Section/Objectives Standards Lab and Demo Planning

See page 14T for a key to the

Chapter Opener standards.
National State/Local
Section 1.1 UCP.2, UCP.3, Student Lab:
1. Demonstrate scientific methods. A.1, A.2, G.2 Launch Lab, p. 3: five pennies, tape
2. Use the metric system. Mini Lab, p. 8: five identical washers, spring,
3. Evaluate answers using dimensional analysis. metric ruler
4. Perform arithmetic operations using Teacher Demonstration:
scientific notation. Quick Demo, p. 5: solar cell, multimeter, sunny
day

Section 1.2 UCP.3, E.1, E.2

5. Distinguish between accuracy and precision.
6. Determine the precision of measured quantities.

Section 1.3 UCP.2, UCP.3, Student Lab:

7. Graph the relationship between independent A.1, A.2 Additional Mini Lab, p. 16: meterstick, string,
and dependent variables. four circular objects
8. Interpret graphs. Internet Physics Lab, pp. 20–21:
Internet access, watch or timer
9. Recognize common relationships in graphs.
Teacher Demonstration:
Quick Demo, p. 17: toy windup car or truck,
meterstick, graph paper

Differentiated Instruction
Level 1 activities should Level 2 activities should Level 3 activities are
be appropriate for be within the ability range designed for above-
students of all students. average students.
with learning difficulties.
2A
 Legend —TransparencyCD-ROM MP3 VideocassetteDVD WEB

Reproducible Resources and Transparencies Technology

™ includes: Interactive Teacher Edition ■ Lesson Planner

with Calendar ■ Access to all Blacklines ■ Correlation to Standards ■ Web
links

FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources, Chapter 1 Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM:

Transparency 1-1 Master, p. 23 Section 1.1 Presentation
Transparency 1-2 Master, p. 25 TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Study Guide, pp. 9–14
Section 1-1 Quiz, p. 15
Mini Lab Worksheet, p.
3
Teaching Transparency 1-1
Teaching Transparency 1-2
Connecting Math to Physics
FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources, Chapter 1 Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM:
Transparency 1-3 Master, p. Section 1.2 Presentation
27 Study Guide, pp. 9–14
TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Section 1-2 Quiz, p. 16

Teaching Transparency 1-3

Connecting Math to Physics

FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources, Chapter 1 Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM:

Transparency 1-4 Master, p. 29 Section 1.3 Presentation
Study Guide, pp. 9–14
TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Reinforcement, pp. 19–20
Problem of the Week at [Link]
Enrichment, pp. 21–22
Section 1-3 Quiz, p. 17
Internet Physics Lab Worksheet, pp. 5–8
Teaching Transparency 1-4
Connecting Math to Physics
Forensics Laboratory Manual, pp. 7–
10
Forensics Laboratory Manual, pp. 19–22
Laboratory Manual, pp. 1–4

Resources
Assessment
FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources, Technology
Chapter 1
Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM:
Chapter Assessment, pp. 31–36
Chapter 1 Assessment
ExamView® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM
Additional Challenge Problems, p. 1
Physics Test Prep, pp. 1–2 Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
Pre-AP Critical Thinking, pp. 1–2 TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Supplemental Problems, pp. 1–2 [Link]
2B
Chapter Overview 2
Math is the language of physics, What You’ll Learn
and students need to know how • You will use
to use math as a tool to make mathematical tools to
measure and predict.
the most of their studies. The
• You will apply
first section familiarizes students accuracy and
with measurement and precision when
standards. It also distinguishes measuring.

scientific law from scientific • You will display and

evaluate data graphically.
theory. In the sec- ond section,
students learn about precision,
Why It’s Important
accuracy, and uncer- tainty in The measurement and
measurement. Finally, students mathematics tools
learn about graphing data and presented here will
help you to analyze
how equations and graphs data and make
reveal the relationship between predictions.
variables. Satellites Accurate and
precise measurements are
important when constructing
Think About This and launching a satellite—
errors are not easy to
Physics research in the last 50 correct later. Satellites,
years has led to technological such as the Hubble Space
innovations in numerous areas Telescope shown here, have
revolutionized scientific
affecting the lives of students, research, as well as
from the fields of medicine to communications.
home entertainment, from
weather forecasting to air bags in
cars. Examples include high-
speed slide microscanners for
Think About This ►
detecting pathologies and the Physics research has led to
development of superconducting many new technologies, such
transistors—which has numerous as satellite-based telescopes
applications, from X-ray astron- and communications. What
are some other examples of
omy to biological tagging. tools developed from physics
research in the last 50
} Key Terms years?

physics, p. 3
dimensional analysis, p. 6
significant digits, p. 7
scientific method, p. 8
hypothesis, p. 8
[Link]
scientific law, p. 9
scientific theory, p. 2
10 measurement, p.
NASA

11
precision, p. 12
accuracy, p. 13
independent variable, p. 15
Purpose to explore the motion of falling objects
dependent variable, p. 15
Materials five pennies, tape
line of best fit, p. 15
Teaching Strategies
direct relationship, p. 16
• Aristotle’s teachings that heavier objects fall
quadratic relationship, p. 17 faster than lighter ones was predominant
inverse relationship, p. 18 for nearly 1900 years, until Galileo’s
discoveries.
• Experiment with a greater
difference in

weight; use a 1-kg mass in place of the four

pennies.
• Have students speculate about how dropping
four pennies taped together is different from
dropping four not taped together. If necessary
guide the discussion so that they come to
realize that there is no difference.
 Section 1.1

1 FOCUS
Do all objects fall at the same Bellringer Activity
Question rate? Unit Systems Ask students to
How does weight affect the rate at which an object falls?
measure something—the length
Procedure or width of the room, the width
Analysis
The writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle of a table—without using any
included works on physical science theories. According to Aristotle, what should be the rate
These were a major influence in the late Middle of fall of the single penny compared to the for- mal measuring device. They
Ages. Aristotle reasoned that weight is a factor stack? What did you observe? will need to use their hand
governing the speed of fall of a dropped object, Critical Thinking Explain which of the following widths, foot lengths, or some
and that the rate of fall must increase in properties might affect the rate of fall of an
object: size, mass, weight, color, shape.
similar unit to make this
proportion to the weight of the object.
1. Tape four pennies together in a stack.
measurement. Then ask everyone
2. Place the stack of pennies on your hand in the class to report what they
and place a single penny beside them. found. Discuss how dif- ficult it
3. Observe Which is heaviest and pushes down is to compare results with all of
on your hand the most?
4. Observe Drop the two at the same time
these different unit systems.
and observe their motions. Kinesthetic

Tie to Prior Knowledge

Units Students who have already
taken chemistry should be some-
what familiar with SI and scien-
1.1 Mathematics and Physics tific notation, but this textbook
does not presume any such prior
knowledge.

W
hat do you think of when you see the word physics? Many people
picture a chalkboard covered with formulas and mathematics:
►
Objectives
2 1 2 •Demonstrate scientific
E = mc , I = V/R, d = —— + v0t + d0. Perhaps you picture scientists in methods.
at 2
white lab coats, or well-known figures such as Marie Curie and Albert •Use the metric system.
Einstein. Or, you might think of the many modern technologies created •Evaluate answers using
with physics, such as weather satellites, laptop computers, or lasers. dimensional analysis.
•Perform arithmetic
What is Physics? operations using scientific
notation.
Physics is a branch of science that involves the study of the physical This CD-ROM is an editable Microsoft ® Po
world: energy, matter, and how they are related. Physicists investigate the
►
Vocabulary Section presentations
motions of electrons and rockets, the energy in sound waves and electric physics Interactive graphics
circuits, the structure of the proton and of the universe. The goal of this dimensional analysis
significant digits
Image bank
course is to help you understand the physical world. All transparencies
scientific method
People who study physics go on to many different careers. Some
hypothesis Audio reinforcement
become scientists at universities and colleges, at industries, or in research scientific law All new Section and Chapter Assessment
institutes. Others go into related fields, such as astronomy, engineering, scientific theory
computer science, teaching, or medicine. Still others use the problem-
solving skills of physics to work in business, finance, or other very
different disciplines.

Section 1.1 Mathematics and Physics 3

Horizons Companies

• Observing that the times of fall are close to

identical is relatively easy; measuring the
speed at which objects fall is much harder. Expected Results The penny and stack fall at the
Galileo used inclined planes to slow vertical same time.
motion. Through many years of study
Analysis Aristotle would have predicted the rate
measur- ing the time it takes for bodies to
of fall for the stack of pennies would be four
move vari- ous distances, Galileo found that
times that of the single penny. When stacked, the
the distance traveled by a falling body is
four pennies fall just as they would if dropped
proportional to the square of the time of
right next to each other as single pennies.
descent.
C lls: it is related to object shape, air density,
r object density, object orienta- tion, and speed of
i the object relative to the air.
t 3
i
c
a
l

T
h
i
n
k
i
n
g

A
i
r

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

a
f
f
e
c
t
s

t
h
e

r
a
t
e

a
t

w
h
i
c
h

a
n

o
b
j
e
c
t

f
a
2 TEACH ■ Figure 1-1 Physicists use
mathematics to represent many
different phenomena—a trait
Using Models sometimes spoofed in cartoons.
Equations Provide students with
an example of how equations can
be used to model a phenomenon.
Have them interpret the meaning
of the equation V = IR presented ©1998 Bill Amend/Dist. by Universal Press Syndicate

in Example Problem 1. V = IR
Mathematics in Physics
means that voltage (measured in Physics uses mathematics as a powerful language. As illustrated in
volts, V) is a product of the current Figure 1-1, this use of mathematics often is spoofed in cartoons. In
(measured in amperes, A) and resis- physics, equations are important tools for modeling observations and for
tance (measured in ohms, Ω). making predictions. Physicists rely on theories and experiments with
Logical-Mathematical numerical results to support their conclusions. For example, think back to
the Launch Lab. You can predict that if you drop a penny, it will fall. But
how fast? Different models of falling objects give different answers to how
Concept Development the speed of the object changes, or on what the speed depends, or which
■ Equations Example Problem 1 objects will fall. By measuring how an object falls, you can compare the
experimen- tal data with the results predicted by different models. This
shows that V = IR and that R =
tests the models, allowing you to pick the best one, or to develop a new
V/I. Ask students to provide
model.
you with an equation that
solves for
I. I = V/R
■ Controlling Current Show Electric Current The potential difference, or voltage, across a circuit equals the current
students how to interpret the multiplied by the resistance in the circuit. That is, V (volts) = I (amperes) X R (ohms).
What is the resistance of a lightbulb that has a 0.75 amperes current when plugged
equation I = V/R. There are two into a 120-volt outlet?
ways to control current in a cir-
cuit, by varying either voltage, 1 Analyze the Problem
V, or resistance, R, (or both). • Rewrite the equation.
Logical-Mathematical • Substitute values.
Known: Unknown:
I = 0.75 amperes R=?
V = 120 volts
2 Solve for the Unknown
Rewrite the equation so the unknown is alone on the left.
V = IR
IR = V Reflexive property of equality Math Handbook
Question A
12-volt car battery R = — —V Divide both sides by I. Isolating a Variable
I page 845
is connected to a 120
= — —
volts Substitute 120 volts for V, 0.75 amperes for I.
0.75 amperes
3- ohm brake light. = 160 ohms Resistance will be measured in ohms.
What is the current
carrying energy to the
3 Evaluate the Answer
• Are the units correct? 1 volt = 1 ampere-ohm, so the answer in volts/ampere is in
lights? ohms, as expected.
Answer Use I = V/R, current = • Does the answer make sense? 120 is divided by a number a little less than 1,
so the answer should be a little more than 120.
voltage divided by resistance
(amperes = volts divided by ohms)
and solve for I.
Known:
12V 4 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit
— = 4A FOXTROT © 1998 Bill Amend. Reprinted with permission of UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. All rights reserved.
I
3Ω

1.1 Resource MANAGER 3

Teaching
FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Transpare
ncy 1-1
Resources
Teaching
Transparency 1–1 Master, p. 23
Transpar
Transparency 1–2 Master, p. 25
ency 1-2
Study Guide, pp. 9–14
Connecti
Section 1–1 Quiz, p. 15
ng Math
Mini Lab Worksheet, p.
 to Physics

4
Technology
TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM
ExamView ® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM
[Link]
[Link]/vocabulary_puzzlemaker
 For each problem, give the rewritten equation you would use and the answer.
Light and Solar Cells
1. A lightbulb with a resistance of 50.0 ohms is used in a circuit with a 9.0-volt battery.
What is the current through the bulb? Estimated Time 15 minutes Materials solar ce
Procedure Ask students how they think the el
2. An object with uniform acceleration a, starting from rest, will reach a speed of v in time t
according to the formula v = at. What is the acceleration of a bicyclist who accelerates
from rest to 7 m/s in 4 s?
3. How long will it take a scooter accelerating at 0.400 m/s2 to go from rest to a speed of
4.00 m/s?
4. The pressure on a surface is equal to the force divided by the area: P = F/A. A 53-kg
woman exerts a force (weight) of 520 Newtons. If the pressure exerted on the floor is
32,500 N/m2, what is the area of the soles of her shoes?

