decrease from La to Lu is due to Lanthanoid Contraction (The shielding
of one 4f electron by another less than that by one d electron by another & the increase in nuclear
charge along the series.

The almost identical radii of Zr (160pm.) and Hf (159), a consequence of the lanthanoid
contraction, account their occurrence together in nature and for the difficulty faced in their
separation.

Colour and Para magnetism

Ln3+ are coloured both in solid and in aqueous solution due to the presence of f electrons.
La3+ and Lu3+ do not show any colour. However absorption bands are narrow probably because of
the excitants with in f level.
Ln3+ are paramagnetic except La3+& Ce4+ (f0 type) &f14 type ( Yb2+& Lu3+ ). Paramagnetism rises to
maximum in Neodymium .

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Ionization enthalpies
I.E. depends on the degree of stability of empty, half filled and completely filled f-level.
This is indicated from the abnormally low values of the third ionization enthalpy of La, Gd, Lu.

Oxidation states.:-
Ln3+ compounds are predominant species. +2 & +4 ions in solution or in solid compounds are also
obtained occasionally.
Ce (IV) formation is favoured due to extra stability of noble gas configuration, but it is a strong
oxidant reverting to the common +3 state .
Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2
Eu2+ is formed by losing the two s- electrons & its +7 configuration.

Properties and use :-

Ln are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air. Hardness increases with increasing
atomic number. [Link]. ranges from 1000K – 1200K
Sm is steel hard. ([Link] 1623K)

Chemical behaviour
In general earlier members of the series are quite reactive similar to Ca, with increasing atomic
number they behave more like aluminum.
Ln3+ (aq) +3e- Ln(s)

Ln2O3 H2

Burns in with acids

O2

Heated with S with halogens

Ln2S3 Ln LnX3

Heated with H2O

N2
Ln (OH)3 +H2
Ln N C 2773K

Ln C2
∆
Ln + C ---------→ Ln3C + Ln2C3 + LnC2 (carbides)

Use :- Used in the production of alloy steels for plates & pipes eg. Mischmetal is an alloy which
consists of a lanthanoid metal (95%) and iron (5%) and trace of S, C, Ca and Al. A good amount of
this allay is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell & lighter flint.

● Mixed oxides of Ln are used as catalyst in petroleum cracking .

● Ln oxides are used as phosphors in television screens & similar fluorescing surfaces.

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The Actinoids:-

Atomic no. Name Symbol E.C.

89 Actinium Ac 6d17s2
90 Thorium Th 5f06d27s2
91 Protactinium Pa 5f26d17s2
92 Uranium U 5f36d17s2
93 Neptunium Np 5f46d17s2
94 Plutonium Pu 5f67s2
95 Americium Am 5f77s2
96 Curium Cm 5f76d17s2
97 Berkelium Bk 5f97s2
98 Californium Cf 5f107s2
99 Einsteinium Es 5f117s2
100 Fermium Fm 5f127s2
101 Mendelevium Md 5f137s2
102 Nobelium No 5f147s2
103 Lawrencium Lr 5f146d17s2

Although the naturally occurring elements & the earlier member have relatively long half lives,
the latter members have values ranging from a day to 3 minutes for Lr (Z=103) These facts and
high radioactivity renders their study more difficult.

Electronic Configuration
The irregularities in the electronic configurations of the actinoids like those of in the lanthanoids
are related to the stability of fo ,f7 and f14 occupancies of the 5f orloitals.
[Link] : [Rn] 5f77s2
Cm : [Rn] 5f76d17s2

5f orbital can & do participate in bonding.

Common oxidation state is +3
The maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th, +5 in Pa, +6 in U and +7 in Np but
decreases in succeeding elements.

Magnetic Properties:- the variation of magnetic properties with the no. of unpaired 5f electrons is
similar to that of Ln.

Ionic Sizes: Decrease in size due to increase in the effective nuclear charge on the outermost shell
and poor shielding by 5f electrons. This is referred to as actinoid contractions.

Ionization Enthalpy :
The I.E. of early actinoids is lesser than that of early Ln as when 5f orbitals are beginning to be
occupied, they will penetrate less into the inner core of electrons. The 5f electrons, will therefore,
be more effectively shielded from the nuclear charge than are the 4f electrons of the corresponding

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Ln. Because the outer electrons are less firmly held, they are available for bonding in the
actinoids.

Physical and Chemical Reactivity

The actinoids are highly reactive when they are finely divided.

Actinoid Boiling water MxOy + MHn

moderate temp
Actinoid + Non metal Corresponding compound
Actinoid + HCl MxOy oxide layer
Actinoid + HNO3 MxOy
Actinoid + Alkali No reaction

Metallic radii of actinoids is more as compared to lanthanoids.

Comparison With Lanthanoids

1. Structural variability in actinoids is obtained due to irregularities in metallic radii which
are greater then lanthanoids.
2. Magnetic properties in actinoids are more complex than lanthanoids.
3. Ionization enthalpies of early actinoids, though not accurately known are lower than early
lanthanoids. This is because 5f electrons penetrate less into the inner core and hence the
outer electron are less firmly held, they are available for bonding in actinoids.

Applications of d-and f Block Elements

1 Iron and steel are important construction materials. Their production is based on
reduction of iron oxides, removal of impurities, and addition of carbon and alloying metals
such as Cr, Mn, and Ni.
2 TiO is used in pigment industry.
3 MnO2 is used in battery cell. Also Zn and Ni/Cd.
4 Elements of group II are coinage metals.
5 V2O5 catalyses oxidation of SO2 in contact process,
6 Iron catalyst is used in Haber’s process.
7 TiCl4 and Al(CH3)3 forms Ziegler-Natta Catalyst.
8 Ni complexes are used in polymerization of alkynes.

Hands –on / IT Enabled work:

Whole chapter is done with the help of a presentation.

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Assignment

Chapter 8: d -and f -Block Elements

Learning Outcomes- The learner

a) communicates the findings and conclusions regarding the properties of d- and f- block
elements effectively and can give reason to the findings.
b) draws flow charts and concept maps, to explain and apply the physiochemical properties
learnt
c) differentiates different compounds, based on, properties and characteristics,
d) derives equations
e) describe scientific facts about the d-and f- block compounds and explain the properties.
f) Describe the preparation, properties, structures and uses of K2Cr2O7 & KMnO4
g) appreciates the role and impact of d- and f- block elements towards the improvement of
quality of human life.
h) Understand the general horizontal and group trends in the d- and f- block elements
i) Describe the properties of the f- block elements

1. The electronic configuration of Cu(II) is 3d 9 whereas that of Cu(I) is 3d10. Which of the
following is correct?

(i) Cu(II) is more stable

(ii) Cu(II) is less stable
(iii) Cu(I) and Cu(II) are equally stable
(iv) Stability of Cu(I) and Cu(II) depends on nature of copper salts

2. Which of the following reactions are disproportionation reactions?

(a) Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu

(b) 3MnO4 – + 4H+ → 2MnO4 – + MnO2 + 2H2O
(c) 2KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
(d) 2MnO4 – + 3Mn2+ + 2H2O → 5MnO2 + 4H+
(i) a, b (ii) a, b, c (iii) b, c, d (iv) a, d

3. When KMnO4 solution is added to oxalic acid solution, the decolourisation is slow in the
beginning but becomes instantaneous after some time because

a) CO2 is formed as the product

b) Reaction is exothermic
c) MnO4- catalyses the reaction
d) Mn2+ acts as autocatalyst

4. There are 14 elements in actinoid series. Which of the following does not belong to this series?

a) U
b) Np

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c) Tm
d) Fm

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding

statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation for
assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion : Cu cannot liberate hydrogen from acids.

Reason : Because it has positive electrode potential.

6. Assertion : Separation of Zr and Hf is difficult.

Reason : Because Zr and Hf lie in the same group of the periodic table.

7. Assertion: Cu2+ iodide is not known.

Reason: Cu2+ oxidizes I- to Iodine.
8. Assertion: The highest oxidation state of Osmium is +8

Reason: Osmium is a 5d- block element.

9. Complete and balance the following equations:

(i) Fe2+ + MnO4- + H+ →

(ii) MnO4- + H2O + I- →

10. Give reason:

(i) E0value for the Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is highly positive as compared to Fe3+/Fe2+ .

(ii) Iron has high enthalpy of atomization than that of copper.

(iii) Sc3+ is colourless in aqueous solution whereas Ti3+ is coloured.

(iv) Actinoid contration is greater from element to element than lanthanoid contraction.

11. Account for the following :

(i) Transition metals form large number of complex compounds.

(ii) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic whereas the highest oxide is

amphoteric or acidic.

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(iii) E° value for the Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is highly positive (+1.57 V) as compare to

Cr3+/Cr2+.

12. (i) How is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from

that of the p-block elements ?

(ii) Out of Cu+ and Cu2+, which ion is unstable in aqueous solution and why ?

(iii) Orange colour of Cr2O72– ion changes to yellow when treated with an [Link]?

(iv) Write the formula of an oxo-anion of Manganese (Mn) in which it shows the oxidation state
equal to its group number

13. Describe the general characteristics of transition elements with special reference to the
following :

(i) Variable oxidation states

(ii) Formations of coloured ions.

14. (i) What are interstitial compounds? Why are such compounds well known for transition
elements?
(ii) What are alloys? Name an alloy which contains a lanthanoid metal.

15. How is it that several transition metals act as catalysts? Give two examples of reactions
catalyzed by them?

16. Complete the following reactions:

(a) Cr2O72-(aq.) + I-(aq.) + H+

(b) MnO4_ (aq.) + Fe2+(aq.) + H+(aq.)

(c) MnO4_ (aq.) + S2O32-(aq.) + H2O(l)

(d) 5NO2-(aq.) + 2MnO4-(aq.) + 6H+(aq.)

(e) Cr2O72-(aq.) + H2S(g) + H+(aq.)

(f) Cr2O72-(aq.) + Fe2+(aq. )+ H+(aq.)

(g) MnO2(s) + KOH(aq.) + O2

(h) 2CrO42- + 2H+

(i) Cr2O72-(aq.) + 3Sn2+ + 14 H+

17. (a)Compare the chemistry of actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to
(i) electronic configuration (ii) oxidation state
(iii) atomic sizes (iv) chemical reactivity

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(b) Chemistry of actinoids is complicated as compared to lanthanoids. Give two
reasons.
(c) Write one similarity and one difference between the chemistry of lanthanoid and
actinoid elements.

18. When chromite ore FeCr2O4 is fused with NaOH in presence of air, a yellow coloured
compound (A) is obtained which on acidification with dilute sulphuric acid gives a compound
(B). Compound (B) on reaction with KCl forms a orange coloured crystalline compound (C).

(i) Write the formulae of the compounds (A), (B) and (C).

(ii) Write one use of compound (C).

19. What may be the possible oxidation states of the transition metals with the following d
electronic configurations in the ground state of their atoms:

3d34s2, 3d54s2 and 3d64s2. Indicate relative stability of oxidation states in each case.

20. Calculate the number of unpaired electrons in following gaseous ions: Mn3+, Cr3+, V3+ and Ti3+.
Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution?

21. How would you account for the following:

(a) The metallic radii of the third(5d) series of transition metals are virtually the same as those
of corresponding group members of the second (4d) series.

(b) Among lanthanoids, Ln(III) compounds are predominant. However, occasionally in

solutions form solid compounds,+2 and+4 ions are also obtained.

(c) The E0M2+/M for copper is positive (0.34V), copper is the only metal in the first series of
transition elements showing this behavior.

(d) The higher oxidation states are usually exhibited by the members in the middle of the
series of transition elements.

(e) Mn shows the highest oxidation state of +7 with oxygen but with fluorine it

shows the highest oxidation state of +4.

(f) Actinoids show irregularities in their electronic configurations.

22. a) Which metal in the first transition series(3d series) exhibits +1 oxidation state most frequently
and why?

b) Which of the following cations are coloured in aqueous solution and why?

Sc3+, V3+, Ti4+ , Mn2+

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More Practice

Chapter 8: d- and f -Block Elements

1. What is Lanthanide contraction? What effect does it have on the chemistry of the
elements which follow lanthanoids.

2. Why is HCl not used to acidify a permanganate solution in volumetric estimations of

Fe2+ or C2O42- ?

3. Why are Zn , Cd and Hg normally not regarded as transition metals ?

4. Which of the following ion is paramagnetic: Sc3+ (Z=21), Cu+ (Z=29).

5. Why is the third ionization energy of Manganese (Z=25) unexpectedly high?

6. Evaluate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution if its atomic no. is
25.

7. Explain why:

(i) Ce3+ can be easily oxidized to Ce4+ ( At. no. of Ce =58).

(ii) Zr (Z=40) and Hf (Z=70) have very close value of atomic radii.

(iii) The lowest oxidation state of manganese is basic while the highest is acidic.

(iv) CrO42- is a strong oxidizing agent while MnO42- is not.

8. Predict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution?

Ti3+,V3+,Cu+,Sc3+,Mn2+ ,Fe3+,Co2+

9. Explain the following observations:

(i) In general the atomic radii of transition elements decrease with atomic number in
a given series.

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(ii) The Eo value for Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is much more positive than for Cr3+/Cr2+ or
Fe3+/Fe2+ couple.

(iii) Cu+ ion is unstable in aqueous solutions.

(iv) Although Co2+ ion appears to be stable, it is easily oxidised to Co3+ ion in the
presence of a strong ligand.

(v) With the same d4 d-orbital configuration Cr2+ ion is reducing while Mn3+ ion is
oxidising.

(vi) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition elements are quite high.

(vii) Transition metals form compounds which are usuallly coloured.

(viii) Transition metals exhibit variable oxidation states.

(ix) The actinoids exhibit a greater range of oxidation states than the lanthanoids.

(x) There occurs much more frequent metal-metal bonding in compounds of heavy
transition elements (3rd series).

(xi) There is in general an increase in density of element from titanium (Z=22) to

copper (Z=29).

(xii) The gradual decrease in size (actinoid contraction) from element to element is
greater among the actinoids than that among the lanthnoids. (lanthanoid
contraction).

(xiii) The greatest numbers of oxidation states are exhibited by the members in the
middle of a transition series.

(xiv) With the same d-orbital configuration (d4) Cr2+ ion is a reducing agent but Mn3+
ion is an oxidising agent.

10. What is meant by ‘disproportionation’ ? Give two examples.

11. Why Ce4+is oxidizing and Sm2+, Eu2+ are reducing in nature?

12. A mixed oxide of iron and chromium FeOCr2O3 is fused with sodium carbonate in the
presence of air to form an yellow coloured compound (A) On acidification the compound
the compound forms an orange coloured compound (B), which is a strong oxidizing
agent .

