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On the electromagnetism of massive photons

Preprint · February 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16711.65441/3

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On the electromagnetism of massive photons

A. I. Arbab (a)

Department of Physics, College of Science, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6644, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 321, Khartoum 11115, Sudan

PACS –

Abstract – New definitions of the electric and magnetic fields are found to yield modified electrodynamics. These
define the electromagnetic field due to its particle’s nature. The electric and magnetic fields are defined linearly in
terms of the scalar (φ) and vector (A)⃗ potentials using the Dirac’s matrices, in addition to the conventional derivatives
definitions. The photon’s electric and magnetic fields due to their particle’s nature are perpendicular to each other too.
The electric field is found to satisfy the Klein-Gordon equation with a source. The new electrodynamics generalizes
the Proca-Maxwell theory. This electrodynamics is shown to reproduce London’s theory of superconductivity. It also
generalizes the axion electrodynamics expounded by Frank Wilczek.

Key Words: Massive electrodynamics, Axion electrodynamics, Maxwell’s equations, Gauge fields

Introduction. – Although Maxwell’s equations are described in terms of the electric and magnetic fields,

it is found more convenient to express these fields in terms of scalar and vector potentials. The dynamics of

these fields is obtained by setting up a Lagrangian that is defined in terms of these potentials. The Lagrangian

embodies all physical properties of a system. Maxwell’s equations are expressed in two wave equations involving

these potentials only. To simplify these two equations, an additional condition that fixes the relation between

these potentials is chosen that is known as the Lorenz gauge condition. This condition is found to be appropriate

when a covariant form of Maxwell’s equations is considered.

The potentials are assumed to be a mere mathematical construct that facilitates the description of electro-

magnetism in a succinct form. One poses the question of whether other definitions of the electric and magnetic

fields in terms of the potentials are possible. Other gauges are also employed in electromagnetic problems. If

the photon had mass then the gauge transformation would be broken. Relying only on this reason the photon is

considered to be massless. The photon (light) is an electromagnetic field (wave). The photon has a dual nature

exhibiting particle and wave natures. The electron develops its electric and magnetic fields due to its charge
(a) [Link]@[Link]

p-1
A. I. Arbab 1

and not mass. The photon however has no electric or magnetic field.

The Dirac equation, when expressed in terms of quaternions, has been found to appear like Maxwell’s

equations [1]. In this formalism the electron is described by two fields: one is analogous to the electric field and

the other to the magnetic field. We call these fields the matter fields. These fields are then expressed by scalar

and vector wavefunctions (potentials) that are analogous to Maxwell’s scalar and vector potentials. When the

matter fields are cast in terms of the electromagnetic potentials, new forms are obtained.

These new fields involve a mass term describing the mass of the photon (electromagnetic field), in addition

to the Dirac matrices defining the old matter fields. The presence of the Dirac matrices helps associate a spin

of the photon due to its particle’s nature in addition to that one due to the wave nature of the photon. It

is interesting to find that the photon when massive can develop non-zero electric and magnetic fields. As in

the normal case, these fields are perpendicular to each other. The magnetic spin current is found to lie in the

⃗γ − A
⃗ plane, where ⃗γ is the Dirac matrix, and A
⃗ is the magnetic vector potential. The presence of ⃗γ in Dirac’s

equation was employed to predict the spin of the electron.

From these new fields, a set of modified Maxwell’s equations emerges. These modified Maxwell’s equations

are then assumed to describe massive photons. When the photon is deemed massless, the ordinary Maxwell’s

equations are restored. However, when the photon becomes massive an additional term reflecting this character

is added. The energy conservation equation due to massive photons is the same as that of a massless photon.

A diffusion magnetic current and two electric currents arise when the photon is massive. While massive elec-

trodynamics breaks the gauge symmetry, our present electrodynamics preserves it. We aim here to entertain

this possibility and describe the two aspects of the photon congruently. Interestingly, this endeavor is found to

generalize the axion electrodynamics proposed recently by Frank Wilczek [2].

