GEY 101 NOTES
LECTURE 1
1. DEFINITION OF GEOLOGY AND BRANCHES
Geology, also referred to as geoscience or Earth science, is the study of the structure, evolution
and dynamics of the Earth and its natural mineral and energy resources. Geology investigates
the processes that have shaped the Earth through its ~ 4500 million year history and uses the
rock record to unravel that history. In other words, Geology involves studying the materials
that make up the planet, the features and structures found on Earth, the processes that shape the
planet, its origin, composition and history of the nature of the processes.
Geology is a very broad field (Physical Geology, Mineralogy, Economic Geology, Hydrology,
Crystallography, Mining Geology, Engineering Geology, Petrology, Structural Geology,
Stratigraphy, Resources Engineering, Paleontology, Photo Geology and Remote sensing,
Geochemistry, and Geophysics) that can be divided into many more specific branches.
• Physical Geology deals with the different processes of physical agents such as water,
wind, glaciers and sea waves. The Earth’s surface is continuously being modified by
these physical agents. This aspect of Geology includes the study of erosion,
transportation and deposition.
• Crystallography deals with the study of crystals. A crystal is a regular polyhedral form
bounded by smooth surfaces.
• Mineralogy is the study of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous
solid, inorganically formed, containing a definite chemical composition and ordered
atomic arrangement.
• Petrology is the study of rocks. A rock can be defined as the aggregation of minerals
found in the earth’s crust.
• Structural Geology is the study of structures found in rocks. Examples of structures are
fault, fold, seal and trap, etc.
• Paleontology is the study of fossils and the ancient remains of plants and animals are
referred to as fossils.
• Economic Geology is the study of minerals, rocks and materials of economic
importance like coal and petroleum.
• Mining Geology is the application of geology to mining engineering in such a way that
the selection of suitable sites for quarrying and mines can be determined
• Engineering Geology is the application of Civil Engineering to geological problems
such as the construction of dams, tunnels, mountain roads, building stones, road metals,
design, construction, operation and maintenance.
• Hydrology is the study of both the quality and quantity of water that is present in the
rocks in different conditions. This aspect of Geology includes: (a) Surface water, (b)
Underground water and (c) Atmospheric water
• Resources Engineering deals with the study of water, land, solar energy, minerals,
forests, etc. to fulfil human wants.
• Photo Geology and Remote Sensing. Photogeology deals with acquiring aerial
photographs, while remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the
physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a
distance (mainly from satellite or aircraft) without making physical contact with the
object.
Basically, geology is divided into two main subdivisions:
• Physical geology and
• Historical geology.
(1) Physical geology deals with the study of the solid Earth and the processes that change
the physical landscape of the planet. This includes volcanoes, earthquakes, rocks,
mountains and the oceans; just about any feature of the earth. Physical geology focuses
more on the present-day planet.
(2) Historical geology deals with the study of analyzing Earth's past by investigating rocks
and the information found in them. Historical geology investigates the planet's past and
focuses on what has happened to Earth since its formation. This also involves the study
of changes in life throughout time.
Environmental geology is another field of geology that has been added over three
decades. This deals with the interaction between humans (human population, natural
resources, such as water, food and energy) and the geological environment (i.e.
earthquakes, floods, and landslides). In environmental geology, human interaction with
their environment and the solution to the issues are the key factors in this field.
2. THE STUDY OF THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it,
either directly or indirectly. The Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant
interstellar molecular cloud. The solar system consists of star, the Sun, and everything bound
to it by gravity, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune,
dwarf planets such as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
The asteroid belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and composed of similar
compositions found in terrestrial planets like rock and metal. All the planets and dwarf planets,
the rocky asteroids, and the icy bodies in the Kuiper belt move around the Sun in elliptical
orbits in the same direction that the Sun rotates.
Kepler's law of planetary motion states that each object (planet) travels along circular orbits
with the Sun at one focus. Closer objects to the Sun have shorter travel distance when
compared with the farther objects because the effect of gravity is more on them than on the
farther objects.
Diagram representation of the solar system
The first four smaller planets
consist mainly of rock and metal
1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth [Link]
The first four inner planets to the Sun
The four outer planets are giant
planets
5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8. Neptune
(Largest planet)
The two largest The two outermost
planets contain chiefly planets consist of
hydrogen and helium massive ice
The last four outward planets from the Sun
Mercury is the smallest planet and the closest planet to the Sun among all the planets. This
planet has no natural satellites except impact craters. Lobed ridges or rupes are the known
geological features. The large iron core and thin mantle of the Mercury have not been fully
described. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, or that
it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.