(i) Identify the compounds (A) and (B)

(ii)Write balanced chemical equation for each step.

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13. Explain the following facts:

(a) transition metals act as catalysts.

(b)Chromium group elements have the highest melting points in their respective series.

(c) The enthalpies of atomization of transition elements are high.

(d) From element to element the actinoid contraction is greater than the lanthanoid
contraction.

(e) The Eo value for the Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is much more positive than that for Cr3+/Cr2+

(f) Scandium (Z=21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states and yet it is regarded as a
transition element.

14. An element ‘A’ exists as a yellow solid in standard state . It forms a volatile hydride ‘B’
which is a foul smelling gas and is extensively used in qualitative analysis of salts. When
treated with oxygen ,’B’ forms an oxide ‘C’ which is a colourless , pungent smelling
[Link] gas when passed through acidified KMnO4 solution , decolorizes it.’C’ gets
oxidized to another oxide’D’ in the presence of a heterogenous catalyst . Identify
A,B,C,D, and also give the chemical equation of reaction of ‘C’ with acidified KMnO 4
solution and for conversion of ‘C’ to ‘D’.

15. (a) A blackish brown coloured solid ‘A’ when fused with alkali metal hydroxides in the
presence of air, produces a dark green compound ‘B’, which on electrolytic oxidation
in alkaline medium gives a dark purple coloured compound C. Identify A, B and C
and write the reactions involved.

(b) What happens when acidic solution of green compound (B) is allowed to stand for
some time? Give the equations involved .What is this type of reaction called?

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Assignment

Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds

Learning Outcomes
● communicates the findings and conclusions effectively,, such as, applications of the
coordination compounds
● takes initiative to know about scientific discoveries and theories of bonding of the
coordination compounds
● apply learning of theories to explain properties, structures and bonding in various
compounds.
● understand the theories and correlates the theories to the processes and phenomenon,
structures and properties of the complex compounds
● understand the rules of Nomenclature and write the names of the compounds on his own.
● appreciates the role and impact of coordination compounds towards the improvement of
quality of human life

1. The stabilisation of coordination compounds due to chelation is called the chelate effect.
Which of the following is the most stable complex species?

(i) [Fe(CO)5 ]

(ii) [Fe(CN)6 ] 3–

(iii) [Fe(C2O4 ) 3 ] 3–

(iv) [Fe(H2O)6 ] 3+

2. A chelating agent has two or more than two donor atoms to bind to a single metal ion.
Which of the following is not a chelating agent?

(i) thiosulphato

(ii) oxalate

(iii) glycinato

(iv) ethane-1,2-diamine

3. The compounds [Co(SO4)(NH3)5]Br and [Co(SO4)(NH3)5]Cl represent:

a) Linkage isomerism

b) Ionization isomerism

c) Coordination isomerism

d) No isomerism

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4. Which of the following is not expected to be a ligand.

j) NO

k) NH4+

l) NH2CH2CH2NH2

m) CO

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a

corresponding statement of reason (R) just below it. Choose the correct answer out of the
following choices:

(a)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(b)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(c)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(d)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion : ([Fe(CN)6 ] 3– ion shows magnetic moment corresponding to two unpaired

electrons.
Reason : Because it has d 2sp3 type hybridisation.

6. Assertion : Linkage isomerism arises in coordination compounds containing ambidentate

ligand.
Reason : Ambidentate ligand has two different donor atoms.

7. Assertion : Toxic metal ions are removed by the chelating ligands.

Reason: Chelate complexes tend to be more stable.

8. Assertion: Complexes of MX6 and MX5L type ( X and L are unidentate) do not show
geometrical isomerism
Reason: Geometrical isomerism is not shown by complexes of coordination number 6.
9. Write the coordination number and oxidation state of Platinum in the complex
[Pt(en)2Cl2]

10. (a) Write the formula of the following coordination compound:

Iron(III)hexacyanoferrate(II).

(b) What type of isomerism is exhibited by the complex [Co(NH3)Cl]SO4?

(c) Write the hybridization and number of unpaired electrons in the complex [CoF6]3-

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11. (i) What type of isomerism is shown by the complex [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] ?

(ii) Why a solution of [Ni(H2O)6]2+ is green while a solution of [Ni(CN)4]2– is colourless ?

(At. no. of Ni = 28)

(iv) Write the IUPAC name of the following complex : [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl.

12. Write IUPAC name of the following:

1) [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] 2) [CoBr2(en)2]+ 3) [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2

4) K4[Fe(CN)6]3+ 5) [NiCl4]2- 6) [CrCl2(en)2]Cl

13. Write the formulas in the following cases.

1) Tetrahydroxozincate(II), 2) Hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate

3) Hexaammineplatinum(IV) 4) Pentaamminenitrito-N-cobalt(III)

14. Give the formula of each of the following coordination entities:

(a) Co3+ ion is bound to one Cl-, one NH3 molecule and two bidentate ethylene
diamine(en) molecules.

(b) Ni2+ ion is bound to two water molecules and two oxalate ions.

Write the name and magnetic behavior of each of the above coordination entities.

15. In the ring test for identification of nitrate ion, what is the formula of the compound
responsible for the brown ring formed at the interface of two liquids?

16. When a coordination compoundcrCl3.6H2O is mixed with AgNO3, 2 moles of AgCl are
precipated per mole of the compound. Write

(i) Structural formula of the complex

(ii) IUPAC name of the complex.

17. a) For the complex [Fe(CN)6]3–, write the hybridization type, magnetic character and spin
nature of the complex. (At. number : Fe = 26).

b) Draw one of the geometrical isomers of the complex [Pt(en)2Cl2]2+ which is optically
active.

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18. Show the possible isomers of the following coordination entities?

(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]3- (ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3] (iii) [Co(en)2Cl2]Cl

19. Name the isomerism exhibited by the following pair of coordination compounds:

[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5SO4]Br

Give one chemical test to distinguish between these two compounds.

20. How many ions are produced from the complex [Co(NH3)6]Cl2 in aqueous phase.

21. What is spectrochemical series? Explain the difference between a weak field ligand and a
strong field ligand.

22. (i) Draw a sketch to show the splitting of d- orbitals in an octahedral crystal field. State
for a d6 ion how the actual configuration of the split d- orbitals in an octahedral crystal
field is decided by the relative values of Δo and P.

(ii) On the basis of CFT, write the electronic configuration of d4 ion if ∆0>P.

23. Give reasons:

1) K3[Fe(CN)6] is weakly paramagnetic whereas K3[FeF6] is highly paramagnetic.

2) Though CO is a weak lewis base yet it forms a number of stable metal carbonyls .
Explain.

24. Compare the following complexes with respect to their shape, magnetic behaviour and
the hybrid orbitals involved: (i) [CoF4]2-, (ii)[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2]-

(Atomic number Co = 27, Cr =24 )

25. Discuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination compounds in:

(i) biological systems (ii) medicinal chemistry

(iii) analytical chemistry (iv) metallurgy of metals.

26. (a) What is a ligand? Give an example of a bidentate ligand.

(b) Explain as to how the two complexes of nickel, [Ni(CN)4]2- and Ni(CO)4, have different
structures but do not differ in their magnetic behaviour. (Ni =28)

27. Explain the following:

(a) The π-complexes are known for transition elements only.

(b) Nickel(II) does not form low spin octahedral complexes.

(c) [Fe(CN)6]4- and [Fe(H2O)6]2+ are of different colours in dilute solutions.

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More Practice

Chapter 9: Coordination Compounds

1. Write IUPAC name of the following:

1) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl

2) linkage isomer of [Co(NH3)S(ONO)]2+

3) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3

4) [Co(NH3)4Cl(NO2)]Cl

5) [Mn(H2O)6]2+

6) [Co)(en)3]3+

7) [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl

8) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2]Cl3

9) [Pt(NH3)4][NiCl4]

2. Give the electronic configuration of the

(a) d-orbitals of Ti in [Ti(H2O)6]3+ ion in an octahedral crystal field.

(b) Why is this complex coloured? Explain on the basis of distribution of electrons in the
d-orbitals.

(c) How does the colour change on heating [Ti(H2O)6]3+ ion?

3. A metal ion Mn+ having d4 valence electronic configuration combines with three
didentate ligands to form a complex compound. Assuming Δo > P

a. draw the diagram showing d orbital splitting during this complex formation.

b. Write the electronic configuration of the valence electrons of the metal Mn+
ion in terms of t2g and eg.

c. What type of hybridization will Mn+ ion have?

d. Name the type of isomerism exhibited by this complex.

4. Write the shape of Fe(CO)5 , Mn2(CO)10 , Co2(CO)8, Ni(CO)4 molecule

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5. For the complex [Fe(en)2Cl2]Cl, (en = ethylene diamine), identify

1) The oxidation number of iron.

1) The hybrid orbitals and the shape of the complex

2) The magnetic behaviour of the complex

3) The number of geometrical isomers

4) Whether there is an optical isomer

5) Name of the complex. (At. No. of Fe =26)

6. Write the formulas in the following cases.

1) Tetrabromidocuprate(II)

2) Diamminedichloridoplatinum(II)

3) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate (II)

4) Dichloridobis (ethane-1,2-diamine) platinum (IV) nitrate

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Chapter 10- Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
POLYHALOGEN COMPOUNDS

1. CH2 CL2 (Methylene Chloride) / (Dichloromethane)

Uses: Used as a solvent as a paint remover, propellant in aerosol, as a process solvent in the
manufacture of drugs and as a metal cleaning and finishing solvent.
Harmful effects: Harms human central nervous system. Higher level in air causes dizziness,
nausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes. Direct contact with skin causes intense
burning and can burn cornea of eyes.
2. CHCl3 (chloroform/trichloromethene)
Uses: Solvents, fats, alkaloids, iodine and other substances, in production of Freon refrigerant R-
22. Inhaling chloroform vapours depresses the central nervous system. Was used as an anesthetic
but now has been replaced by less toxic anesthetics.
Light
CHCl3 + O2 2COCl2 + 2HCl
(Carbonyl chloride)
Chloroform is slowly oxidized by the presence of light to an extremely poisonous gas, phosgene
which when inhaled may cause damage to liver, kidneys, and some people develop sores when
the skin is immersed in closed dark coloured bottles completely filled so that air is kept out.
3. CHI3 (lodoform/ Triiodomethane)
It has strong unpleasant smell .It was used as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are due to
the liberation of I2 and not due to CHI3. Due to its objectionable smell objectionable smell, other
formulations containing I2 are used.
4. CCL4(carbon tetrachloride/ Tetra chloromethane)
Uses: Used in synthesis of chlorofluorocarbons, manufacture of refrigerants and propellants or
aerosol cans, s a solvent, cleaning fluid, fire extinguishers.
Harmful effects: Exposure to CCl4 may cause liver cancer, dizziness, lightheadedness, nausea and
vomiting which can cause permanent damage to nerve cells. When CCl4 is released into the air , it
rises to the atmosphere and depletes the ozone layer which increases human exposure to UV rays,
leading to increased skin cancer, eye diseases and disorders and possible disruptions to the
immune system.
5. Freon (Chlorofluoro carbon compounds of CH4 and C2H6)
Freon is stable, unreactive, non toxic, non corrosive and easily liquefiable gases. Eg. Freon 12
(CCl2F2)
Preparation- CCl4 + 2 AgF / SbF2 CCl2F2 (Swartz reaction)
Uses- Aerosol propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning.
Freons, eventuall diffuse unchanged into the stratosphere here it initiates radical chain reaction
that can upset O3 balance.
6. DDT (p,p’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloromethane) - It is the first organic chlorinated nsecticide.
Uses- as used against mosquito that spreads malaria and lice that carry typhus. Later, many
species of insects developed resistance to DDT, and it as also discovered to have toxicity towards
fish. DDT is not metabolized very rapidly by animals; instead it is deposited and stored in fatty
tissues.

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Assignment

Chapter 10: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Learning Outcomes: The Learner

● draws, flow charts, concept maps, to understand and apply the physical and chemical
properties.
● will be able to know how to write the trivial and IUPAC name of various organic compounds
● will be able to Understand the Preparation & properties of the organic compounds.
● uses scientific conventions, symbols, and equations to represent various chemical equations and
predict the products.
● Distinguish between various organic compounds by giving chemical tests
● make an effort to conserve the environment using the knowledge and harmful effects of
polyhalogen compounds such as CFCs.
● exhibit rational thinking towards while taking decisions and respect life with the knowledge
and harmful effects of alcohol and compounds
● explain organic reactions using mechanisms
● will be able to perform the test to distinguish between the primary, secondary and tertiary
amines amines, aldehydes and ketones, alcohols and phenols, haloalkanes and haloarenes, etc.
● plans and conducts investigations to arrive at and verify the facts, principles, phenomena or to
seek answers to queries on their own,

1. Which of the following reactions is most suitable for the preparation of n-propyl benzene?

(a)Friedel-Crafts alkylation (b) Wurtz reaction (c) Wurtz-Fittig reaction (d) Grignard
reaction

2. SN1 reaction of optically active alkyl halides leads to,

(a)retention of configuration (b) racemization (c) inversion of configuration (d) none of these

Which of the following is not correctly matched with its IUPAC name?
3.
(a) CHF2CBrClF : 1-Bromo-1-chIoro-1, 2, 2-trifluoroethane

(b) (CCl3)3CCl : 2-(Trichloromethyl)-1, 1, 2, 3, 3-heptafluoropropane

(c) CH3C (p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3 : 2-Bromo-3, 3-bis (4- chlorophenyl) butane

(d) o-BrC6H4CH (CH3) CH2CH3 : 2-Bromo-l- methylpropyl benzene

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Which of the following compounds has the highest boiling point?

4.
(a)CH3CH2CH2Cl

(b) CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl

(c) CH3CH(CH3)CH2Cl

(d) (CH3)3CCl

In Q5 to Q8, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding statement of

reason (R) just below it. Of the statements mark the correct answer as:
(i)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
(ii)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
(iii)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(iv)Assertion and reason both are incorrect statements.
(v)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is a correct statement.

5 Assertion: Alkyl iodide can be prepared by treating RCl/RBr with NaI in acetone.
Reason: NaCl/NaBr are soluble in acetone while NaI is not.

6 Assertion: SN2 reactions proceed with inversion of configuration.

Reason: SN2 reactions occur in one step.

Assertion: Treatment of chloroethane with a saturated solution of AgCN gives ethyl

7 isocyanide as a major product.

