CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM

Devices and components that are used in the application system are discussed
in this chapter. This chapter describes the details of the circuit and selection of its
components. The components used in the system are transformer, bridge rectifier,
voltage regulator, temperature sensor, L298N motor driver, DC motor, soil moisture
sensor and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

3.1. Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction
produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying
magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages
in electric power applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the
transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary
winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary
winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's Law (discovered
in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers
can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another
within power networks. Transformers have become essential for the transmission,
distribution, and utilization of well-balance current electrical energy. A wide range of
transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons [02Ano].
For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very common to analyze as
the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images. An
ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly;
 12

that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic
core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding
inductances and zero net magneto motive force.

Figure 3.1. Transformer

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying

magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and
secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic
permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and
load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in
the indicated directions.
According to Faraday's Law, since the same magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced
in each winding. The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in
accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes
development of any such change in magnetic field [02Ano].
Transformers can be classified in many ways as the following.
 Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand
MVA.
 Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying
 Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
 Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
 Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed– self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-
Immersed forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.
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 Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output

voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation.
 Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output.
 Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.
 Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.
 General winding configuration: By EIC vector group – various possible two-
winding combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag
or interconnected star; other – autotransformer, Scott-T, zigzag grounding
transformer winding.
 Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding,
12-pulse; n-winding, [n-1] x 6-pulse; polygon [02Ano].

3.2. Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current
(AC) input into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge
rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower
cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with
a center-tapped secondary winding. This essential feature of a diode bridge is what the
polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode
bridge circuit was invented by Polish electro technician Karol Pollak and patented in
December 1895 in Great Britian and in January 1896 in Germany. In 1897, the
German physicist Leo Graetz independently invented and published a similar circuit.
Today the circuit is still often referred to as a Graetz circuit or Graetz bridge [13Wik].
Prior to the availability of integrated circuit, a bridge rectifier was constructed
from “discrete components”, i.e., separate diodes. Since about 1950, a single four-
terminal component containing the four diodes connected in a bridge configuration
became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage
and current ratings. Diodes are also used in bridge topologies along with capacitor as
voltage multipliers.(Strzelecki, R. Power Electronics in Smart Energy Network.).

Vp = √ 2 × Vrms -1.4 (3.1)

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Figure 3.2. Bridge Rectifier

3.3. Voltage Regulator

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-
contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is
commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their
ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,
indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the
7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a
voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx
devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can
be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same
circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO-220 form
factor, although they are available in surface-mount, TO-92, and TO-3 packages.
These devices support an input voltage anywhere from around 2.5 volts over the
intended output voltage up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the model,
and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages
may have a lower or higher current rating).
The advantages are as follows; 78xx series ICs do not require additional
components to provide a constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to
use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may
require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the
regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may
be needed substantial engineering expertise to implement. 78xx series ICs have builtin
 15

protection against a circuit drawing too much current. They have protection against
overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications. In
some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide protection
not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.
The disadvantages are as follows; the input voltage must always be higher
than the output voltage by some minimum amount (typically 2.5 volts). This can
make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from certain types of power
sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires 5 volts using 6-volt batteries
will not work using a 7805). As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input
current required is always the same as the output current. As the input voltage must
always be higher than the output voltage, this means that the total power (voltage
multiplied by current) going into the 78xx will be more than the output power
provided. The difference is dissipated as heat. This means both that for some
applications an adequate heatsink must be provided, and also that a (often substantial)
portion of the input power is wasted during the process, rendering them less efficient
than some other types of power supplies. When the input voltage is significantly
higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a 7805 using a
24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue. Buck converters
may be preferred over 78xx regulators because they are more efficient and do not
require heat sinks, but they are more expensive.

V¿ V out

(b)
(a)

Figure 3.3. (a) Pin Description and (b) Circuit Diagram of 7805 Voltage Regulator
 16

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage

level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include
negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as
computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor
and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator
plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power
distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along
distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how
much power is drawn from a line [16Wav].