Does it make sense? Sometimes you will work with unfamiliar units, as
in Example Problem 1, and you will need to use estimation to check that
your answer makes sense mathematically. At other times you can check
that an answer matches your experience, as shown in Figure 1-2. When
you work with falling objects, for example, check that the time you calcu-
late an object will take to fall matches your experience—a copper ball
dropping 5 m in 0.002 s, or in 17 s, doesn’t make sense.
The Math Handbook in the back of this book contains many useful
explanations and examples. Refer to it as needed.
■ Figure 1-2 What is a reasonable
range of values for the speed of
SI Units an automobile?
To communicate results, it is helpful to use units that everyone under-
stands. The worldwide scientific community and most countries currently
use an adaptation of the metric system to state measurements. The Système
International d’Unités, or SI, uses seven base quantities, which are
shown in Table 1-1. These base quantities were originally defined in
terms of direct measurements. Other units, called derived units, are created
by combining the base units in various ways. For example, energy is meas-
ured in joules, where 1 joule equals one kilogram-meter squared per
second squared, or 1 J = 1 kg∙m2/s2. Electric charge is measured in
coulombs, where 1 C = 1 A∙s.
1. 0.18 ampere
2. 1.75 m/s2
Table 1-1 3. 10.0 s
SI Base Units 4. 0.016 m2
Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of a substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

Section 1.1 Mathematics and Physics 5

Mark E. Gibson

Global Positioning Systems These systems allow sailors, hikers, and drivers to determine their locations on the surface of Earth to within a few

5
Discussion Scientific institutions have been created to define and regulate meas-
Question Why do scientists use ures. The SI system is regulated by the International Bureau of Weights
the metric system, instead of the and Measures in Sèvres, France. This bureau and the National Institute of
English or some other system? Science and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland keep the stan-
dards of length, time, and mass against which our metersticks, clocks, and
Answer In the metric system, with balances are calibrated. Examples of two standards are shown in Figure 1-
its base of ten, it is easy to convert 3. NIST works on many problems of measurement, including industrial
from one scale of measurements to and research applications.
another. For instance, it’s much eas- You probably learned in math class that it is much easier to convert
ier to convert from centimeters to meters to kilometers than feet to miles. The ease of switching between
meters than from inches to yards. ■ Figure 1-3 The standards for units is another feature of the metric system. To convert between SI
the kilogram and meter are units, multiply or divide by the appropriate power of 10. Prefixes are
shown. The International used to change SI units by powers of 10, as shown in Table 1-2. You
Prototype Meter originally was
often will encounter these prefixes in daily life, as in, for example,
measured as the distance
Concept Development between two marks on
milligrams, nanoseconds, and gigabytes.
Unit Systems Ask students why a platinum-iridium bar, but as
it is important to have an agreed- methods of measuring time Table 1-2
became more precise than Prefixes Used with SI Units
upon system of units. For one those for measuring length, the
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Scientific Example
thing, this makes comparisons meter came to be defined as
Notation
between different groups easier. It the distance traveled by light
in a vacuum in 1/299 792 458 s. femto- f 0.000000000000001 femtosecond (fs)
also helps everyone get an idea of 10—15
the magnitudes of various measure- pico- p 0.000000000001 10—12 picometer (pm)
ments. For instance, most students nano- n 0.000000001 10—9 nanometer (nm)
will have some idea of how fast 25 micro- µ 0.000001 10—6 microgram (µg)
mph is. But do they know how fast milli- m 0.001 10—3 milliamps (mA)
10 furlongs per fortnight is? As the centi- c 0.01 10—2 centimeter (cm)
course progresses, they will gain an deci- d 0.1 10—1 deciliter (dL)
idea of how fast 25 m/s is. kilo- k 1000 103 kilometer (km)
mega- M 1,000,000 106 megagram (Mg)
giga- G 1,000,000,000 109 gigameter (Gm)
Reinforcement tera- T 1,000,000,000,000 1012 terahertz (THz)
Conversion Factors and Cubic
Units Students can have trouble
with conversion factors as they Dimensional Analysis
relate to cubic units. For example, You can use units to check your work. You often will need to use
students know that 100 cm equals different versions of a formula, or use a string of formulas, to solve a
physics problem. To check that you have set up a problem correctly, write
1 m. They may conclude that
out the equation or set of equations you plan to use. Before performing
100 cm3 is equal to 1 m3, rather
calculations, check that the answer will be in the expected units, as shown
than 1,000,000 cm3 (1×106 cm3) in step 3 of Example Problem 1. For example, if you are finding a speed
is equal to 1 m3. Provide to the and you see that your answer will be measured in s/m or m/s 2, you know
class a model of a 1 m3-cube. Math Handbook you have made an error in setting up the problem. This method of treating
Have students determine the vol- Dimensional Analysis the units as algebraic quantities, which can be cancelled, is called
ume of the cube in cm3 and mm3. page 847
dimensional analysis.
From their calculations, have Dimensional analysis also is used in choosing conversion factors. A
them create conversion factors. conversion factor is a multiplier equal to 1. For example, because 1 kg =
1000 g, you can construct the following conversion factors:
1 kg 1000 g
1 = —— 1 = ——
1000 g 1 kg

6 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Ancient Standards All civilizations have had to develop standards for measuring. For example, in Mesopotamia

6
 Choose a conversion factor that will make the units cancel, leaving the
answer in the correct units. For example, to convert 1.34 kg of iron ore to
grams, do as shown below.
1000 g
— 5. 0.75 MHz
— = 1340 g
1.34 kg 1 kg 6. 5.021×10—2 km
( 7. 31,622,400 s
You also might need to do a series of conversions. To convert 43 km/h
to m/s, do the following: 8. 19.08 km/h

( 43—km )( 1000 m 1h 1 min

— )( — )( — ) = 12

Use dimensional analysis to check your equation before multiplying.

5. How many megahertz is 750 kilohertz?
Reinforcement
6. Convert 5021 centimeters to kilometers. Prefix Game Activity Write the
7. How many seconds are in a leap year? metric prefixes that you intend to
8. Convert the speed 5.30 m/s to km/h. use frequently in your class on
index cards. Make several sets.
Divide the students into teams
Significant Digits and give each team a set of the
Suppose you use a meterstick to measure a pen, and you find that the cards. Have each student on the
end of the pen is just past 14.3 cm. This measurement has three valid team randomly select a card, then
digits: two you are sure of, and one you estimated. The valid digits in a have a contest to see which team
measurement are called significant digits. The last digit given for any can line up its members most
measurement is the uncertain digit. All nonzero digits in a measurement quickly according to the magni-
are significant.
tude of the prefix on the card
Are all zeros significant? No. For example, in the measurement 0.0860 Math Handbook each member has drawn.
m, the first two zeros serve only to locate the decimal point and are not sig- Significant Digits Interpersonal
nificant. The last zero, however, is the estimated digit and is significant. pages 833—836
The measurement 172,000 m could have 3, 4, 5, or 6 significant digits.
This ambiguity is one reason to use scientific notation: it is clear that the Concept Development
measurement 1.7200×105 m has five significant digits. Rounding Students may have
Arithmetic with significant digits When you perform any arithmetic trouble rounding to the correct
operation, it is important to remember that the result never can be more number of significant digits when
precise than the least-precise measurement.
■ Figure 1-4 This answer to a number is halfway between two
To add or subtract measurements, first perform the operation, then 3.9 ÷ 7.2 should be rounded to numbers. Students should follow
round off the result to correspond to the least-precise value involved. two significant digits. the following rules. (1) When the
For example, 3.86 m + 2.4 m = 6.3 m because the least-precise measure leftmost digit to be dropped is 5
is to one-tenth of a meter.
followed by a nonzero number,
To multiply or divide measurements, perform the calculation and
then round to the same number of significant digits as the least-precise
that digit and any digits that fol-
measurement. For example, 409.2 km/11.4 L = 35.9 km/L, because the
low are dropped. The last digit in
least-precise measure has three significant digits. the rounded number increases by
Some calculators display several additional digits, as shown in Figure 1- one. For example, 8.7519 rounded
4, while others round at different points. Be sure to record your answers to two significant figures equals
with the correct number of digits. Note that significant digits are 8.8. (2) If the digit to the right of
consid- ered only when calculating with measurements. There is no the last significant figure is equal
uncertainty associated with counting (4 washers) or exact conversion to 5 and 5 is not followed by a
factors (24 hours in 1 day). nonzero digit, look at the last sig-
Section 1.1 Mathematics and Physics 7 nificant figure. If it is odd,
Horizons Companies
increase it by one; if even, do not
round up. For example, 92.350
rounded to three significant fig-
ures equals 92.4 and 92.25 equals
92.2.
Solving for the Unknown Measuring and computing physical quantities requires the use of mathematics. Our modern system of mathematics owe

7
 Solve the following problems.
9. a. 26.3 cm 9. a. 6.201 cm + 7.4 cm + 0.68 cm + 12.0 cm
b. 1600 m or 1.6 km b. 1.6 km + 1.62 m + 1200 cm
10. a. 2.5 g 10. a. 10.8 g — 8.264 g
b. 4.33 m b. 4.75 m — 0.4168 m
11. a. 320 cm2 or 3.2×102 cm2 11. a. 139 cm × 2.3 cm
b. 13.6 km2 b. 3.2145 km × 4.23 km
12. a.1.22 g/mL 12. a. 13.78 g ÷ 11.3 mL
b. 4.1 g/cm3
b. 18.21 g ÷ 4.4 cm3

Measuring Scientific Methods

Change
Collect five identical washers In physics class, you will make observations, do experiments, and
and a spring that will stretch create models or theories to try to explain your results or predict new
measurably when one washer answers, as shown in Figure 1-5. This is the essence of a scientific
is suspended from it.
method. All scien- tists, including physicists, obtain data, make
1. Measure the length of the
spring with zero, one, two, and predictions, and create com- pelling explanations that quantitatively
three washers suspended from it. describe many different phenomena. The experiments and results must be
Measuring Change 2. Graph the length of the reproducible; that is, other scientists must be able to recreate the
See page 3 of FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources for the accompanying
spring versus the mass. Mini Lab Worksheet.
experiment and obtain similar data. Written, oral, and mathematical
Purpose to graph data and extrapo- late from it 3. Predict the length of the
communication skills are vital to every scientist.
Materials five identical washers, spring, metric rule spring with four and five A scientist often works with an idea that can be worded as a
washers.
Expected Results Students test their prediction by measuring the length of a spring hypothesis,
with four and five washers,
which then plotting
is an educated the data
guess about howonvariables
the samearegraph.
4. Test your prediction.
Analyze and Conclude related. How can the hypothesis be tested? Scientists conduct experiments,
Analyze and Conclude
5. Length increases with mass. Line graph should slope up. take measurements, and identify what variables are important and how
5. Describe the shape of the
graph. How did you use it to they are related. For example, you might find that the speed of sound
predict the two new lengths? depends on the medium through which sound travels, but not on the
loudness of the sound. You can then predict the speed of sound in a new
medium and test your results.