Diracian electrodynamics . – The quaternionic Dirac equation, viz.,

i
P̃ γ̃ Ψ̃∗ = mcΨ̃∗ , ⃗ ),
Ψ̃ = ( ψ0 , ψ γ̃ = (iβ , ⃗γ ), (1)
c

where m is the electron’s mass, ⃗γ = β⃗

α, α
⃗ and β are the Dirac matrices, has led to [1]

∇ ⃗ D = ρD ,
⃗ ·E ∇ ⃗ D = − 1 ∂ΛD ,
⃗ ·B (2)
εD c2D ∂t

and
⃗ ⃗
∇ ⃗ D = − ∂ BD + ∇Λ
⃗ ×E ⃗ D, ∇ ⃗ D = µD J⃗D + 1 ∂ ED ,
⃗ ×B (3)
∂t 2
cD ∂t

p-2
 On the electromagnetism of massive photons

where
2
⃗,
⃗ D = c2⃗γ × ψ ⃗,
⃗ D = ⃗γ ψ0 − cβ ψ mc ⃗ m ⃗ + cβ ψ0 ,
E B J⃗D = − ψ, ρD = − ψ0 , ΛD = −c2⃗γ · ψ
µD h̄ µD h̄
(4)

where µD , εD and cD are the permeability, permittivity and the speed of matter wave in space, resepctively.
⃗ and ψ0 define the vector and scalar wavefunctions describing the matter fields, E
Here ψ ⃗ D and B
⃗ D . They are

analogous to the scalar and vector potentials of electromagnetism. It is evident from eqs.(2) and (3) that the

massive electrodynamics looks the same as that of the massless one.

Owing to the quaternion generality, one can now transform eqs.(2) - (4) into the massive electrodynamics

by letting

⃗→A
ψ ⃗, ψ0 → φ , J⃗D → J⃗ , ρD → ρ , µ D → µ0 , ε D → ε0 , ΛD → Λ , (5)

which yield
2
⃗ = mc ⃗γ × A
E ⃗, ⃗ = m ⃗γ φ − mc β A
B ⃗, (6)
h̄ h̄ h̄
and
mc2 ⃗ + mc β φ , m2 c2 ⃗ m2
Λ=− ⃗γ · A J⃗ = − A, ρ=− φ, (7)
h̄ h̄ µ0 h̄2 µ0 h̄2
and m here is the photon’s mass. The current and charge densities in the above equations are due to massive

photons. The force density on photons is given by, f⃗ = ρ E

⃗ + J⃗ × B
⃗ = 0, upon using eq.(7). It is interesting to see

that the photon’s electric and magnetic fields, in eq.(6), that are due to its particle’s nature, are perpendicular
⃗ = −c⃗
to each other too. For a massive photon, eq.(6) suggests that the photon’s fields are related by, E α×B
⃗ =

−⃗v × B
⃗ and B
⃗ = α
⃗
c ×E
⃗+ ⃗
γ
c Λβ = ⃗
v
c2 ×E
⃗+ α
⃗
c Λ, where in Dirac’s theory ⃗v = c⃗
α. It pertinent to mention that
⃗ = −⃗v × B
a moving charge (electron) has electric and magnetic fields related by E ⃗ and B
⃗ = ⃗
v
× E,
⃗ that are
c2

due to its charge. These are interesting interrelations, particularly when Λ = 0.

The electrodynamics associated with eqs.(6) and (7) will be

∇ ⃗ = ρ ,
⃗ ·E ∇ ⃗ = − 1 ∂Λ ,
⃗ ·B (2a)
ε0 c2 ∂t

and
⃗ ⃗
∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B + ∇Λ
⃗ ×E ⃗ , ∇ ⃗ = µ0 J⃗ + 1 ∂ E .
⃗ ×B (3a)
∂t 2
c ∂t
Collecting eqs.(2a) and (3a) together with eqs.(6) and (7), yield
2
∇ ⃗ = − mc φ ,
⃗ ·E ∇ ⃗ = − 1 ∂Λ ,
⃗ ·B (8)
h̄2 c2 ∂t

p-3
A. I. Arbab 2

and
⃗ ⃗ 2 2
∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B + ∇Λ
⃗ ×E ⃗ , ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂E − m c A
⃗ ×B ⃗, (9)
∂t c2 ∂t h̄2

Equations (8) and (9) are but extended Proca-Maxwell’s equations for massive vector field boson to the case

Λ ̸= 0 in vacuum [3]. It is thus very intriguing that the Quaternionic Dirac equation yields the Proca-Maxwell

equations. It is pertinent to compare eqs.(8) and (9) with the gravitimagnetic equations [4]

