ADDRESSES/INSTITUTIONS

James G. Ogg
Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, 550 ­Stadium
Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2051, USA. E-mail: jogg@[Link]
and
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Earth Sciences,
China ­University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China

Gabi M. Ogg
Geologic TimeScale Foundation, 1224 North Salisbury St., West Lafayette, Indiana 47906,
USA. E-mail: gabiogg@[Link]

Felix M. Gradstein
Geology Museum, University of Oslo, N-0318 Oslo, Norway. E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
and
ITT Fossil, Unisinos, University of Rio Grande do Sul, Sao Leopoldo, Brazil
A Concise Geologic
Time Scale
2016

James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg,

Felix M. Gradstein

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS

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Elsevier
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Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Notices
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CAPTION for COVER PHOTO:

Late Triassic in Italian Dolomites. The Lagazuoi peak is the resumption of late Carnian and Norian shallow-
water carbonates (Dolomia Principale) following a regional termination of prograding carbonate platforms
and influx of siliciclastics (the slope-forming Heiligkreuz and Travenanzes formations at its base). The brief
carbonate crisis is part of a global mid-Carnian warming and humid episode that appears to coincide with the
eruption of the Wrangellia large igneous province. Photo courtesy of Austin McGlannan.
 1
INTRODUCTION
Geologic time scale and this scale and some of the most common means
of global stratigraphic correlation and age
book calibration as graphics with brief explana-
tory texts. These rely extensively on the two-
A standardized geologic time scale is the
volume Geologic Time Scale 2012 (GTS2012)
framework for deciphering and understand-
compilation (Gradstein et al., 2012), and read-
ing the long and complex history of our
ers who desire more background or details
planet Earth. We are constantly improving our
should use that reference. This handbook
­knowledge of that history including the inter-
does incorporate some selected important
twined feedbacks among the evolution of life,
advances in stratigraphic scale calibration, in
the climatic and geochemical trends and oscil-
new ratified or candidate international divi-
lations, the sea-level withdrawals and trans-
sions and in their scaling to numerical time.
gressions, the drifting tectonic plates and major
Each chapter in this handbook, which
volcanic upheavals, and the radioisotopic and
generally spans a single geologic system or
astronomical-cycle dating of deposits. In turn,
period, includes:
this knowledge of past relationships and feed-
1. International divisions of geologic time,
backs enable us to make predictions about our
with graphics for ratified bases of series/
own future impacts on our planet.
epoch definitions (Global Boundary Stra-
The challenges and major accomplishments
totype Sections and Points (GSSPs)). GSSPs
of geoscientists are to integrate these diverse
for stage-level divisions are diagrammed
interpretations of the global stratigraphic
in GTS2012, at the website of the Geologic
record, to apply an age model (“linear time”) to
TimeScale Foundation, and at the websites
that geologic record, and to assign a standard-
of the ICS subcommissions.
ized and precise international terminology of
2. Major paleontological zonations, geo-
subdivisions. The publications of A Geologic
magnetic polarity reversals, selected geo-
Time Scale 1989 (Harland et al., 1989), of A Geo-
chemical trends (usually isotopic ratios
logic Time Scale 2004 (Gradstein et al., 2004;
of carbon and of oxygen), interpreted sea-
under the scientific auspices of the Interna-
level history, and other events or zones.
tional Commission on Stratigraphy, ICS), and
3. Explanation of the derivation and uncer-
of The Concise Geologic Time Scale (Ogg et al.,
tainties for the current numerical age
2008) spurned dedicated research and collec-
model of the stratigraphic boundaries and
tive activities to bring about improvements in
events, and a summary of any incorporated
stable-isotope stratigraphy, radioisotopic and
revised ages assigned to stage boundaries
cyclostratigraphic dating of stage boundaries,
compared to GTS2012.
and formal definitions of stage boundaries.
4. Selected references and websites for addi-
Any synthesis of this geologic time scale
tional information.
is a status report in this grand undertaking.
This Concise Geologic Time Scale 2016 hand- The stratigraphic scales in the diagrams are
book presents a brief summary of the current a small subset of the compilations and

A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]

Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1
2  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

databases in GTS2012 and other syntheses. “System” is the body of rocks that formed
One can generate custom charts from these during the Jurassic “Period.” A similar philos-
databases using the public TimeScale Creator ophy of clarifying whether one is discussing
visualization system available at [Link]- rocks or time applies to stratigraphic succes-
[Link] (which mirrors to [Link] sions in which the terms of “lower, upper,
[Link]/Stratigraphy/tscreator/). and lowest occurrence” have corresponding
geologic time terms of “early, late, and first
appearance” when describing the geologic
International divisions of history. (Note: The international geochrono-
geologic time and their global logic unit for the chronostratigraphic “stage”
is confusingly called an “age”; therefore,
boundaries (GSSPs) those columns are labeled “stage/age” on
A common and precise language of geo- our diagrams to distinguish from the adja-
logic time is essential to discuss Earth’s his- cent “age” column that is measured in mil-
tory. Hence, a chart of international ratified lions of years.)
stratigraphic units (e.g., Fig. 1.1) is a vital part
of the scientific toolbox carried by each earth
scientist to do his or her job. Ideally, each
stage boundary is defined at a precise Global
Biologic, chemical, sea-level,
Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) geomagnetic, and other events
(e.g., McLaren, 1978; Remane, 2003). This GSSP
is a point in the rock record of a specific out-
or zones
crop at a level selected to coincide with one or Geologic stages are recognized, not by their
more primary markers for global correlation boundaries, but by their content. The rich fos-
(lowest occurrence of a fossil, onset of a geo- sil record remains the main method to dis-
chemical anomaly, a distinctive geomagnetic tinguish and correlate strata among regions,
polarity reversal, etc.). The majority of ratified because the morphology of each taxon is
GSSP placements and the terminology for the most unambiguous way to assign a rela-
the geologic stages of Silurian through Qua- tive age. The evolutionary successions and
ternary were selected to correspond closely assemblages of each fossil group are generally
to traditional European usage (e.g., Emsian, grouped into zones. We have included selected
Campanian, Selandian). In contrast, those zonations and/or event datums (first or last
in the Cambrian and Ordovician were estab- appearances of taxa) for widely used biostrati-
lished after an international effort to identify graphic groups in each system/period. How-
a set of global events that could be reliably ever, as vividly illustrated by many studies,
correlated, therefore many of the ratified most biological first/last appearance datums
GSSPs have new stage names (e.g., Fortunian, are diachronous on the local to regional lev-
Katian) (Fig. 1.1). els due to migrations or facies dependences
Divisions of the preserved rock record, of the taxa, to different taxonomic opinions
geologic time, and assigned numerical ages among paleontologists, and other factors.
are separate but related concepts which are In some cases, GSSPs that had been ratified
united through the GSSP concept. Chro- based on their presumed coincidence with
nostratigraphic (“rock time”) units are the a single primary biostratigraphic marker are
rocks formed during a specified interval now being reevaluated or reassigned when it
of geologic time. Therefore, the Jurassic was discovered that the sole marker was not
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  3