Reason: Cyanide ion (CN–) is an ambident nucleophile

Assertion: Presence of a nitro group at ortho or para position increases the reactivity of
8. haloarenes towards nucleophilic substitution.

Reason: Nitro group, being an electron-withdrawing group decreases the electron density over
the benzene ring.

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Read the passage below and answer the questions 1-5 that follow:
9.

10. Out of chlorobenzene and benzyl chloride, which one gets easily hydrolysed by aqueous
NaOH and why?

11. (a) Identify the chiral molecule in the following pair:

(b) Write the structure of the product when chlorobenzene is treated with methyl chloride in

the presence of sodium metal and dry ether.

(c)Write the structure of the alkene formed by dehydrohalogenation of

1-bromo-1-methylcyclohexane with alcoholic KOH.

12. Write the structure of 1-Bromo-4-chlorobut-2-ene.

13. Following compounds are given to you :

2-Bromopentane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane

(i) Write the compound which is most reactive towards SN2 reaction.

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(ii) Write the compound which is optically active.

(iii)Write the compound which is most reactive towards β-elimination reaction.

14. Name the following halides according to IUPAC system:

(a) CH3CH(Br)CH=C(CH3)CH2Cl

(b)

(c) CH3CH(CH3)CH(Br)CH3 (d) ClCH2CH=CHCH2Br

(e) (f) CH3CH ≡ C-I

15.

16. What happens when bromine attacks CH2=CH-CH2-C ≡ CH?

17. Write the structures of the following organic compounds:

(i) 2-Chloro-3-methylpentane

(ii) 1-Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane

(iii) 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-1-iodo octane

(iv) 4-tert-Butyl-3-iodoheptane

18. Answer the following questions:

(i) What is meant by chirality of the compound? Give an example.

(ii) Which of the following compounds is more easily hydrolysed by KOH and why?

CH3CH(Cl)CH2CH3 or CH3CH2CH2Cl

(iii) Which one undergoes SN2 faster and why?

or

19. Which one of the following reacts faster in an SN1 reaction and why?

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or

20. State one use of DDT and iodoform. Why is chloroform kept in dark coloured bottles completely
filled?

21. What are ambident nucleophiles? Explain with the help of an example.

22. Write short notes on:

(a) Fittig reaction (b) Swartz reaction

23. Account for the following:

a) tert-Butyl chloride reacts with aqueous NaOH by SN1 mechanism while n-butyl
chloride reacts by SN2 mechanism.

b) Among HI, HBr and HCl, HI is most reactive.

c) Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water.

d) Chlorobenzene is extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction.

e) C–Cl bond length in chlorobenzene is shorter than C–Cl bond length in CH3–Cl.

f) The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride.

g) SN1 reactions are accompanied by racemization in optically active alkyl halides.

24. Carry out the following conversions:

i) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane

ii) Toluene to benzyl alcohol

iii) Benzyl chloride to benzyl alcohol

25. What will be the mechanism for the substitution of -Br by –OH in (CH3)2C(Br)CH2CH3?

26. Identify the following compounds from A to K:

Acetone, heat

(a)CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaI A

Ethanol

(b) (CH3)3CBr + KOH B

(c)CH3CH(Br)CH2CH3 + NaOH(aq) C

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Ethanol

(d)CH3CH2Br + KCN D

Heat

(e) (CH3)3CBr + H2O E

Heat

(f) CH3CH2Cl + SbF5 F

H+

(g) CH2=CHCH2Br + H2O G

(h)C6H5CH2Cl + C2H5ONa H

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More Practice
Chapter 10: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

1. Name the following halides according to IUPAC system:

(i) (CCl3)3CCl

(ii) CH3C(p-ClC6H4)2CH(Br)CH3

(iii) (CH3)3CCH=C(Cl)C6H4I-p

2. Arrange the following compounds in an increasing order of their acid strengths:

(CH3)2CHCOOH, CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH

3. Arrange the following compounds in increasing order of reactivity towards nucleophilic

substitution reaction:

1,4-Dichlorobenzene , 4-Methoxy chlorobenzene, benzene , 2,4,6- Trinitro chlorobenzene

4. Account for the following:

a) The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride.

b) Vinyl chloride is unreactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions.

c) Grignard reagent should be prepared under anhydrous conditions.

d) Haloarenes are much less reactive than haloalkanes towards nucleophilic substitution
reactions.

5. Carry out the following conversions:

(i) Propene to propyne

(ii) Ethanol to but-1-yne

6. Identify the following compounds from A to K:

heat

(i) (CH3)3CBr + H2O A

C2H5ONa, heat

(ii) (CH3)2CHCH(Br)CH2CH3 B

liq NH3

(iii) CH2=CHCH2Br + CH3C ≡ CNa C

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(iv) C6H4CH2Cl + C2H5ONa D

(v) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 E

(vi) CH3CH=C(CH3)2 + HBr F

heat

(vii) CH(CH3)2 + Br2 K

(viii) CH3CH2CH2OH + SOCl2 L

Peroxide

(ix) CH3CH2CH=CH2 + HBr M

(x) CH3CH=C(CH3)2 + HBr N

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Assignment

Chapter 11: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

1. IUPAC name of m-cresol is….

(a)3-Methyl phenol (b) 3-Chlorophenol (c) 3-Methoxyphenol (d) Benzene-1,3-diol

2. 1-Phenylethanol can be prepared by the reaction of benzaldehyde with

(a) methyl bromide

(b) ethyl iodide and magnesium

(c) methyl iodide and magnesium (Grignard reagent)

(d) methyl bromide and aluminium bromide

3. Which of the following reagents can not be used to oxidise primary alcohols to aldehydes?

(a) CrO3 in anhydrous medium

(b) KMnO4 in acidic medium

(c) Pyridinium chlorochromate

(d) Heat in the presence of Cu at 573 K

4. An unknown alcohol is treated with “Lucas reagent” to determine whether the alcohol is
primary, secondary or tertiary. Which alcohol reacts fastest and by what mechanism?

(a) Tertiary alcohol by SN2

(b) Secondary alcohol by SN1

(c) Tertiary alcohol by SN1

(d) Secondary alcohol by SN2

In Q5 and Q8, a statement of assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding statement

of reason (R) just below it. Of the statements mark the correct answer as:

(i)Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.

(ii)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.

(iii)Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

(iv)Assertion and reason both are incorrect statements.

(v)Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

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5. Assertion: Bond angle in ethers is slightly less than the tetrahedral angle.

Reason: There is repulsion between two bulky (-R) groups.

6. Assertion: p-Nitrophenol is more acidic than phenol.

Reason: Nitro group helps in the stabilization of the phenoxide ion by dispersal of

negative charge due to resonance.

7. Assertion: Phenol is more acidic than ethanol.

Reason:Phenoxide ion is resonance stabilized.

8. Assertion: Alcohols have higher boiling point than ethers of comparable molecular
masses.

Reason:Alcohols and ethers are isomeric in nature.

9. Out of t-butyl alcohol and n-butanol, which one will undergo acid catalysed dehydration
faster and why?

10. Carry out the following conversions:

(i) Phenol to salicylaldehyde

(ii) t-butyl chloride to t-butyl ethyl ether

11. Give the mechanism of formation of ethanol from ethene.

12. Write the structures of the main products in the following reactions:

13. Predict the reagent for carrying out the following conversions:

(i) Phenol to benzoquinone

(ii) Anisole to p-bromoanisole

(iii) Phenol to 2,4,6- tribromophenol

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14. (a) Write the product(s) in the following reactions :

(b) Give simple chemical tests to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds :

(i) Ethanol and Phenol

(ii) Propanol and 2-methylpropan-2-ol

15. (a) Write the formula of reagents used in the following reactions :

(i) Bromination of phenol to 2,4,6-tribromophenol

(ii) Hydroboration of propene and then oxidation to propanol.

(b) Arrange the following compound groups in the increasing order of their property
indicated :

(i) p-nitrophenol, ethanol, phenol (acidic character)

(ii) Propanol, Propane, Propanal (boiling point)

(c) Write the mechanism (using curved arrow notation) of the following reaction :

16. Give the I.U.P.A.C. name of the following:

(i) CH3CH2-CH=CH-CH2OH

(ii) CH3—CH2-CH2-OCH2-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH2CH3

(iii) C6H5OCH2CH2CH2CH2CH—CH2CH3

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17. Arrange the following as

(i) Decreasing order of boiling points:

2-methyl-2-propanol, 1-butanol,2-methyl –1-propanol and 2-butanol.

(ii) Decreasing order of their acidic character:

(iii ) Increasing reactivity towards Lucas reagent:

1-butanol , 2-methyl-2- propanol , 2-butanol.

18. Write the chemical equation when 1-propanol react with

(i) excess of HBr (ii) H2SO4 at 410 K

(iii ) H2SO4 at 443K (iv) acidified KMnO4

19. How does phenol react with the following?

(i) Acetyl chloride.

(ii) Bromine in water.

(iii) Chloroform in presence of NaOH

20. Convert

(1) Phenol to picric acid

(2) Cumene to phenol.

(3) Phenol to Salicyaldehyde

(4) Phenol to anisole

(5) Propan-2-ol to 2-Methylpropan-2-ol

21. Explain giving reasons:-

(i) Alcohols are generally soluble in water but alkyl halides are not.

(ii) Phenols exhibit an acidic character.

(iii) Phenol has a smaller dipole moment than methanol.

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(iv) 2,3- dimethylbutanol has a lower boiling point than hexanol .

(v) 2-Nitrophenol is more volatile than 4-Nitrophenol.

22.

23.

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More Practice
Chapter 11: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

1. Complete the following reactions

2 Convert:

(i) Chlorobenzene to Phenol

(ii) Aniline to phenol

(iii) Propanone to Propene

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Assignment

Chapter 12: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

2. The correct order of increasing acidic strength is _____________.

(i) Phenol < Ethanol < Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid

(ii) Ethanol < Phenol < Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid

(iii) Ethanol < Phenol < Acetic acid < Chloroacetic acid

(iv) Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid < Phenol < Ethanol

3. In Clemmensen Reduction carbonyl compound is treated with _____________.

(i) Zinc amalgam + HCl

(ii) Sodium amalgam + HCl

(iii) Zinc amalgam + nitric acid

(iv) Sodium amalgam + HNO3

4. The formation of cyanohydrin from a ketone is an example of

(i)electrophilic addition

(ii)nucleophilic addition

(iii)nucleophilic substitution

(iv)electrophilic substitution

5. Heating a mixture of sodium benzoate and soda lime gives

(i) calcium benzoate

(ii) benzene

(iii) sodium benzoate

(iv) methane

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6. Iodoform test is given by:

(i) Pentan-2-one

(ii) Pentan-3-one

(iii)Ethanoic acid

(iv)Methoxymethane

In the following questions 7 to 10, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(i) Assertion and reason both are correct and reason is correct explanation of assertion.

(ii)Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation of
assertion.

(iii) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

(iv) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

(v)Assertion and reason both are wrong statements.

7. Assertion : Aldehydes and ketones, both react with Tollen’s reagent to form silver mirror.

Reason : Both aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group.

8 Assertion : Aromatic aldehydes and formaldehyde undergo Cannizaro reaction.

Reason : Aromatic aldehydes are almost as reactive as formaldehyde.

9. Assertion: Isobutanal doesn’t undergo iodoform test.

Reason:It doesn’t contain alpha hydrogen.

10. Assertion:Mixture of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde in hot alkaline solution results in the
formation of cinnamaldehyde.

Reason:Benzaldehyde is a strong electrophile than acetaldehyde.

11. What happens when:

(a) acetone is treated with Zn(Hg) / conc HCl.

(b) Ethanal is treated with Methylmagnesium bromide and then hydrolysed.

12. (A), (B) and (C) are three non-cyclic isomers of a carbonyl compound with molecular formula
C4H8O. Isomers (A) and (C) give positive Tollen’s test whereas isomer (B) does not give Tollen’s

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test but gives positive Iodoform test. Isomers (A) and (B) on reduction with Zn(Hg)/[Link]
gives the same product D.

(i) Write the structures of (A), (B), (C) and (D).

(ii) Out of (A), (B) and (C) isomers, which one is most reactive towards addition of NaHSO3 and
why?

13. How do you convert the following:

(a) Ethanal to propanone

(b) Toluene to benzoic acid

(c) Benzoic acid to benzaldehyde

(d) Benzoic acid to benzaldehyde

(e) Prapanone to Propene

14. Account for the following:

(a) Aromatic carboxylic acids do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction.

(b) pKa value of 4-nitrobenzoic acid is lower than that of benzoic acid.

15. Write structures of compounds A, B and C in each of the following reactions :

16. Write IUPAC names for the following :

(a) C6H5CH2CHO

(b) CH2=CHCH2CHO

(c) (CH3)2C=CHCOCH2CH3

17. Arrange the following compounds as directed:

a) Acetaldehyde, acetone, Methyl tert-butyl ketone (reactivity towards HCN)

b) Benzoic acid, 3,4-Dinitrobenzoic acid, 4-methoxybenzoic acid

c) CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH, CH3CH(Br)CH2COOH, (CH3)2CHCOOH (acid strength)

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d) a) CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH, CH3OCH3, CH3CH2CH3(increasing order of their boiling
point)

e) b) Ethanal, propanal, propanone , butanone (increasing order of their reactivity towards

nucleophilic addition).

18. Give brief description with suitable example:

a) Cannizzaro Reaction

b) Hell-Volhard Zelinsky [Link] Reduction

c) Wolff-Kishner Reduction.

d) Cross aldol condensation

e) Etard reaction

19. Account for the following:

a) Carboxylic acids have higher boiling points than alcohols of comparable molecular masses.

b) Electrophilic substitution in benzoic acid takes place at meta-position.

c) Monochloroethanoic acid has a higher pKa value than dichloroethanoic acid.

d) Ethanoic acid is a weaker acid than benzoic acid.

e) The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are lower than of the corresponding acids.

20. How will you convert the following?

a) Acetaldehyde into 2-Butenal

b) Acetic acid to Acetic anhydride

c) Butanol to butanoic acid

d) 4-Methylacetophenone to benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid

e) Butan-2-one to butan-2-ol

f) Phenol to 2,4,6- tribromophenol

21. Distinguish between the following

a) CH3CHO and C6H5CHO

b) C2H5OH and CH3CH2COCH2CH3

c) C6H5COOH and C6H5OH

d) C6H5COCH3 and C6H5COC6H5

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e) CH3COCH3 and C2H5OH

f) CH3COCH3 and C3H7OH

g) Propanal and Propanone

22. Complete the following reactions:

23.

24. (i)Write a chemical equation for the reaction involved in the Cannizaro reaction.