⃗ 2⃗
∇·
⃗ E⃗ g = −4πG ρg , ∇·
⃗ B⃗ g = − 1 ∂Λg , ∇×
⃗ E⃗ g = − ∂ Bg + ∇Λ
⃗ g, ∇×
⃗ B⃗ g = − 4πG J⃗g + 1 ∂ Eg , (8a)
c2g ∂t ∂t 2
cg cg ∂t2
2

where G is the Newton’s constant and the subscript ‘g’ refers to gravitational component. Thus, eqs.(8) and
⃗ g and φg
(9) can describe gravitomagnetism by defining the gravitomagnetic vector and scalar potentials as A
⃗ g ) and gravitomagnetic (B
with their corresponding gravitational (E ⃗ g ) fields as defined in eq.(6). The resulting

dynamics is a quantized gravitomagnetic model for massive photons. Similar equations are also valid for
⃗ h and B
hydrodynamics where E ⃗ h replace the acceleration and vorticity of the fluid [5]. The resulting dynamics

would describe a quantum fluid.

Note that the conventional definitions of the electric and magnetic fields are still valid, viz.,

⃗
E ⃗ − ∂A ,
⃗ = −∇φ ⃗ =∇
B ⃗ ×A
⃗. (10)
∂t

The electromagnetic fields defined in eq.(10) reflect the wave’s aspect of the photon, whereas the former ones

reflect the matter’s nature exhibited by the photon.

The transformations of the scalar and vector potentials, of the wave’s aspect of the photon, of the form

⃗′ =A ∂f
A ⃗ + ∇f
⃗ , φ′ = φ − , (11)
∂t

where f is some scalar function, leave its electric and magnetic fields invariant. This transformation is known

as the gauge transformation. We assume this to apply to the charge’s fields as defined in eq.(10). However, the

matter (mass) fields, as described in eq.(6), do have another gauge transformations of the form

A ⃗ + φ ⃗γ ,
⃗′ =A φ ′ = φ + βφ , (12)
c

that leaves the matter’s fields of the photon invariant. It is interesting that Λ ′ → Λ under the transformations

defined in eq.(12). Note that a massless photon has no electric or magnetic field, as evident from eq.(6).

However, a massive photon does have both fields.

p-4
 On the electromagnetism of massive photons

Let us now derive the electrodynamics, defined by eqs.(6) and (7), reflecting the wave’s and particle’s natures

of the photon. To this end, we take the divergence of the electric and magnetic fields in eq.(6), and use eq.(7)

to find
2
∇ ⃗ = − mc ⃗γ · B
⃗ ·E ⃗, ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂Λ ,
⃗ ·B (13)
h̄ c2 ∂t
⃗ ⃗
∇
⃗ ×E⃗ = − ∂ B + ∇Λ
⃗ , ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂ E + m ⃗γ × E
⃗ ×B ⃗ + mcβ B
⃗, (14)
∂t 2
c ∂t h̄ h̄

where we have used the Lorenz gauge condition,

∇ ⃗ + 1 ∂φ = 0 ,
⃗ ·A (15)
c2 ∂t

and some vector identities. The electrodynamics described by eqs.(13) and (14) generalizes a massive electro-

dynamics derived recently in [6]. In the latter electrodynamics, we have considered a quaternionic mass for

the photon. An analogy exists between the two paradigms where the vector mass, m
⃗ = m⃗γ , and the longi-

tudinal mass, m0 = mβ. Equation (13) states that the magnetic field induces an electric charge density of

ργ = − µm
0 h̄
⃗γ · B,
⃗ and eq.(14) states a presence of an electric current density of J⃗β = β mc
µ0 h̄
⃗ , where the eigen
B

values of ⃗γ and β are ± 1. Since ⃗γ is expressed in terms of Pauli’s spin matrices, one can attribute ργ to spin

charge density that is induced upon applying a magnetic field on a material3 . Since J⃗β · E
⃗ = 0, the photon’s

current is not dissipative.

The electromagnetic field due to its particle’s aspect is described by eqs.(13) - (14) with m ̸= 0, and that

due to its wave aspect is described with m = 0. Thus, eqs.(13) - (14) embody the duality of the photon, i.e.,

its particle and wave aspects. It is interesting to see that eqs.(13) - (14) reduce to the ordinary Maxwell’s

equations when m = 0. However, if m ̸= 0, the presence of magnetic monopole would be inevitable, as evident

from eq.(13). This urges us to connect the magnetic monopole with massive photons [7]. It is apparent from

eq.(7) that Λ vanishes for m = 0, or φ = cβ⃗γ · A.

