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THE HUMAN BODY – WEEK 1 LESSON

TERMINOLOGIES: 1.2 PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy - study of the structures of the body

Physiology - study of the processes and Physiology deals with processes or functions
functions of the body of living things as an ever-changing
Organelles - are the small structures that organism.
make up some cells
✓ This is to aid in predicting body’s
Organism - any living thing considered as a
whole, whether composed of one cell, such responses to different stimuli and to
as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a understand how the body maintains
human homeostasis.
Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction

Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or

part of the organism

Reproduction - is the formation of new cells or

new organisms

Anatomy is the scientific discipline that

investigates the structure of the body.
✓ to dissect, or cut apart and separate,
the parts of the body for study.

Basic Approaches in Anatomy (Systemic

and Regional.)

1. SYSTEMATIC dwells on body systems Therefore, physiology is the science of body

such as - skeletal and muscular functions.
systems. Human Physiology - For the human as a
2. REGIONAL, reviews specific areas - specific organism.
head, abdomen.

1.1 ANATOMY 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF

HUMAN BODY

2 another Basic Approach to Anatomists

1. Chemical level of organization deals with how
(Surface Anatomy & Anatomical Imaging) different atoms like hydrogen and carbon interact
to form molecules.
1. Surface anatomy focuses study of 2. Cell Level, which is the basic unit of organisms, we
external features like bony try to correlate how a molecular substance affects
a living organism
projections. 3. Tissues - on the other hand are combined cells that
2. Anatomical imaging utilizes different are similar.
imaging samples like ultrasound and ➢ Their similarity in characteristics and
surrounding materials determines its functions.
X-rays to evaluate internal structures. ➢ Epithelial, Connective, Muscle and Nerve
tissues.

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4. Organ - When two or more tissue types work 5. Development – occurs when an
together to perform one or more functions.
5. Organ System. This pertains to group of organs organism changes through time.
working together to sustain a specific function. ➢ A human being changes through
6. Organism Level as a living thing considered as a time.
whole, whether composed of only one cell such as
➢ Growth signifies development,
bacterium, or one that is made of trillions of cells like
us human. differentiation also embodies
development.
➢ Differentiation can be seen as a
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE change in structure and function
from a generalized to a specialized
1. Organization – living things are highly structure.
organized.
➢ They have specific interrelationships 6. Reproductions - is the ability to form
for it to perform functions essential for new organism, giving possibility to
the living organism to thrive. tissue repairs and continuity.
➢ In effect, any problems that affects its
organization will greatly disrupt its
function. 1.5 HOMEOSTASIS

2. Metabolism - is all of the chemical • HOMEOSTASIS - ability to maintain

reactions taking place in an balance despite changes in the
organism. internal and external environment.
➢ Ability of an organism to break down • BALANCE
food molecules, which are used as a
• Variables are conditions like volume,
source of energy and raw materials
chemical content and in this case,
to synthesize the organism’s own
molecules. temperature. Their values may easily
➢ It is the ability of the organism to use change and so does the response of
energy to perform functions essential the organism.
to growth, movement and even • Ex. Body temperature, increase
reproduction. when the environment is hot or
decrease when the environment
3. Responsiveness – is simply the is cold.
capability to react or adjust to
whether a stimulus or a change. 1.6 HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM
➢ For instance, our body perspires a lot
whenever our temperature rises
during hot weather. Normally maintain body tempting. Near an
average normal value, or set point. ABT =
4. Growth – an increase in number or 98.6°F
length. • The nervous system or the endocrine
➢ Growth is evidence of when system
bones become larger as the • Are not able to maintain body tempt.
number of bone cells increases. precisely at the set point.

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• Body temp. increases and decreases A changed variable is a stimulus because it

slightly around the set point initiates a homeostatic mechanism.
producing a normal range of values
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

• If a feedback system further

strengthens a change in the
controlled condition.
• Tend to be unstable = “to
increase”