3.4. PIC Microcontroller

PIC (usually pronounced as "pick") is a family of microcontrollers made by
Microchip Technology, derived from the PIC1650 originally developed by General
Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to Peripheral
Interface Controller, then it was corrected as Programmable Intelligent Computer. The
first parts of the family were available in 1976; by 2013 the company had shipped
more than twelve billion individual parts, used in a wide variety of embedded
systems. Early models of PIC had read-only memory (ROM) or field-programmable
EPROM for program storage, some with provision for erasing memory. Program
memory and data memory are separated. Data memory is 8-bit, 16-bit, and, in latest
models, 32-bit wide. Program instructions vary in bit-count by family of PIC, and
may be 12, 14, 16, or 24 bits long. The instruction set also varies by model, with more
powerful chips adding instructions for digital signal processing functions. The
hardware capabilities of PIC devices range from 6-pin SMD, 8-pin DIP chips up to
144-pin SMD chips, with discrete I/O pins, ADC and DAC modules, and
communications ports such as UART, I2C, CAN, and even USB[11Mic].
Low-power and high-speed variations exist for many types. The manufacturer
supplies computer software for development known as MPLAB X, assemblers and
C/C++ compilers, and programmer/debugger hardware under the MPLAB and PICKit
series. Third party and some open-source tools are also available. Some parts have in-
circuit programming capability; low-cost development programmers are available as
well as high-production programmers. PIC devices are popular with both industrial
 17

developers and hobbyists due to their low cost, wide availability, large user base,
extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or free development
tools, serial programming, and re-programmable Flash-memory [Link]
microchips are designed with a Harvard architecture, and are offered in various device
families. The baseline and mid-range families use 8-bit wide data memory, and the
high-end families use 16-bit data memory.
The latest series, PIC32MZ is a 32-bit MIPS-based microcontroller.
Instruction words are in sizes of 12-bit (PIC10 and PIC12), 14-bit (PIC16) and 24-bit
(PIC24 and dsPIC). The binary representations of the machine instructions vary by
family and are shown in PIC instruction listings. Within these families, devices may
be designated PICnnCxxx (CMOS) or PICnnFxxx (Flash). "C" devices are generally
classified as "Not suitable for new development" (not actively promoted by
Microchip). The program memory of "C" devices is variously described as OTP,
ROM, or EEPROM. As of October 2016, the only OTP product classified as "In
production" is the pic16HV540. "C" devices with quartz windows (for erasure), are in
general no longer available [08Mic].

3.5. PIC16F Series Microcontroller

These devices feature a 14-bit wide code memory, and an improved level
deep call stack. The instruction set differs very little from the baseline devices, but the
two additional op code bits allow 128 registers and 2048 words of code to be directly
addressed. There are a few additional miscellaneous instructions, and two additional
8-bit literal instructions, add and subtract. The mid-range core is available in the
majority of devices labeled PIC12 and PIC16.
The first 32 bytes of the register space are allocated to special-purpose
registers; the remaining 96 bytes are used for general-purpose RAM. If banked RAM
is used, the high 16 registers (0x70–0x7F) are global, as are a few of the most
important special-purpose registers, including the STATUS register which holds the
RAM bank select bits. (The other global registers are FSR and INDF, the low 8 bits of
the program counter PCL, the PC high preload register PCLATH, and the master
interrupt control register INTCON.). The PCLATH register supplies high-order
instruction address bits when the 8 bits supplied by a write to the PCL register, or the
11 bits supplied by a GOTO or CALL instruction, is not sufficient to address the
available ROM space [13Law].
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3.6. Introduction to PIC16F887 Microcontroller

There are different series of 8-bit PIC microcontrollers- PIC10F, PIC12F,
PIC16F and PIC18F, all with different features and price bands. PIC16F877 are a
very old design as easily as possible then upgrade to the PIC16F887 as it is now much
cheaper than PIC16F877. It has the same pin layout, same peripherals and the same
code will run without modification. It also has On-Board Debug features so a cheap
emulator, like PICKit2 or PICKit3 can be used [14Kan]. Thus, the PIC16F887
microcontroller is chosen for this system. The PIC16F887 is easy-to-program (only 35
single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller packs
Microchip's powerful PIC architecture into a 40- or 44-pin package.