(ii)Draw structure of Semicarbazone of Ethanal.

(iii)Why is the pka value of F-CH2-COOH lower than Cl-CH2-COOH?

(iv)Write product for the reaction:

25. Complete the following reaction statements by giving the missing starting material, reagent or
product as required:

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More Practice

Chapter 12: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

1 Account for the following:

a) Formaldehyde gives Cannizzaro’s reaction whereas acetaldehyde does not

b) Carboxylic acids do not give the characteristic reactions of carbonyl group.

c) Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones towards nucleophilic addition reactions.

d) Chloroacetic acid has lower pKa value than acetic acid.

e) The aldehydes and ketones undergo a number of addition reactions.

f) Ethanoic acid is a weaker acid than benzoic acid.

2 How will you convert the following?

i) Acetophenone to Ethyl benzene

ii) Acetone to tert-butyl alcohol

iii) Benzyl alcohol to phenyl ethanoic acid

iv) Bromobenzene to benzoic acid

v) p-methyl acetophenone to benzene 1,4 –dicarboxylic acid

vi) Benzoic acid to benzyl amine

vii) p-nitrobenzamide to p-nitroaniline

viii) A primary alcohol to an aldehyde

ix) Ethanol to acetone

x) Benzene to acetophenone

xi ) Benzoic acid to benzaldehyde

xii) propane to Propane

xiii) Benzoyl chloride to Benzaldehyde

xiv) Ethanol to But-2-enal

3 Although phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than carboxylate ion,
carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol. Give two reasons.

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4

5 An organic compound contains 69.77% carbon, 11.63% hydrogen and the rest is oxygen.
The molecular mass of the compound is 86. It does not reduce Tollen’s reagent but forms
an addition compound with sodium hydrogen sulphite and gives a positive iodoform test.
On vigorous oxidation it gives ethanoic and propanoic acids. Deduce the possible structure
of the organic compound.

6 An organic compound with molecular formula C9H10O forms 2,4-DNP derivative, reduces
Tollen’s reagent and undergoes Cannizzaro’s reaction. On vigorous oxidation it gives 1,2-
benzenedicarboxylic acid. Identify the compound.

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Assignment

Chapter 13: Organic Compounds containing Nitrogen

1. Out the following, the strongest base in aqueous solution is:

(i) Methylamine

(ii)Dimethylamine

(iii) Trimethylamine

(iv)Aniline

2. Reduction of aromatic nitro compounds using Fe and HCl gives __________.

(i) aromatic oxime

(ii) aromatic hydrocarbon

(iii) aromatic primary amine

(iv) aromatic amide

3. Best method for preparing primary amines from alkyl halides without changing the
number of carbon atoms in the chain is

(i) Hoffmann Bromamide reaction

(ii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

(iii) Sandmeyer reaction

(iv) Reaction with NH3

4. In this reaction acetamide is converted to methanamine

(i) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

(ii) Carbylamine reaction

(iii) Stephen’s reaction

(iv) Hoffmann bromamide reaction

In the following questions 5 to 8, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of

reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(i) Both assertion and reason are wrong.

(ii) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
of assertion.

(iii) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

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(iv) Both assertion and reason are correct statements and reason is correct explanation of
assertion.

(v) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion : N-Ethylbenzene sulphonamide is soluble in alkali.

Reason : Hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly acidic.

6. Assertion : Acylation of amines gives a monosubstituted product whereas alkylation of

amines gives polysubstituted product.

Reason : Acyl group sterically hinders the approach of further acyl groups.

7. Assertion: Only a small amount of HCl is required in the reduction of nitro compounds
with iron scrap and HCl in the presence of steam.

Reason: FeCl2 formed gets hydrolyzed to release HCl during the reaction.

8. Assertion: Acetanilide is less basic than aniline.

Reason: Acetylation of aniline results in a decrease of electron density on nitrogen.

9. (a) Write the reactions involved in the following:

(i) Hofmann bromamide degradation

(ii) Diazotization

(iii)Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

(b)Give reasons:

(i) (CH3)2NH is more basic than (CH3)3N in an aqueous solution.

(ii) Aromatic diazonium salts are more stable than aliphatic diazonium salts.

10.

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11. (a)Write the structures of the main products of the following reactions:

(b)Give a simple chemical test to distinguish between

(i) Aniline and N- methylaniline.

(ii) Aniline and ethanamine

(a) Arrange the following in the increasing order of their pKb values:

C6H5NH2 , C2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3

12. Write IUPAC name of the following compound : (CH3CH2)2NCH3

13. Give reasons :

(i) Acetylation of aniline reduces its activation effect.

(ii) CH3NH2 is more basic than C6H5NH2.

(iii)Although –NH2 is o-/p- directing group, yet aniline on nitration gives a significant
amount of m-nitroaniline.

14. Write IUPAC names of the following:

a) CH3—CH(NH2)—CH(CH3)—CONH2 b) BrCH2N(CH3)2

c) O2N—CH2—CH2—CH=CH—CHO d) (CH3)3CCN

e)

15. For an amine RNH2, write the expression for Kb to indicate its basic strength.

16. Describe the following processes giving suitable examples of each:

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i) Diazotization

ii) Coupling reaction

iii) Carbylamine reaction

iv) Hofmann’s bromamide reaction

17. How will you carry out the following conversions:

i) Nitrobenzene to acetanilide

ii) Methyl amine to ethyl amine

iii) Nitrobenzene to phenol

iv) Toluene to m-nitro benzoic acid

v) Acetic acid to ethyl amine

18. Write structures of the following:

i) P- Toluidine

ii) Picric acid

iii) Sulphanilic acid

19. Write a chemical reaction in which the iodide ion replaces the diazonium group in a
diazonium salt.

20. Write reactions for what happens when:

a) Phenol is treated with benzene diazonium chloride in presence of NaOH

b) Aniline is treated with benzaldehyde

c) Ethyl amine is treated with excess of methyl iodide.

21. (i)Arrange in increasing order of boiling point: C2H5NH2, C2H5OH, (CH3)3N

(ii) Arrange the following in decreasing order of boiling point:

Butanol, butanamine,butane

22. Complete the following reaction equations:

i) C6H5N2Cl + H3PO2 + H2O

ii) C6H5NH2 + Br2(aq)

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23.

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More Practice
Chapter 13: Organic Compounds containing Nitrogen

1. Account for the following:

a) Ammonolysis of alkyl halide does not give a corresponding pure amine

b) pKb for aniline is more than that for methylamine
c) Boiling point of methylamine is less than that of methanoic acid
d) Aniline cannot be prepared by Gabriel Pthalimide synthesis
e) Nitration of toluene is easier compared to nitrobenzene
f) Before nitration aniline is converted to acetanilide.
g) Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction.
h) Methylamine solution in water reacts with ferric chloride solution to give a
precipitate of ferric hydroxide.

2. A compound X having molecular formula C3H7NO, reacts with Br2 in presence of

NaOH to give another compound Y. The compound Y reacts with HNO2 to form
ethanol and N2 gas. Identify the compounds X and Y and write the reactions involved.

3. A compound A of the molecular formula C3H7O2N on reaction with Fe and conc. HCl
gives a compound B of the molecular formula C3H9N. Compound B on treatment with
NaNO2 and HCl gives another compound C of the molecular formula C3H8O. The
compound C gives effervescence with Na. On oxidation with CrO3, the compound C
gives a saturated aldehyde having 3 carbon atoms. Deduce the structures of A, B and
C and write the reactions involved.

4. Describe a test to distinguish between each of the following pairs

a) Ethyl amine and aniline

b) N-methyl aniline and N,N-dimethyl aniline

5. How will you carry out the following conversions:

i) Aniline to N-phenyl ethanamide

ii) Aniline to benzoic acid

iii) Benzene to m-dichlorobenzene

iv) 2-nitropropane to acetone

v)Benzonitrile to acetophenone

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Assignment

Chapter 14: Biomolecules

Learning Outcomes - The learners

● applies scientific concepts in daily life with the knowledge of importance of carbohydrates , proteins
and vitamins.
● draw conclusion, such as features inherited with the knowledge on nucleic acids, such as, protein
synthesis
● explain processes taking place in the human body through the biomolecules.
● Distinguish between the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins, different
types of carbohydrates or amino acids.
● Explain the structures of different carbohydrates and also hemiacetal form of it.
● explain denaturation of proteins, selectivity of enzyme action.
● Classify vitamins and also list the different vitamins with their uses and deficiency diseases

1. On oxidation with a mild oxidising agent like Br2/H20, the glucose is oxidized to

(a) saccharic acid

(b) glucaric acid

(c) gluconic acid

(d) valeric acid

2. Globular proteins are present in

(a)Keratin (b) Muscles (c) Eggs (d) nucleoside

3. Invert sugar is

(a) a type of cane sugar

(b) optically inactive form of sugar

(c) mixture of glucose and galactose

(d) mixture of glucose and fructose in equimolar quantities

4. Purine and Pyrimidine bases present in both DNA and RNA are

(a)Uracil (b) Thymine (c) Cytosine (d) Adenine

In Q5 to Q8, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the

correct answer out of the following choices.

(i) Both assertion and reason are wrong.

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(ii) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation of
assertion.

(iii) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

(iv) Both assertion and reason are correct statements and reason is correct explanation of
assertion.

(v) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion: Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Reason: Reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation.

6. Assertion: The amino acid Glycine comes under the category of non-essential amino acids.

Reason: This is due to the fact that it cannot be synthesised in our body.

7. Assertion: Cellulose is not digested by human beings.

Reason: Cellulose is a polymer of β-D-glucose.

8. Assertion: Alpha amino acids exist as internal salt in solution as they have amino acid and
carboxylic acid groups in near vicinity.

Reason:H+ ion given by carboxyl group(-COOH) is captured by amino group(-NH2) having

lone pair of electrons.

9. Give the plausible explanation for the following:

(a) Glucose doesn’t give 2,4-DNP test.

(b) The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary.

(c) Starch and cellulose both contain glucose unit as monomer, yet they are structurally
different.

10. Define the following with an example of each;

(i) Polysaccharides

(ii) Denatured proteins

(iii) Essential aminoacids

11. (i) Write the product when D- Glucose reacts with bromine water.

(ii) Amino acids show amphoteric behaviour. Why?

(iii) Write one difference between α-helix and β-pleated structures of proteins.

12. State two main differences between globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Give one example
of each.

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13. a) Write the full forms of DNA and RNA. Write the names of the bases in them.

b) What are three types of RNA molecules which perform different functions?

14. Write chemical equations for the reactions of glucose with

(i)Acetic Anhydride (ii) NH2OH (iii) HNO3 (iv) HI

15. Define and classify vitamins. Name the main disease caused due to lack of vitamins and its
sources in each of the following ;A , B 6, E ,D, B 12 and K .

16. (a) Write any two reactions of glucose which cannot be explained by the open chain structure
of glucose molecule.

(b) Write the structure of the product obtained when glucose is oxidized with nitric acid.

17. Define enzymes .State the activity of enzyme. How do enzymes differ from ordinary chemical
catalysis? Comment on the specificity of enzyme action.

18. In what way is a nucleotide different from a nucleoside? Illustrate with examples?

19. What is essentially the difference between alpha-glucose and beta-glucose? What is meant by
pyranose structure of glucose?

20. Name some biological functions of nucleic acids.

What is the name given to the linkage which holds together two nucleotides

21. Explain what is meant by

(i) a peptide linkage

(ii) a glycosidic linkage

22. a) Write the name of two monosaccharides obtained on hydrolysis of lactose sugar.

b) Why Vitamin C cannot be stored in our body ?

c) What is the difference between a nucleoside and nucleotide ?

23. What is glycogen? How is it different from starch? How is starch structurally different from
cellulose?

24. How do you explain amphoteric behaviour of amino acids?

25. Define denaturation in proteins.

26. Which of the following is a disaccharide: Starch, Maltose, Fructose, Glucose?

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work:

● The entire chapter is done with the help of a presentation.
● A hand–out is given on proteins, vitamins and nucleic acids.

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Assignment
Chapter 15: Polymers
Learning Outcomes: The learner
● differentiates between different types of polymers, based on properties or characteristics,
● makes efforts to conserve environment realising the inter-dependency and inter-
relationship in the biotic and abiotic factors of environment and discover more
biodegradable polymers
● classifies between different polymers based on their source, polymerization, structure and
nature of intermolecular forces
● applies concepts of polymers in day-today life while making decisions and solving
problems

1. Nylon threads are made of

(i)polyester polymer

(ii)polyamide polymer

(iii)polyethylene polymer

(iv)polyvinyl polymer

2. Which of the following is a branched polymer?

(i)low density polymer

(ii)polyester

(iii)high density polymer

(iv)nylon

3. The commercial name of polyacrylonitrile is ______________.

(i) Dacron

(ii) Orlon (acrilan)

(iii) PVC

(iii) Bakelite

4. Which of the following is not a semisynthetic polymer?

(i) cis-polyisoprene
(ii) Cellulose nitrate
(iii) Cellulose acetate
(iv) Vulcanised rubber
In the following question no. 5 to 8, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
(i) Assertion and reason both are correct statement but reason does not explain assertion.
(ii) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason explains the assertion.

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(iii) Both assertion and reason are wrong statement.
(iv) Assertion is correct statement and reason is wrong statement.
(v) Assertion is wrong statement and reason is correct statement.

5. Assertion : Olefinic monomers undergo addition polymerisation.

Reason : Polymerisation of vinyl chloride is initiated by peroxides/ persulphates.

6. Assertion : For making rubber synthetically, isoprene molecules are polymerised.

Reason : Neoprene (a polymer of chloroprene) is a synthetic rubber.

7. Assertion: Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene.

Reason: Isoprene is a pentene.

8. Assertion: Fibres are stronger than elastomers.

Reason: Fibres have strong H-bonds.

9. Write a difference between LDPE and HDPE.

10. What are biodegradable polymers? Give an example.

11. Write the structures of the monomers used for getting the following polymers :
(i) Dacron
(ii) Melamine – formaldehyde polymer
(iii)Buna-N
(iv)Teflon

12. Write the names and molecular structures of the monomers of the following and classify
them as addition or condensation polymers :
(i) Natural rubber (ii) Glyptal (iii) ) Buna-S (iv) Bakelite
(v) PVC (vi) Nylon-6 (vii) Neoprene (viii) Polypropene (ix) Buna-N

13. (i)What is the role of t-butyl peroxide in the polymerization of ethene? Write its mechanism.
(ii)Identify the monomers in the following polymer :
[NH – (CH2)6 – NH – CO – (CH2)4 – CO– ]n
(iii)Arrange the following polymers in the increasing order of their intermolecular
forces : Polystyrene, Terylene, Buna-S
(iv)What are elastomers? Give an example of it.