1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Must be shut off by some event
• Maintain homeostasis that is outside the feedback loop,
• Negative = “to decrease” such as the delivery of the child.
• If a feedback system reverses the
change in the controlled condition to Anatomical position – person standing
restore it to the set point. upright with the face directed forward, the
• Does not prevent variation but upper limbs hanging to the sides, the palms
maintains variation within a normal of the hands facing forward.
range.
• Supine – lying face upward
COMPONENTS OF A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Prone – lying face downwards
Each monitored condition in a feedback
system, or feedback loop, is termed a
Describe parts of DIRECTIONAL
the body relativeTERMS
to each other
controlled condition
• Superior – above or up
1. Receptor
• monitors the controlled condition • Inferior – below or down
and sends information (input) to a
• Ventral/Anterior – front
control center.
2. Control center • Dorsal/Posterior – back
• receives the input, compares it to
a set of values that the controlled • Proximal – nearest
condition should have (set point) • Distal – distant
and sends output commands
(nerve impulses or chemical • Medial – toward the midline
signals) to an effector. • Lateral – away from the midline
3. Effector
• receives output commands and • Superficial – structure close to the surface
produces a response that of the body
changes the controlled condition.
• Deep – toward the interior of the body

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DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Central region of the body consists of the
head, neck, and trunk

• Trunk can be divided into the thorax,

abdomen, pelvis

• Upper limb is divided into the arm,

forearm, wrist, and hand

• Arm extends from the shoulder to the

elbow, and the forearm extends from the
elbow to the wrist

• Lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg,

ankle, foot

• Thigh extends from the hip to PLANES

the knee, and the leg extends

from the knee to the ankle

• Abdomen is often subdivided

superficially into four quadrants – right-
upper, left-upper, right- lower, and left-
lower

These quadrants are sometimes subdivided

into regions by four imaginary lines.

➢ 9 regions – epigastric, right and left

hypochondriac, umbilical, right and
left lumbar, hypogastric, and right
and left iliac

Clinicians use the quadrants or regions as

reference points for locating the underlying A cut through the long axis of the organ is a
organs. longitudinal section,

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants A cut at a right angle to the long axis is a
transverse section, or cross section.

A cut is made across the long axis at other

than a right angle, it is called an oblique
section.
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BODY CAVITIES
by the bones of the pelvis and
contains the urinary bladder, part of
The body contains spaces—called cavities—that
the large intestine, and the internal
house the internal organs.
reproductive organs
The two major body cavities are the dorsal cavity • Abdominal and pelvic cavities are
and the ventral cavity. not physically separated and
sometimes called abdominopelvic
cavity

SEROUS MEMBRANES

• They are filled with minimal fluid to

lubricate its surfaces thereby
reducing friction.

They trunk cavities are lined by Serous

Membranes.
• The Parietal Part of a serous
membrane lines the wall of the
cavity, and
• The Visceral Part covers the internal
organs. - The serous membranes
secrete fluid that fills the space
between the parietal and visceral
o The trunk contains three large cavities membranes.
that do not open to the outside of the
The serous membranes protect organs from
body – thoracic, abdominal, pelvic
friction.
cavity
• The Pericardial Cavity surrounds the
o Thoracic cavity – surrounded by the
heart, the pleural cavities surround
rib cage and is separated from the
the lungs, and
abdominal cavity by the muscular
diaphragm; divided into right and left • The Peritoneal Cavity surrounds
parts by a center structure called certain abdominal and pelvic
mediastinum organs.
o Mediastinum – houses the heart, • Mesenteries are parts of the
thymus, trachea, esophagus, and peritoneum that hold the abdominal
other structures; between the two organs in place and provide a
lungs, located on each side of the passageway for blood vessels and
thoracic cavity nerves to organs.
o Abdominal cavity – bounded • Retro peritoneal organs are found
primarily by the abdominal muscles “behind” the parietal peritoneum. Ex.
and contain the stomach, intestines, The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the
liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys pancreas, parts of the intestines,
retroperitoneal organs.
o Pelvic cavity – small space enclosed

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mediastinum (the central compartment

of the thoracic cavity), and the superior
surface of the diaphragm.
SEROUS MEMBRANES OF THE ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY

- Pleural Fluid: Pleural fluid fills the

pleural cavity, reducing friction and
enabling the lungs to move smoothly
during respiration.