■ Figure 1-5 These students are

conducting an experiment to
determine how much power they
produce climbing the stairs (a).
They use their data to predict
Page 25, FAST FILE
how long it would take an engine
Chapters 1–5 Resources with the same power to lift a
different load (b).
CH 1APTER Transparency 1-2

8 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

Laura Sifferlin

A Scientific Method

State the problem

Repeat several times

Test the hypothesis

Gather information

Modify hypothesis
Form a hypothesis
Hypothesis not supported Draw conclusions Hypothesis supported

Analyze data

Physics: Principles and Problems Teaching Transparencies

8
 ■ Figure 1-6 In the mid-1960s,
Arno Penzias and Robert Identifying
Wilson were trying to eliminate
the constant background noise
Misconceptions
in an antenna to be used for Science and Scientists Find out
radio astronomy. They tested what sort of preconceived notions
systems, duct-taped seams, and
cleared
your students may have about
out pigeon manure, but the noise what science is and what sort of
persisted. This noise is now people do science. It is helpful to
understood to be the cosmic stress during the first few weeks of
microwave background radiation,
and is experimental support for
class that science is much more
the Big Bang theory. than looking up facts in a book. It
is the process of testing one’s
knowledge by applying it to new
situations. More importantly, sci-
Models, laws, and theories An idea, equation, structure, or system ence comes from a keen longing
can model the phenomenon you are trying to explain. Scientific models to know. It belongs to those who
are based on experimentation. Recall from chemistry class the different seek to know, who dare to ask,
mod- els of the atom that were in use over time—new models were “Why?” and go to any lengths to
developed to explain new observations and measurements. find an answer.
If new data do not fit a model, both are re-examined. Figure 1-6 shows
a historical example. If a very well-established model is questioned, physi-
cists might first look at the new data: can anyone reproduce the results?
Were there other variables at work? If the new data are born out by subse-
quent experiments, the theories have to change to reflect the new findings.
For example, in the nineteenth century it was believed that linear markings Measure from Afar Galileo, with the aid of his
on Mars showed channels, as shown in Figure 1-7a. As telescopes
improved, scientists realized that there were no such markings, as shown
in Figure 1-7b. In recent times, again with better instruments, scientists
have found features that suggest Mars once had running and standing
water on its surface, as shown in Figure 1-7c. Each new discovery has ■ Figure 1-7 Drawings of early
raised new questions and areas for exploration. telescope observations (a)
A scientific law is a rule of nature that sums up related observations to showed channels on Mars;
recent photos taken with
describe a pattern in nature. For example, the law of conservation of
improved telescopes do not (b).
charge states that in the various changes matter can undergo, the electric In this photo of Mars’ surface
charge before and after stays the same. The law of reflection states that from the Mars Global Surveyor
the angle of incidence for a light beam on a reflective surface equals the spacecraft (c), these layered
angle of reflection. Notice that the laws do not explain why these sedimentary rocks suggest that
phenomena happen, they simply describe them. sedimentary deposits might
have formed in standing water.

a b
c

Section 1.1 Mathematics and Physics 9

(t)Tom Pantages, (bc)NASA, (others)Photo Researchers

Galileo and Scientific Methods In 1609, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) built a telescope powerful enough to explore the skies. He found that the M

9
■ Using Figure 1-8 ■ Figure1-8 Theories are
changed and modified as new Greek philosophers proposed that objects fall because they seek their
Ask students to consider which the- experiments provide insight and natural places. The more massive the object, the faster it falls.
ory they held about falling objects new observations are made.
before studying physical science. The theory of falling objects
What questions are raised by each has undergone many revisions.
Revision
new theory? Visual-Spatial
Galileo showed that the speed at which an object falls depends on
the amount of time it falls, not on its mass.

3 ASSESS Revision

Check for Understanding Galileo’s statement is true, but Newton revised the reason why objects
fall. Newton proposed that objects fall because the object and Earth are
Scientific Notation Give stu- attracted by a force. Newton also stated that there is a force of attraction
dents a list of numbers in scien- between any two objects with mass.

tific notation and ask them to

rank the numbers from least to
Revision
greatest. Make sure to include
some negative quantities and Galileo’s and Newton’s statements still hold true. However, Einstein
some with negative exponents. suggested that the force of attraction between two objects is due to mass
causing the space around it to curve.
Logical-Mathematical
A scientific theory is an explanation based on many observations sup-
ported by experimental results. Theories may serve as explanations for
Extension laws. A theory is the best available explanation of why things work as they
Applications of Science Show do. For example, the theory of universal gravitation states that all the mass
students a laser pointer. Tell stu- in the universe is attracted to other mass. Laws and theories may be revised
dents that lasers and masers were or discarded over time, as shown in Figure 1-8. Notice that this use of the
developed because they looked word theory is different from the common use, as in “I have a theory about
like a wonderful way to demon- why it takes longer to get to school on Fridays.” In scientific use, only a
strate a particularly interesting very well-supported explanation is called a theory.
property of matter-stimulated
emission. Although today lasers
have many useful applications, for
many years lasers were called a 1.1 Section Review
solution in search of a problem. 13. Math Why are concepts in physics described with b. The values are written in scientific notation,
Divide the class into teams and formulas? m×10n. Calculate the 10n part of the equation to
ask each to come up with a list of estimate the size of the answer.
14. Magnetism The force of a magnetic field on a c. Calculate your answer. Check it against your
applications of lasers today. Have
charged, moving particle is given by F = Bqv, estimate from part b.
students compare and validate where F is the force in kg∙m/s2, q is the charge d. Justify the number of significant digits in your
their lists. Interpersonal in A∙s, and v is the speed in m/s. B is the answer.
strength of the magnetic field, measured in teslas, 16. Magnetism Rewrite F = Bqv to find v in terms of
T. What is 1 tesla described in base units? F, q, and B.

15. Magnetism A proton with charge 1.60×10—19 A∙s 17. Critical Thinking An accepted value for the
is moving at 2.4×105 m/s through a magnetic field acceleration due to gravity is 9.801 m/s2. In an
experiment with pendulums, you calculate that the
of 4.5 T. You want to find the force on the proton.
value is 9.4 m/s2. Should the accepted value be
a. Substitute the values into the equation you tossed out to accommodate your new finding?
will use. Are the units correct? Explain.

10 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

[Link]/self_check_quiz

1.1 Section Review

13. The formulas are concise and can be
b. 10—14; the answer will be about 17. No. The value 9.801 m/s2 has been
used to predict new data.
20×10—14, or 2×10—13. established by many other experiments,
kg
14. 1 —— —13 2
A·s c. The
d. 1.7×10 kg·m/s
least-precise value is 4.5 T, with and to discard the finding you would
2 kg have to explain why they were wrong.
15. a. F = Bqν = 4.5 — (1.60×10—19 10 two significant digits, so the
A·s) ( A·s answer is rounded to two
(2.4×105 m/s); force will be meas- significant digits.
ured in kg·m/s2, which is correct. F
16. v = —
There are probably some factors affect- ing
your calculation, such as friction and how
precisely you can measure the different
variables.
1.2 Measurement Section 1.2

W
hen you visit the doctor for a checkup, many measurements
are taken: your height, weight, blood pressure, and heart rate.
►
Objectives
•Distinguish between
1 FOCUS
Even
your vision is measured and assigned a number. Blood might be drawn so
accuracy and precision. Bellringer Activity
measurements can be made of lead or cholesterol levels. Measurements •Determine the precision Measurement Technique Ask
of measured quantities.
quantify our observations: a person’s blood pressure isn’t just “pretty two students to act out taking a
►
Vocabulary
good,” it’s 110/60, the low end of the good range. measurement. One should use
measurement
What is a measurement? A measurement is a comparison between an good technique and one should
precision
unknown quantity and a standard. For example, if you measure the make some fairly obvious errors.
accuracy
mass of a rolling cart used in an experiment, the unknown quantity is
Ask the class which student’s
the mass of the cart and the standard is the gram, as defined by the balance
results would be more believable
or spring scale you use. In the Mini Lab in Section 1.1, the length of the
spring was the unknown and the centimeter was the standard. and why. Kinesthetic

Comparing Results Tie to Prior Knowledge

As you learned in Section 1.1, scientists share their results. Before
Accuracy and Precision These
new data are fully accepted, other scientists examine the experiment,
are concepts students should be
looking for possible sources of error, and try to reproduce the results.
Results often are reported with an uncertainty. A new measurement that
familiar with, even if they don’t
is within the margin of uncertainty confirms the old measurement. use the terms in a scientific way.
For example, archaeologists use radiocarbon dating to find the age of Have students consider aspects of
cave paintings, such as those from the Lascaux cave, in Figure 1-9, and everyday experiences they might
the Chauvet cave. Radiocarbon dates are reported with an uncertainty. be able to measure, such as wait-
Three radiocarbon ages from a panel in the Chauvet cave are 30,940 ± ing for the bus, competing on the
610 years, 30,790 ± 600 years, and 30,230 ± 530 years. While none of track, and building bookshelves.
the measure- ments exactly match, the uncertainties in all three overlap,
and the meas- urements confirm each other.

2 TEACH
Discussion
Question Draw a cartoon of a
beach. A sign says, “Pond Shallow
—average depth 3 feet”. A
swimmer is standing on the shore.
■ Figure 1-9 Drawings of animals Ask students whether the swim-
from the Lascaux cave in France. mer could wade into water over
By dating organic material in the his head. yes Ask students if the
cave, such as pigments and torch
marks, scientists are able to
pond could be 30 ft deep in spots.
suggest dates at which these cave yes Ask if the sign is useful or not.
paintings were made. Each date
is reported with an uncertainty
Answer An average may not accu-
to show how precise the rately convey the highest and
measurement is. lowest measurements. Logical-
Mathematical
Section 1.2 Measurement 11
PhotoEdit

1.2 Resource MANAGER

FAST FILE Chapters 1–5
Technology
Resources
TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Transparency 1–3 Master, p.
Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM
27 Study Guide, pp. 9–14
ExamView ® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM
Section 1–2 Quiz, p. 16
[Link]
Teaching Transparency 1-3
[Link]/vocabulary_puzzlemaker
Connecting Math to Physics

11
 Mini Lab Data Suppose three students performed the Mini Lab from Section 1.1 several
Identifying times, starting with springs of the same length. With two washers on the
Misconceptions 15.0
spring, student 1 made repeated measurements, which ranged from
Unit Systems and Accuracy 14.4 cm to 14.8 cm. The average of student 1’s measurements was 14.6
cm, as shown in Figure 1-10. This result was reported as (14.6 ± 0.2) cm.

Spring length
Some students may think the met-
14.5 Student 2 reported finding the spring’s length to be (14.8 ± 0.3) cm.
ric system is more accurate than
Student 3 reported a length of (14.0 ± 0.1) cm.
the English system because it is
Could you conclude that the three measurements are in agreement? Is
the one scientists choose to use. 14.0 student 1’s result reproducible? The results of students 1 and 2 overlap;
In truth, neither system is inher- that is, they have the lengths 14.5 cm to 14.8 cm in common. However,
ently more accurate than the 13.7 there is no overlap and, therefore, no agreement, between their results
1 2 3
other. Student and the result of student 3.

■ Figure 1-10 Three students Precision Versus Accuracy

■ Using Figure 1-10 took multiple measurements. Are
the measurements in agreement? Both precision and accuracy are characteristics of measured values.
Have three to six students measure Is student 1’s result reproducible? How precise and accurate are the measurements of the three students? The
identical items, such as the width of degree of exactness of a measurement is called its precision. Student 3’s
a textbook or desk. Ask them to measurements are the most precise, within ± 0.1 cm. The measurements
write down their measurements of the other two students are less precise because they have a larger
without announcing or comparing uncertainty. Precision depends on the instrument and technique used to
results. Their measurements will make the measurement. Generally, the device that has the finest division
most likely vary slightly. Make a on its scale produces the most precise measurement. The precision of a
graph with uncertainty bars. Repeat measurement is one-half the smallest division of the instrument. For
with three groups, or three classes, example, the grad- uated cylinder in Figure 1-11a has divisions of 1 mL.
to make You can measure an object to within 0.5 mL with this device. However,
a graph similar to the one in the smallest division on the beaker in Figure 1-11b is 50 mL. How precise
Figure 1-10. Kinesthetic were your measurements
in the MiniLab?
The significant digits in an answer show its precision. A measure of
Concept Development 67.100 g is precise to the nearest thousandth of a gram. Recall from Section
Significance In common English 1.1 the rules for performing operations with measurements given to dif-
significant means “important,” ferent levels of precision. If you add 1.2 mL of acid to a beaker containing
while in science it means “meas- 2.4×102 mL of water, you cannot say you now have 2.412×102 mL of
ured.” Nonsignificant digits are fluid, because the volume of water was not measured to the nearest
important as placeholders. A tenth of a milliliter, but to 100 times that.
measurement of 8000 m has four
important digits, but only one of a b
them is significant.