Venus is close in size to Earth and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core,
a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal geological activity. It is much drier than
Earth, and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the
hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), most likely due to the amount
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity
has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its
substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is being replenished by volcanic
eruptions.
Earth is the third planet and the only one known to have current geological activity and the
only place where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial
planets, and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere
is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life
to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a
terrestrial planet in the Solar System.
Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus. The atmosphere consists of mostly carbon dioxide with
a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars. Its surface is covered with vast volcanoes, such as Olympus
Mons, and rift valleys. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny
natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be either captured asteroids, or ejected debris
from a massive impact early in Mars's history.
Outer planets
Jupiter and Saturn are together more than 400 times the mass of Earth and consist mainly of
hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune are far less massive consist mainly of ices.
Jupiter is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It consists primarily of
hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates semi-permanent features in its
atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has 79 known satellites. The
four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets,
such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is
larger than Mercury.
Saturn distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as
its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume,
it is less than a third as massive. The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles.
Saturn has 82 confirmed satellites composed largely of ice. Two of these, Titan and Enceladus,
show signs of geological activity. Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System, is larger
than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.
Uranus is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its
side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other
giant planets and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest
ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.
Neptune though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive and denser. It radiates more
internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest,
Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite
with a retrograde orbit.
Formation of the Planet
The Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago from the same nebula cloud of gas and dust that formed
the Sun and other planets. Earth back then was very different from Earth now, and it would
have been impossible for life to exist on it. The Earth is still changing even today. It has a
molten layer, which causes volcanoes to occasionally erupt, and the crust of the planet is
constantly moving, sliding over, under, and sideways against itself.
As gravity pulled matter into the center of the disk, the density and pressure at the center
became intense. When the pressure in the center of the disk was high enough, nuclear fusion
began. A star was born, the Sun. The burning star stopped the disk from collapsing further.
Meanwhile, the outer parts of the disk were cooling off. Matter condensed from the cloud and
small pieces of dust started clumping together. These clumps collided and combined with other
clumps. Larger clumps, called planetesimals, attracted smaller clumps with their gravity.
Gravity at the center of the disk attracted heavier particles, such as rock and metal and lighter
particles remained further out in the disk. Eventually, the planetesimals formed protoplanets,
which grew to become the planets and moons that are found in our solar system today. Because
of the gravitational sorting of material, the inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
formed from dense rock and metal. The outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
condensed farther from the Sun from lighter materials such as hydrogen, helium, water,
ammonia, and methane. Out by Jupiter and beyond, where it’s very cold, these materials form
solid particles.
The nebular hypothesis was designed to explain some of the basic features of the solar system:
• The orbits of the planets lie in nearly the same plane with the Sun at the center
• The planets revolve in the same direction
• The planets mostly rotate in the same direction
• The axes of rotation of the planets are mostly nearly perpendicular to the orbital plane
• The oldest moon rocks are 4.5 billion years
Formation of Earth's Layers
Earth is the third planet, counting outward from the Sun, and the beginning stages of its life
were violent. During the first eons of Earth's life, it was under continuous bombardment by
meteorites and comets. These bombardments helped shape the planet and brought water in the
form of ice. They also enriched the Earth with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, and
ammonia. At first, the Earth was extremely hot and much larger than it is now. It was made of
rock, different compounds, and dense elements, like solid and liquid iron. As Earth cooled and
contracted, the heavier material moved to the center of the Earth to form the core. The liquid
material settled over the core to form the mantle. As the Earth cooled more, a solid crust formed
over the liquid middle, much like the crust forms on a pan of brownies while the middle is still
molten.
The Sun
Sun is the closest star to Earth and the source of energy for all life on Earth. The sun is
essentially a huge burning ball of gas in the sky only 100 million miles from Earth. The majority
of gas in the sun is hydrogen and helium, and it is so hot that all of these elements exist in the
gaseous state. The gas is held together by gravity, which creates intense heat and pressure in
the core. The sun has an interior consisting of the core (hottest part), radiative zone (this zone
emits radiation, and the radiation from the core diffuses out from here), and convective zone
(here, photons produced by fusion in the core make their way to the surface of the sun through
convection). It has a visible surface called the photosphere, then the chromosphere, which
usually isn't visible, and the very outer layer called the corona. The sun produces temperatures
and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making
it an electromagnetic radiation main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of
energy, mostly radiated into space as peaking in visible light.