1. Peritoneal Cavity:
- The peritoneal cavity surrounds the
organs within the abdominopelvic
cavity.
- Visceral Peritoneum: This serous
membrane covers many of the organs
within the abdominopelvic cavity,
including the stomach, liver, intestines,
and more.
- Parietal Peritoneum: The parietal
peritoneum lines the wall of the
SEROUS MEMBRANES OF THE THORACIC CAVITY abdominopelvic cavity and covers the
inferior surface of the diaphragm.
1. Pericardial Cavity: - Peritoneal Fluid: The peritoneal cavity
contains peritoneal fluid, which serves to
- The pericardial cavity surrounds the
lubricate and reduce friction, allowing
heart.
the abdominal organs to move without
- Visceral Pericardium: This layer covers discomfort.
the surface of the heart.
These serous membranes and their
- Parietal Pericardium: The parietal associated cavities are essential for
pericardium forms the outer layer of the maintaining the integrity and functionality of
sac around the heart. the organs within the thoracic and
- Pericardial Fluid: This fluid fills the abdominopelvic cavities while minimizing
pericardial cavity and provides friction and abrasion during their
lubrication to allow the heart to beat movements.
smoothly within the pericardial sac.

2. Pleural Cavity (Two, one for each

lung):
- Visceral Pleura: The visceral pleura
covers the surface of each lung.
- Parietal Pleura: The parietal pleura
lines the inner surface of the thoracic
wall, the lateral surface of the

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THE CELL AND CELLULAR METABOLISM AND

REPRODUCTION

2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS
Most cells have three major portions, with the
exception of the red blood cells.
Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes our
body with more than 100 trillion of it. • The plasma membrane, or cell membrane,
defining boundaries with gate-like properties
If we try to compare the size of a single cell, most
of its size are from 10 to 15 micrometers. For • The cytoplasm contains organelles and
instance, a blood cell measure 7.7 micrometers molecules
and an ovum measures 100 micrometers.
A very unique cell called nerve cells can have a
meter in length of its extensions.

4 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

Cell metabolism and energy use

o Different chemical processes during cell

metabolism provides energy for muscle
contraction and heat production.

Synthesis of molecules

o Cells synthesize various types of

molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids.
• The nucleus, acts as the control center and
o The different cells of the body do not all
contains a cell’s genetic information. (Cell’s
produce the same molecules.
genetic material.)
o The structural and functional
characteristics of cells are determined by CELL MEMBRANES / PLASMA MEMBRANES are
the types of molecules they produce.
2.3 CELL MEMBRANE
Communication
like gatekeepers that manages which does
o Cells produce and receive chemical and and does not enter the cell.
electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. Lipid Bilayer
o For example, nerve cells communicate
with one another and with muscle cells, • Flexible barrier, which is made of two
causing muscle cells to contract. layers of phospholipids, it separates
the inside and outside of the cell and
Reproduction and inheritance controls the flow of substances.
o Each cell contains a copy of the genetic • Phosphate-Containing Ends of the
information of the individual. phospholipids are hydrophilic (water-
o Specialized cells (sperm cells and loving)
oocytes) transmit that genetic o Face the extra- and
information to the next generation. intracellular fluids of the cell.

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• Fatty Acid ends of the phospholipids acts as a signal that triggers a response, such as
contraction of the of the muscle cell.
are hydrophobic (water-fearing)
o Face away from the fluid on • Extracellular – substance outside the cell
either side of the membrane
o Center of the double layer • Intracellular – substance inside the cell
phospholipids Selective Permeability
• Double layer of phospholipids has a
fluid quality • the ability of the cell membrane to
o Phospholipids are not control the flow of substances in and
completely stationary but are out of the cell.
able to move FOUR BASIC FUNCTIONS OF A CELL MEMBRANE
• Cholesterol within the phospholipid
membrane gives it added strength 1. It acts as a barrier that separates the
and stability internal and external structures
2. It controls the flow of substances into and
o Limiting the movement
out of the cell through its property called
• Protein molecules “float” among the
selective permeability
phospholipid molecules 3. Its external glycoproteins help identify the
• Membrane protein function as cell to other cells such as immune cells
membrane channels, carrier 4. It participates in intracellular signaling by
molecules, receptor molecules, its receptor proteins.
enzymes or structural support in the
membrane 2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES
Carbohydrates may be bound to some
protein molecules, modifying their functions. CYTOPLASM is the gel-like substance that fills
the space between the plasma membrane
Proteins function as membrane channels, and the nucleus.
carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural supports in the
membrane.

Membrane channels and carrier molecules

• are involved with the movement of

substances through the cell
membrane.