Page 27, FAST FILE

Chapters 1–5 Resources

■ Figure 1-11 The graduated

CHAPTER

1 Transparency 1-3
cylinder contains 41 ± 0.5 mL (a).
The flask contains 325 mL ±
Arrows far from

25 mL (b).
Arrows

12 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

d

Horizons Companies
Arrows close
Arrows in
by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill

Arrows far from center

Arrows close together

©
Copyright

Significant Digits and Precision in Measurement The number of significant digits in a quan- tity ending in one o
(3 significant digits). If 100 km is in a list of numbers such as 400 km, 600 km, 800 km, then it is more likely ±
Arrow in
a

Physics: Principles and Problems Teaching Transparencies

12
 Accuracy describes how well the results of a measurement agree with
the “real” value; that is, the accepted value as measured by competent ■ Using Figure 1-13
experimenters. If the length of the spring that the three students measured
Ask students to look at an object in
had been 14.8 cm, then student 2 would have been most accurate and stu-
the distance with one eye shut.
dent 3 least accurate. How accurate do you think your measurements in the
Have them position their thumbs at
Mini Lab on page 8 were? What might have led someone to make inaccu-
arm’s length in front of the object so
rate measurements? How could you check the accuracy of measurements?
as to block it from view. Then have
A common method for checking the accuracy of an instrument is called
them view the object with the other
the two-point calibration. First, does the instrument read zero when it
eye shut, then the first. Ask them to
should? Second, does it give the correct reading when it is measuring an
tell you what happens to the object.
accepted standard, as shown in Figure 1-12? Regular checks for accuracy It appears to shift. Explain that the
are performed on critical measuring instruments, such as the radiation ■ Figure1-12 Accuracy is farther the apparent shift, the closer
output of the machines used to treat cancer. checked by measuring a
the object is to the observer.
known value.
Kinesthetic
Techniques of Good Measurement
To assure accuracy and precision, instruments also have to be used cor- Discussion
rectly. Measurements have to be made carefully if they are to be as precise
as the instrument allows. One common source of error comes from the
Question Show the results of a
angle at which an instrument is read. Scales should be read with one’s eye calculation on two different
directly above the measure, as shown in Figure 1-13a. If the scale is read calcu- lators, where one gives
from an angle, as shown in Figure 1-13b, you will get a different, and more deci- mal places on its
less accurate, value. The difference in the readings is caused by parallax, readout than the other. Which is
which is the apparent shift in the position of an object when it is viewed more accurate?
from different angles. To experiment with parallax, place your pen on a
Answer The accuracy of the calcu-
ruler and read the scale with your eye directly over the tip, then read the
lation has little (usually nothing) to
scale with your head shifted far to one side.
do with the calculator. It is con-
■ Figure 1-13 By positioning the scale head on (a), your results will be more accurate nected to the accuracy of the origi-
than if you read your measurements at an angle (b). How far did parallax shift the nal readings. Just because a
measurement in b? calculator gives more decimal places
does not mean that its results are
a b
necessarily more accurate.
Logical-Mathematical
► Distance to the Moon For
over 25 years, scientists have
been accurately measuring the Reinforcement
distance to the Moon by shining
lasers through telescopes. The
Significant Digits Ask students to
laser beam reflects off reflectors write a four-digit number that has
placed on the surface of the one zero that is not significant and
Moon by Apollo astronauts. They one zero that is significant. After
have determined that the
average distance between the
about 30 s, have each of them
centers of Earth and the Moon is exchange papers with another stu-
385,000 km, and it is known with dent and evaluate.
an accuracy of better than one
part in 10 billion. Using this laser
technique, scientists also have
discovered that the Moon is
receding from Earth at about 3.8
cm/yr. E
► Retroreflectors were conceived
in the 1960s by Montana State
University physicist Kenneth
Section 1.2 Measurement 13 Nordtvedt. Dr. Nordtvedt sug-
Horizons Companies gested to NASA that a series of
reflectors on the surface of the
Moon could be helpful in deter-
mining the exact distance
between Earth and the Moon.
NASA sent three arrays of 100 to
Visually Impaired Ask students to put the index finger of one hand on their noses and to extend the other arm
300 as far
prisms to as
thepossible to the side. Te
Moon during
three flights in the Apollo Moon-
landing program. Two other
arrays from the Soviet Union and
France were delivered to the
Moon aboard unmanned
Lunakhod missions. E
13
Critical Thinking ■ Figure 1-14 A series of
expeditions succeeded in placing
Average Accuracy Refer back to a GPS receiver on top of Mount
the cartoon you drew from p. 11, Everest. This improved the accuracy
of the person at the shore. Ask stu- of the altitude measurement:
Everest’s peak is 8850 m, not
dents to discuss whether increasing
8848 m, above sea level.
the number of significant digits
would have helped the situation.
Even if the measurement were given
as 3.0000 ft, the swimmer could still
be in over his head, because the
number was an average.

The Global Positioning System, or GPS, offers an illustration of

3 ASSESS accuracy and precision in measurement. The GPS consists of 24 satellites
with trans- mitters in orbit and numerous receivers on Earth. The
Check for Understanding satellites send signals with the time, measured by highly accurate
Accuracy Ask students to gener- atomic clocks. The receiver uses the information from at least four
ate a list of real-world examples satellites to determine latitude, longitude, and elevation. (The clocks in
where it is important that mea- the receivers are not as accurate as those on the satellites.)
surements be done accurately and Receivers have different levels of precision. A device in an automobile
might give your position to within a few meters. Devices used by geo-
precisely.
physicists, as in Figure 1-14, can measure movements of millimeters in
Earth’s crust.
Reteach The GPS was developed by the United States Department of Defense. It
uses atomic clocks, developed to test Einstein’s theories of relativity
Simple Math Give the students
and gravity. The GPS eventually was made available for civilian use. GPS
the numbers 5.87 km and 1.2×10
—2 signals now are provided worldwide free of charge and are used in
km. Ask them to add, subtract, navigation on land, at sea, and in the air, for mapping and surveying, by
multiply, and divide them. telecommuni- cations and satellite networks, and for scientific research
into earthquakes and plate tectonics.

1.2 Section Review

18. Accuracy Some wooden rulers do not start with
22. Precision A box has a length of 18.1 cm and a
0 at the edge, but have it set in a few
width of 19.2 cm, and it is 20.3 cm tall.
millimeters. How could this improve the
accuracy of the ruler? a. What is its volume?
b. How precise is the measure of length? Of volume?
19. Tools You find a micrometer (a tool used to meas-
ure objects to the nearest 0.01 mm) that has been c. How tall is a stack of 12 of these boxes?
badly bent. How would it compare to a new, d. How precise is the measure of the height of one
high- quality meterstick in terms of its precision? box? of 12 boxes?
Its accuracy?
23. Critical Thinking Your friend states in a
20. Parallax Does parallax affect the precision of a report that the average time required to circle a
measurement that you make? Explain. 1.5-mi track was 65.414 s. This was measured by
21. Error Your friend tells you that his height is 182 timing 7 laps using a clock with a precision of
cm. In your own words, explain the range of 0.1 s. How much confidence do you have in the
heights implied by this statement. results of the report? Explain.

14 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

Bill Crouse
[Link]/self_check_quiz

1.2 Section Review

18. As the edge of the ruler gets worn away
over time, the first millimeter or two of 21. His height would be between 181.5 and c. 243.6 cm
the scale would also be worn away if 182.5 cm. Precision of a measurement d. nearest tenth of a cm; nearest tenth
the scale started at the edge. is one-half the smallest division on the of a cm
19. It would be more precise but less instrument. The height 182 cm would 23. A result can never be more precise than
accurate. range ±0.5 cm. the least precise measurement. The cal-
20. No, it doesn’t change the fineness 22. a. 7.05×103 cm3 culated average lap time exceeds the
of the divisions on its scale. b. nearest tenth of a cm; nearest 10 cm3 precision possible with the clock.
14
1.3 Graphing Data Section 1.3

A
well-designed graph can convey information quickly and simply.
Patterns that are not immediately evident in a list of numbers take
►
Objectives
•Graph the relationship
1 FOCUS
shape when the data are graphed. In this section, you will develop
graph- between independent and Bellringer Activity
dependent variables.
ing techniques that will enable you to display, analyze, and model data. Graphs First, show students a
•Interpret graphs.
data table and a graph of the
•Recognize common
Identifying Variables relationships in graphs. same data. Ask them to tell you
When you perform an experiment, it is important to change only one ►
Vocabulary which one they can understand
factor at a time. For example, Table 1-3 gives the length of a spring with independent variable more quickly. Second, show
dif- ferent masses attached, as measured in the Mini Lab. Only the mass dependent variable them a graph from some
varies; if different masses were hung from different types of springs, you line of best fit nonphysics context—something
wouldn’t know how much of the difference between two data pairs was linear relationship
quadratic relationship
like number of sales versus hour
due to the different masses and how much to the different springs.
inverse relationship of the day or number of cars
Table 1-3 through an inter- section versus
Length of a Spring for Different Masses day of the week.
Mass Attached to Length of Ask them what the graph repre-
Spring (g) Spring sents and who might be interested
(cm) in the information it conveys.
0 13.7 Finally, show them a graph with
5 14.1 no labels on the axes. Ask them
10 14.5 what it represents. When they
15 14.9 respond that they don’t know, ask
20 15.3 them why they can’t tell; empha-
25 15.7 size the importance of labeling.
30 16.0 ■ Figure 1-15 The independent
variable, mass, is on the
This activity can be expanded to
35 16.4 show other graphs missing impor-
horizontal axis. The graph shows
that the length of the spring tant elements. Visual-Spatial
A variable is any factor that might affect the behavior of an increases as the mass suspended
experimental setup. The independent variable is the factor that is from the spring increases.
changed or manipu- lated during the experiment. In this experiment, the Tie to Prior Knowledge
mass was the inde-
pendent variable. The dependent variable is the factor Graphs Students have graphed
Length of a Spring for Different Masses
that depends on the independent variable. In this experi- equations in math classes before.
ment, the amount that the spring stretched depended on
16.5 They should be somewhat famil-
the mass. An experiment might look at how radioactivity
iar with exponents and with equa-
varies with time, how friction changes with weight, 16.0
or how the strength of a magnetic field depends on the
tions for lines and parabolas.
distance from a magnet. 15.5 Students who have had
One way to analyze data is to make a line graph. chemistry should know about the
Length

15.0
This shows how the dependent variable changes with the impor- tance of units.
inde- pendent variable. The data from Table 1-3 are 14.5
graphed in black in Figure 1-15. The line in blue,
14.0
drawn as close to all the data points as possible, is
called a line of best fit. The line of best fit is a better
model for predictions than any one point that helps
13.5
2 TEACH
determine the line. The problem-
solving strategy on the next page gives detailed instruc- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Identifying
tions for graphing data and sketching a line of best fit. Mass (g)
Misconceptions
Section 1.3 Graphing Data 15 Slope Show students an x-y graph
of two parallel lines, with one line
shorter than the other. Ask them
which has a greater slope. Some
1.3 Resource MANAGER may respond that the longer line
FAST FILE Chapters 1–5 Resources Technology has a greater slope, but inspection
Transparency 1–4 Master, p. shows that the slopes in both
29 Study Guide, pp. 9–14 TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM
Interactive Chalkboard CD-ROM graphs are the same. Mathemati-
Reinforcement, pp. 19–20
Enrichment, pp. 21–22 ExamView ® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM cally, Δy1/Δx1 = Δy2/Δx2
Section 1–3 Quiz, p. 17 [Link] Logical-Mathematical
Internet Physics Lab Worksheet, pp. 5–8 [Link]/vocabulary_puzzlemaker
Teaching Transparency 1-4
Connecting Math to Physics
15
 Using an Analogy
Steps and Slopes Point out to
students how climbing steps is Plotting Line Graphs
analogous to finding the slope. Use the following steps to plot line graphs from data tables.
Use math to explain that “rise 1. Identify the independent and dependent variables in your data.
over run” is the same as Δy/Δx, The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis, the
where Δy is equal to the number x-axis. The dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis,
of steps they climb up times the the y-axis.
height of each step and Δx is the Math Handbook 2. Determine the range of the independent variable to be plotted.
number of steps times the depth Graphs of Relations
3. Decide whether the origin (0, 0) is a valid data point.
of each step. That is, Δx measures pages 848—852

distance as the length along the 4. Spread the data out as much as possible. Let each division on
x-axis. the graph paper stand for a convenient unit. This usually means
units that are multiples of 2, 5, or 10.
5. Number and label the horizontal axis. The label should include
the units, such as Mass (grams).
6. Repeat steps 2–5 for the dependent variable.
7. Plot the data points on the graph.