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Figure 1.1 Units of the international chronostratigraphic time scale with estimated numerical ages from the GTS2016
age model.
4  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

reliable for precise correlations. These are dis- We have included major sequences as inter-
cussed within the relevant chapters. preted by widely used selected publications,
Trends and excursions in stable-isotope but many of these remain to be documented
ratios, especially of carbon 12/13 and stron- as global eustatic sea-level oscillations. A
tium 86/87, have become an increasingly discussion of eustasy and sequences is by
reliable method to correlate among regions. Simmons (in GTS2012).
Carbon 12/13 stratigraphy, like magneto- Geomagnetic polarity chronozones
stratigraphy, can be utilized in both marine (chrons) are well established for correla-
and nonmarine basins. Some of the carbon- tion of the magnetostratigraphy of fossilifer-
isotope excursions are associated with wide- ous strata to the magnetic anomalies of Late
spread deposition of organic-rich sediments Jurassic through Holocene. Pre-Late Jurassic
and with eruptions of large igneous provinces. magnetic polarity chrons have been verified
The largest magnitude excursions occur dur- in some intervals, but exact correlation to bio-
ing the Proterozoic through Silurian, but the stratigraphic zonations remains uncertain for
causes of some of these remain speculative. many of these. The geomagnetic scales on the
Ratios of oxygen 16/18 are particularly diagrams in this booklet are partly an update
useful for the glacial–interglacial cycles of of those compiled for GTS2012.
Pliocene–Pleistocene, and are important
in the interpretation of past temperature
trends through the Phanerozoic. However,
the conversion of oxygen-isotope ratios to
Assigned numerical ages
temperature requires knowing the oxygen- Although the GSSP concept standard-
isotope composition of seawater through izes the units of both chronostratigraphy
time. The tropical seawater temperatures and geologic time, the numerical age model
derived from Paleozoic and Mesozoic data (“linear time”) assigned to those boundaries
from phosphatic and carbonate fossils that and events is a more abstract interpretation
assume an ocean oxygen-isotope composi- based on extrapolation from radioisotopic-
tion similar to the Cenozoic tend to be anom- dated levels, astronomical cycles, relative
alously warm, indeed at levels that would placement in magnetic polarity zones, or
be lethal to modern marine life. Therefore, other methods. Those age models are always
Veizer and P ­rokoph (2015) hypothesized being refined; but ideally the ratified GSSPs
that there has been a progressive drift in are fixed. GTS2012 presented a suite of com-
ocean chemistry and that the derived tem- prehensive age models for each Phanerozoic
perature values should be adjusted. We have period and for the Cryogenian and Ediacaran
shown comparisons of the derived and the periods of the Proterozoic.
adjusted temperatures in some of the dia- Numerical ages in this book are abbrevi-
grams in this book. ated as “a” (for annum), “ka” for thousands,
Sea-level trends, especially rapid oscil- “Ma” for millions, and “Ga” for billions of
lations that caused widespread exposure or years before present. The moving “Present”
drowning of coastal margins, are associated has led many Holocene workers to use a
with these isotopic-ratio excursions in time “BP2000,” which assigns “Present” to the year
intervals characterized by glacial advances AD 2000. For clarity, elapsed time or duration
and retreats. The synchronicity and driving is abbreviated as “yr” (for year), “kyr” (thou-
cause of such stratigraphic sequences in inter- sands of years) or “myr” (millions of years).
vals that lack major glaciations are disputed. Ages are given in years before “Present” (BP).
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  5

In the years between the assembly of images of all taxa and links to Nannotax
GTS2012 in late 2011 and the preparation of and other external websites for each taxon,
this concise handbook in late 2015, many sig- human civilization scales, evolutionary
nificant enhancements have occurred. These charts of life, etc.
include enhanced astronomical time scales, In addition to screen views and a scalable-
publication of additional or refined radio- vector graphics (SVG) file for importation
isotopic dates, revised definitions for some into popular graphics programs, the onscreen
stage boundaries through ratified GSSPs or display has a variety of display options and
new preferred primary markers for candidate “hot-curser-points” to open windows pro-
GSSPs, and other advances. Even though we viding additional information on defini-
preferred to be conservative and retain as tions and method of assigning ages to zones
many ages from GTS2012 as possible, some of and events. Cross-plotting routines enable
these significant advances in geochronology conversion of outcrop/well data to stan-
were incorporated. Therefore, in addition to dardized geologic time diagrams. Tutorials
rescaling of zonations and events within provide instruction on making one’s own
stages, some of the assigned numerical ages data packs.
for some geologic stage boundaries required The database and visualization package
revisions from the age models used in GTS2012 are envisioned as a convenient reference tool,
(Table 1.1). Each chapter includes a brief chart-production assistant, and a window into
explanation of uncertainties in such age the geologic history of our planet. These are
assignments and possible future improve- progressively enhanced through the efforts of
ments in precision and accuracy. stratigraphic and regional experts, and contri-
butions are welcome.