Receptor molecules

• are part of an intercellular

communication system that enables
cell recognition and coordination of
the activities of cells.
Ex. a nerve cell can release a chemical messenger
that moves to a muscle cell & temporarily binds to a • Cytosol consists of water plus
receptor on the muscle cell membrane. The binding
dissolved ions, proteins, amino acids,

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fatty acids, ATP, and gases which o 23 pairs of chromosomes, which also
provides the avenue for most consists of DNA and protein, can be
chemical reactions to occur. found in the human cells.
• Organelles are considered to be the
“little organs” found inside the
cytoplasm

2.4.1 NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS

• it carries the genetic material that

contains information for cell activities
and cell division.
• It includes controlling the cell’s 2.4.2 RIBOSOMES
activities and cellular structure and
RIBOSOMES
produces ribosomes through its
nucleoli. • Where proteins are produced
• May be attached to other organelles,
NUCLEUS: THREE DISTINCT PARTS
such as the rough endoplasmic
Nuclear Envelope reticulum.
• Those that are not attached to any
o The outer part of the nucleus is covered other organelle are called free
by two layers called the nuclear ribosomes.
envelope which then contains small
openings termed as nuclear pores. Just
like the cell membranes, these nuclear
pores regulate movement of different
substances into and out of the cells.

Nucleolus

o Made of the DNA, RNA and proteins.

o The one responsible for making FUNCTIONS OF THE RIBOSOMES INCLUDES:
ribosomes which contains small units of
RNA. ▪ Being associated with the endoplasmic
reticulum so they can synthesize proteins that are
Chromatin allocated for the plasma membrane.

o In a non-dividing cell, the genetic ▪ Free ribosomes also synthesize proteins that are
material is spread out in the form of intended to be used in the cytosol.
chromatin, which encompass the last
2.4.3 Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic
part of the nucleus.
Reticulum
o Whereas in a dividing cell, the genetic
material is condensed into structures
The endoplasmic reticulum is a large
called chromosomes.
membrane system that extends outward

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from the outer nuclear membrane o It forms secretory vesicles that discharge
throughout the cytoplasm. processed proteins via exocytosis into
extracellular fluid.
1. Rough ER – ER with ribosomes
attached to it It forms membrane vesicles that ferry new
o These organelles synthesize molecules to the plasma membrane.
glycoproteins & phospholipids
It forms transport vesicles that carry
that are then transferred into the
molecules to other organelles, such as
plasma membrane, or secreted
lysosomes.
during exocytosis.

2. Smooth ER – ER without ribosomes

o where fatty acids and steroids are
being made
o It detoxifies harmful substances
and stores ionized calcium for
muscle contraction and release
of hormones (hormonal signaling).
o A site for lipid synthesis and 2.4.5 LYSOSOMES & PEROXISOMES
participates in detoxification of
chemicals within cells. LYSOSOMES – membrane- bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi Apparatus.
2.4.4 Golgi Apparatus and Secretory Vesicle
o have a number of digestive enzymes
GOLGI APPARATUS that break down ingested material and
o flattened sacs that acts like a pathway worn-out organelles and release their
for processing proteins and lipids made components into the cytosol.
by the Endoplasmic Reticulum. o It can digest the entire cells (autolysis)
o present in larger numbers. and carry out extracellular digestion.
o is most highly developed in cells that o Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse
secrete protein, such as those of the with lysosomes. The enzymes within the
salivary glands or the pancreas. lysosomes break down the materials in
the endocytic vesicle.

PEROXISOMES

• are small, membrane-bound vesicles

containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide.
o hydrogen peroxide is a by-
product of fatty acid and
amino acid breakdown and
SECRETORY VESICLE can be toxic to a cell.

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o enzymes in peroxisomes break both of which make them capable of

down hydrogen peroxide to reproducing themselves & making new
water and O2 proteins, but the main source of the cell’s
o Cells active in detoxification, DNA is contained within its largest organelle,
kidney and liver cells, have the nucleus
many peroxisomes.

2.4.6 MITOCHONDRION CYTOSKELETON is made of networks of the

following protein elements. It is like tree-
branches that holds organelles in place &
ATP is the main energy source for most
aid them in changing shape. These protein
chemical reactions within the cell, & cells
elements consist of microfilaments,
with a large energy requirement have more
intermediate filament & microtubules.
mitochondria than cells that require less
energy. 1. MICROFILAMENTS are small protein strands
that
Ex. Cells that carry out extensive active transport,
contain many mitochondria. When muscles • provide mechanical support &
enlarge as a result of exercise, the mitochondria generate force for movement which
increase in number within the muscle cells &
are analogous to muscles in your
provide the additional ATP required for muscle
body.
contraction.
• Anchor proteins within the plasma
The outer membrane gives a mitochondrion membrane & provide support for
its capsule shape. microvilli.