14. (a) Describe chain growth and step growth polymerization with the help of an example.
(b) Classify the following as addition or condensation polymers:
Nylon-66, Neoprene, Polythene
15. (a)What is the difference between nylon-6 and nylon-66?
(b)What does the part ‘6,6 mean in the name nylon-6,6 ?

16. What are the uses of Teflon?

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17. Differentiate the following pair of polymers based on the property mentioned against each.
(i)Novolac and Bakelite (structure)
(ii)Buna-S and Terylene ( intermolecular forces of attraction)

18. What is the repeating unit in the condensation polymer obtained by combining
HO2CCH2CH2CO2H (succinic acid) and H2NCH2CH2NH2(ethylene diamine).
19. How is melamine polymer prepared? Give its two uses. What type of polymer is it?
20. Name the monomers of Nylon2-nylon-6 polymer.
21. PHBV (Poly-β-Hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxy valerate) is a biodegradable polymer. It is a
copolymer of 3-hydroxy valerate acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid.

(a) How PHBV has found utility in medicines as Capsule?

(b) Write the name of a polymer used in an artificial limb popularly known as Jaipurfoot.

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work:

● Different samples of polymers will be shown in the class.
● A hand out will be given.

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CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

DRUGS

Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses which interact with macromolecular targets and
produce as biological response. When biological response is therapeutic and useful, these
chemicals, are called medicines and if taken in higher doses, they behave as poisons. Use of
chemicals for therapeutic effect is called Chemotherapy.

Classification of Drugs:
a) On the basis of pharmacological effect: It is useful for doctors because it provides them the
whole range of drugs available for treatment of a particular problem. For e.g.: analgesics for
pain killing effect, antiseptics kill or arrest growth of microorganisms.
b) On the basis of drug action: It is based on the action of a drug on a particular biochemical
process. Eg- antihistamines which inhibit the action of histamines which causes inflammation
in the body.
c) On the basis of Chemical structure: Some drugs share a common feature and often have similar
Pharmacological activity. Eg; Sulphonamides have H2N-C6H4-SO2-NHR structural feature in
common.
d) On the basis of molecular targets: Drugs usually interact with biomolecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acid. These are called target molecules. Drugs
possessing some common structural feature have the same mechanism of action on targets.

DRUG –TARGET INTERACTION

Macromolecules of biological origin perform various functions in the body. For eg- Proteins which
perform role of biological catalyst in the body are called ENZYMES & those which are crucial to
communication system are called RECEPTORS.
Hormones are biological chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands. Example- Insulin,
noradrenalin.

ENZYMES AS DRUG TARGETS:

a) Catalytic action of enzymes : For understanding interaction between drug and enzyme we first
study the function of enzymes.
Enzymes hold the substrate for a chemical reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold substrate
molecule in a suitable position, so that it can be attacked by the reagent effectively. Substrate
binds themselves to the active sites by ionic bonding, hydrogen or by vanderwaals interaction.

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It provides functional groups that will attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction.

b) Drug-enzyme interaction: Drugs inhibit any of the above mentioned activities of enzymes.
These can block the binding site of enzyme and prevent the binding of substrate or can inhibit
catalytic activity of enzyme. These are called enzyme inhibitor.
These can occur in two different ways---
(i) Drugs compete with the natural substrate for their attachment on active sites of enzymes.
These are called competitive inhibitors.

(ii) Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site. These bind to some different enzyme
site called allosteric site. This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the shape of
the active site in such a way that substrate cannot recognize it.

If the bond between an enzyme and inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and it cannot be easily
broken, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor
complex and synthesizes the new enzyme.

RECEPTORS AS DRUG TARGETS

Receptors are proteins that are crucial to body’s communication process. Receptor proteins are
embedded in cell membranes in such a way that their small part possessing active site projects out
of the surface of the membrane and opens on the outside region of the cell membrane.

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(c) Receptor regains structure after removal of chemical messenger

There are a large no. of different receptors in the body that interact with different chemical
messengers. These receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other because
their binding sites have different shape, structure and aminoacid composition.
Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called antagonists. Drugs
that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptors are called agonists. These are useful
when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.

CHEMICALS IN MEDICINE

The chemical substances used for treatment of diseases and for reducing suffering from pain are
called medincines or drugs.
Chemotherapy- is a science in which suitable chemicals are used for treatment of diseases.
1) Antipyretics- The chemicals use to lower body temperature in high fever are called antipyretics.
Eg- Aspirin, paracetamol and phenacetin

2) Analgesics- The chemical substances used to relieve pains without causing impairment of
consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of
nervous system are called analgesics. These are of two types.
a) Non-narcotic drugs or non-addictive drugs- Eg- aspirin, analgin, novalgin, naproxen,
ibuprofen & diclofenac sodium or potassium.
Aspirin: Finds use as antipyretic, prevention of heart attack because of its anti-blood
clotting action. Aspirin is supposed to be toxic to liver which gets hydrolysed in stomach

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giving salicylic acid which sometimes cause bleeding in stomach. Therefore, overdosage
and its use in empty stomach should be avoided.
b) Narcotic drugs or Addictive drugs- Which produce sleep and unconsciousness. These
can also be used as analgesics. Eg- morphine, codeine, heroin, marijuana. When used in
medicinal doses, they relieve pain and produce sleep. In excessive doses, they produce
stupar coma, convulsions and ultimately leading to death. These narcotics are called
opiates because they are obtained from opium poppy.

3) Antiseptics and disinfectants:

Antiseptics are chemical substances used either to kill or prevent the growth of micro-
organisms. These are not harmful to living tissues and can be applied on wounds, ulcers,
diseased skin surfaces. They are also used to reduce odours resulting from bacterial
decomposition of the body or in the mouth. Eg- Soframycin, Bithional is added to medicated
soaps, tincture of Iodine ( 2-3% soln of iodine in alcohol-water mixture), Iodoform, Boric acid in
dilute aqueous solution is antiseptic for eyes etc.
Disinfectants are chemical substances which are used to kill micro-organisms but they cannot
be applied on living tissues. They play a major role in water treatment and public health
sanitation. These are commonly applied on inanimate objects like floors, drainage system etc.
Eg- Cl2 at a conc. of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm makes water fit for drinking, Phenol derivative, thymol.
Some substances act both as antiseptics and disinfectants. Eg- Dettol (a mixture of chloroxylenol
and terpineol ), 0.2% soln. of phenol acts as antiseptic & 1% soln acts as disinfectant.

4) Tranquilizers: The chemical substances used for treatment of stress, mild and severe mental
diseases are called tranquilizers. They release mental tension and reduce anxiety. These are
essential component of sleeping pills. These are also called psychotherapeutic drugs.
Noradrenaline, a hormone which induces feeling of well being and helps in changing mood. If
the level of nordrenaline is low for some reason, then signal sending activity becomes low, and
the person suffers from depression. In such situations, antidepressant drugs are required.
Eg: iproniazid and phenalzine are antidepressant drugs. They inhibit the enzyme which
catalyse the degradation of noradrenaline.
Chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate are used to relieve tension.
Equanil, diazepam,veronal and serotonin are used in controlling depression and hypertension
Barbiturates like veronal, amytal, membutal, seconal and luminal are hypotonic ie: sleep
producing agents.

5) Antimalarials: These are chemical substances used for treatment of malaria. Eg- Chloroquine,
paraquine etc.

6) Antimicrobials: are chemical substances used to cure infections due to micro-organisms. The
disease in human beings may be caused due to variety of micro-organisms like virus, bacteria
etc. which are called microbes. They can be seen only by microscope. The disease causing
microbes are called pathogens. Our body possesses natural defense mechanism against the
pathogenic microbes. Skin is impervious to microbes. Our body secretions kill the microbes or
inhibit their growth. Some common examples are lysozyme in tears, nasal secretions, saliva,
lactic acid in sweat etc. The pathogens reach the tissues due to breach in defence mechanism
and cause infections.

The control of microbial diseases can be achieved by:

(i) Drugs which kill organisms in the body (bactericidal)
(ii) Drugs which inhibit or arrest the growth of organisms (bacteriostatic)
(iii) Increasing immunity and resistance to infections of the body (immunity)

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Antimicrobial substances may be synthetic chemicals like sulphonamides or antibiotics-
like tetracycline, penicillin, chloramphenicol etc. The common example of antimicrobial
drug is sulphanilamides which are effective in wide range of micro-organisms.

7) Antifertility Drugs: These chemical substances control pregnancy. Their basic aim is to prevent
conception or fertilization. The birth control pills are essentially a mixture of esterogen and
progesterone derivative. Both of these compounds are hormones. Progesterone suppresses
ovulation. Synthetic progesterone are more potent than progesterone.
The common pills used for a combination of progesterone, norethindrone and estrogen
(ethynylestradiaol) is novestrol.

8) Antacids: The chemical substances which neutralize excess acid in the gastric juices and give
relief from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns, and gastric ulcers are called antacids. Baking
soda in water is a common antacid. Other example are magnesium hydroxide, calcium
carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, magnesium carbonate, potassium
bicarbonate, aluminium phosphate. Magnesium oxide is also used as an antacid ingredient
since it reacts with water to form Mg(OH)2. The antacids are available in the form of liquids, gels
or tablets. Generally, liquid antacids are more effective than tablets because of great surface area
available for interaction and neutralization of acid. An advancement in treatment of
hyperacidity came through the discovery that histamines stimulates the secretion of pepsin and
hydrochloric acid. To prevent interaction of histamines with the receptors present in the
stomach wall, the drug cimetidine has been designed. This resulted in release of lesser amount
of acid. The drug is now replaced by ranitidine. A more effective new class of drugs is
omeprazole and lansoprazole which prevents formation of acid in stomach.

9) Antihistamines: are chemical substances which diminish or abolish the main actions of
histamines release in the body and hence prevent the allergic reactions caused by antigens.
Histamines are responsible for nasal congestion associated with common colds, cough, allergic
response to pollens etc. Synthetic drugs such as bromopheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine
(seldane) are used as antihistamines. Antihistamines are also called anti-allergic drugs. These
are used to treat allergy, eg, skin rashes, conjunctivitis etc. These drugs relieve sneezing , nasal
discharge, mild asthama, itching of eyes, nose and throat. The common antihistamine drugs are
Benadryl, avil, zeet, bromethazine, actidil, anistine, foristal etc.

10) Anaesthetics: are chemical sunstances which produce general or local insensibility to pains and
other sensations. Cocaine, novocaine are local anaesthetic chloroform, diethyl & vinyl ethers
are general anaesthetics.

11) Antibiotics: are chemical substances which are produced by micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi
and moulds) and can inhibit the growth or even destroy micro-organisms. Antibiotic refers to
a substance ( produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis) which in low concentration
inhibits growth or destroys micro-organisms by intervening in their metabolic processes.
First antibiotic produced was penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1929. Antibiotic can be either
bactericidal or bacteriostatic.
Bactericidal: Pencillin, Aminoglycosiders, Ofloxacin.
Bacteriostatic: Erythromcin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol.
Pencillin is narrow spectrum. These can be used for curing sore throat, reheumatic fever, local
infections etc. Streptomycin, neomycin is used for treatment of tuberculosis, meningitis,
pneumonia etc.
Broad spectrum antibiotics are effective against several micr-organisms. Thereforem these are
for curing a variety of diseases. Eg- thetracycline, chloromycetin and chloramphenicol. Eg-

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Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic which is used for curing typhoid, acute fever,
dysentery, whooping cough, pneumonia, eye infections, certain urine infections etc.
Sulphadrugs are used against pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria etc. Some examples are
sulphadiazine, sulphathiazole, sulphaacetamide etc.

[Link]. Type of Medicine Used as Examples

1 Analgesics Relieve Pain Aspirin, Ibuprofen
2 Antipyretics Lowers body temperature Paracetamol, Phenacetin
3 Antiseptics & Kill or prevent growth of Phenol, Chlorine, dettol
Disinfectants microorganism
4 Tranquilizers Treatment of stress & mental Barbituric acid & its
diseases derivatives (Seconal,
Luminal, Veronal etc)
5 Antimicrobials Cure infections due to Sulphonamides
microorganisms
6 Antifertility drugs Birth control Novestrol (ethynylestradiol)
& Progestrone
(norethindrone),
mifepristone
7 Antacids Removes excess acid in stomach Magnesium hydroxide,
Magnesium trisilicate,
aluminium hydroxide gel
Ranitidine
8 Antihistamines Treatment of hyperacidity, Brompheniramine &
stimulates secretion of pepsin & terfenadine
HCl in the stomach. Also
responsible for nasal congestion
associated with common cold
9 Antibiotics Produced by microorganisms & Pencillin, Tetracycline,
can inhibit the growth of other Chloramphenicol
microbes

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Chemicals in Food

Many chemicals are added to food for their preservation and enhancing their appeal. These include
flavourings, sweetness, antioxidants, fortifiers, emulsifiers and antifoaming agents.

1. Antioxidants:
Antioxidants are the important class of compounds which prevent oxidation of food materials.
These compounds retard the action of oxygen on the food and thereby help in preservation.
These act as sacrificial materials. i.e. they are more reactive towards oxygen than the materials
they are protecting. They also reduce the rate of involvement of free radicals in the aging
process. Most important antioxidants used are butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxy toluene (BHT). The addition of BHA to butter increases its storage life.

OH OH
(CH3)3C C(CH3)3 C(CH3)3
OCH3
CH3
BHT BHA

Sometimes BHT and BHA are added in combination with citric or ascorbic acid to produce a
more active synergistic effect. SO2 and sulphate are useful antioxidants for wine and beers,
sugar syrups and cut peeled on dried fruits and vegetables.
2. Preservatives:
These are the chemical substances which are added to the food materials to prevent their
spoilage and to retain their nutritive value for long periods. These preservatives prevent
rancidity of food & inhibit the growth of microorganisms during storage. Example: Common
salt, sugar, oils, Sodium benzoate, salts of propanoic acid and ascorbic acid.
3. Artificial Sweetening agents:
The artificial sweetners are another type of food additives. Eg; Saccharin which is marketed as
soluble of calcium salt. It is 300 times sweet than cane sugar. It is life saver for diabetic patients
and is of great value to people who need to control intake of calories.
Aspartame: Unstable at cooking temperature, therefore it is used as a sugar substitute to cold
foods and soft drinks.
Alitame: more stable during cooking than aspartame
Sucralose: good artificial sweetener.