⃗

The electric field in eqs.(13) and (14) satisfies the Klein-Gordon equation with a source

⃗ ( mc )2 ( )
1 ∂2E cmβ
− ∇ 2⃗
E + ⃗ = −∇
E ⃗ Λ . (16)
c2 ∂t2 h̄ h̄

Let us now take the divergence of the first equation in eq.(14), and the second equation in eqs.(13) to find

1 ∂2Λ
− ∇2 Λ = 0 . (17)
c2 ∂t2
( ) ( )
3⃗ 0 ⃗
σ I 0
γ = , β= .
−⃗σ 0 0 −I

p-5
A. I. Arbab 4

Taking the dot product of ⃗γ with the first equation in eq.(14), and employing the second equation in eq.(14),

and the first equation in eq.(13); and upon using eqs.(6) and (7), one obtains

β
∇
⃗ · (cB
⃗ + β⃗γ Λ) = 0 , ⃗γ · B
⃗ =Λ . (18)
c

Using eqs.(7) and (18), eqs.(13) and (14) become

∇ ⃗ = − mc Λ β ,
⃗ ·E ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂Λ ,
⃗ ·B (19)
h̄ c2 ∂t
⃗ ⃗
∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B + ∇Λ
⃗ ×E ⃗ , ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂ E + m Λ ⃗γ .
⃗ ×B (20)
∂t 2
c ∂t h̄

It is interesting to see from eqs.(19) and (20) that Λ induces electric and magnetic charge densities besides the

electric and magnetic current densities. Moreover, eqs.(19) and (20) represent quantized Maxwell’s equations.

It is remarkable that a conduction electric current, J⃗Λ = m

µ0 h̄ Λ ⃗γ , arises with an electric charge density of

ρΛ = − mεh̄0 c Λ β . It is interesting that the induced charge and current densities of the photon depend on

the photon’s mass. They should satisfy the continuity equation. This urges us to define the massive photon’s

velocity from the relation, J⃗Λ = ± ρΛ ⃗v , implying that ⃗v = c ⃗γ complying with the problematic electron’s velocity

in Dirac’s theory [8]. Thus, one may argue that this velocity is not due to the electron, but to the massive

photon. Notice that in the photoelectric effect the photon interacts with the electron as if it were a particle,

but the mass of that particle was not detailed.

Upon using the second equation in eq.(13), one finds

∂Λ
= ∇Λ
⃗ · (c⃗γ β) . (21)
∂t

⃗ ′ = cB
It is remarkable that eqs.(19) and (20) are invariant under the duality transformations, where E ⃗ and

⃗ ′ = −E
cB ⃗ , which require
h̄ ⃗ h̄ ∂Λ
Λ′ = (∇Λ) · ⃗γ , Λ′ = β. (22)
mc mc2 ∂t

The transformations in eq.(22) are consistent with the condition in eq.(21).

While massive electrodynamics, as that proposed by Proca, is not invariant under the gauge transformations,

our massive electrodynamics, eqs.(13) - (14), is, however [3].

Notice that eq.(14) dictates that there are new diffusion magnetic currents and two electric currents. These

currents are found to be exhibited in condensed matter physics like topological insulators and quantum Hall

effects [9, 10]. Since ⃗γ and β are 4 × 4 matrices, then the electric and magnetic fields associated with massive

p-6
 On the electromagnetism of massive photons

photons are connected by four states of the photon (polarization). Notice that the current J⃗ in eq.(7) is
⃗ by a relation similar to that of a London’s supercurrent that led to the
connected to the vector potential A

phenomenon of superconductivity [11].