TimeScale Creator database

and chart-making package Geologic Time Scale 2020
Onscreen display and production of At the time of this writing, a major com-
user-tailored timescale charts is provided prehensive update of the Geologic Time
by TimeScale Creator, a public JAVA pack- Scale is underway, targeted for publication
age available at [Link] (which in 2020 in collaboration with Elsevier Pub-
mirrors to [Link] lishing. A majority of international stage
Stratigraphy/tscreator/). The internal data- boundaries (GSSPs) should be established
base includes over 200 columns of all major by that date, including the base of the Ber-
biostratigraphic zonations, regional scales, riasian (base of the Cretaceous). The entire
geomagnetic polarity scales, geochemical Cenozoic and significant portions of the
trends, sea-level interpretations, major large Mesozoic–Paleozoic will have high-resolu-
igneous provinces, hydrocarbon occur- tion scaling based on astronomical tuning or
rences, etc. Additional online data packs orbital cycles. The book will be a full-color,
can be added that have the lithostratigraphy enhanced, improved, and expanded version
of regions scaled to the standardized GTS of GTS2012, with detailed coverage of zonal
(e.g., map-interfaces to all Australia basins biostratigraphy, stable and unstable isotope
in collaboration with Geoscience A ­ ustralia, stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy, global
British basins with the British Geological eustasy, and many other integrated aspects
Survey, etc.), microfossil zonations with of Earth’s fascinating history.
6  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Modified ages of stage boundaries in this book relative

to The Geologic Time Scale 2012

Chronostratigraphic
unit Age in this book Age in GTS 2012 Summary
Middle Pleistocene 0.773 0.781 Enhanced accuracy
Calabrian 1.80 1.806 Enhanced accuracy
Gelasian 2.58 2.59 Enhanced accuracy
Priabonian 37.97 37.7 Changed marker for base
Bartonian 41.03 41.15 Revised cyclostratigraphic
dating
Campanian 84.19 83.6 Revised radioisotopic dating
Santonian 86.49 86.3 Changed marker for base
Coniacian 89.75 89.8 Enhanced accuracy
Albian 113.14 113.0 Placement change for
boundary
Hauterivian 134.7 133.9 Revised ammonite and
cyclostratigraphic dating
Oxfordian 163.1 163.5 Revised boundary definition
Toarcian 183.7 182.7 Revised radioisotopic dating
Pliensbachian 191.36 190.8 Revision of stage boundaries
Sinemurian 199.4 199.3 Revision of stage boundaries
Hettangian 201.36 201.31 Revised radioisotopic dating
Anisian 246.8 247.1 Revision of stage boundaries
Olenekian 249.8 250.0 Revision of stage boundaries
Induan 251.902 252.16 Revised radioisotopic dating
Changhsingian 254.15 254.2
Kungurian 282.0 279.3 Revised spline fit
Gzhelian 303.4 303.7 Revised cyclostratigraphic
dating
Kasimovian 306.7 307.0 Changed marker for base
Moscovian 314.6 315.2 Changed marker for base
Stage 3 (base of Series 2) ca. 520 521 Implied precision on this
estimate is removed
Stage 2 ca. 530 529 Implied precision on this
estimate is removed
Cryogenian 720 850 Change of boundary
definition
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION  7

Selected publications and enhanced. Some selected ones (biased slightly

toward North America) are:
and websites Geologic TimeScale Foundation—[Link].
edu/Stratigraphy—diagrams of GSSPs for all stage
Cited references boundaries, time-scale charts, and supporter of
GTS2012/GTS2020 syntheses.
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Smith, A.G. (Eds.), 2004. A
TimeScale Creator—[Link]—free JAVA
Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge University
program for Earth history visualization, suites of
Press, Cambridge. 589 pp.
enhanced datasets, online “TSC-Lite,” etc. (mirrors
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., Ogg, G.M.,
to site at Purdue University)
(coordinators), with, Agterberg, F.P., Anthonissen,
International Commission on Stratigraphy—www.
D.E., Becker, T.R., Catt, J.A., Cooper, R.A., Davydov,
[Link]—for current status of all stage
V.I., Gradstein, S.R., Henderson, C.M., Hilgen, F.J.,
boundaries, the International Stratigraphic Guide,
Hinnov, L.A., McArthur, J.M., Melchin, M.J., Nar-
links to subcommission websites, etc.
bonne, G.M., Paytan, A., Peng, S., Peucker-Ehren-
Palaeos—The Trace of Life on Earth (originally compiled
brink, B., Pillans, B., Saltzman, M.R., Simmons, M.D.,
by Toby White)—[Link]—and others it
Shields, G.A., Tanaka, K.L., Vandenberghe, N., Van
references at end of each period. There is also a WIKI
Kranendonk, M.J., Zalasiewicz, J., Altermann, W.,
version being compiled at [Link]. The Palaeos
Babcock, L.E., Beard, B.L., Beu, A.G., Boyes, A.F.,
suite has incredible depth and is written for the
Cramer, B.D., Crutzen, P.J., van Dam, J.A., Gehling,
general scientist.
J.G., Gibbard, P.L., Gray, E.T., Hammer, O., Hartmann,
Smithsonian Paleobiology—“Geologic Time”—paleobi-
W.K., Hill, A.C., Paul, F., Hoffman, P.F., Hollis, C.J.,
[Link]/geotime—After entering, select the
Hooker, J.J., Howarth, R.J., Huang, C., Johnson, C.M.,
desired Period or Eon by clicking on (Make a
Kasting, J.F., Kerp, H., Korn, D., Krijgsman, W.,
Selection) in upper right corner of screen.
Lourens, L.J., MacGabhann, B.A., Maslin, M.A.,
Museum of Paleontology, University of California—
Melezhik, V.A., Nutman, A.P., Papineau, D., Piller,
[Link]/exhibits—thousands of
W.E., Pirajno, F., Ravizza, G.E., Sadler, P.M., Speijer,
pages about history of life on Earth. Main “exhibit”
R.P., Steffen, W., Thomas, E., Wardlaw, B.R., Wilson,
sections include Life through Time, Tour of Geologic
D.S., Xiao, S., 2012. The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Time, and Understanding Evolution.
Elsevier, Boston, USA. 1174 p. (2-volume book).
Paleontology Portal—[Link]—Exploring North
Harland, W.B., Armstrong, R.L., Cox, A.V., Craig, L.E.,
American geologic history (with geologic maps of
Smith, A.G., Smith, D.G., 1989. A Geologic Time Scale
each state), main fossil sites, and fossil gallery.
1989. Cambridge University Press. 263 pp. (and their
Palaeocast—[Link]—A free web series
previous A Geologic Time Scale 1982).
exploring the fossil record and the evolution of life
McLaren, D.J., 1978. Dating and correlation, a review. In:
on earth through an extensive suite of well-pre-
Cohee, G.V., Glaessner, M.F., Hedberg, H.D. (Eds.),
sented paleontology podcasts (ca. 60) with
Contributions to the Geologic Time Scale. Studies in
accompanying slideshows, news stories, and a
Geology, vol. 6. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 1–7.
future Virtual Natural History Museum. Launched
Ogg, J.G., Ogg, G., Gradstein, F.M., 2008. The Concise
in 2012 with education and outreach grants from
Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge University Press.
the Paleontological Society and the Palaeontologi-
177 p. (book). Translated in Japanese in 2012.
cal Association.
Remane, J., 2003. Chronostratigraphic correlations: their
Fossilworks (Paleobiology Database gateway)—
importance for the definition of geochronologic
[Link]—A suite of search and analytical tools
units. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo-
for using the large relational PaleoDB database of
ecology 196: 7–18.
global fossil occurrences (ca. 350,000 taxa; 57,000
Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen
references; contributed by over 400 scientists in 30
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
countries) to generate paleomaps, diversity curves,
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
etc. The online tool sets were developed by John Alroy.
PAST (PAlaeontological STatistics)—[Link]/ohammer/
Websites (selected) past—free software for scientific data analysis, with
In addition to many excellent books on historical functions for data manipulation, plotting, univariate
geology, paleontology, individual periods of geologic and multivariate statistics, ecological analysis, time
time and other aspects of stratigraphy, there is now an series and spatial analysis, morphometrics and
extensive suite of websites on the history of Earth’s stratigraphy; developed by Øyvind Hammer, Natural
surface and its life. These are continuously updated History Museum, University of Oslo.
8  Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Fossil Mall—[Link]—Even though it is a Paleomap Project (by Christopher Scotese)—www.