4. Edible colors:
Edible colour that are used for food are dyes; ex- dyes are used to dye orange peels so hat
oranges retain their colour. Colour is also added to fruit juices. Food colours do not have any
nutritional value. The use of some of the azodyes are dangerous for young children and asthma
patients.
Terazime, a widely used dye is harmful
Natural dyes like carotene are safe food edible colours.
PFA {Prevention of food Adulteration Act}- govt. has passed it for the protection of consumer
interests.

SOAPS AND DETERGENT

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fattyacids. Soaps containing sodium salts are
formed by heating fat (ie glyceryl ester of fatty acid) with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and
potassium salts are prepared by using potassium hydroxide. This reaction is known as

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saponification. Soap obtained remains in colloidal form and is precipitated from the solution by
adding NaCl.

CH2-O-C-C17H35 CH2OH
| |
CH2-O-C-C17H35 + 3NaOH 3C17H35COONa + CH2OH
| |
CH2-O-C-C17H35 CH2OH

Soaps cannot be used in hard water as hard water contains certain metal ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+
which form a curdy white precipitate of calcium and magnesium salt. This is called scum and is
hinderance to good washing because this insoluble ppt. adheres onto the fibre of the cloth as
gummy mass.

Synthetic detergents: They are sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic acid. Eg: sodium
alkylbenzene sulphonate which have a general formula: CH3(CH2)xC6H4SO3Na+
Advantages of detergents:

Detergents can be work in hard water. The anions of synthetic detergent do not precipitate in the
presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+. They can work will even in acidic water.

Types of detergents;

There are three types of detergents;

(a) Anionic detergents are synthesized from long chain alcohol. The long chain alcohols are treated
with conc. H2SO4to form alkyl hydrogen sulphate of high molecular mass and finally alkyl
sulphate are neutralized with alkali to form salts. It is called anionic detergent because a large
part of the molecule is anion. The anionic detergent is largest in use as household detergents.
E.g.- Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate . They are effective in acidic solutions to form an alkyl hydrogen
sulphate which is soluble where as soap are not effective due to formation of insoluble fatty
acids.
CH3(CH2)11OSO3-Na+, CH3(CH2)11C6H4SO3-Na+

(b) Cationic detergent: These are mostly acetates or chlorides of quaternary ammonium salt. They
are more expensive therefore are used to limited extent. Such detergent possess germicidal
properties and are extensively used as germicides. e.g [CH3(CH2)11N+(CH3)3]Br-
(c) Non-Ionic detergent: Some of the detergents are non- ionic , like the esters of high molecular
mass formed by reactions between polyethylene glycol and stearic acid. They do not possess
any ion.

CH3(CH2)16COOH+HO(CH2CH2O)nCH2CH2OH
CH3(CH2)16COO(CH2CH2O)nCH2CH2OH
Some liquid dishwashing detergents are of non-ionic type branched hydrocarbon chain detergents
are non-biodegradable and cause water pollution. The hydrocarbon side chain stops bacteria from
attacking and breaking the chain. These molecules degrade slowly leading to water pollution.
Unbranched or linear alkyl chain detergents do not create pollution as they are more prone to attack
by bacteria, thus can be biodegraded.

Hands-on/ IT Enabled work:

Whole chapter is done with the help of a presentation with animations.

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Assignment

Chapter 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life

Learning Outcomes: The learner

● relates the action of different medicines with causes and effects,
● exhibits values of objectivity, rational thinking in consumption and use of drugs
● applies scientific concepts of drug action on enzymes and receptors in daily life and solving
problems,
● draws conclusion about the use of food additives, or medicines in our day to day life.
● exhibits creativity in designing eco-friendly resources ,such as, soaps and detergents.
● Explains cleansing action of soaps and detergents, advantages and disadvantages of soaps/
detergent
● list the names of artificial sweetening agents and explain its effect and potency

1. Which one of the following is antihistamine?

(a) Chloramphenicol
(b) Diphenyl hydramine
(c) Norethindrone
(d) Omeprazole

2. Bithional added to soap acts as

(a) buffering agent
(b) antiseptic
(c) softener
(d) drying

3. Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide is a popular

(a)anionic detergent (b) cationic detergent (c) non-ionic detergent (d) antioxidant

4. The artificial sweetner containing chlorine that has the appearance and taste as that of sugar
and is stable at cooking temperature is
(a)Aspartame (b) Saccharin (c) Sucrolose (d) alitame

In Q5 to Q8, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the

correct answer out of the following choices.
(i) Both assertion and reason are wrong.
(ii) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation of
assertion.
(iii) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(iv) Both assertion and reason are correct statements and reason is correct explanation of
assertion.
(v) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

5. Assertion: Transparent soaps are made by dissolving soap in ethanol.

Reason: Ethanol makes things invisible.

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6. Assertion: Chemical messenger gives message to the cell without entering the cell.
Reason: Chemical messenger is received at the binding site of receptor proteins.

7. Assertion : Penicillin (G) is an antihistamine

Reason : Penicillin (G) is effective against gram positive as well as gram negative bacteria.

8. Assertion : Sulpha drug contain sulphonamide group.

Reason : Salvarsan is a sulpha drug.

9. (i) What is tincture of iodine? Write its one use.

(ii) Among the following, which one acts as a food preservative?
Aspartame, Aspirin, Sodium Benzoate, Paracetamol

10. Define the following and give one example :

(i) Anionic detergents
(ii) Antimicrobials
(iii)Antioxidants
(iv)Broad spectrum antibiotics
(v) Artificial sweetening agents
(vi) Food Preservatives

11. What type of medicines are omeprazole and lansoprazole?

12. Give an example of a drug used in case of mental depression. Define that drug.

13. For which disease chloramphenicol is used?

14. (a)Name the sweetening agent used in preparation of a sweet for a diabetic patient.
(b) What problem arises in using alitame as artificial sweeteners?
(c) Why is use of aspartame limited to cold foods?

15. Name a broad spectrum antibiotic and diseases for which it is prescribed.

16. (a)How are antiseptics distinguished from disinfectants? Give 2 examples of each.
(b) Name a substance that can be used as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant.

17. Name the action of the following on the human body:

(i) Equanil (ii) Morphine (iii) Norethindrone (iv)Aspirin (v) Penicillin
(vi) Luminal (vii) Seconal

18. What are the essential components of dettol?

19. What are detergents? Give their scheme of classification. Why are detergents preferred over
soaps?

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20. What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable detergents? What are the consequences of
using the latter kind? Give one example of each kind.

21. Why soaps do not act on hard water?

22. Explain the term ‘chemotherapy’.

23. Describe the function of the following with one example for each
a. Antifertility drugs b. Antihistamines
c. Analgesics d. Antioxidants e. Antacids

24. Explain the cleansing action of soaps. Why is ethanol added to soaps?

25. Account for the following:

a) Aspirin drug helps in the prevention of heart attack.
b) Diabetic patients are advised to take artificial sweetener instead of natural
sweeteners.
c) Detergents are non-biodegradable while soaps are biodegradable.

26. Except for vitamin B12, all other vitamins of group B, should be supplied regularly in diet.
Why?

27. In order to wash clothes with water containing dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate
which cleaning agent will you prefer and why, soaps or synthetic detergents? Give one
advantage of soap over detergents

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Practice paper

(Electrochemistry, Chemical Kinetics, Solutions,

p-block elements, Salt Analysis)

Time: 1 hr 45 min Max. Marks –50

No. of printed pages: 2

General Instructions:
(i) All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This paper has two parts.
(iii) Part A is theory from question nos. 1 to 18 carrying 35 marks.
(iv) Part B is practical related questions numbering 19 to 23 carrying 15 marks.
(v) Use log tables if necessary, use of calculators is not permitted.
PART A

There are two types of cells; Primary and Secondary. Primary cells once used cannot be
recharged where as secondary cells once used can be recharged. Electrolysis may be
defined as a process of decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of electricity
through its aqueous solution or molten state.

1. What type of cell is mercury cell? Write its overall reaction? 1

2. Write the anodic and cathodic reaction for lead storage battery while discharging. 1

3. Write the products of electrolysis of CuSO4(aq) using Pt electrodes. 1

4. How many Faradays of electricity is required to obtain 1 mol of Mn2+ from KMnO4? 1

5. Which of the following has maximum number of lone pairs associated with Xe? 1

(a)XeO3 (b) XeF4 (c) XeF6 (d) XeF2

In Q6 and Q7, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.

(i) Both assertion and reason are wrong.

(ii) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation of assertion.
(iii) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(iv) Both assertion and reason are correct statements and reason is correct explanation
of assertion.
(v) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement
6. Assertion: Higher the molal depression constant of the solvent used, higher the 1
freezing point of the solution.

Reason: Depression in freezing point doennot depend on the nature of the solvent.

7. Assertion: All collisions of reactant molecules lead to product formation. 1

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Reason: Only those collisions in which molecules have correct orientation and
sufficient kinetic energy lead to compound formation.

8. For a reaction, A+ B → P, the reaction is of first order in reactant A and second order in 1
reactant B. How is the rate of this reaction affected when the concentration of B
doubled.
(i) What is the overall order of rection if A is present in large excess.

9. How many grams of chlorine can be produced by the electrolysis of molten NaCl with 2
a current of 1A for 15 minutes?

(given atomic mass of Cl=35.5u, 1F=96500 C/mol)

10. State Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions. Write and expression for the 2
molar conductivity of acetic acid at infinite dilution according to Kohlrausch law.

11. Non ideal solutions exhibit either positive or negative deviations from Raoult’s law. 2
What are these deviations and why are they caused? Explain with one example for
each type.

12. (i) Why is the freezing point depression of 0.1M sodium chloride solution nearly 3
twice that of 0.1M glucose solution?

(ii) A solution containing 8g of a substance in 100g of diethyl ether boils at 36.860C ,

whereas pure ether boils at 35.60C. Determine molecular mass of solute. [For
ether, Kb = 2.02 K Kg mol-1]

13. The decomposition of phosphine, PH3, proceeds according to the following equation: 2
4PH3 (g) → 3P4 (g) + 6H2(g)

It is found that the reaction follows the following rate equation: Rate = k[PH3]

The half-life of PH3 is 37.9s at 1200C. How much time is required for 3/4th of PH3 to
decompose? [log2=0.3010]

14. a) What is meant by the ‘rate constant, k’ of a reaction? If the concentration be 2

expressed in mol L-1 units and time in seconds, what would be the units for k (i) for a
zero order reaction and (ii) for a first order reaction?

b) What type of collisions is known to be effective?

15. Write the Nernst equation and calculate the e.m.f of the following cell at 298K 3

Zn(s)|Zn2+(0.1 M) || Cd+2(0.01M)|Cd(s)

(E0Zn2+/Zn= -0.761V, E0Cd2+/Cd = 0.40V ) . Furthur show:

(i) The carriers of current within the cell.

(ii) E0 values for the electrode 2 Zn+2/2Zn .

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(iii) Which electrode is negatively charged?

(iv) Individual reactions at each electrode.

16. A first order decomposition reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition. Calculate its 2
t1/2 value. (log10=1, log7=0.8451)

17. a) 2g each of two solutes A and B (molar mass of A > B) are dissolved separately in 3
200g each of the same solvent. Which will show greater elevation in boiling point?

b) The molal elevation constant for H2O is 0.52 K/m. Calculate the boiling point of
solution made by dissolving 6 g of urea (NH2CONH2) in 200 g of H2O.

18. a) Complete the following chemical reaction equations: 5

i. XeF4 (s) + H2O (l)

ii. ClF + H2O

b) Explain the following observations giving appropriate reasons:

i. Halogens are strong oxidizing agents.
ii. Bleaching action of chlorine is permanent where as that of SO2 is temporary.
PART B

19. Why is it that tests for Barium, Strontium and Calcium to be done in order? 2

20. Explain one confirmatory test for Ni2+. 2

21. (a) Give the formula of reddish yellow vapours evolved during chromyl chloride test? 1,2

(b) Explain the Cl2 water test for iodide with equation.

22. Explain the indicatory and confirmatory tests for sulphide. 3

23. (a) How can one distinguish between sulphite and sulphate using BaCl2 test. 5

(b) What is the colour seen in flame for strontium salt.

(c) What is the yellow ppt. in K2CrO4 test for lead due to?

(d) What is the canary yellow ppt. in Ammonium Molybdate test for Phosphate due to?

(e) What is the formula for brown ring?

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Academic session 2020-21 (Google Form)

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Question Bank ( short and long questions)

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28. Write the products and give balanced equations for the following: (2)

(a) 3MnO42- + 4H+ �

(b) Cr2O72- + 8H+ + 3H2S �.

29. (a) Why is adsorption always exothermic? (2)

(b) Give the expression of Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

30 (a) Give the IUPAC name of CH3CH2COCH2CH(CH3)CH2CHO (2)

(b) Give chemical test to distinguish between acetaldehyde and

benzaldehyde.

SECTION : C

31 (a) A compound ‘X’(C2H4O) on oxidation gives ‘Y’ (C2H4O2). ‘X’ undergoes (3)
haloform reaction. On treatment with HCN, ‘X’ forms a product ‘Z’ which on
hydrolysis gives 2- Hydroxy propanoic acid.

(i) Write down the products of ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’.

(ii) Write the name of the product when ‘X’ reacts with dil NaOH.

(b) Convert benzoic acid to benzaldehyde.

Q32. (a) What is coagulation value? (3)

(b) Define peptization.

(c) Why does leather get hardened after tanning?

Q33. (a) Write a short note on Clemmensen reduction. (3)

(b) Give the mechanism of nucleophillic addition of OH- in RCHO.

SECTION : D

34. (a) Which site of enzyme is called allosteric site? (5)

(b) What is the chemical composition of cationic detergents?

(c) Which class of drugs is used in sleeping pills? Write a short note on them.

(d) Account for the following:

(i) Aspirin is pain relieving antipyretic drug but can be used to prevent

heart attack.

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(ii) Diabetic patients are advised to take artificial sweeteners instead of

natural sweeteners.

35. (a) An ore sample of galena (PbS) is contaminated with zinc blende (ZnS). (5)

Name one chemical which can be used to concentrate galena selectively

by froth floatation method.

(b) Describe the role of :

(i) SiO2 in the extraction of copper from copper matte.

(ii) Iodine in the refining of zirconium.

Write chemical equations for the involved. reactions.

(c) The extraction of Au by leaching involves both oxidation and

reduction. Justify giving equations

36. (a) Give reasons for the following: (5)

(i) 4d and 5d series have higher enthalpies of atomization than 3d

series.

(ii) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalysts.

(iii) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese (III)

is strongly oxidisiing.