It is shown by Frank Wilczek that the axion electrodynamics is described by [2]

∇
⃗ ·E
⃗ = −κ ∇θ
⃗ ·B
⃗, ∇
⃗ ·B
⃗ = 0, (23)

⃗
∇⃗ ×E⃗ = − ∂B , (24)
∂t
⃗
∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂ E + κ∇θ
⃗ ×B ⃗ ×E ⃗ + κ ∂θ B
⃗, (25)
c2 ∂t ∂t

where κ is some undetermined constant, and θ is the axion field. Axions are scalar bosons that are assumed to

be coupled to photons despite the fact that they are not observed experimentally so far. It is intriguing that

the above electrodynamics, eqs.(13) - (14), generalizes the axion electrodynamics, eqs.(23) - (25), when

m ∂θ mcβ
κ ∇θ
⃗ = ⃗γ , κ = . (26)
h̄ ∂t h̄

The above equation yields

∂θ
= ∇θ
⃗ · (c⃗γ β) . (27)
∂t

It is very remarkable that θ ∝ Λ upon comparing eq.(26) with eq.(21). It is thus interesting to see that axion

electrodynamics is one variant of massive electrodynamics. While the axion electrodynamics is classical, our

massive electrodynamics is quantum. Recall that the Dirac matrices are expressible in terms of Pauli’s spin

matrices. Dirac availed this formalism to deduced the spin of the electron from his relativistic equation, and

consequently, the spin is understood to be a relativistic effect.

The energy conservation equation associated with eqs.(13) - (14) can be derived which is

⃗ + ∂u = 0 , 1 B2 1 ⃗ = µ−1 (E
∇
⃗ ·S u= ε0 E 2 + + ε0 Λ2 , S 0
⃗ ×B
⃗ −B
⃗ Λ). (28)
∂t 2 2µ0 2

Interestingly, the mass of the photon does not influence the energy conservation equation. That would imply

that the electric and magnetic currents in eqs.(13) and (14) are non-dissipative. Moreover, Λ is physical since

it has energy density and energy flux. From the Poynting vector above, one deduces that there is an energy

flowing along the magnetic field direction. This is analogous to eddy currents appearing in magnetic materials.

It seems that Λ is connected with the vacuum energy (background) in which the electromagnetic field propa-

gates. This makes the magnetic charge and current densities in eqs.(19) and (20) arise when this vacuum energy

p-7
A. I. Arbab 5

decays. Thus, if the vacuum is somehow triggered, a huge amount of energy in terms of particle/antiparticle

will give rise to electromagnetic effects. Vacuum polarization has been observed in the Casimir effect, when two

uncharged (neutral) plates are brought very close to each other [12].

Upon using eqs.(6) and (7), one finds the contribution of massive photons to the energy density as

B2 m2 c2 2
um = , um = A . (28a)
µ0 µ0 h̄2

⃗ eqs.(19) and (20) become

In the presence of sources whose charge density is ρ and its current density is J,

∇ ⃗ = ρ − mc Λ β ,
⃗ ·E ∇ ⃗ = 1 ∂Λ ,
⃗ ·B (29)
h̄ c2 ∂t

⃗
∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B + ∇Λ
⃗ ×E ⃗ , (30)
∂t
⃗
∇ ⃗ = µ0 J⃗ + 1 ∂ E + m Λ ⃗γ .
⃗ ×B (31)
c2 ∂t h̄

Equations (29) - (31) indicate that the photon’s mass induces electric and magnetic charge densities given by,

ρeΛ = − ε0h̄mc Λ β and ρmΛ = 1 ∂Λ

c2 ∂t , respectively, with their current densities given respectively by, J⃗mΛ = −∇Λ
⃗

and J⃗eΛ = m
µ0 h̄ Λ ⃗γ . Thus, any temporal variation in Λ will give rise to a magnetic charge, whereas the spatial

change of Λ generates a magnetic current.

London’s superconductivity. – Recall that in the London’s superconductivity the super-current is

proportional to the vector potential, i.e., J⃗s ∝ −A

⃗ . Thus, if we set φ = 0 in eqs.(6) and (7), then

⃗ = − mc β A mc2 m2 c2 ⃗
B ⃗, Λ=− ⃗γ · A
⃗, J⃗ = − A, ρ = 0. (32)
h̄ h̄ µ0 h̄2

⃗ =
Equation (32) shows that B µ0 h̄β
mc J⃗ and ∇
⃗ ·B
⃗ = 0 , where we assume J⃗ to be the photon’s current due

to its mass. Hence, the magnetic flux can be related to the current by taking the integral over the surface,
µ0 h̄β µ0 h̄
i.e., ΦB = mc I. The inductance associated with this magnetic flux is L = mc . A quantum flux can be
πmc
expressed as, Φn = nh/2e, which implies that In = µ0 e n , where n is some integer, that arises when a magnetic

field is applied to a superconductor. But, one found recently that the photon mass inside a conductor is given
1
by, m = σµ0 h̄, where σ is the electric conductivity of the material [13]. Accordingly, the current becomes
2
( )
quantized as, In = n πcσ2e h̄. This reveals that there is a characteristic (residual) current for every material.