commercial site, it maintains an extensive educa- [Link]/.
tional outreach content with superb photographs Reconstructing the Ancient Earth (Ron Blakey)—
and an impressive synthesis column of major events [Link]
in Earth history and evolution.
Virtual Fossil Museum—[Link]—“An Additional collections of links to stratigraphy of
Education Resource Dedicated to the Diversity of different periods and paleontology of various phyla
Life” with extensive photographs and details of are at [Link], and other sites. The
macrofossils organized by period, by tree-of-life, and world-wide web array of posted information grows
by taxa group. Numerous contributors, coordinated daily. However, as lamented at the current Virtual
by Roger Perkins (bioinformatics with evolutionary Fossil Museum homepage “Back in 1999, there was a
biology interest) since 1999, and constantly nice site maintained by UC Berkeley, and a number of
expanded and enhanced through 2015 (last viewed). other sites that, like VFM, were built and maintained
Wikipedia online encyclopedia (a public effort)—en. by passionate amateurs. Most of these amateur sites
[Link]/wiki/Geologic_time_scale—directs are long gone, and some can’t even be found in
users to excellent summaries of each geologic period Internet archives.” Fortunately, some like Palaeos,
and most stages, plus links at the bottom of each were resurrected and maintained by the next
page to other relevant sites. generation of enthusiasts.
Plate Reconstructions (images and animations), some
selected sites:
 2
PLANETARY TIME SCALE
K.L. Tanaka1, W.K. Hartmann2
1U.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff, AZ, United States; 2Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, United States

Northern part of the western hemisphere of Mars. Left half shows a color elevation, shaded-relief view highlighting
the immense volcanic shields of the Tharsis rise. Right half shows a true-color view of the vast Valles Marineris and
Kasei Valles canyon systems, which connect to the dark basin of Chryse Planitia at upper right. From Tanaka et al., 2014;
Image data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Introduction definition of chronologic units. The following

summary is mainly reproduced from Tanaka
Formal stratigraphic systems have been and Hartmann (2008, 2012).
developed for the surfaces of Earth’s Moon, Relative ages of these units in most cases
Mars, and Mercury (Fig. 2.1). The time scales can be confirmed using size–frequency dis-
are based on regional and global geologic tributions and superposed craters. For the
mapping, which establishes relative ages of Moon, the chronologic units and cratering
surfaces delineated by superposition, trans- record are constrained by radiometric ages
action, morphology, and other relations and measured from samples collected from the
features. Referent map units are used to define lunar surface. This allows a calibration of the
the commencement of events and periods for areal density of craters versus age, which
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 9
10  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

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 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   11

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Figure 2.1 Planetary time scale with selected major events. Thick dashed line separates the Venus and Mercury
time scales. Diagram revised by G. Ogg from Tanaka and Hartmann (2012).
12  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

permits model ages to be measured from cra- orbits of asteroids indicate that they have
ter data for other lunar surface units. Model been the prime contributor to the lunar cra-
ages for other cratered planetary surfaces are tering record.
constructed by two methods: (1) estimating The materials of the early crust and the
relative cratering rates with Earth’s Moon and emplacement of extensive lava flows that
(2) estimating cratering rates directly based make up the lunar maria were dated by
on surveys of the sizes and trajectories of geologic inferences and by radiometric
asteroids and comets (e.g., Hartmann, 2005). methods on samples returned by the Apollo
missions (e.g., Wilhelms, 1987; Stöffler and
Ryder, 2001). Attempts were also made
The Moon to use the samples to date certain lunar
basin-forming impacts and the large cra-
The first formal extraterrestrial strati- ters, Copernicus and Tycho. Two processes
graphic system and chronology was developed have mainly accomplished resurfacing:
for Earth’s Moon beginning in the 1960s, first impacts and volcanism. Analogous to vol-
based on geologic mapping using telescopic canism, impact heating can generate flow-
observations (Shoemaker and Hackman, like deposits of melted debris that can infill
1962). These early observations showed that crater floors or terrains near crater rims. As
the rugged lunar highlands are densely cra- on Earth, the broadest time intervals are
tered, whereas the maria (Latin for “seas”) designated “Periods” and their subdivisions
form relatively dark, smooth plains consisting are “Epochs” (if not meeting formal strati-
of younger deposits that cover the floors of graphic criteria, these unit categories are
impact basins and intercrater plains. Resolv- not capitalized).
ing power of the lunar landscape improved From oldest to youngest, lunar chrono-
greatly with the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft logic units and their referent surface materials
(Fig. 2.2), which permitted also the first map- and events include:
ping of the farside of the Moon. By the end of 1. pre-Nectarian period, earliest materials
the decade and into the 1970s, manned and dating from solidification of the crust (a
unmanned exploration of lunar sites by the suite of anorthosite, norite, and troctolite)
Apollo and Luna missions brought return of until just before formation of the Nectaris
samples. The majority of early exploration basin;
involved the lunar nearside (facing Earth), 2. Nectarian Period, mainly impact melt and
and the stratigraphic system and chronology ejecta associated with Nectaris basin and
follow geologic features and events primarily later impact features;
expressed on the nearside (see Fig. 2.3). 3. Early Imbrian Epoch, consisting mostly of
The cratering rate was initially very basin-related materials associated at the
high; uncertain is whether the lunar crater- beginning with Imbrium basin and ending
ing rate records a relatively brief period of with Orientale basin;
catastrophic “Late Heavy Bombardment” 4. Late Imbrian Epoch, characterized by
in the inner solar system at ∼4.0 Ga, possi- mare basalts post-dating Orientale basin;
bly spawned by perturbations in the orbits 5. Eratosthenian Period, represented by
of the giant outer planets (e.g., Strom et al., dark, modified ejecta of Eratosthenes cra-
2005). Alternatively, the dense population of ter; and
highland craters records the gradual trailing 6. Copernican Period, characterized by rela-
off of the accretionary period itself. Tele- tively fresh bright-rayed ejecta of Coperni-
scopic surveys of the numbers, sizes, and cus crater.
 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   13