(iv) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxo-anions of a metal.

Out of Cu2Cl2 and CuCl2, which is more stable in water and why?

OR

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QUESTION BANK ( Objective: VSA, MCQ, A/R based questions)

Q1. Draw the structure of Buna-S. Is it a homopolymer or a co-polymer? (1)

Q2. Name the monomer of Nylon 6. Does it polymerize by chain growth or step (1)
growth polymerization?
Q3. Give an example of biodegradable synthetic polymer. (1)
Q4. Melamine is a condensation polymer. Draw the structure of the polymer. (1)
Q5. What are thermoplastics? Give an example. (1)

Questions 6 to 8 are Multiple Choice Questions:

Q6. The correct order of increasing acid strength is (1)

(a) Phenol < Ethanol < Chloroacetic acid < acetic acid
(b) Ethanol < Phenol < Chloroacetic acid < acetic acid
(c) Ethanol < Phenol < acetic acid < Chloroacetic acid
(d) Chloroacetic acid < acetic acid < Phenol < Ethanol

Q7. Compound Ph-OCO-Ph can be prepared by the reaction of: (1)

(a) Phenol and benzoic acid in presence of NaOH.
(b) Phenol and benzoyl chloride in the presence of pyridine.
(c) Phenol and benzoyl chloride in the presence of ZnCl2.
(d) Phenol and benzaldehyde in the presence of palladium.
Q8. Colloidion is a colloidal solution of : (1)
(a) cellulose in ethyl alcohol (b) cellulose nitrate in water and ether
(c) sucrose in water (d) cellulose nitrate in ethyl alcohol and ether

Questions 9 to 12 are one word questions:

Q9. Which product is formed when MnO2 is fused with KOH? (1)

Q10. Out of the following ions, which one is colourless? (1)

V3+, Cr3+, Sc3+, Ni3+

Q11. Based on the type of particles of the dispersed phase, Sulphur sol is what type (1)
of colloid?

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Q12. Name the polymer formed from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. (1)

The questions 13 to 15 consist of Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Use the
following key to select the correct answer.
(a) If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are correct but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
(c) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.
(d) If assertion and reason both are incorrect.

Q13. Assertion : Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols. (1)
Reason : Lyophilic sols are more readily hydrated than lyophobic sols.

Q14. Assertion : ΔfG0 for the formation of Al2O3 and Cr2O3 involving one (1)
mole of oxygen are -827kJ/mol and -540kJ/mol respectively.
Reason : Al can reduce Cr2O3 since more energy is liberated when Al2O3
is formed.
Q15. Assertion : Ce4+ is used as oxidizing agent in volumetric analysis. (1)
Reason: Ce4+ has the tendency to acquire +3 oxidation state.

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QUESTION BANK ( SOURCE BASED/ CASE BASED )

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Academic Session: 2020-21

Preboard Examination I
Subject: Chemistry
Class: XII

Time : 3 Hrs Max marks : 70

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

a) There are 33 questions in this question paper. All questions are compulsory.
b) Section A: Q. No. 1 to 16 are objective type questions. Q. No. 1 and 2 are passage based
questions carrying 4 marks each while Q. No. 3 to 16 carry 1 mark each.
c) Section B: Q. No. 17 to 25 are short answer questions and carry 2 marks each.
d) Section C: Q. No. 26 to 30 are short answer questions and carry 3 marks each.
e) Section D: Q. No. 31 to 33 are long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
f) There is no overall choice. However, internal choices have been provided.
g) Use of calculators and log tables is not permitted.
There are 277 printed pages.
Reading Time: 9.25 - 9.40 am
Writing Time: 9.40 am-12.40 pm
Scan & turn in: By 1.00 pm
Children who avail time can turn in by 2:00 pm

1 Read the given passage and answer the questions that follow: ( 1X 4)

Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge which may be either

positive or negative. For example , when AgNO3 solution is added to KI
solution, a negatively charged colloidal sol is obtained. The presence of equal
and similar charges on colloidal particles provide stability to the colloidal sol
and if, somehow , charge is removed, coagulation of sol occurs. Lyophobic sols
are readily coagulated as compared to lyophilic sols. Lyophobic sols are
positively or negatively charged. These are coagulated by electrolytes.
Oppositely charged ions are most effective for coagulation. For As2S3 sol, out
of 0.1 M AlCl3 . 0.1M MgCl2 and 0.1 M NaCl solution, 0.1 M AlCl3 is most
effective. The number of particles produced by electrolyte in aqueous solution
depends upon degree of ionisation.

The potential difference between the fixed charged layer and the diffused
layer having opposite charge is called
(a) Zeta potential
(b) Electrokinetic potential

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(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) Streaming potential

Negatively charged sol is obtained when

(i)
(a) KI solution is added to AgNO3 solution

(b) AgNO3 solution is added to KI solution

( c)When AgI is dissolved in water

( d) all of these

Name the method by which coagulation of lyophobic sol can be carried out ?
(ii)
(a) electrophoresis

(b) by adding oppositely charged sol

(c )boiling

(d)all of these

(iii) Identify the positively charged sol

(a) As2S3

(b) Haemoglobin

(c ) clay

( d ) gold sol

2 Alcohols are the hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbons whereas (1X4)

phenols are hydroxy derivatives of arenes in which the -OH group is directly
linked with the benzene ring . These are used in daily life. Ordinary spirit is
used as antiseptic for cleaning wounds as well as for polishing furniture. The
sugar we eat, cotton ( cellulose ) we wear, the paper on which we write all are
made up of alcohol. Alcohol is present in wine, cough syrups, and tonics.
Phenol is used as antiseptic and disinfectant and preparation of medicines
like Aspirin, Iodex etc. Aspirin is prepared by reacting salicylic acid with
acetic anhydride in presence of H2SO4. It is used as an analgesic, antipyretic
and prevents heart attack. Iodex , is methyl salicylate , used in muscle pain
reliever.

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Note : In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a
statement of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following
choices.

(a) Assertion and reason both are correct and reason is the correct explanation
of assertion.

(b) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not the
correct explanation of assertion.

(c) Assertion is the correct statement but reason is the wrong statement.

(d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement..

(i) Assertion : Addition reaction of water to but-1-ene in acidic medium yields

butan-1-ol

Reason : Addition of water in acidic medium proceeds through the formation

of carbocation.
(ii)
Assertion : p-nitrophenol is more acidic than phenol.

Reason : Nitro group helps in the stabilisation of the phenoxide ion by

dispersal of negative charge due to resonance.

(iii) Assertion : Bond angle in ethers is slightly less than the tetrahedral angle.

Reason : There is a repulsion between the two bulky (—R) groups.

(iv) Assertion : Boiling points of alcohols and ethers are higher than alkanes.

Reason : They can form intermolecular hydrogen-bonding.

3 Which cell will measure standard electrode potential of copper electrode? 1

(a) Pt (s) H2 (g, 0.1 bar)| H+ (aq., 1 M)|| Cu2+(aq., 1M) |Cu (s)

(b) Pt(s) H2 (g, 1 bar)| H+ (aq., 1 M)|| Cu2+ (aq., 2 M)| Cu (s)

(c) Pt(s) H2 (g, 1 bar)| H+ (aq., 1 M)|| Cu2+ (aq., 1 M)| Cu (s)

(d) Pt(s) H2 (g, 1 bar)| H+ (aq., 0.1 M)|| Cu2+ (aq., 1 M) |Cu (s)

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4 Which of the following is a nonreducing sugar 1

(a) glucose

(b) lactose

(c) maltose

(d) Sucrose

OR

Glucose does not react with

(a) NH2OH

(b) conc. HNO3

(c)( CH3CO)2O

(d) NaHSO3

5 Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount 1

of a given liquid solvent does not depend upon

(a) Temperature

(b) nature of solute

(c) pressure

(d) nature of solvent

6 Which of the following has magnetic moment value of 5.9? 1

(a) Fe2+
(b) Fe3+
(c) Ni2+
(d) Cu2+

Or

Which of the following are d-block elements but not regarded as transition
elements?
(a) Cu, Ag, Au
(b) Zn, Cd, Hg
(c) Fe, Co, Ni
(d) Ru, Rh, Pd

7 Aniline is less basic than ethylamine. This is due to 1

(a) Conjugation of lone pair of nitrogen with the ring
(b) The insoluble nature of aniline

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(c) More Kb value of aniline
(d) Hydrogen bonding

OR

Primary and secondary amines cannot be distinguished by

(a) Schiff’s reagent
(b) Carbylamine reaction
(c) Reaction with Nitrous acid
(d) Hinsberg reagent and solubility in alkali

8 The stabilization of coordination compounds due to chelation is called the 1

chelate effect. Which of the following is the most stable complex species?

(a) [Fe(CO)5]

(b) [ Fe(CN)6]3-

(c) [Fe(C2O4)3]3-

(d) [Fe(H2O)]3+

Or

Which of the following has square planar structure?

(a) [NiCl4]2-
(b) [Ni(CO)4]
(c) [Ni(CN)4]2-
(d) None of these

9 Which one of the following characteristics of the transition metals is associated 1

with higher catalytic activity?
(a) High enthalpy of atomisation
(b) Paramagnetic behaviour
(c) Colour of hydrated ions
(d) Variable oxidation states

10 1

11 Which of the following statements is not true about the hexagonal close 1
packing?

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(a) The coordination number is 12

(b) It has 74% packing efficiency

(c) Tetrahedral voids of the second layer are covered by the spheres of the
third layer

(d) In this arrangement, spheres of the fourth layer are exactly aligned with
those of the first layer.

In the following questions, 12-17, a statement of assertion followed by

a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the
following choices.

(A) Assertion and reason both are correct and reason is correct explanation of
assertion.
(B) Both assertion and reason are correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation of assertion.

(C) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

(D) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

12 Assertion : Valine must be taken through diet. 1

Reason : It is a non essential amino acid.
OR
Assertion: The two strands of DNA are complementary to each other

Reason: The disulphide bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases

13 Assertion : When NaCl is added to water a depression in freezing point is 1

observed.
Reason : The lowering of the vapour pressure of a solution causes depression
in the freezing point.

14 Assertion : SF6 cannot be hydrolysed but SF4 can be. 1

Reason : Six F atoms in SF6 prevent the attack of H2O on sulphur atom of SF6.

15 Assertion : o-Nitrophenol is less soluble in water than the m- and p-isomers. 1

Reason : m- and p- Nitrophenols exist as associated molecules.
16 Assertion : p-nitrophenol is more acidic than phenol. 1

Reason : Nitro group helps in the stabilisation of the phenoxide ion by dispersal
of negative charge due to resonance.

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SECTION B

17 Convert 2

(i) 1-bromobutane to 2-bromobutane

(ii) aniline to chlorobenzene

18 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6 (Molar mass – 180 g mol-1) is dissolved in 1 kg of 2

water in a saucepan. At what temperature will this solution boil? (Kb for water
= 0.52 K kg mol-1, boiling point of pure water = 373.15 K)

19 Name the following coordination compounds according to IUPAC system of 2

nomenclature :
(i) [Co(NH3)4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2
(ii) [CrCl2(en)2]Cl

Or

Describe the shape and magnetic behaviour of following complexes :

(i) [Co(NH3)6]3+
(ii) [Ni(CN)4]2- (At. No. Co = 27, Ni = 28)

20 A reaction is first order with respect to the reactant and A and second order 2
w.r.t the reactant B in a reaction, A+ B → product.

(i) Write the differential rate equation

(ii) How is the rate of the reaction affected on increasing the concentration of
B by 2 times?

21 Show that in case of a first order reaction, the time taken for completion of 2
99.9% reaction is ten times the time required for half life of the reaction.

Or

The rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s-1. How much time will it take
to reduce the initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th value? (log2 =
0.3010)

22 (i) Give a chemical test to distinguish between 2-Pentanol and 3-Pentanol 2

(ii) How will you bring about the conversion of methyl magnesium bromide to
2-Methylpropan-2-ol

Or

Write the equations involved in the following reactions:

(i) Reimer-Tiemann reaction
(ii) Williamson’s Synthesis

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23 Draw the shape of the following compounds 2

(i) H2SO4 ( ii ) ClF3

24 Complete the following equation 2

(i)

(ii)

25 (i) In a compound, nitrogen atoms (N) make cubic close packed lattice and 2
metal atoms (M) occupy one-third of the tetrahedral voids present. Determine
the formula of the compound formed by M and N?

(ii) Which stoichiometric defect is seen when there is large variation in the
size of cation and anion? Give an example.

SECTION C

26 Assign reasons for the following : 3

(i) Transition metals form interstitial compounds
(ii) Transition metals generally form coloured compounds

(iii) Cr2+ is a strong reducing agent.

Or

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(i) Why the melting point of transition elements are very high in comparison
with alkali and alkaline earth metals

(ii) Why the melting point of 4d and 5d series higher than 3d elements.

(iii) Why silver, gold and copper have lower melting points though having
maximum no. of d electrons

27 (i) Arrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength : 3

C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2, (C2H5)2NH

(ii) In increasing order of boiling point:

C2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2
(iii) In increasing order of solubility in water:
C6H5NH2,(C2H5)2NH,C2H5NH2

Or

(i) Give IUPAC name and classify as primary, secondary or tertiary amine:
(CH3)3CNH2

(ii) Account for the following

Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction.

(iii) Write short note on the following:

Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

28 Silver crystallizes in face-centred cubic unit cell. Each side of the unit cell has a 3
length of 400 pm. Calculate the radius of the silver atom. Also calculate the
density of the unit cell. Take the atomic mass of Ag= 108 g/ mol, N= 6 x 10 23
mol-1

29 (i) Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg? 3

(ii) What happens when D-glucose is treated with HI

(iii) Draw the � - glucopyranose structure .

30 Explain the following observations: 3

(i) H2S is less acidic than H2Te.
(ii) Fluorine is a stronger oxidising agent than chlorine

(iii) bond angle decreases from H2O to H2Te.

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SECTION D

31 (a) Complete the following reactions: 5

(i) Cl2+H2O→

(ii) Cu + HNO3 (dilute) →

(iii) SO2 + H2O + MnO4- →

(b)Account for the following observations:

(i) Acidity of oxo-acids of chlorine is HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3.

(ii) Fluorine never acts as the central atom in polyatomic interhalogen

compounds.
OR

(a) How would you account for the following:

(i) O2 and F2 both stabilize higher oxidation states of metals but O2 exceeds F2
in doing so .

(ii) The electron gain enthalpy with negative sign is less for oxygen than that
for sulphur.