Figure 3.4. Pin Diagrams of PIC16F887, 40-Pin (PDIP) [08Mic]

The PIC16F887 is one of the latest products from Microchip. It is used as the
main processor of this system. These are 40-pin Dual-in-package (DIP) chips (Figure
3.3) with 8 Kb ROM memories in FLASH technology, enough for most projects even
those written in C. They also have 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory for storing
serial numbers, self-programming, calibration data and other values that need to be
preserved if the device needs to be reprogrammed.
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3.7. LCD 16x 2 Displays

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual
display that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystal. Liquid crystals do
not emit light directly. The LCDs have a parallel interface, meaning that the
microcontroller has to manipulate several interface pins at once to control the display.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find
the wide range of applications. A 16×2 LCD display is very basic module and is very
commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over
seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The modules are preferred over seven
segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being; LCDs are economical;
easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom
characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual
display that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystal. Liquid crystals do
not emit light directly. The LCDs have a parallel interface, meaning that the
microcontroller has to manipulate several interface pins at once to control the display.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16×2 LCD display is very basic module and is very
commonly used in various devices and circuits.

Figure 3.5. LCD 16x2 Displays

A 16×2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such
lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5×7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two
registers, namely, Command and data registers, namely, command and data. The
command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is
an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its
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screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the
data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be
displayed on the LCD. LCDs can be controlled in two modes: 4-bit or 8-bit. The 4-bit
mode requires seven I/O pins from the Arduino, while the 8-bit mode requires 11pins
[15Kus].

3.8. DC Motor
Almost every mechanical moment is accomplished by an electric motor.
Electric machines are means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and
produce mechanical energy. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current flow in part of the motor. DC motors were the first type widely
used, since they could be powered from existing direct-current lighting power
distribution systems.
DC motor’s speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either the supply
voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field windings. An example of
small motor applications includes motors used in automobile, robot, hand power tools
and food blenders. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electrical vehicles,
elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. It has two power connections to
supply the voltage, one is termed as positive and the other is negative. The operation
voltage is 3 volts to 6 volts DC. Reduction ratio is 1:48. Figure 3.6. is showed the DC
motor [15Pin].

Figure 3.6. DC Motor

3.9. Motor Driver

The dual bidirectional motor driver is based on the very popular L298 dual H-
bridge motor driver IC. This module will allow to easily and independently control
two motors of up to 2A each in both directions. It is ideal for robotic application to a
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microcontroller requiring just a couple lines per motor. The L298N is an integrated
monolithic circuit in a 15-lead multi watt and powerSO20 package.
It is a high voltage, high current dual full-bridge driver designed to accept
standard TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and
stepping motors. Two enables input are provided to enable or disable the device
independently of the input signals. It is a great value and can be used with a variety of
controllers. It can be used to control the speed of DC motors. It can be used with
motors that have a voltage of between 5 volts and 35 volts DC [13Ano].

Figure 3.7. L298 Motor Driver

3.10. Temperature Sensor

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices with an
output voltage linearly-proportional to the centigrade temperature. The LM35 device
has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is
not required to subtract a large constant voltage from the output to obtain convenient
centigrade scaling. The LM35 device is not required any external calibration or
trimming to provide typical accuracies of ±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°C over a
full −55°C to 150°C temperature range. Lower cost is assured by trimming and
calibration at the wafer level. The low-output impedance, linear output, and precise
inherent calibration of the LM35 device makes interfacing to readout or control
circuitry especially easy.
The device is used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus
supplies. As the LM35 device is drawn only 60 µA from the supply, it has very low
 22

self-heating of less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 device is rated to operate over a
−55°C to 150°C temperature range, while the LM35C device is rated for a −40°C to
110°C range (−10° with improved accuracy). The LM35-series devices are available
packaged in hermetic TO transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and
LM35D devices are available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D
device is available in an 8-lead surface-mount small-outline package and a plastic TO-
220 package [11Cui].

Figure 3.8. LM35 Temperature Sensor

3.11. Soil Moisture Sensor

Measuring soil moisture is important for agricultural applications to help
farmer manage their irrigation systems more efficiently. Knowing the exact soil
moisture conditions on their fields, not only are farmers able to generally use less
water to grow a crop, they are also able to increase yields and the quality of the crop
by improved management of soil moisture during critical plant growth stages Soil
moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil.

Figure 3.9. Soil Moisture Sensor

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Moisture sensors is measured the volumetric water content indirectly by using

some other property of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or
interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the moisture content. The relation between
the measured property and soil moisture must be calibrated and may vary depending
on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature, or electric conductivity
[10Bat].

3.12. Summary
In this chapter, peripheral components and features of microcontroller used in
the application system were described. Each of these sections was briefly presented.
The soil moisture and temperature sensors are used for protection crops. The next
chapter will express about software and hardware construction, test and results of the
desired system.