Figure 2.2 Lunar stratigraphy: (A) Photograph of the Moon. Provided by Gregory Terrance (Finger Lakes
Instrumentation, Lima, New York; [Link]).
14  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

Figure 2.2 (Continued) (B) Copernicus region of the Moon. Approximate location of this region is shown on
a photograph of the Moon. Copernicus crater (C) is 93 km in diameter and centered at latitude (lat) 9.7°N, longitude
(long) 20.1°W. Copernicus is representative of bright-rayed crater material formed during the lunar Copernican
Period. Its ejecta and secondary craters overlie Eratosthenes crater (E), which is characteristic of relatively dark
crater material of the Eratosthenian Period. In turn, Eratosthenes crater overlies relatively smooth mare materials (M)
of the Late Imbrian Epoch. The oldest geologic unit in the scene is the rugged rim ejecta of Imbrium basin (I), which
defines the base of the Early Imbrian Epoch (Lunar Orbiter IV image mosaic; north at top; illumination from right; cour-
tesy of US Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Team).

Mars the Moon (Fig. 2.4). Beginning in the 1970s

with the Mariner 9 and Viking spacecraft, and
The Red Planet has a geologic character sim- continuing with a flotilla of additional orbiters
ilar to the Moon, with vast expanses of cratered and landers beginning in the 1990s, Mars has
terrain and lava plains, but with the important become a highly investigated planet. Geologic
addition of features resulting from the activity mapping led to characterization of periods
of wind and water over time. This results in a and epochs as on the Moon (e.g., reviews in
geologically complex surface history; geologic Tanaka, 1986; Kallenbach et al., 2001; Nimmo
mapping has assisted in unraveling it, follow- and Tanaka, 2005; Tanaka et al., 2014)
ing the approaches developed for studies of (Fig. 2.1).
 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   15

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16  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

90° N
Boreum
Va s t i t a s B o r e a l i s
60° N

Acidalia Deuteronilus
Utopia Alba Tempe
Arcadia
30° N
Olympus Arabia
Elysium Chryse
Amazonis Lunae
Isidis Syrtis
Tharsis Xanthe Major
0° N 120° 180° 240° 300° 0° E 60°
Valles Margaritifer
Marineris Sabaea
Tyrrhena
Daedalia S y r i a
Hesperia Cimmeria Thaumasia
30° S
Noachis
Promethei Sirenum Hellas
Argyre
Aonia Malea
60° S
Australe
90° S

GEOLOGIC UNITS
A polar layered deposits H materials N-EH volcanic materials
EA Vastitas Borealis unit LN-EH knobby materials N materials
LH-LA volcanic materials LN-EH materials EN massif material

Figure 2.4 Global geologic map of Mars. Generalized geologic map of Mars showing distribution of major
material types and their ages. Chronologic unit abbreviations: N, Noachian; H, Hesperian; A, Amazonian; E, Early; L,
Late. (Adapted from Nimmo and Tanaka (2005).) Terrain names shown without descriptor terms. Mollweide projection,
using east longitudes, centered on 260°E, Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) shaded-relief base illuminated from
the East. On Mars, 1° latitude = 59 km.

The pre-Noachian period represents the extensive volcanism, particularly during the
age of the early crust and is not represented Early Hesperian Epoch. Mars Express and
in known outcrops, but a Martian meteorite, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter data indicate
ALH84001, was crystallized at ∼4.5 Ga. that clay minerals occur in some Noachian
Heavily cratered terrains formed during strata, whereas hydrated sulfates are mostly
the Noachian Period. These include large in Hesperian rocks. A thick permafrost zone
impact basins of the Early Noachian Epoch, developed as the surface cooled, and much of
vast cratered plains of the Middle Noachian, the fluvial activity during the Late Hesperian
and intercrater plains resurfaced by fluvial Epoch occurred as catastrophic flood out-
and possibly volcanic deposition during the bursts through this frozen zone, perhaps initi-
Late Noachian when the atmosphere appar- ated by magmatic activity.
ently was thicker and perhaps warmer and The Amazonian Period began with expan-
heat flow was higher. sive resurfacing of the northern lowlands,
Hesperian Period rocks are much less cra- perhaps by sedimentation within a large
tered and record waning fluvial activity but body of water. Much lower levels of volcanism
 Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE   17

and fluvial discharges, coupled with aeolian Tolstojan (Nectarian)