Inner Zone of the Sun
THE MOON
The Moon, otherwise known as Luna, is the only natural satellite of the Earth. It’s the fifth-
largest moon in the solar system and is the second brightest object in the sky after the Sun. It
was created 4.6 billion years ago, and it is widely accepted that it was created when Earth
collided with a planet-sized object called Theia.
Theories of the Formation of the Moon:
Four major forming mechanisms have been proposed for the formation of the Moon. The
theories include
• The fission theory. This theory states that when the Earth was young, it spun so fast
that a piece of it broke off and was flung into space, where it became the Moon.
• The capture theory. This states that the Moon was formed elsewhere in the universe
and was captured by the Earth's gravitational field when it came too close. In other
words, the Capture theory proposes that the gravitational field around Earth captured
the Moon. Others have argued that it is unlikely that the two bodies would come
together if created at a great distance and that if the Moon were speeding through the
solar system, something would have to slow it down by just the right amount so that
the Earth could capture it again.
• The condensation theory. The Earth and Moon condensed at the same time from the
nebula.
• The giant impact theory. This is sometimes called the Colliding or Ejected Ring
Theory. The theory proposes that the Earth was hit by something huge and a piece of
Earth was ejected into space. The most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon
formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a hypothetical
Mars-sized body called Theia.
The first three theories above have been objected by many Scientists.
EARTH EARLY HISTORY: TIMELINE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
MAJOR ERAS
Geologic Time Scale is the record of the earth's geologic history. The geologic time scale is
broken up into larger and smaller subdivisions to understand how historical events fit together.
The division of Earth’s history is divided into units of time, based on the fossil records
contained in the rocks. The Geologic Time Scale is broken-up into four major divisions: Eons,
Eras, Periods and Epochs. For more specific information about the age of a rock layer or fossil,
scientists use radioactive dating. This process is based on the half-life of radioactive substances.
Half-life is the length of time it takes for half of a sample of a substance to decay or break
down. Radioactive decay is basically when, over time, one element breaks down and becomes
another element. Different elements have different rates of radioactive decay. For most of the
work that scientists do concerning the history of life on Earth, carbon-14 is used.
Major Eons and Era
The first principal subdivision is called the eon. An eon is the largest division of the geologic
time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years. They are mainly divided into
two: the Precambrian eon and the Phanerozoic eon.
The Earth's history is broken into three eons: Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. Some of
these eons are separated by mass extinction - that is, a large loss of life - while others are
separated by a great increase in the diversity of life. These decreases and increases in diversity
may have been caused by different things but, nonetheless, they help define periods within
Earth's history.
Eons are made up of eras, divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of
years. The three major eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic
era is the one we are in today. It began 65 million years ago, right about the time that the
dinosaurs went into extinction.
PRECAMBRIAN
The Precambrian groups together both the Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic eons and lasted
about four billion years. The Precambrian goes from the formation of the earth to the time when
multicellular organisms first appeared - from 4,500 million years ago to just about 543 million
years ago. Then begins the Phanerozoic eon, which continues up to today.
The Archean eon started with the formation of Earth about 4 billion years ago. During this
time period, Earth looked very different than it does today. This is shown in rocks, fossils and
other samples, such as core samples taken from glaciers. Within these rocks, scientists have
found fossils of early life forms that are over 3.5 billion years old! These old life forms were
simple but helped to change the atmosphere of early Earth. They helped to produce more
oxygen, making the atmosphere more similar to what we have today. It also allowed for
changes in the forms of life that could exist on early Earth. Following the increased production
of oxygen, there was an increase in the number of organisms on Earth.
Proterozoic eon began around 2.7 billion years ago. During this eon, the simple cells that were
found in the Archean eon continued to evolve, and some became more complex. Instead of just
simple single-celled organisms, multicellular organisms - and even soft-bodied invertebrates
like worms, sponges and jellyfish were found towards the end of the Proterozoic eon.
ERAS OF THE PHANEROZOIC EON
The Phanerozoic eon covers a small portion of Earth's history. Covering only about the last
half-billion years, this eon is divided into three smaller units known as eras: the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Each of these eras is divided into smaller units known as periods.
These periods will not be considered in detail but will rather focus on the eras and their defining
characteristics. However, the period that started the Phanerozoic eon will be discussed
The Cambrian period is the first division of time in the Phanerozoic eon. It is important
because of the mass increase in diversity of life that helps separate the Phanerozoic eon from
the previous Proterozoic eon. The Cambrian explosion was a huge increase in the number and
diversity of life. Instead of just a few simple organisms, this time period saw an abundance of
new life - including the movement of life from water to life on land.