If this current is equal to the ordinary current, I = ns ee vs A, then the velocity of the super-electron will be
πλ2L m
vs = ( A )( me ) c, where λL is the London’s penetration depth, and A is the cross-sectional area of the material.

p-8
 On the electromagnetism of massive photons

A superconductor is a state of matter dominated by Cooper pairs which are but the massive photons. The

scalar Λ can be seen as a magnetic potential scalar. It could be seen as a residual magnetic field induced by

the massive photons inside the material.

Equations (32) and (8) yield

2 2
⃗ × J⃗ = − m c B ∂ J⃗ m2 c2 ⃗
∇ ⃗, = E. (33)
µ0 h̄2 ∂t µ0 h̄2
ns e 2 m2 c 2
London derived the above equations using Newton’s and Faraday’s equations with, me = µ0 h̄2
[11]. He

attributed superconductivity to a presence of a super-current in addition to the normal electronic current. It

is thus interesting that the above electrodynamics is a faithful representation of London’s electrodynamics

of superconductivity. Therefore, one advocates the notion that superconductivity is mediated by massive

photons. This leads to a Meissner effect where the magnetic field decays exponentially with distance inside

a superconductor [14]. Interestingly, the system of equations in eq.(32) satisfies a superconductivity state

governed by eq.(33) too.

Concluding remarks. – We have derived in this work electromagnetism due to massive photons by

employing that one due to electrons invoking a quaternionic Dirac equation. A massless photon has vanishing

electric and magnetic fields. However, massive photons can have non-zero electric and magnetic fields. Because

the photon has mass, electric and magnetic currents arise. The electromagnetic force density on the photons

vanishes identically. The magnetic spin current density of the photon due, to its particle’s nature, lies in the
⃗ γ plane. The energy flows along the vector potential direction. However, the electric spin current and helicity
A−⃗

densities vanish. Unlike the standard formalism of massive electrodynamics, the modified Maxwell’s equations

describing massive photons are found to be invariant under the gauge transformations. The energy conservation

equation for massive photons is the same as that due to massless photons. This implies that the electric and

magnetic currents associated with massive photons are non-dissipative. It is also shown that Λ induces electric

and charge densities in addition to the electric and magnetic currents. Moreover, our modified electrodynamics is

found to reproduce London’s equations of superconductivity and generalize the axion electrodynamics proposed

recently by Frank Wilczek.

REFERENCES

[1] Arbab, A. I., Maxwellian quantum mechanics, Optik Vol.136, 382 (2017).
[2] Wilczek, F., Two applications of axion electrodynamics, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 1799 (1987).
[3] Proca, A., Sur la Theorie ondulatoire des electrons positifs et negatifs, J. Phys. Radium 7, 347 (1936).

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 A. I. Arbab 6

[4] Mashhoon, B., Gravitational effects of rotating masses , Found. Phys. 15, 497 (1985).
[5] Arbab, A. I., The analogy between electromagnetism and hydrodynamics, Physics Essays, Vol. 24, 254 (2011).
[6] Arbab, A. I., Quantum electrodynamics of massive photons, unpublished (ResearchGate) (2019).
[7] Arbab, A. I., Electric and magnetic fields due to massive photons and their consequences, Progress In Electromagnetics
Research M, V.34, 153 (2014).
[8] Dirac, P. A. M., The quantum theory of the electron, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 117, 610 (1928); The Principles of
Quantum Mechanics (Fourth Edition, Revised), OUP, 1958.
[9] Qi, X.-L., Hughes, T. L., and Zhang, S.-C., Topological field theory of time-reversal invariant insulators, Phys. Rev.
B 78, 195424 (2008).
[10] Wu, L., Salehi, M., Koirala, N., Moon, J., Oh, S., and Armitage, N. P., Quantized Faraday and Kerr rotation and
axion electrodynamics of a 3D topological insulator, Science 354, 1124 (2016).
[11] London, F. and London, H., The Electromagnetic Equations of the Supraconductor, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A
149, 71 (1935).
[12] Casimir, H. B. G., Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet., 51, 793 (1948).
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