How Far Around? 8. Draw the best-fit straight line or smooth curve that passes
through as many data points as possible. This is sometimes
Purpose Give students practice with measurement, graphing, and graph interpretation.
called eyeballing. Do not use a series of straight line segments
Materials meterstick, string, four circular objects
that connect the dots. The line that looks like the best fit to
Procedure Instruct the students to use a meterstick to measure the diameter of four circular objects and a string and meterstick to measure their circumferences
you may not be exactly the same as someone else’s. There is
Assessment Would the slope have been different if students had measured in different units? no
a formal procedure, which many graphing calculators use,
called the least-squares technique, that produces a unique
best-fit line, but that is beyond the scope of this textbook.
9. Give the graph a title that clearly tells what the
graph represents.

■ Figure 1-16 To find an equation

of the line of best fit for a linear
relationship, find the slope and Linear Relationships
y-intercept.
Scatter plots of data may take many different shapes,
Length of a Spring suggest- ing different relationships. (The line of best fit may be
for Different Masses called a curve of best fit for nonlinear graphs.) Three of the most
17.0 common relationships will be shown in this section. You
probably are familiar with them from math class.
16.0 When the line of best fit is a straight line, as in Figure 1-15, the
dependent variable varies linearly with the independent
variable.
Length

15.0 There is a linear relationship between the two variables. The

rise
relationship can be written as an equation.
14.0 run
b = 13.7
Linear Relationship Between Two Variables y = mx + b
■
Using Figure 1-16 0

Ask students how the line graph in 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Find the y-intercept, b, and the slope, m, as illustrated in Figure 1-16.
Figure 1-16 would change if the Mass (g) Use points on the line—they may or may not be data points.
data had been measured and
recorded in English units instead of 16 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit
metric units. The graph using
English units would be the same
shape but the numbers on the axes
would be different.

Graphing Applications Ask students to go through newspapers or magazines to find examples of graphs that are

16
 The slope is the ratio of the vertical change to the hor-
izontal change. To find the slope, select two points, A and
B, far apart on the line. The vertical change, or rise, Δy, is
the difference between the vertical values of A and B. The
horizontal change, or run, Δx, is the difference between 1.
the horizontal values of A and B.

m = rise = Δy X2
Slope ————
runΔx
X x.
The slope of a line is equal to the rise divided by the run, which also can be expressed as the change in y divided by the change in

X1
(16.0 cm — 14.1 cm)
= ———
In Figure 1-16: (30 g — 5 g)
= 0.08 cm/g F
■ Figure 1-17 This graph
Yes; the origin corresponds
If y gets smaller as x gets larger, then Δy/Δx is negative,
indicates a quadratic, or parabolic, to 0 elongation when the force is 0.
and the line slopes downward.
relationship. The slope for the second spring is steeper.
The y-intercept, b, is the point at which the line crosses the y-axis, and it
4. X2 = 1.6 X1, 5.3 cm = 1.6 X1,
is the y-value when the value of x is zero. In this example, b = 13.7 cm.
When b = 0, or y = mx, the quantity y is said to vary directly with x.
3.3 cm = X1

Nonlinear Relationships
Figure 1-17 shows the distance a brass ball falls versus time. Note that
the graph is not a straight line, meaning the relationship is not linear. There
are many types of nonlinear relationships in science. Two of the most com-
mon are the quadratic and inverse relationships. The graph in Figure 1-
17 is a quadratic relationship, represented by the following equation.

Math Handbook
Types of Graphs
AQuadratic
computer Relationship
program or graphing
Betweencalculator easily can find the values of
Two Variables Quadratic Graphs
Estimated Time 15 minutes Materials windup c
the constants
y = ax2a,+ b, + cc in this equation. In this case, the equation is d =
bxand page 852 Procedure Show students some sort of wind-u
5t2. See the Math Handbook in the back of the book for more on making Quadratic Equations
A quadratic relationship exists when one variable depends on the square of page 846
and another.
using line graphs.

An object is suspended from spring 1, and the spring’s elongation (the distance it
stretches) is X1. Then the same object is removed from the first spring and suspended
from a second spring. The elongation of spring 2 is X2. X2 is greater than X1.
1. On the same axes, sketch the graphs of the mass versus elongation for both springs.
2. Is the origin included in the graph? Why or why not?
3. Which slope is steeper?
4. At a given mass, X2 = 1.6 X1. If X2 = 5.3 cm, what is X1?
Reinforcement
Direct and Inverse
Section 1.3 Graphing Data 17
Relationships Ask students to
make a list of direct relationships
and inverse relationships. After
several minutes, ask a few stu-
dents to write their ideas on the
chalkboard and then lead a dis-
cussion
Quadratic Relationships Give students several different sizes of cardboard squares. Have them measure the for review.
sides Make
of each andsure stu- the co
compute
dents state why they think a
particular relationship is one or
the other. Interpersonal

17
 ■ Figure 1-18 This graph shows
Current v. Resistance at 120 V
Concept Development the inverse relationship between
resistance and current. As
Linear Relationships When dis- resistance increases, current 30
cussing the slopes of graphs, the decreases.
word “per” will come up fre- 25
quently. Explain to the students
that “per” means “for each” and 20

Current
get the students to articulate
15
repeatedly what a particular slope
means. For instance, ask students 10
what 10 miles per gallon means.
This means that for every one gallon 5

of fuel used, the vehicle moves ten

0
miles. 10 20 30 40
Resistance (ohms)

The graph in Figure 1-18 shows how the current in an electric circuit
varies as the resistance is increased. This is an example of an inverse
relationship, represented by the following equation.
a. See Solutions Manual.
b. a straight line Inverse Relationship y = a
——x
c. The relationship is linear.
A hyperbola results when one variable depends on the inverse of the other.
d. 19.3 g/cm3
e. m = (19.3 g/cm3)V
The three relationships you have learned about are a sample of the
f. The mass for each cubic centimeter of pure gold is 19.3 g.
simple relations you will most likely try to derive in this course. Many
other mathematical models are used. Important examples include sinu-
soids, used to model cyclical phenomena, and exponential growth and
decay, used to study radioactivity. Combinations of different mathematical
models represent even more complex phenomena.

24. The mass values of specified volumes of pure

Critical Thinking gold nuggets are given in Table 1-4.
Graphs for Predictions Physics a. Plot mass versus volume from the values given in
Table 1-4
the table and draw the curve that best fits all points.
is not the only area in which Mass of Pure Gold Nuggets
b. Describe the resulting curve.
graphs can be used to make pre- Volume (cm3) Mass (g)
c. According to the graph, what type of relationship
dictions. Ask students to consider 1.0 19.4
exists between the mass of the pure gold
other applications for graphing. nuggets and their volume? 2.0 38.6
As a class, have them describe d. What is the value of the slope of this graph? 3.0 58.1
numerous situations in which Include the proper units. 4.0 77.4
graphs could be used to make e. Write the equation showing mass as a function 5.0 96.5
predictions. For example, plotting of volume for gold.
the average attendance at sporting f. Write a word interpretation for the slope of the line.
events as a function of temperature
can help the management of a sta-
dium know how many vendors, 18 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit

ticket takers, and ushers they will

need at an event. Plotting the
average value of a stock index as a
function of time of year can help
brokers predict when to sell and
when to buy.
Interpersonal
Filling a Beaker Give the students a large, graduated metric beaker and ask them to fill it using a slow trickle
Visual-Spatial

18
 ■ Figure 1-19 Computer animators
use mathematical models of the
real world to create a convincing 3 ASSESS
fictional world. They need to
accurately portray how beings of
Check for Understanding
different sizes move, how hair or Linear Graphs Ask each student
clothing move with a character, to make a graph that shows a
and how light and shadows fall,
among other physics topics.
direct relationship. Ask students
to put numerical values on the
graph and to calculate the slope
of the graph. After a few minutes,
have them trade with a neighbor
to check work.

Predicting Values Extension

When scientists discover relations like the ones shown in the graphs Radius and Circumference Ask
in this section, they use them to make predictions. For example, the students to imagine a rope tied
equation for the linear graph in Figure 1-16 is as follows: around Earth’s equator and to
y = (0.08 cm/g)x + 13.7 cm assume that the surface is com-
Relations, either learned as formulas or developed from graphs, can be
pletely smooth all the way around
used to predict values you haven’t measured directly. How far would the (C = 2wr, let r = 6400 km). Then
spring in Table 1-3 stretch with 49 g of mass? ask how far above the surface the
rope would be if the amount of
y = (0.08 cm/g)(49 g) + 13.7 cm
rope were increased by approxi-
= 18 cm
mately 200 km. approximately
It is important to decide how far you can extrapolate from the data you 31 km (mathematical shortcut: divide
have. For example, 49 kg is a value far outside the ones measured, and the the length added to the circumfer-
spring might break rather than stretch that far. ence, 200 km, by 2w)
Physicists use models to accurately predict how systems will behave:
what circumstances might lead to a solar flare, how changes to a circuit
will change the performance of a device, or how electromagnetic fields
will affect a medical instrument. People in all walks of life use models in
many ways. One example is shown in Figure 1-19. With the tools you
have learned in this chapter, you can answer questions and produce models
for the physics questions you will encounter in the rest of this textbook.

1.3 Section Review

25. Make a Graph Graph the following data. Time is
the independent variable. 27. Predict Use the relation illustrated in Figure 1-16
to determine the mass required to stretch the
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 spring 15 cm.
Speed (m/s) 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 2 28. Predict Use the relation in Figure 1-18 to predict
the current when the resistance is 16 ohms.

26. Interpret a Graph What would be the 29. Critical Thinking In your own words, explain the
meaning of a nonzero y-intercept to a graph of meaning of a shallower line, or a smaller slope
total mass versus volume? than the one in Figure 1-16, in the graph of stretch
versus total mass for a different spring.