deposition and erosion continued into the Calorian (Imbrian)
Middle and Late Amazonian Epochs. Contin- Mansurian (Eratosthenian)
ued weathering has led to iron oxidation of Kuiperian (Copernican)
surface materials. Absolute ages for these periods are much
The polar plateaus, covered by bright more uncertain than for the Moon and Mars.
deposits of residual ice as well as seasonally
waxing and waning meter-thick CO2 frost, are
among the youngest features on the planet. Venus
Ice-rich mantles and glacial-like deposits at
The Venusian surface has been investi-
middle and equatorial latitudes signal climate
gated extensively with orbiters and landers,
oscillations in the relatively recent geologic
most recently by the Magellan orbiter with
record.
its mapping radar in the 1990s. Impact cra-
The NASA rover, Curiosity, is investigat-
ter densities are low. Statistics of nearly 1000
ing Gale Crater, which formed toward the end
impact craters on its surface indicate that
of the Noachian Period (Le Deit et al., 2012).
Venus has an average surface age of hundreds
This crater was partly filled by fluvial, deltaic,
of millions of years. Despite its spectacular
and lacustrine sediments over a few hundred
volcanic surface dotted with thousands of
million years during the early part of the Hes-
volcanoes and broad fields of lava flows, all of
perian Period. These deposits were partially
which has been tectonically disrupted to vary-
exhumed by wind erosion during the middle
ing degrees, the details of the global geologic
Hesperian (ca. 3.3 to 3.1 billion years ago) to
evolution of this Earth’s twin planet in size
form the massive Aeolis Mons (Mount Sharp)
are not well constrained. Possibilities range
of cyclic sediment deposits up to 5-km thick
from local to regional events driven by mantle
and 6000 km2 in area within the Gale crater
plumes to global volcanic and tectonic evolu-
(e.g., Grotzinger et al., 2015). There has been
tion driven by atmospheric greenhouse-heat-
only very slow eolian erosion since the middle
ing effects on Venusian climate (e.g., Bougher
Hesperian.
et al., 1997).

Mercury Other solar system bodies

The innermost planet was partly imaged The solid surfaces of asteroids and sat-
by flybys of the Mariner 10 spacecraft in 1974 ellites of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep-
and 1975, enabling stratigraphic studies that tune show varying degrees of cratering that
reveal a remarkably similar surface history to reflect surface ages (e.g., Schenk et al., 2004).
that of Earth’s Moon (e.g., Spudis and Guest, Although asteroids are commonly saturated
1988). Consequently, a Mercurian chronol- with craters, indicating their primordial ori-
ogy was developed based on impact basins gin, some asteroids, comet nuclei, and other
and craters that may have similar histories to bodies demonstrate later resurfacing as their
comparable lunar features (Fig. 2.1). rocky or icy crusts evolved. Dating these sur-
Thus, five major periods have been pro- faces relies on inferences of the populations
posed that correspond to those of the Moon, as of projectiles across time and space. Absolute
follows: dates are very poorly constrained. Complica-
pre-Tolstojan (equivalent to the lunar tions in estimates of cratering rates include
pre-Nectarian) the relative importance of asteroids in the
18  Chapter 2 PLANETARY TIME SCALE

inner solar system versus that of comets and Strom, R.G., Malhotra, R., Ito, T., Yoshida, F., Kring, D.A.,
other icy materials of the Kuiper Belt. 2005. The origin of planetary impactors in the inner
solar system. Science 309: 1847–1850.
Tanaka, K.L., 1986. The stratigraphy of Mars. Proceedings
of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 17,
Selected publications Part 1. Journal of Geophysical Research 91: E139–E158.
Tanaka, K.L., Hartmann, W.K., 2008. 2 planetary time
and websites scale. In: Ogg, J.G., Ogg, G., Gradstein, F.M. (Eds.),
The Concise Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge
Cited publications University Press, pp. 13–22.
Bougher, S.W., Hunten, D.M., Phillips, R.J., 1997. Venus II: Tanaka, K.L., Hartmann, W.K., 2012. The planetary time
Geology, Geophysics, Atmosphere, and Solar Wind scale. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg,
Environment. The University of Arizona Press, G., (Coordinators). The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Tucson. 1362 pp. Elsevier Publisher, pp. 275–298. (An overview on the
Grotzinger, et al., 2015. Deposition, exhumation, and geologic history of all inner planets, Earth’s Moon,
paleoclimate of an ancient lake deposit, Gale crater, and briefly on the moons of Mars and Jupiter.).
Mars (47 authors total) Science 350: 177. http:// Tanaka, K.L., Skinner Jr., J.A., Dohm, J.M., Irwin III, R.P.,
[Link]/10.1126/science.aac7575 summary; full Kolb, E.J., Fortezzo, C.M., Platz, T., Michael, G.G.,
version (12 pp.) at. Hare, T.M., 2014. Geologic Map of Mars: U.S.
Hartmann, W.K., 2005. Martian cratering 8: isochron Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3292,
refinement and the chronology of Mars. Icarus 174: Scale 1:20,000,000, Pamphlet 43. [Link]
294–320. org/10.3133/sim3292. [Link]
Kallenbach, R., Geiss, J., Hartmann, W.K., 2001. Chronol- sim/3292/.
ogy and Evolution of Mars. Kluwer Academic Wilhelms, D.E., 1987. The geologic history of the Moon.
Publishers, Dordrecht. 498 pp. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1348 302
Le Deit, L., Hauber, E., Fueten, F., Mangold, N., Pondrelli, pp., 12 plates.
M., Rossi, A., Jaumann, R., 2012. Model age of Gale
Crater and origin of its layered deposits. In: Third Selected further reading
International Conference on Early Mars: Geologic and
Basaltic Volcanism Study Project, 1981. Basaltic
Hydrological Evolution, Physical and Chemical
Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets. Houston: Lunar
Environments, and the Implications for Life (Lake
and Planetary Institute, Houston. 1286 pp.
Tahoe, Nevada, 21–25 May 2012): [Link]. http://
Melosh, H.J., 2011. Planetary Surface Processes.
[Link]/meetings/earlymars2012/
Cambridge University Press. 500 pp.
pdf/[Link].
Nimmo, F., Tanaka, K., 2005. Early crustal evolution of
Mars. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Websites (selected)
33: 133–161. US Geological Survey Astrogeology Research
Schenk, P.M., Chapman, C.R., ZahnIe, K., Moore, J.M., Program—[Link]/, especially:
2004. Ages and interiors: the cratering record of the Astropedia: [Link]/search/.
Galilean satellites. In: Bagenal, F., Dowling, T.E., Solar System Exploration (NASA)—[Link].
McKinnon, W.B. (Eds.), Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites gov.
and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press, Welcome to the Planets (JPL, NASA)—[Link]/
Cambridge, pp. 427–456. planets/.
Shoemaker, E.M., Hackman, R.J., 1962. Stratigraphic Mars Exploration Program (NASA)—[Link].
basis for a lunar time scale. In: Kopal, Z., Mikhailov, [Link]/.
Z.K. (Eds.), The Moon. Academic Press, London, Wikipedia—Lunar Geologic Timescale—[Link].
pp. 289–300. org/wiki/Lunar_geologic_time_scale; and Geologic
Spudis, P.D., Guest, J.E., 1988. Stratigraphy and geologic history or Mars: [Link]
history of Mercury. In: Vilas, F., Chapman, C.R., Geological_history_of_Mars.
Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Mercury. The University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 118–164.
Stöffler, D., Ryder, G., 2001. Stratigraphy and isotope ages
of lunar geologic units: chronological standards for
the inner solar system. Space Science Reviews 96: 9–54.
 3
PRECAMBRIAN