The inner membrane folds on itself to provide 2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT on the other hand
a surface on which the energy-releasing are protein strands that are larger than
chemical reactions of the cell occur. microfilaments but smaller than
microtubules. They hold organelles in place
The folds of the inner membrane are called
& attach cells to one another.
cristae.

o It is on the cristae that cellular

respiration occurs, where food 3. MICROTUBULES are long, hollow protein
(chemical energy) is converted into tubes
another usable form of chemical
• determine shape & movement similar
energy, ATP. For this reason, the
to the way bones shape your body.
mitochondria are known as the
powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondrial Matrix.

o The fluid that fills the inside of the

membrane.

Mitochondria also participate in the

regulation of intracellular ionized calcium.
They contain their own DNA & ribosomes, 2.4.8 CENTROSOMES & CENTRIOLES

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• They are also the stiff components of thousands. For instance, the
cilia & flagella. respiratory tract is lined with cilia to
trap foreign materials such as dusts. In
this way, it aids in maintaining airways
clear from contaminants.

Flagella

• is like a whip tail placing itself at the

terminal end of a cell.
• flagella usually appear singular like in
the sperm cells.
• Moreover, this structure allows cells to
CENTRIOLES are like mini-tunnels that are mobilize like again in the case of
stacked together by 3 (microtubule triplet) & sperm cells that travels its way to find
formed a cylindrical organelle composed of the egg cells.
nine triplets. Microvilli
Putting a pair of these centrioles plus a • are folds of the cell membrane that
pericentriolar material will make up a greatly increase the surface area of a
Centrosome that is found near the nucleus & cell.
will be later essential for cell division called • Typically found in cells charged with
Mitosis. absorbing nutrients—such as the
That is, the pericentriolar material of the intestines—microvilli can increase a
centrosome contains tubulins that build cell’s absorptive area as much as 40
microtubules in nondividing cells & form the times.
2.5 CELL TRANSPORT

2 FLUID COMPARTMENTS:

INTRACELLULAR FLUID

o inside the cell.

o sample substances that can be
2.4.9 Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli found are enzymes, glycogen &
potassium ions
mitotic spindle during cell division.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Cilia and Flagella are surface organelles that
o outside the cell.
resembles projections on the surface that
o Interstitial Fluids – fluids between
help cells move, beat or vibrate.
cell within tissue
Cilia o Plasma – fluid within a blood
vessel
• are hairy-like projections that propels o Lymph – fluid within lymphatic
materials across the surface. They vessel
vary in number from hundreds to

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CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) – fluid that 1. The membrane must be permeable

surrounds brain & spinal cord as they move enough to allow passage of
across cells & within the cell substances substances.
including gases, nutrients & ions are 2. There must be a concentration
dissolved in the various fluids. gradient of the particular substance
across the membrane because it will
Certain terms in concentration also applies:
be the driving force for the process to
✓ SOLUTE – a substance that is being occur.
dissolved in the various fluids.
Cell membrane has bilipid layers. This means
✓ SOLVENT – a fluid or gas in which
that those substances which are lipid soluble
solute is being dissolved.
like oxygen, carbon dioxide & steroids can
✓ CONCENTRATION – the amount of
easily pass-through the phospholipid bilayer.
solute dissolved in given volume of
solvent In addition, cell membrane channels differ in
✓ CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – the the degree to which ions pass through them.
difference in concentration of a
1. LEAK CHANNELS - Channels constantly
substance between two areas.
allow ions to pass through.
Cell membranes has the unique capability
2. GATED CHANNELS - Channels that limit the
to only allow certain substances to pass
movement of ions across the membrane by
through its wall - Selective Permeability.
opening & closing.
Because of this, coupled with the transport
In the body, diffusion is an important means
capacity, cells maintain its concentration of
of transporting substances through the
molecules.
extracellular to intracellular fluids.
Movement of substances include 2
Substances, such as nutrients & some waste
processes:
products, can diffuse into & out of the cell.
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT – no cellular energy The normal intracellular concentrations of
required during transport. many substances depend on diffusion.