[Link]/self_check_quiz Section 1.3 Graphing Data 19

0017_3949.ps

1.3 Section Review

25. See Solutions Manual. 28. 7.5 A
26. There is a nonzero total mass when the vol- 29. The spring whose line has a smaller slope is
ume of the material is zero. This could hap- stiffer, and therefore requires more mass to
pen if the mass value includes the stretch it one centimeter.
material's container.
27. 16 g

19
 Benjamin
Exploring Objects in Motion
Physics is a science that is based upon experimental observations. Many of the
basic principles used to describe and understand mechanical systems, such as
Time Allotment objects in linear motion, can be applied later to describe more complex natural
phenomena. How can you measure the speed of the vehicles in a video clip?
one laboratory period

Process Skills observe, measure, QUESTION

estimate, collect and organize data, What types of measurements could be made to find the speed of a vehicle?
identify variables

Safety Precautions none

Objectives Procedure
Alternative Materials You could ■ Observe the motion of the vehicles seen 1. Visit [Link]/internet_lab to view the
produce your own similar video to use in the video. Chapter 1 lab video clip.
in your classroom or use footage from ■ Describe the motion of the vehicles. 2. The video footage was taken in the midwestern
a movie that has aerial footage, such ■ Collect and organize data on the United States at approximately noon. Along
vehicle’s motion. the right shoulder of the road are large, white,
as Speed. In this case, the distance ■ Calculate a vehicle’s speed. painted rectangles. These types of markings
between white lane stripes should be are used in many states for aerial observation
estimated. of traffic. They are placed at 0.322-km (0.2-mi)
Safety Precautions intervals.
3. Observe What type of measurements might be
Teaching Strategies taken? Prepare a data table, such as the one
• Have students form small shown on the next page. Record your observa-
groups so they can discuss their tions of the surroundings, other vehicles, and
Materials markings. On what color vehicle is the camera
obser- vations and point out
located, and what color is the pickup truck in
features. Internet access is required.
the lane to the left?
watch or other timer
Analyze 4. Measure and Estimate View the video again
and look for more details. Is the road
1. Answers will vary: Qualitative obser- smooth? In what direction are the vehicles
vations include color, relative speed heading? How long does it take each vehicle
(for example, fast), bumpy road, to travel two intervals marked by the white
blocks? Record your observations and data.
partly cloudy.
2. Answers will vary. Quantitative
obser- vations can include distance
along the road between markers,
number of vehicles seen, number
of lanes, and number of striped
lane markers.
3. Have students compare their graphs.
4. Answers will vary depending on the
method used to measure the time
for each vehicle to travel the two
intervals between markers. Sample:
vwhite = distance/time
= (0.644 km/28.0 s) (3600 s/h)
= 82.8 km/h
vgrey = (0.644 km/22.5 s) (3600 s/h) 20
= 103 km/h

Sample Data 20
Vehicles are on a four-lane-wide freeway. The
vehicle is heading west. Three white markers are
camera is in the white vehicle. The road
seen in the video. The third white marker occurs
appears to be bumpy as the camera moves
just before a white bridge is seen on the right.
up and down. The gray pickup truck passes
The bridge can be used to estimate the final
on the left; it is moving faster and is
position and the time for the pickup truck.
speeding up. Surroundings: a partly cloudy
day, with shadows toward the right;
therefore, the
Data Table
White Gray
Distance Vehicle Pickup
Marker (km) Time (s) Time (s)
0 0 0 0
1 0.322 14 12
2 0.644 28 22.5
 Data Table 5. Answers will vary. Sample:
Marker Distance (km) White Vehicle Time Gray Pickup Time Distancewhite = speed × time
(s) (s)
= (0.0230 km/s)
(5 × 60 s)
= 6.9 km
Distancegray = speed × time
= (0.0286 km/s)
(5 × 60 s)
= 8.58 km
Analyze Real-World Physics
Conclude and Apply
1. Summarize your qualitative observations. When the speedometer is observed by a front-seat
passenger, the driver, and a passenger in the rear
1. Answers will vary. The precision is
2. Summarize your quantitative observations.
driver’s-side seat, readings of 90 km/h, 100 km/h, one-half of the smallest measure-
3. Make and Use Graphs Graph both sets of and 110 km/h, respectively, are observed. Explain ment marks. The distance measure-
data on one pair of axes. the differences. ment is within ± 0.5 meter. The time
4. Estimate What is the speed of the vehicles in
km/s and km/h? measurement may be quite different
depending on the method used. A
5. Predict How far will each vehicle travel
in 5 min? stopwatch with one second incre-
ments will produce ± 0.5 second
Design an Experiment Visit [Link]/ precision. A built-in timer on video
Conclude and Apply
internet_lab to post your experiment for playback software may have a pre-
1. Measure What is the precision of the distance measuring speed in the classroom using cision of tenths or several hun-
and time measurements? remote-controlled cars. Include your list of
materials, your procedure, and your predic- dredths of a second.
2. Measure What is the precision of your speed
measurement? On what does it depend?
tions for the accuracy of your lab. If you 2. Precision depends on the precision
actually perform your lab, post your data of the measurements and their
3. Use Variables, Constants, and Controls and results as well.
Describe the independent and the dependent effect on the results of the
variables in this experiment. calcula- tion. The precision is ± 1
4. Compare and Contrast Which vehicle’s graph m/s.
has a steeper slope? What is the slope equal
3. Dependent variables: time;
to?
Independent variable: distance Note:
5. Infer What would a horizontal line mean on
the graph? A line with a steeper slope? This is reversed from what is typi-
cally measured in a speed-finding
To find out more about measurement, visit the experiment.
Going Further Web site: [Link]
4. The gray vehicle’s graph has a
Speed is distance traveled divided by the amount steeper slope. The slope is equal
of time to travel that distance. Explain how you
could design your own experiment to measure to the speed of the vehicle, 28
speed in the classroom using remote-controlled m/s.
cars. What would you use for markers? How pre- 5. A horizontal line would mean
cisely could you measure distance and time?
Would the angle at which you measured the cars that the vehicle is not moving. A
passing the markers affect the results? How line with a steeper slope would
much? How could you improve your measure- mean that the vehicle is traveling
ments? What units make sense for speed? How far
into the future could you predict the cars’ posi-
faster than the first vehicle.
tions? If possible, carry out the experiment and Going Further
summarize your results.
Answers will vary. Student responses
should suggest protocols for ensuring
accuracy, such as using evenly spaced
21 markers. As for improving their mea-
surements, rigging a motion detector
to a digital chronometer has a far
higher degree of accuracy than check-
ing the second hand on a clock face.

Real-World Physics
Parallax creates the differences. The
seats will not provide an accurate view
To Make this Lab an Inquiry Lab: Alter the format to have students develop various techniques to measure thespeedometer.
of the distance traveled,
Looking time,
straightand
at speed o
the speedometer will provide the most
accurate reading.
21
 Computer History and Growth
Background
A computer can be described as a 22 Each pixel of the animations or movies you watch,
machine that can do anything and each letter of the instant messages you send
presents your computer with several hundred
with numbers. The fact that it equations. Each equation must be solved in a few
uses binary numbers is irrelevant; billionths of a second—if it takes a bit longer, you
what’s important is that a number might complain that your computer is slow.
can be made to represent a color
Early Computers The earliest computers could
of a pixel (a tiny part of a pic- solve very complex arrays of equations, just as yours
ture), the pitch of a musical note, can, but it took them a lot longer to do so. There were
or a letter of the alphabet. Thus a several reasons for this. First, the mathematics of
computer can work with pictures, algorithms (problem- solving strategies) still was new.
Computer sci- entists were only beginning to learn how
sounds, and text, besides doing to arrange a particular problem, such as the con-
arithmetic or geometry. The text version of a picture into an easily-transmittable form,
assumes an understanding of so that it could be solved by a machine.
binary numbers: if a musical note
is represented by an 8-bit
number, you can represent 256
(28) possi- ble notes.
The construction of integrated
circuits is more closely related to
printing than to any sort of
wiring. Think of a large picture
that is reduced to microscopic
size by looking at it through a UNIVAC 1, an early computer, filled an entire room.
reversed microscope. This picture
is pro- jected onto the chip, and Machine Size Second, the machines were physically
then a photo-etching process is large. Computers work by switching patterns of electric
used to form the various currents that represent binary numbers. A 16-bit
machine works with binary numbers that are 16 bits
structures. long. If a 64-bit num- ber must be dealt with, the
machine must repeat the same operation four times. A
Teaching Strategies 32-bit machine would have to repeat the operation
only twice, thus making it that much faster. But a 32-
■ Emphasize that software—such
bit machine is four times the size of a 16-bit machine;
as e-mail programs, operating that is, it has four times as many wires and transistor
systems, video and audio switches, and even 8-bit machines were the size of the
“viewers”—conceals large math old UNIVAC shown above.
Moreover, current travels along wires at
problems, such as the solution speeds no greater than about two-thirds the speed of
of large matrices and systems light. This is a long time if the com- puter wires are 15
of differential equations. m long and must move information in less than 10—9 s.

■ Some students may not be

familiar with the internal parts 22 Future Technology
CORBIS
of a computer. Use a computer
or a diagram to explore the
parts of a typical computer.
Include in your discussion
how the performance or
capacity of the part is
measured.
Going Further
2
Activity 1. These denote files that are mathematical 2. velocity = — (3×108 m/s) = 2×108 m/s
—
Consumer Electronics Have stu- 3
representations of photographs (.jpg), 15
dents examine the computing m musical selections (.mp3, .midi) or motion time = distance/velocity = —
2×108 m/s
capabilities of some familiar elec- —
tronic toys. The biggest and fastest pictures (.mpeg). These representations = 7.5×10—8 s
are written in a very elaborate code that 1—
computers used in many homes greatly reduces the amount of memory —7.5×1 0=—813
s MHz, which is a fairly
are video game consoles. occupied by the song or picture. slow computer.
Memory Third, electronic comput
memories were extremely er
expensive. You may know that a systems
larger memory lets your .
computer work faster. When one
byte of memory required eight When Gordon Moore and others
circuit boards, 1024 bytes (or 1 invented the integrated circuit around
K) of memory was enormous. 1960, the size and cost of computer
Because memory was so circuitry dropped drastically. Physically
precious, computer programs had smaller, and thus faster, machines could
to be written with great be built and very large memories
cleverness. Astronants got to the became possible. Today, the transistors
Moon with on a chip are now smaller than bacteria.
64 K of memory in Apollo’s on-board The cost and size of computers have
computers. dropped so much that your cell phone
has far more computing power than
most big office machines of the 1970s.

P
r
o
c
e
s
s
o
r

c
h
i
p
s

u
s
e
d

i
n

t
o
d
a
y
’
s

c
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
s

a
r
e

t
i
n
y

c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d

t
o

t
h
e

o
l
d
Going Further
1. Research A compression protocol
makes a computer file smaller and
less prone to transmission errors.
Look
up the terms .jpg, .mp3, .mpeg, and .midi
and see how they apply to the activities
you do on your computer.
2. Calculate Using the example here,
how long does it take for a binary
number to travel 15 m? How many such
operations could there be each
second?
 Key Concepts
Summary statements can be
1.1 Mathematics and Physics used by students to review the
Vocabulary Key Concepts major concepts of the chapter.
• physics (p. 3) • Physics is the study of matter and energy and their relationships.
• dimensional analysis • Dimensional analysis is used to check that an answer will be in the
(p. 6) correct units.
• significant digits (p. 7) • The result of any mathematical operation with measurements never can
• scientific method (p. 8) be more precise than the least-precise measurement involved in the
• hypothesis (p. 8) operation.
• scientific law (p. 9) • The scientific method is a systematic method of observing,
Visit [Link]
experimenting, and analyzing to answer questions about the natural
• scientific theory (p. 10) /self_check_quiz
world.
• Scientific ideas change in response to new data. /vocabulary_puzzlemaker
• Scientific laws and theories are well-established descriptions /chapter_test
and explanations of nature. /standardized_test
1.2 Measurement
Vocabulary Key Concepts
• measurement (p. 11) • New scientific findings must be reproducible; that is, others must be
• precision (p. 12) able to measure and find the same results.
• accuracy (p. 13) • All measurements are subject to some uncertainty.
• Precision is the degree of exactness with which a quantity is
measured. Scientific notation shows how precise a measurement is.
• Accuracy is the extent to which a measurement matches the true value. For additional help
with vocabulary, have
1.3 Graphing Data
students access the
Vocabulary Key Concepts Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
• independent variable • Data are plotted in graphical form to show the relationship between online.
(p. 15) two variables.
[Link]/
• dependent variable • The line that best passes through or near graphed data is called the line of
(p. 15) best fit. It is used to describe the data and to predict where new data
vocabulary_puzzlemaker
• line of best fit (p. 15) would lie on the graph.
• linear relationship (p. 16) • A graph in which data points lie on a straight line is a graph of a
• quadratic relationship linear relationship. In the equation, m and b are constants.
(p. 17)
y = mx + b
• inverse relationship
(p. 18) • The slope of a straight-line graph is the vertical change (rise) divided by
the horizontal change (run) and often has a physical meaning.

rise Δy
m = —— = ——
run Δx

• The graph of a quadratic relationship is a parabolic curve. It is represented

by the equation below. The constants a, b, and c can be found with a
computer or a graphing calculator; simpler ones can be found using
algebra.

y = ax2 + bx + c

• The graph of an inverse relationship between x and y is a hyperbolic

curve. It is represented by the equation below, where a is a constant.
a
y=
[Link]/vocabulary_puzzlemaker 23