The Archean World. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution. Painting by Peter Sawyer. [[Link]
ocean-throughout-geologic-time-image-gallery]

Status of international The interval with no preserved rock record

subdivisions from the formation of the Earth at 4.567 to
ca. 4 Ga is named the “Hadean” Eon, a term
The first 4 billion years of Earth’s his- derived from Greek for “unseen place” and also
tory consist of the Hadean, Archean, and referring to the mythical Hades land of the dead
Proterozoic eons. The Precambrian sim- (Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy,
ply refers to the time interval and all rocks 2014). The Hadean is followed at ca. 4 Ga by the
that formed prior to the beginning of the Archean (from the Greek word meaning “begin-
Cambrian Period (base of Phanerozoic Eon) ning/origin”) and at ca. 2.5 Ga by the Proterozoic
at 541 Ma. (from Greek for “earlier life”) (Fig. 3.1).
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 19
 Current subdivision of the Precambrian Time Scale
Age
(Ma)
0
Cenozoic Age of Mammals

Phanerozoic
200
Mesozoic Age of Dinosaurs

Coals, amphibians and insects

400 Paleozoic
Mainly only ocean life
600 Ediacaran Ediacaran Fauna

proterozoic proterozoic
Cryogenian Glacial deposits

Neo-
800
Tonian
1000
Stenian Long period of stable
one-celled-life ecosystems in
1200 Meso- apparently constant environments
Ectasian Supercontinent Rodinia
Proterozoic

1400 (~1300 to 900 Ma)

Calymmian
1600
Statherian
Paleoproterozoic

1800
Supercontinent Columbia/Nuna
Orosirian formation, then break-up
2000
Increased burial of organic carbon
2200 Rhyacian (”L-J” 13C positive excursion)
Oxygen begins to accumulate in
2400 Siderian atmosphere; major glaciations
Oxygen levels rise in oceans
causing banded-iron formations
archean archean archean archean

2600
Paleo- Meso- Neo-

2800 Sedimentary basins on stable

or growing continents
3000

3200
Growth of nuclei of continents

3400
Archean

3600 Earliest preserved sedimentary

rocks and chemical traces of life
Eo-

3800
Oldest preserved pieces of
4000
continental crust

Rapid crust formation & recycling;

4200 heavy meteorite bombardment.
Hadean Earliest Life (Prokaryotes,
(informal) simple-celled) evolved?
4400
Accretion of Earth; then giant
4567
Moon-forming impact event

Figure 3.1 The current Precambrian time scale. The current Precambrian eons, eras, and periods, from the Interna-
tional Commission on Stratigraphy, based on Plumb and James (1986) and Plumb (1991). Note that Precambrian is not a
formal time scale unit and that all divisions of the Precambrian are chronometric (fixed dates at base). Exceptions are
the Cryogenian and the Ediacaran. The base of the Cryogenian Period was initially set at 850 Ma (Plumb, 1991), but was
revised in 2014/2015 to the ca. 720 Ma date of the onset of the first global glaciation—the criteria for placement of a
future GSSP. The base of the Ediacaran is a chronostratigraphic GSSP at the termination of the last Cryogenian glacia-
tion dated as 635 Ma (see next chapter). Only era divisions are shown for the Phanerozoic Eon. In the years since these
Precambrian divisions were standardized in 1990, our dating of major events and cycles in Precambrian geologic history
have indicated that the current Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs) do not adequately convey this history.
 Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  21

Although microbial life existed through- stratigraphic boundaries to the actual rock
out the Archean and Proterozoic, the lack of a record, (2) the current divisions do not ade-
diverse and well-preserved fossil record prior quately convey the major events in the fas-
to the late Ediacaran, coupled with uncer- cinating history of our planet, and (3) severe
tainties in geochemical or other stratigraphic diachroneity of global tectonic events. Hence,
means of correlations, is a challenge to estab- major research efforts are underway by the
lish a formal chronostratigraphic scale. Radio- Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigra-
isotopic dating was the main method for phy to replace the current GSSA chronometric
correlating the Precambrian geologic records; scheme to one that is more naturalistic with
therefore, the Subcommission on Precambrian GSSPs. In GTS2012, members of the Subcom-
Stratigraphy adopted the use of chronometric mission on Precambrian Stratigraphy under
GSSAs for the international subdivisions and the leadership of Martin van Kranendonk,
standardization of interregional geological suggested a possible stratigraphic scheme
maps (Plumb and James, 1986; Plumb, 1991). (revised from Bleeker, 2004) that is principally
The Archean Eon is subdivided into four eras based on sedimentological, geochemical,
(rounded to the nearest 100-myr boundaries), geotectonic, and biological events recorded in
and the Proterozoic into three eras and 10 peri- the rock record with potential “golden spikes”
ods (the first eight of which are rounded to the (Van Kranendonk et al., 2012) (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
nearest 50-myr boundaries). The two young- The following summary is largely based on
est periods, Cryogenian (ca. 720 Ma to 635 Ma) the extensive Precambrian synthesis by Van
with its major glaciations and the Ediacaran Kranendonk et al. (2012) and Van Kranendonk
(635–541 Ma) with metazoan life forms, are (2014).
summarized in the next chapter. The dates for
these GSSA boundaries (and the poetic names Hadean
for the Proterozoic periods) were selected to
delimit major events in tectonics, surface con- The oldest solid materials in the solar sys-
ditions, and sedimentation as known in 1990 tem, therefore the oldest rocks that would
(Table 3.1). have been incorporated in the accretion
of planet Earth, are considered calcium–
aluminum-rich aggregates in chondritic
Summary of Precambrian meteorites that are dated as 4.567 Ga; and
that date is assigned as the beginning of the
trends and events, and a Hadean Eon. After the giant Moon-forming
potential revised time scale impact at ca. 4.5 Ga, the sphere of molten sili-
cate material cooled and differentiated into
Since 1990, our knowledge and dating of the core and mantle. The oldest preserved
the development of Earth’s tectonic cycles, mineral crystals from cooling of magma on
crustal features, atmosphere and ocean com- Earth are zircons dated 4.4 Ga that were later
position, geochemical trends and excursions, recycled into weakly metamorphosed sand-
major volcanic and impact events, and stages stone in the Jack Hills of the Yilgarn Craton of
in evolution of life through the Precambrian Western Australia. One of these zircons has
has vastly increased. Some major trends are been reanalyzed by high-resolution map-
displayed in Fig. 3.2. ping of radiogenic isotopes to yield a pre-
The shortcomings of the current rounded cise 4.374 ± 0.006 Ga date (Valley et al., 2014;
dates for the chronometric subdivisions of reviewed by Bowring, 2014). This early crust
Precambrian time are: (1) a lack of ties of was largely destroyed during the Late Heavy
22  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Table 3.1 Nomenclature for periods of Proterozoic Eon in the current International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic time-scale with their
intended characteristics