(b) A colourless and inert diatomic gas ‘A’ is prepared from thermal
decomposition of an azide. This gas when treated with hydrogen at 773 K
form another gas “ B’ which is highly basic in nature and has high solubility in
water. This gas ‘ B’ when treated with salt solution of metal ‘C’ forms a
complex which dissolve in excess to give deep blue coloration. Identify A,B,C
and write corresponding equations

32 a) An organic compound ‘A’ with molecular formula C8H8O forms an orange 5

red precipitate with 2,4-DNP reagent and gives yellow precipitate on heating
with I2 and NaOH. It neither reduces Tollen’s reagent nor Fehling’s reagent
nor does it decolourize bromine water or Baeyer’s reagent. On drastic
oxidation with chromic acid, it gives a carboxylic acid having molecular
formula C7H6O2. Identify the compounds ‘A’ and ‘B’ and explain the reactions
involved.

(b)Show the mechanism of formation of acetaldehyde cyanohydrin.

Or

(a) An organic compound (A) has characteristic odour. On treatment with

NaOH, it forms compounds (B) and (C). Compound (B) has molecular formula
C7H8O which on oxidation gives back (A). The compound (C) is a sodium salt
of an acid. When (C) is treated with soda-lime, it yields an aromatic

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compound (D). Deduce the structures of (A), (B), (C) and (D). Write the
sequence of reactions involved.

(b) Write the reaction for cross aldol condensation of acetone and ethanal

33 ( a ) A strip of nickel metal is placed in a 1 molar solution of Ni(NO3)2 and a 5

strip of silver metal is placed on a 1-molar solution of AgNO3. An
electrochemical cell is created when the two solutions are connected by a salt
bridge and the two strips are connected by wires to a voltmeter. It is observed
that the conc. of nickel decreases, while that of silver ions increases. Predict
which electrode acts as an anode ? Which electrode acts as a positive
electrode?

(b) Why on dilution the Λm of CH3COOH increases drastically while that of

CH3COONa increases gradually?

(c) Calculate ΔrG° and log K. for the following reaction at 298 K

Or

(a) State Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions.

(b) Why does the conductivity of a solution decrease with dilution?

(c) Calculate emf of the following cell at 25°C :

Fe | Fe2+ (0.001 M) || H+ (0.01 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt(s)
E0(Fe2+ | Fe) = -0.44 V E0(H+ | H2) = 0.00V

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Academic Session:2020-21
Pre Board II Examination
Subject : Chemistry
Class: XII
Max Marks: 70 Time: 3 Hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

1. There are 33 questions in this question paper. All questions are compulsory.
2. Section A: Q. No. 1 to 2 are case-based questions having four MCQs or Reason Assertion type
based on given passage each carrying 1 mark.
3. Section A: Question 3 to 16 are MCQs and Reason Assertion type questions carrying 1 mark each
4. Section B: Q. No. 17 to 25 are short answer questions and carry 2 marks each.
5. Section C: Q. No. 26 to 30 are short answer questions and carry 3 marks each.
6. Section D: Q. No. 31 to 33 are long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
7. There is no overall choice. However, internal choices have been provided.
8. Use of calculators and log tables is not permitted.
9. The paper has 9 printed sides.

SECTION A (OBJECTIVE TYPE)

1. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions: (1x4=4)

The properties of p-block elements are greatly influenced by atomic sizes,

ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity. The absence
of d orbital in second period and presence of d or d and f orbitals in heavier
elements have significant effects on the properties of elements . As a
consequence of anomalous behaviour some of them exhibit variable
oxidation states, oxidising/reducing nature, formation of ∏ bonds, hydrogen
bond formation etc. Their compounds also exhibit acidic/basic nature by
virtue of these properties.

Following questions are multiple choice questions. Choose the most

appropriate answer:

i).The correct order of acidic strength of hydrogen halides is

a) HF > HCl> HBr > HI

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b) HCl > HBr > HI > HF
c) HF < HCl < HBr < HI
d) HCl < HBr < HI < HF

ii) SO2 , a reducing agent ,is estimated by reaction with

a) KMnO4
b) mohr salt
c) oxalic acid
d) Na2SO3

iii) N-N is weaker than P-P due to

a) absence of d orbital in nitrogen
b) inertness of N2
c) high inter-electronic repulsion of non-bonding electrons in nitrogen
d) none of the above

iv) The bleaching action of Chlorine is due to

a) liberation of nascent oxygen
b) its oxidising property
c) both are correct
d) both are wrong

2. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions: (1x4=4)

The carbon-oxygen double bond is polarised due to higher electronegativity

of oxygen relative to carbon. Hence , the carbonyl carbon is an
electrophilic(Lewis acid) , and carbonyl oxygen, a nucleophilic (Lewis base)
centre . Carbonyl compounds have substantial dipole moments and are polar
than ethers. In carboxylic acid the carboxylic carbon is less electrophilic than
carbonyl carbon because of possible resonance structures.

In these questions, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of

reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

i) Assertion : CH3CH2CHO readily reacts with HCN than CH3COCH3

Reason : Two -CH3 reduce electrophilicity of carbonyl carbon in
CH3COCH3

ii) Assertion : HCHO undergoes Cannizzaro reaction

Reason : It contains alpha hydrogen

iii) Assertion : C6H5COOH does not react with CH3COCl in presence of anhy
AlCl3

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Reason : The carboxyl group gets bonded to AlCl3

iv) Assertion : 2,2,6-Trimethylcyclohexanone doesn’t form cyanohydrin

Reason : Ketones do not form cyanohydrin

Following questions (No. 3 -11) are multiple choice questions carrying 1

mark each:
3. A unit cell contains atoms at all corners as well as at the centre . It’s
packing efficiency is
a) 74%
b) 68%
c) 52.4%
d) 72.8%
4. Azeotropic mixtures
a) are ideal solutions
b) have high boiling point
c) boil at constant temperature
d) all of the above

OR

Henry’s law is not applicable in following

a) increasing solubility of CO2 in soft drinks
b) in dealing of problem of bends
c) in increasing solubility of O2 in hot water
d) all of the above

5. Limiting molar conductivity of Al3+ and SO42- are 125.2 and 160.0 S cm2
/mol respectively. The limiting molar conductivity of Aluminium sulphate is
:
a) 285.2 S cm2 /mol
b) 695.6 S cm2 /mol
c) 34.8 S cm2 /mol
d) 730.4 S cm2 /mol
OR
Electrode potential of any electrode depends on
a) nature of metal
b) temperature of solution
c) molarity of solution
d) all of these

6. Fog is a colloidal solution of

a) solid in gas
b) gas in gas
c) liquid in gas
d) gas in liquid
OR

Stability of lyophilic colloids is due to

a) same charge on all the colloidal particles
b) solvation of the colloidal particles

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c) both a) and b)
d) none of the above

7. The element in the first transition series which has maximum melting
point is
a) Cr
b) Sc
c) Mn
d) Ni
OR

Which of the following does not exhibit paramagnetic behaviour

a) ZnCl2
b) FeCl3
c) both a) and b)
d) none of the above

8. [NiCl4]2- , according to VBT has

a) dsp2 hybridisation
b) square planar structure
c) paramagnetic behaviour
d) none of the above

9. Out of 1-Chlorobutane and 1-Iodobutane , compound which undergo SN2

reaction faster is
a) 1-Chlorobutane as Cl is more electronegative
b) 1-Chlorobutane as C-Cl bond is more polar
c) 1-Iodobutane as I is better leaving group
d) 1-Iodobutane as I is more electronegative

OR

C2H5Cl is converted into butane using the reagent

a) aq NaOH
b) LiAlH4
c) Na in dry ether
d) H2O

10. Aldehydes having α-H atom undergo

a) Aldol condensation
b) electrophilic substitution
c) Cannizzaro reaction
d) Haloform reaction

11. Reagents used to convert ethanamine into ethanol are

a) CH3Cl and aq. NaOH
b) CHCl3 and aq. NaOH
c) NaNO2 + HCl and H2O
d) Br2 + NaOH

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In the following questions (Q. No. 12 - 16) a statement of assertion
followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out
of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement

12. Assertion: The two strands in DNA are complementary to each other .
Reason : The hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases.
13. Assertion : The vapour pressure of a solution at a given temperature is
higher than the
vapour pressure of pure solvent.
Reason : Due to the presence of solute molecules at the surface, escaping
capacity of solvent decreases.

14. Assertion: Transition elements form coordination compounds.

Reason: It is due to presence of unpaired electrons

15. Assertion: Sucrose is non-reducing sugar.

Reason : It’s aldehydic/ketonic groups are bonded

16. Assertion: Solubility of a gas increases with increase in pressure

Reason : Raoult’s law gives relation between pressure and solubility of a
gas in solution

SECTION B

The following questions, Q. No 17 – 25 are short answer type and carry 2

marks each.

17. A solution of glucose (Molar mass=180 g mol-1) in water has a boiling point
of 100.20oC. Calculate the freezing point of same solution. Molal constants
for water Kf and Kb are 1.86 K Kg mol-1 and 0.512 K Kg mol-1 respectively.

18. The rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s-1 . How much time will it
take to reduce 1 g of the reactant to 0.0625 g. (log 6.25= 0.7959)

OR

A first order reaction takes 30 minutes for 50% completion . Calculate the time
required for 90% completion of this reaction . (log 2= 0.3010)

19. i) Draw the structure of XeF6.

ii) Write balanced chemical equation for thermal decomposition of

ammonium dichromate.

20. i) On the basis of CFT, what is the electron distribution for d6 if o < p?

ii) What is meant by ambidentate ligand?

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OR

i) Write name and formula of a ligand having denticity 6.

ii) Calculate instability/dissociation constant for [PtCl4], given that stability

constant (β4) for this complex as 5x104 .

21. Write mechanism for following reaction along with stereospecific aspect

(CH3)3Cl + OH- (aq) (CH3)3OH + Cl-

OR

CH3CH2Br + KCN CH3CH2CN + KBr

22. A hydrocarbon having formula C3H6 reacts with B2H6,H2O2 and NaOH and
gives compound (A). [A] on oxidation with PCC is converted into compound
[B] .[B] gives positive Tollen’s test. Identify [A] and [B] and write the
sequence of reactions.

23. i) Aniline is less basic than aliphatic amines. Why?

ii) C6H5NO2 Sn/HCl A CHCl +KOH

3 B. Identify A and B.

OR

i) Write chemical reaction for distinction between primary and secondary

amines.

ii) Write the zwitter ionic form of sulphanilic acid.

24. i) Hydrolysis of esters is pseudo first order reaction . Comment.

ii) Rate law for a given reaction is R = k[A]2[B]3 . How is the reaction rate
affected when the concentration of B is increased three times.

25. i) Why aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction?

ii) Write reaction for preparation of Fluoroethane from Chloroethane.

SECTION C

Q. No 26 -30 are Short Answer Type II carrying 3 mark each

26. i) Describe the type of point defects which are found in non-ionic solids.
Which one of them increases density of the substance?

ii) Refractive index of a solid gives different values along different

directions. Mention the type of solid and the property shown by it.

OR

i) Chemical analysis shows the formula of Iron Oxide is Fe0.96O . Why does
this anomaly arises? What type of defect is this?

ii) Name the type of solids which have coulombic forces of attraction
between constituent particles and comment on their electrical conductivity.

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27. Explain the followings

i) delta formation

ii) Freundlich adsorption isotherm

iii) Two characteristics of lyophilic sols

OR

i) During hydrogenation, H2 is adsorbed over Ni with liberation of 350 KJ

mol-1 energy. State the type of adsorption and the nature of layer formed.

ii) Explain the cause of formation of cone of light between overhead

projector and screen.

iii) Alum is applied on fresh wounds. Why?

28. i) Why Zr and Hf have same size?

ii) Calculate magnetic moment of [Fe(NH3)6]2+

iii) Transition elements exhibit variable oxidation states . Why?

29. i) Write the IUPAC name of the given compound

ii) How will you convert Cl-(CH2)4-Cl into hexan-1,6-diamine ?

iii) CH3CH2NH2 [Link] +HCl , 2 .H O

2 2

A KI , heat B . Identify A and B.

30. i) How will you show that glucose has five -OH groups and a -CHO group?
Give reactions for the same.

ii) Name one optically inactive amino acid and one essential amino acid

SECTION D

Q .No 31 to 33 are long answer type carrying 5 marks each.

31. i) State Kohlrausch law.

ii) Calculate the emf of the following cell at 298 K:
Al(s)|Al3+ (0.15M)||Cu2+(0.025M) |Cu(s)
(Given Eo(Al3+/Al) = -1.66 V, E0(Cu2+/Cu) = 0.34V, log 0.15 = -0.8239, log
0.025 = -1.6020) . Also calculate the value of standard Gibb’s energy for the
cell.
OR

(i) On the basis of Eo values identify which amongst the following is the
strongest oxidising agent

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Cl2(g) + 2 e– → 2Cl- Eo = +1.36 V,
MnO4 + 8H + 5e → Mn2+ + 4H2O
– + – Eo = +1.51 V
Cr2O72– + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O Eo = +1.33 V

(ii) The following figure , represents variation of (Λm ) vs √c for an electrolyte.

Here Λm is the molar conductivity and c is the concentration of the
electrolyte.

a) Define molar conductivity

b) Identify the nature of electrolyte on the basis of the above plot. Justify
your answer.
c) Determine the value of Λmo for the electrolyte.
d) Show how to calculate the value of A for the electrolyte using the above
graph.
32. i) Complete the following reactions
a) Cu + H2SO4
b) NH3 + Cl2(excess)
c) ClF + H2O

ii) O3 is thermodynamically unstable. Explain?

iii) What is meant by transition temperature of sulphur?

OR

i) Complete the following reactions

a) PbS + O3

b) C12H22O11 H SO
2 4

c) XeF2 + H2O

ii) Why are interhalogen compounds more reactive than halogens?

iii) Draw the structure of Peroxodisulphuric acid .

33. i) Chlorobenzene and sodium ethoxide cannot be used to prepare anisole in

accordance with Williamson synthesis . Why?

ii) Convert butanol into 2-chlorobutanoic acid.

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iii) Distinguish between phenol and benzoic acid.

iv) Carry out oxidation of phenol.

v) Write equation for Friedel-crafts acetylation of anisole.

OR

i) Compare acidic strength of phenol and carboxylic acid .

ii) Convert phenol into aspirin .

iii) How will you obtain 2-methylpropan-2-ol from CH3MgBr using a

suitable carbonyl compound?

iv) Distinguish between propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol.

v) Alcohols are used to form hemiacetals. Support your answer with the help
of reactions.

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CBSE BOARD EXAM: 2020

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CBSE SAMPLE PAPER : 2021

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