23
Concept Mapping
30. See Solutions Manual. Concept Mapping
30. Complete the following concept map using the 39. What determines the precision of a measurement?
following terms: hypothesis, graph, mathematical (1.2)
Mastering Concepts model, dependent variable, measurement.
31. Identify a problem, gather infor- 40. How does the last digit differ from the other
digits in a measurement? (1.2)
mation about it by observing
and experimenting, analyze the 41. A car’s odometer measures the distance from
information to arrive at an home to school as 3.9 km. Using string on a map,
you find the distance to be 4.2 km. Which answer
answer. do you think is more accurate? What does
experiment
accurate mean? (1.2)
32. Mathematics allows you to be
42. How do you find the slope of a linear graph? (1.3)
quantitative, to say “how
fast”, not just “fast”. 43. For a driver, the time between seeing a stoplight and
stepping on the brakes is called reaction time. The
33. The International System of distance traveled during this time is the reaction
distance. Reaction distance for a given driver and
Units, or SI, is a base 10 independent vehicle depends linearly on speed. (1.3)
system of measurement that is variable a. Would the graph of reaction distance
the standard in science. The versus speed have a positive or a negative
base units are the meter, slope?
kilogram, second, kelvin, mole, b. A driver who is distracted has a longer reaction
time than a driver who is not. Would the graph
ampere, and candela. of reaction distance versus speed for a
distracted driver have a larger or smaller slope
34. The derived units are than for a normal driver? Explain.
combina- tions of the base 44. During a laboratory experiment, the temperature
units. of the gas in a balloon is varied and the volume of
the balloon is measured. Which quantity is the
35. a. Zeros are necessary to indi-
Mastering Concepts independent variable? Which quantity is the
cate the magnitude of the 31. Describe a scientific method. (1.1) dependent variable? (1.3)
value, but there is no way of 32. Why is mathematics important to science? (1.1) 45. What type of relationship is shown in Figure 1-20?
knowing whether or not the 33. What is the SI system? (1.1) Give the general equation for this type of relation.
instrument used to measure (1.3)
34. How are base units and derived units related? (1.1)
the values actually measured
35. Suppose your lab partner recorded a y
the zeros. The zeros may
measurement as 100 g. (1.1)
serve only to locate the 1. a. Why is it difficult to tell the number
b. Write the number in scientific of significant digits in this
notation, including only the measurement?
significant digits. b. How can the number of significant digits in such
a number be made clear?

36. a. centimeter 36. Give the name for each of the following multiples
of the meter. (1.1)
b. millimeter 1 1 x
a. —— m b. —— m c. 1000 m
c. kilometer 100 1000 ■ Figure 1-20
37. To convert 1.8 h to minutes, by what
60 min conversion factor should you multiply? (1.1) 46. Given the equation F = mv2/R, what relationship
3 —1 —h 38. Solve each problem. Give the correct number of exists between each of the following? (1.3)
significant digits in the answers. (1.1) a. F and R
a. 4.667×104 g + 3.02×105 g b. F and m
38. a. 3.49×105 g b. (1.70×102 J) ÷ (5.922×10—4 cm3) c. F and v
b. 2.87×105 J/cm3
24 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.
39. the precision of a measuring
device, which is limited by the
finest division on its scale
measurements, so your measurements from 43. a. positive
40. The final digit is estimated. the map are more removed from the b. Larger. The driver who was distracted
real distance. would have a longer reaction time and
41. The most accurate measure is thus a greater reaction distance at a
the measure closest to the 42. The slope of a linear graph is the ratio given speed.
actual [Link] odometer is of the vertical change to the horizontal
probably more accurate as it change, or rise over run. 44. Temperature is the independent variable;
actually covered the distance. volume is the dependent variable.
The map is a model made from

24
 Applying Concepts 45. quadratic; y = ax 2 + bx + c
55. You measure the dimensions of a desk as 132 cm,
47. Figure 1-21 gives the height above the ground of 83 cm, and 76 cm. The sum of these measures is
a ball that is thrown upward from the roof of a
building, for the first 1.5 s of its trajectory. What is
291 cm, while the product is 8.3×105 cm3. 46. a. inverse relationship
Explain how the significant digits were
the ball’s height at t = 0? Predict the ball’s height determined in
b. linear relationship
at t = 2 s and at t = 5 s. each case. c. quadratic relationship
Height of Ball v. Time 56. Money Suppose you receive $5.00 at the
beginning of a week and spend $1.00 each day for Applying Concepts
lunch. You prepare a graph of the amount you
25 have left at the end of each day for one week. 47. When t = 0 and t = 2, the ball’s
Would the slope of this graph be positive, zero, or height will be about 20 m.
20
negative? Why? When t = 5, the ball will have
Height

15 57. Data are plotted on a graph, and the value on the landed on the ground, so the
y-axis is the same for each value of the independent height will be 0 m.
10 variable. What is the slope? Why? How does y
depend on x? 48. There is no definite order of
5
58. Driving The graph of braking distance versus car specific steps. However, what-
speed is part of a parabola. Thus, the equation is ever approach is used, it
written d = av2 + bv + c. The distance, d, has units
in meters, and velocity, v, has units in always
meters/second.
0 How could you find the units of a, b, and c? What
1 2 3 4
would they be? includes close observation, con-
Time (s)
59. How long is the leaf in Figure 1-22? Include the
trolled experimentation, summa-
■ Figure 1-21
uncertainty in your measurement. rizing, checking, and
48. Is a scientific method one set of clearly defined 56. negative, because the change in vertical
steps? Support your answer.
distance is negative for a positive change in
49. Explain the difference between a scientific theory horizontal distance
and a scientific law.
50. Density The density of a substance is its mass
per unit volume.
a. Give a possible metric unit for density.
b. Is the unit for density a base unit or a derived unit?
51. What metric unit would you use to measure each
of the following?
■ Figur
a. the width of your hand e 1-
b. the thickness of a book cover 22
c. the height of your classroom
d. the distance from your home to your classroom 60. The masses of two metal
blocks are measured. Block A
52. Size Make a chart of sizes of objects. Lengths should has a mass of 8.45 g and
range from less than 1 mm to several kilometers. block B has a mass of 45.87
Samples might include the size of a cell, the g.
distance light travels in 1 s, and the height of a a. How many significant digits
room. are expressed in these
53. Time Make a chart of time intervals. Sample measurements?
intervals might include the time between heartbeats, b. What is the total mass of block A plus
the time between presidential elections, the average block B?
lifetime of a human, and the age of the United c. What is the number of
States. Find as many very short and very long significant digits for the total
examples as you can. mass?
d. Why is the number of
54. Speed of Light Two students measure the speed significant digits different for
of light. One obtains (3.001 ± 0.001)×108 m/s; the total mass and the
the other obtains (2.999 ± 0.006)×108 m/s. individual masses?
a. Which is more precise?
b. Which is more accurate? (You can find the speed 61. History Aristotle said that the
of light in the back of this textbook.) speed of a falling object varies
inversely with the density of the
medium through which it falls.
[Link]/chapter_test a. According to Aristotle, would a
rock fall faster in water
(density 1000 kg/m3), or in air
(density 1 kg/m3)?
55. In addition and subtraction, you ask what b. How fast would a rock fall in a
vacuum? Based on this, why
place the least precise measure is known would Aristotle say that there
to: in this case, to the nearest cm. So the could be no such thing as a
answer is rounded to the nearest cm. In vacuum?
multiplication and division, you look at the
number of significant digits in the least Chapter 1

pre- cise answer: in this case, 2. So the Assessment 2

Laura Sifferlin
answer is rounded to 2 significant digits.
57. Zero. The change in vertical rechecking.
distance is zero. y does not
depend on x. 49. A scientific law is a rule of nature, where a
scientific theory is an explanation of the
58. The units in each term of the equation scien- tific law based on observation. A
must be in meters because distance, d, theory explains why something happens; a
is mea- sured in meters. aν 2 = a(m/s)2, law describes what happens.
so a is in s2/m; bν = b(m/s), so b is in s—
1. 50. a. possible answers include g/cm3,
kg/m3
59. 8.3 cm ± 0.05 cm or 83 mm ± 0.5 mm b. derived unit

51. a. cm b. mm
c. m d. km
52. sample answer: radius of the atom, 5×10—11
m; virus, 10—7 m; thickness of paper, 0.1
mm; width of paperback book,
10.7 cm; height of a door, 1.8 m; width of town,
7.8 km; radius of Earth, 6×106 m; distance to
Moon, 4×108 m

53. sample answer: half-life of polo- nium 194,

0.7 s; time between heartbeats, 0.8 s; time to
walk between physics class and math class,
2.4 min; length of school year, 180 days;
time between elections for the U.S. House of
Representatives, 2 years; time between U.S.
presidential elec- tions, 4 years; age of the
United States, (about) 230 years

54. a. (3.001 ± 0.001)×108 m/s

b. (2.999 ± 0.006)×108 m/s

25
60. a. A: three; B: four
b. 54.32 g 62. Explain the difference between a hypothesis and 73. Gravity The force due to gravity is F = mg where
a scientific theory. g = 9.80 m/s2.
c. four a. Find the force due to gravity on a 41.63-kg object.
63. Give an example of a scientific law.
d. When adding measurements, b. The force due to gravity on an object is 632
the precision matters: both 64. What reason might the ancient Greeks have had not kg∙m/s2. What is its mass?
to question the hypothesis that heavier objects fall
masses are known to the faster than lighter objects? Hint: Did you ever 74. Dimensional Analysis Pressure is measured in
nearest hundredth of a question which falls faster? pascals, where 1 Pa = 1 kg/m∙s2. Will the following
expression give a pressure in the correct units?
gram, so the total should be 65. Mars Explain what observations led to changes (0.55 kg)(2.1 m/s)
given to the nearest in scientists’ ideas about the surface of Mars. ———
9.8 m/s 2
hundredth of a gram. 66. A graduated cylinder is marked every mL. How
Significant digits sometimes 1.2 Measurement
precise a measurement can you make with this
are gained when adding. instrument? 75. A water tank has a mass of 3.64 kg when it is
empty and a mass of 51.8 kg when it is filled to a
certain level. What is the mass of the water in the
61. a. Lower density means faster Mastering Problems tank?
speed, so the rock falls 1.1 Mathematics and Physics 76. The length of a room is 16.40 m, its width is 4.5 m,
faster in air. and its height is 3.26 m. What volume does the
67. Convert each of the following measurements
b. Because a vacuum would to meters.
room enclose?
have a zero density, the rock a. 42.3 cm 77. The sides of a quadrangular plot of land are
should fall infinitely fast. b. 6.2 pm 132.68 m, 48.3 m, 132.736 m, and 48.37 m.
What is the perimeter of the plot?
Nothing can fall that fast. c. 21 km
d. 0.023 mm 78. How precise a measurement could you make
e. 214 µm with the scale shown in Figure 1-23?
62. A scientific theory has been
f. 57 nm
tested and supported many
times before it becomes 68. Add or subtract as indicated.
a. 5.80×109 s + 3.20×108 s
accepted. A hypothesis is an b. 4.87×10—6 m — 1.93×10—6 m
idea about how things might c. 3.14×10—5 kg + 9.36×10—5 kg
work—it has much less support. d. 8.12×107 g — 6.20×106 g
69. Rank the following mass measurements from least
63. Newton’s laws of motion, law of to greatest: 11.6 mg, 1021 µg, 0.000006 kg, 0.31 mg.
conservation of energy, law of
70. State the number of significant digits in each of
conservation of change, law of the following measurements.
reflection a. 0.00003 m ■ Figure 1-23
b. 64.01 fm 79. Give the measure shown on the meter in Figure 1-
64. Air resistance affects many c. 80.001 m 24 as precisely as you can. Include the uncertainty
light objects. Without d. 0.720 µg in your answer.
controlled experiments, their e. 2.40×106 kg
everyday observations told f. 6×108 kg
them that heavier objects did g. 4.07×1016 m
fall faster. 71. Add or subtract as indicated.
a. 16.2 m + 5.008 m + 13.48 m
b. 5.006 m + 12.0077 m + 8.0084 m
A
65. As telescopes improved and CLASS A

c. 78.05 cm2 — 32.046 cm2

later probes were sent into
d. 15.07 kg — 12.0 kg
space, scientists gained more
information about the surface. 72. Multiply or divide as indicated.
a. (6.2×1018 m)(4.7×10—10 m)
When the information did not b. (5.6×10—7 m)/(2.8×10—12 s)
support old hypotheses, the c. (8.1×10—4 km)(1.6×10—3 km)
hypotheses changed. d. (6.5×105 kg)/(3.4×103 m3)
■ Figure 1-24

66. ±0.5 mL 26 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.
Horizons Companies