Ex. Diffusion, osmosis & facilitated diffusion Ex. If the extracellular concentration of O2 is
reduced, not enough O2 diffuses into the cell, &
2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT – certain amount of the cell cannot function normally.
cellular energy is needed to help transport
to be successful. Includes itself, secondary
active transport, endocytosis & exocytosis.

2.5.1 DIFFUSION

DIFFUSION is the process wherein solutes

move from an area of high concentration to
areas of low concentration.

It can occur in two conditions:

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2.5.2 OSMOSIS less water). In other words, water diffuses

toward areas of high solute concentration &
OSMOSIS involves the diffusion of water dilutes those solutes.
down the concentration gradient through a
selectively permeable membrane. OSMOTIC PRESSURE

(Diffusion of water (a solvent) across a • The force required to prevent the

selectively permeable membrane, such as movement of water across a
the cell membrane, from a region of higher selectively permeable membrane.
water concentration to one of lower water • As solution rises, its weight produces
concentration.) hydrostatic pressure, which moves
water out of the tube back into the
This often happens when a particular distilled water surrounding the tube.
substance can’t cross the membrane. In • Greater the concentration of a
that situation, the water & not the particles, solution, greater its osmotic pressure,
moves in an effort to equalize the and greater the tendency for water
concentration.
Thus, osmotic pressure is a measure for the
✓ Osmosis is important to cells because tendency of water to move by osmosis
large volume changes caused by across a selectively permeable membrane.
water movement can disrupt normal
cell functions.
✓ Osmosis occurs when the cell
membrane is less permeable,
selectively permeable, or not
permeable to solutes & a
concentration gradient for water
exists across the cell membrane.

The ability to predict the direction of water

movement across the cell membrane
depends on knowing which solution on
either side of the membrane has the higher
water concentration.

The concentration of a solution, however, is

expressed not in terms of water, but in terms
of solute concentration.
Ex. If sugar solution A is more concentrated than
sugar solution B, then solution A has more sugar
(solute) than solution B. As the concentration of
Concentrations of solutes, not the
a solution increases, the amount of water
(solvent) proportionately decreases.
concentration of water:

Water diffuses from the less concentrated • ISOTONIC - The solute concentration
solution B (less sugar, more water), into the outside the cell is the same as that inside the
more concentrated solution A (more sugar, cell. Therefore, water concentration is also

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the same on both sides of the cell, & the net • a carrier-mediated process that moves
movement of water is zero. substances across the cell membrane from
region of lower concentration to those of
• HYPOTONIC - The solute concentration
higher concentration against a
outside the cell is less than the concentration
concentration gradient
inside the cell. Therefore, the water
concentration outside is greater than that • requires energy in the form of ATP
inside, & water flows into the cell.
o if ATP is not available, it stops
• HYPERTONIC - The solute concentration
• accumulate substances on one side of the
outside the cell is greater than the
cell membrane at concentrations many
concentration inside the cell. Therefore, the
times greater than those on the other side
water concentration is greater inside the cell
than outside, & water flows out of the cell. • Cystic Fibrosis – a genetic disorder that
affects the active transport of Cl- into cells.
Certain molecules just need a medium to
bind to be transported inside the cell. ATP is the energy needed to assist in active
transport. One example of active transport is
These usually involves the use of specificity
the movement of various amino acids from
wherein a molecule can only be
the small intestine into the blood. The
malfunction of active transport can lead to
2.5.3Carrier-Mediated Transport
serious health conditions.
Mechanism
accommodated by specific carrier
molecule.

CARRIER MOLECULES are protein present in

the cell membranes that serves as a flexible
gate that changes shape.

There are three kinds of carrier-mediated

transport:

✓ Facilitated Diffusion
✓ Active Transport
✓ Secondary Active Transport

[Link] FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• A carrier-mediated transport process that

moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.

• Metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not

required.

[Link] ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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vesicle or a round, small sac through

ATP & contractions of microfilaments
enabling the contents to be ingested.

ENDOCYTOSIS - involves ingesting material

by forming a vesicle from the plasma
membrane.

The sac of ingested material buds off inside

the cell and usually fuses with lysosomes.

