Section B

Ans no 1. Population:population refers to a group of individuals of the same species living in the same
area at the same time, capable of interbreeding.

Community: A community, on the other hand, encompasses all the populations of different species
living and interacting in the same area at the same time. So, while a population focuses on one species,
a community considers all the species present in an ecosystem.

Ans no 2: Forests are crucial for various reasons:

1. Biodiversity Conservation: Forests provide habitats for countless species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms, contributing to the preservation of biodiversity.

2. Climate Regulation: Forests play a vital role in regulating climate by absorbing carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis, thus mitigating the impacts of climate change.

3. Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, forests produce oxygen, which is essential for the
survival of all living organisms.

4. Water Cycle Regulation: Forests influence the water cycle by absorbing rainfall, reducing soil erosion,
and regulating the flow of rivers and streams, which are essential for freshwater supply and maintaining
ecosystem balance.

Ans no 3:The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) performs several important functions in cells:

1. Protein Synthesis: RER is studded with ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes on the
RER synthesize proteins that are destined for secretion, insertion into the cell membrane, or transport to
other organelles.

2. Protein Folding and Modification: As proteins are synthesized on the ribosomes of the RER, they enter
its lumen where they undergo folding into their proper three-dimensional structure.

3. Quality Control: The RER plays a crucial role in quality control by monitoring the folding of newly
synthesized proteins.

4. Membrane Biogenesis: The RER is involved in the synthesis of phospholipids and other lipids, which
are essential for the formation and maintenance of cellular membranes, including the plasma
membrane and organelle membranes.

Ans no 4: Bone and blood are both vital components of the human body, but they serve distinct
functions and have different compositions:

1. Composition:
 - Bone: Bones are composed of mineralized connective tissue, primarily consisting of calcium
phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals, which provide strength and rigidity. Bone tissue also
contains collagen fibers, which contribute to its flexibility and resilience.

- Blood: Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma.
The cellular components of blood include red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes),
and platelets (thrombocytes), while plasma consists mainly of water, electrolytes, proteins (such as
albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen), hormones, nutrients, and waste products.

2. Function:

- Bone: Bones provide structural support to the body, protect vital organs, facilitate movement by
serving as attachment points for muscles, and act as reservoirs of minerals, especially calcium and
phosphorus. Bone marrow, located within the cavities of certain bones, is responsible for hematopoiesis
—the production of blood cells.

- Blood: Blood performs various functions, including transportation of oxygen and nutrients to tissues,
removal of metabolic waste products, regulation of body temperature and pH, maintenance of fluid
balance, and defense against pathogens and foreign substances through the immune response.

3. Location:

- Bone: Bones form the skeletal system, which is distributed throughout the body and includes the
skull, vertebral column, ribs, appendicular skeleton (limbs), and other skeletal structures.

- Blood: Blood is circulated throughout the body within blood vessels, including arteries, veins, and
capillaries.

Ans no 5: In flowering plants, mitosis results in several important outcomes:

1. Growth: Mitosis allows for the growth and development of plant tissues, including roots, stems,
leaves, and flowers. By continuously dividing and producing new cells, plants can increase in size and
complexity.

2. Repair: Mitosis is essential for repairing damaged tissues in flowering plants. When tissues are injured
or wounded, mitotic cell division enables the replacement of damaged cells, facilitating the healing
process.

3. Asexual Reproduction: Some flowering plants reproduce asexually through mitosis. This can occur
through various mechanisms such as vegetative propagation, where new plants develop from
specialized structures like runners, rhizomes, bulbs, or stem cuttings. Mitosis ensures that the offspring
are genetically identical to the parent plant.

4. Formation of Gametophytes: In the life cycle of flowering plants, mitosis occurs during the formation
of gametophytes, which are the haploid (n) generation in the alternation of generations. Mitotic
divisions give rise to male gametophytes (pollen grains) in the anthers and female gametophytes
(embryo sacs) in the ovules. These gametophytes ultimately produce gametes (sperm and egg cells)
through mitosis.

Ans no 6: Necrosis is a type of cell death characterized by premature death of cells in living tissue due to
various pathological processes. Unlike apoptosis, which is a programmed and controlled form of cell
death, necrosis is typically associated with cellular injury, inflammation, and loss of cell membrane
integrity.

Two common causes of necrosis include:

1. Ischemia: Ischemia refers to a restriction in blood supply to tissues, leading to oxygen and nutrient
deprivation. When tissues do not receive an adequate blood supply, they undergo necrosis due to
cellular hypoxia (lack of oxygen) and subsequent metabolic disturbances. Ischemic necrosis can occur in
various conditions, including myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, and peripheral artery disease.

2. Trauma: Traumatic injury, such as physical trauma or chemical injury, can cause necrosis in affected
tissues. Mechanical trauma, such as blunt force trauma or lacerations, disrupts cellular structures and
can lead to necrotic cell death. Similarly, exposure to toxic chemicals or extreme temperatures can
induce necrosis by damaging cellular membranes and organelles, triggering inflammatory responses and
tissue destruction.

Ans no 7:A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound or ion that is required for the proper
functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions by aiding in
substrate binding, facilitating catalysis, or stabilizing reaction intermediates. Cofactors can be either
organic molecules, known as coenzymes, or inorganic ions.

Types of cofactors include:

1. Coenzymes: Coenzymes are small organic molecules that often function as carriers of chemical groups
or electrons during enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Examples of coenzymes include NAD+ (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), and coenzyme A. Coenzymes are often derived
from vitamins or other dietary nutrients.

2. Prosthetic Groups: Prosthetic groups are tightly bound cofactors that are permanently attached to the
enzyme and participate directly in catalysis. These groups are essential for the enzyme's activity and are
not released during the reaction. Examples include heme in hemoglobin and biotin in enzymes involved
in carboxylation reactions.

3. Metal Ions: Inorganic ions, such as metal ions, can also serve as cofactors by stabilizing enzyme-
substrate complexes or participating directly in catalysis by providing or accepting electrons. Common
metal ions acting as cofactors include zinc (Zn2+), magnesium (Mg2+), iron (Fe2+/Fe3+), and copper
(Cu2+).

Ans no 8:Peristalsis is a coordinated muscular contraction and relaxation that occurs along the walls of
hollow organs, such as the digestive tract, to propel contents through the organ in a forward direction.
During peristalsis, circular muscles behind the bolus (food mass) contract, while those ahead of it relax,
creating a wave-like motion that pushes the bolus forward. This sequential contraction and relaxation of
muscles help move food, liquids, or other materials through the digestive system, facilitating digestion
and absorption of nutrients.

Peristalsis is an involuntary process controlled by the autonomic nervous system and is essential for the
proper functioning of the digestive system. It ensures the efficient movement of food from the mouth to
the stomach and through the intestines, ultimately aiding in digestion and waste elimination.