Mastering Problems
1.1 Mathematics and Physics
68. a. 6.12×109 s b. 2.94×10—6 m 71. a. 34.7 m b. 25.022 m
67. a. 0.423 m —4 2
c. 46.00 cm d. 3.1 kg
c. 1.250×10 kg d. 7.50×107 g
b. 6.2×10—12 m
c. 2.1×104 m 69. 0.31 mg, 1021 μg, 0.000006 kg, 11.6 mg
d. 2.3×10—5 m
e. 2.14×10—4 m 70. a. 1 b. 4 c. 5
f. 5.7×10—8 m
d. 3 e. 3 f. 1
g. 3

26
 80. Estimate the height of the nearest door frame in 72. a. 2.9×109 m2
Table 1-5
centimeters. Then measure it. How accurate was b. 2.0×105 m/s
your estimate? How precise was your estimate? Distance Traveled
How precise was your measurement? Why are with Different c. 1.3×10—6 km2
the two precisions different? Forces d. 1.9×102 kg/m3
Force (N) Distance (cm)
81. Base Units Give six examples of quantities you
might measure in a physics lab. Include the 5.0 24 73. a. 408 kg·m/s2
units you would use. 10.0 49 b. 64.5 kg
82. Temperature The temperature drops from 24C to 15.0 75
10C in 12 hours. 20.0 99 74. No; it is in kg/s3
a. Find the average temperature change per hour. 25.0 120
b. Predict the temperature in 2 more hours if the 30.0 145 1.2 Measurement
trend continues.
c. Could you accurately predict the temperature 75. 48.2 kg
in 24 hours? a. Plot the values given in the table and draw
the curve that best fits all points. 76. 2.4×102 m3
1.3 Graphing Data b. Describe the resulting curve.
c. Use the graph to write an equation relating the
83. Figure 1-25 shows the masses of three substances 77. 362.1 m
distance to the force.
for volumes between 0 and 60 cm3.
d. What is the constant in the equation? Find its
a. What is the mass of 30 cm3 of each substance? units. 78. ±0.5 g
b. If you had 100 g of each substance, what e. Predict the distance traveled when a 22.0-N
would be their volumes? force is exerted on the object for 5 s.
c. In one or two sentences, describe the meaning 79. 3.6 ± 0.1 A
of the slopes of the lines in this graph. 85. The physics instructor from the previous problem
d. What is the y-intercept of each line? What does changed the procedure. The mass was varied while 80. A standard residential door
it mean? the force was kept constant. Time and distance were
measured, and the acceleration of each mass was
frame height is about 80
calculated. The results of the experiment are shown inches, which is about 200 cm.
Mass of in Table 1-6. The pre- cision depends on the
Three Substances
mea- surement instrument
800 Table 1-6 used.
700 Acceleration of Different Masses
600 Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s2) 81. Sample: distance, cm; volume,
500 C 1.0 12.0 mL; mass, g; current, A; time, s;
Mass

400 2.0 5.9 temperature, °C

300 3.0 4.1
200 4.0 3.0
82. a. 1.2°C/h
100 B 5.0 2.5 b. 8°C
0 10 20 30 40 50 6.0 2.0 c. No. Temperature is unlikely
Volume (cm3)
to continue falling sharply
and steadily that long.
a. Plot the values given in the table and draw
■ Figure 1-25
the curve that best fits all points.
b. Describe the resulting curve. 1.3 Graphing Data
84. During a class demonstration, a physics instructor c. According to the graph, what is the
placed a mass on a horizontal table that was relationship between mass and the acceleration
83. a. (a) 80 g, (b) 260 g, (c) 400
nearly frictionless. The instructor then applied produced by a constant force? g
various horizontal forces to the mass and d. Write the equation relating acceleration to b. (a) 36 cm3, (b) 11 cm3,
measured the distance it traveled in 5 seconds for mass given by the data in the graph. (c) 7 cm3
each force applied. The results of the experiment e. Find the units of the constant in the equation.
are shown in Table 1-5. f. Predict the acceleration of an 8.0-kg mass. c. The slope represents the
increased mass of each
[Link]/chapter_test Chapter 1 Assessment 27 additional cubic centimeter
of the substance.
d. The y-intercept is (0, 0). It
means that when V = 0 cm3,
84. a. See Solutions Manual. 85. a. See Solutions Manual. there is none of the sub-
b. a straight line b. a hyperbola stance present (m = 0 g)
c. d = 4.9F c. Acceleration varies inversely with mass.
d. The constant is 4.9 and has units cm/N. d. a = 12/m
e. 108 cm or 110 cm using 2 significant e. kg·m/s2
digits f...1.5 m/s2
27
86. a. See Solutions Manual.
b. a straight line 86. During an experiment, a student measured the 90. You are given the following measurements of
mass of 10.0 cm3 of alcohol. The student then a rectangular bar: length = 2.347 m, thickness
c. m = 0.79V measured the mass of 20.0 cm3 of alcohol. In this =
d. g/cm3; density way, the data in Table 1-7 were collected. 3.452 cm, height = 2.31 mm, mass = 1659 g.
Determine the volume, in cubic meters, and
e. 25.7 g Table 1-7 density, in g/cm3, of the beam. Express your results
The Mass Values of in proper form.
Mixed Review Specific Volumes of Alcohol
91. A drop of water contains 1.7×1021 molecules.
87. 0.0034, 45.6, 1234 Volume (cm3) Mass (g) If the water evaporated at the rate of one million
molecules per second, how many years would it
10.0 7.9
take for the drop to completely evaporate?
88. 80 meters is equivalent to 20.0 15.8
about 260 feet, which would be 30.0 23.7 92. A 17.6-gram sample of metal is placed in a
very large. 10 meters would be graduated cylinder containing 10.0 cm3 of
40.0 31.6
water. If the water level rises to 12.20 cm3,
a more reasonable value. 50.0 39.6 what is the density of the metal?

89. 162 shorts = 1.00 long a. Plot the values given in the table and draw Thinking Critically
the curve that best fits all the points.
93. Apply Concepts It has been said that fools can
90. volume = 1.87×10—4 m3, b. Describe the resulting curve.
ask more questions than the wise can answer.
c. Use the graph to write an equation relating the
density = 8.87 g/cm3 In science, it is frequently the case that one
volume to the mass of the alcohol.
wise person is needed to ask the right question
d. Find the units of the slope of the graph. What
rather than to answer it. Explain.
91. 5.4×107 yr is the name given to this quantity?
e. What is the mass of 32.5 cm3 of alcohol? 94. Apply Concepts Find the approximate mass of
92. 8.00 g/cm3 water in kilograms needed to fill a container
Mixed Review that is 1.40 m long and 0.600 m wide to a depth
of
Thinking Critically 87. Arrange the following numbers from most precise 34.0 cm. Report your result to one significant digit.
to least precise (Use a reference source to find the density of
93. The “right” question is one that 0.0034 m 45.6 m 1234 m water.)
points to fruitful research and to
other questions that can be 88. Figure 1-26 shows the toroidal (doughnut-shaped) 95. Analyze and Conclude A container of gas with
interior of the now-dismantled Tokamak Fusion a pressure of 101 kPa has a volume of 324 cm3
answered. Test Reactor. Explain why a width of 80 m would and a mass of 4.00 g. If the pressure is increased
be an unreasonable value for the width of the to 404 kPa, what is the density of the gas? Pressure
94. Volume of water is (140 toroid. What would be a reasonable value? and volume are inversely proportional.
cm) (60.0 cm)(34.0 cm) = 96. Design an Experiment How high can you throw
285,600 cm3. Because the den- a ball? What variables might affect the answer to
sity of water is 1.00 g/cm3, the this question?
mass of water in kilograms is 97. Calculate If the Sun suddenly ceased to shine,
286 kg. how long would it take Earth to become dark?
(You will have to look up the speed of light in a
vacuum and the distance from the Sun to Earth.)
95. 0.0494 g/cm3 How long would it take the surface of Jupiter to
become dark?
96. mass of ball, footing, practice,
and conditioning Writing in Physics
■ Figure 1-26
98. Research and describe a topic in the history of
97. 8.31 min; 43.2 min 89. You are cracking a code and have discovered physics. Explain how ideas about the topic
the following conversion factors: 1.23 longs changed over time. Be sure to include the
Writing in Physics = contributions of scientists and to evaluate the
23.0 mediums, and 74.5 mediums = 645 shorts. impact of their contributions on scientific thought
98. Answers will vary. How many shorts are equal to one long? and the world outside the laboratory.
99. Explain how improved precision in measuring
time would have led to more accurate predictions
about how an object falls.

28 Chapter 1 A Physics Toolkit For more problems, go to Additional Problems, Appendix B.

99. For example, students might Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory
suggest that improved precision
can lead to better observations.

®
Use ExamView Pro Testmaker CD-ROM to:
■
Create multiple versions of tests.
■
Create modified tests with one mouse click for struggling students.
■
Edit existing questions and add your own questions.
■
Build tests based on national curriculum standards.
28
 Multiple Choice
1. Two laboratories use radiocarbon dating to Rubric
measure the age of two wooden spear 5. Which formula is equivalent to D = ——m? The following rubric is a sample
handles m mD V scoring device for extended
found in the same grave. Lab A finds an age of V = —— V = ——
2250 ± 40 years for the first object; lab B finds D response questions.
DV
an age of 2215 ± 50 years for the second object. V = Dm V = ——
m
Which of the following is true? Extended Response
Lab A’s reading is more accurate than Extended Answer
lab B’s.
6. You want to calculate an acceleration, in units Points Description
Lab A’s reading is less accurate than lab B’s. of m/s2, given a force, in N, and the mass, in g,
4 The student demonstrates a
Lab A’s reading is more precise than lab B’s. on which the force acts. (1 N = 1 kg∙m/s2)
thorough understanding of
Lab A’s reading is less precise than lab B’s. a. Rewrite the equation F = ma so a is in the physics involved. The
terms of m and F. response may contain minor
2. Which of the following is equal to 86.2 cm?
b. What conversion factor will you need to flaws that do not detract
8.62 m 8.62×10—4 km multiply by to convert grams to kilograms? from the demonstration of a
0.862 mm 862 dm c. A force of 2.7 N acts on a 350-g mass. thor- ough understanding.
Write the equation you will use, including 3 The student demonstrates
3. Jario has a problem to do involving time, the conversion factor, to find the an understanding of the
distance, and velocity, but he has forgotten acceleration.
the formula. The question asks him for a physics involved. The re-
measurement in seconds, and the numbers sponse is essentially correct
that are given have units of m/s and km. 7. Find an equation for a line of best fit for and demonstrates an
What could Jario do to get the answer in the data shown below. essential but less than
seconds? thorough under- standing of
Distance v. Time
Multiply the km by the m/s, then the physics.
multiply by 1000. 12 2 The student demonstrates
Divide the km by the m/s, then multiply only a partial
by 1000. 10 understanding of the
Divide the km by the m/s, then divide physics involved.
by 1000. 8
Although the student may
Distance

Multiply the km by the m/s, then

6
have used the correct
divide by 1000. approach to a solution or
4 may have provided a
4. What is the slope of the graph?
correct solution, the work
0.25 m/s2 2.5 m/s2 2 lacks an essential
0.4 m/s2 4.0 m/s2 understanding of the
0
Stopping Distance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 underlying physical
Time (s) concepts.
4 1 The student demonstrates a
very limited understanding of
3
Skip Around if You Can the physics involved. The
response is incomplete and
Speed

2
You may want to skip over difficult questions and exhibits many flaws.
come back to them later, after you’ve answered the
1 easier questions. This will guarantee more points 0 The student provides a
toward your final score. In fact, other questions may
0 help you answer the ones you skipped. Just be sure
2 6 8 10 12 you fill in the correct ovals on your answer sheet.
4
Time (s)

[Link]/standardized_test
Chapter 1 Standardized Test Practice 29

Multiple Choice
1. C 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. A

Extended Answer 7. Distance v. Time 6

f d = — ——t + 11
6. a. a 12 7
=m 10
1 kg 8
—— 6
b 1000 g 4
c. a 2.7 kg∙m/s2 2
= ——
350 g
( )(1000 g)= 7.7 m/s2 ——
1 kg
0
1 2 3
4 5 6
7
Time
2
(s) 9