There are 3 types of endocytosis:

1. PHAGOCYTOSIS. The cell “eats” large

particles such as bacteria, viruses, &
dead cells. White blood cells & some
other cell types phagocytize
[Link] SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
bacteria, cell debris & foreign
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT involves the particles.
active transport of one substance, such as 2. PINOCYTOSIS. The cell periodically
“drinks” by forming small vesicles
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing around droplets of extracellular fluid.
a concentration gradient. These droplets may have small
The diffusion of that transported substance particles dissolved in them as well.
down its concentration gradient provides These vesicles fuse with lysosomes &
the energy to transport a second substance, release their contents.
such as glucose, across the cell membrane
(figure 2.12).
3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS -
In COTRANSPORT, the diffusing substance When hormones bind to receptors on
moves in the same direction as the the plasma membrane, the hormone
transported substance; – receptor complex is often ingested
In COUNTERTRANSPORT, the diffusing by endocytosis after the hormone has
substance moves in a direction opposite to produced its effect. Cholesterol &
that of the transported substance. growth factors are samples of which.

2.5.4 ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS In contrast, cells often release substances by a process
called:

EXOCYTOSIS. They utilize membrane-bound

➢ When substances are too large to be
sacs called secretory vesicles to fuse with
transported, cells would ingest these
the cell membrane & finally release its
materials rather than having it
content towards the extracellular space.
exchanged with ions. The cells form a

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o neurotransmitters, endocrine Interphase, which may take 20 to 22 hours, is

hormones, & digestive enzymes are followed by mitosis.
secreted via exocytosis.

MITOSIS itself consists of four phases:

2.6 CELL DIVISION
• Prophase
• is the way your body grows and how it
replaces worn-out cells and cells - each chromosome consists of two
damaged by disease or injury. chromatids joined at the centromere.
• Most of the cells in your body are
• Metaphase
somatic cells and divide through a
process called mitosis. - chromosomes align at the center of
o Somatic cells are cells other than sex the cell.
cells (sperm and egg). During mitosis,
• Anaphase
one starting cell divides into two
identical cells. Each cell has exactly - chromatids separate at the
the same genetic makeup as the centromere and migrate to opposite
parent cell. poles.
Although the cell cycle is continuous, it is • Telophase
commonly divided into interphase and
mitosis. - the two new nuclei assume their
normal structure, and cell division is
MITOSIS completed, producing two new
daughter cells.
• Parent cell divides to form two
daughter cells with the same amount
and type of DNA as parent cell.
• Divided into 4 stages. As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. This make-up, which
During INTERPHASE, the cells go through is identical to that of the starting cell, is
three stages: called diploid.
➢ G1 — a growth phase in which
proteins are synthesized. The cell
performs the tasks for which it was
created (such as carrying oxygen,
secreting digestive enzymes, etc.). It
accumulates the materials it will need
to replicate its DNA.
➢ S — when DNA is replicated.
➢ G2 — another growth phase in which
proteins are made.

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1. First prophase of meiosis (prophase

I), pairs of homologous
chromosomes (that is, pairs of
chromosomes #1, pairs of
chromosome # 2, & so on) remain
close together in tight groups called
tetrads.
o During this phase, the chromosomes
may exchange pieces of DNA in a
process called crossing over.

CROSSING OVER - "shuffles" the genetic

material, which allows genetic variation
from one generation to the next.

- In the first anaphase of meiosis

(anaphase I), the tetrads get pulled
apart.
- Ultimately, the 2 stages of meiosis
divide the chromosome
complement of the parent in half, a
status called diploid.

MEIOSIS

Specialized cells called gametes undergo a

different process of cell division called
MEIOSIS.

During meiosis, a starting cell undergoes two

rounds of cell division to produce four cells.
Each cell has one-half the genetic material
of the starting cell (only one set of
chromosomes)

MEIOSIS

• occurs in sexually reproducing

organisms
• similar to mitosis that their stages It reduces the chromosome number from diploid to
are the same names used. haploid by undergoing two sequential divisions,
meiosis I and meiosis II. During meiosis I, homologous
One difference is that: chromosomes pair up, potentially undergo crossing

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over, and then separate into two haploid daughter

cells. Meiosis II further divides these cells into four
haploid gametes. The process generates genetic
diversity among offspring, as each gamete carries a
unique combination of genes.

Study to make a difference in patients' lives, not just to

pass exams. Good luck, nurses!! – kds, 22

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