Period name Base (Ma) Derivation and geological process

Ediacaran ∼635 Ediacara  =  from Australian Aboriginal term “Earliest metazoan life”
for place near water
GSSP in Australia coincides with termination of glaciations and a pronounced carbon-
isotope excursion
Cryogenian ∼720 Cryos  =  ice; Genesis  =  birth “Global glaciation”
Glacial deposits, which typify the late Proterozoic, are most abundant during this
interval. Base, formerly at 850  Ma, was re-defined in 2014/2015 as onset of the first
global glaciation.
Tonian 1000 Tonas  =  stretch
Further major platform cover expansion (e.g., Upper Riphean, Russia.; Qingbaikou,
China; basins of northwest Africa), following final cratonization of polymetamorphic
mobile belts.
Stenian 1200 Stenos  =  narrow “Narrow belts of intense
metamorphism & deformation”
Narrow polymetamorphic belts, characteristic of the mid-Proterozoic, separated the
abundant platforms and were orogenically active at about this time (e.g., Grenville,
Central Australia).
Ectasian 1400 Ectasis  =  extension “Continued expansion of platform
covers”
Platforms continue to be prominent components of most shields.
Calymmian 1600 Calymma  =  cover “Platform covers”
Characterized by expansion of existing platform covers, or by new platforms on
recently cratonized basement (e.g., Riphean of Russia).
Statherian 1800 Statheros  =  stable, firm “Stabilization of cratons;
Cratonization”
This period is characterized on most continents by either new platforms (e.g., North
China, north Australia) or final cratonization of fold belts (e.g., Baltic Shield, north
America).
Orosirian 2050 Orosira  =  mountain range “Global orogenic period”
The interval between about 1900 and 1850  Ma was an episode of orogeny on virtually
all continents.
Rhyacian 2300 Rhyax  =  stream of lava “Injection of layered complexes”
The Bushveld Complex (and similar layered intrusions) is an outstanding event of this time.
Siderian 2500 Sideros  =  iron “Banded iron formations”(BIFs)
The earliest Proterozoic is widely recognized for an abundance of BIFs, which peaked
just after the Archean–Proterozoic boundary.
Modified from Plumb (1991).
 Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  23

Bombardment resurfacing of the inner solar of continental crust beginning at ca. 2.78 until
system planets and Moon (ca. 4.1 to 3.85 Ga). 2.63 Ga (e.g., O’Neill et al., 2015) (Fig. 3.2).
The accretion of planet Earth, partial dif- The expansion of photosynthetic life in
ferentiation of its core–mantle, and the for- these basins removed carbon dioxide in the
mation of the Moon from the ejected residual form of stromatolite carbonates. However, car-
from a massive impact with Earth all occurred bon preserved in kerogen in these stromato-
during the “Chaotian” interval between these lites during the interval from ca. 2.7 to 2.5 Ga
two dates (Van Kranendonk et al., 2012). has highly negative δ13Corg values (down to
−61 per mille), indicative of a dominance
of 12C-enriched products from methane-
Archean producing organisms or other methanogen-
The oldest surviving rocks that have been esis process. The photosynthesis activity and
dated, the Acasta Gneiss Complex of the Slave carbon burial also increased the influx and
Craton in Canada, at 4.03 Ga (Bowring and concentration of oxygen waste products in the
Williams, 1999), form the base of the Archean. atmosphere and oceans. The oxygen dissolv-
The oldest sedimentary rocks with preserved ing into the marine waters caused precipita-
primary features are in the Isua supracrustal tion of iron oxides, which resulted in a unique
belt of the North Atlantic Craton, western episode of extensive banded iron formations
Greenland with an age of 3.81 Ga. (BIF) beginning at ca. 2.6 Ga. The onsets of
The oldest well-preserved structures these relatively rapid and easily correlated
formed by life are stromatolites from ancient global changes are options for redefining and
microbial mats in the Dresser Formation of subdividing the Neoarchean Era into an earlier
the Warrawoona Group from the humorously “Methanian Period” before the methane-pro-
named “North Pole” dome region of the Pil- ducing microbes were inhibited by the rising
bara Craton of Western Australia, dated at ca. oxygen levels, followed by a “Siderian Period”
3.481 ± 0.002 Ga (e.g., Van Kranendonk et al., for the main episode of BIF deposition as char-
2008). The oldest known intertidal shoreline acterized by those in the Hamersley Basin of
deposit, the Strelley Pool Formation of Western Western Australia (Van Kranendonk et al.,
Australia, dated at ca. 3.43 Ga, contains stro- 2012) (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
matolites and candidates for organic micro-
fossils preserved in episodic silica cementation
(Brasier et al., 2015). The origins of life itself are Proterozoic
not known and remain a major challenge facing The rising oxygen levels, increased weath-
science. ering rates, and burial of carbon led to major
Van Kranendonk et al. (2012) suggest changes in the Earth system beginning at
using this suite of the oldest rock, the oldest ca. 2.42 Ga—just after the traditional place-
well-preserved sediment, and the oldest bio- ment for the Archean/Proterozoic boundary
structure as chronostratigraphic boundaries at 2.5 Ga. Extensive removal of atmospheric
to delimit the Acastan and the Isuan periods carbon dioxide contributed to the near-global
within a Paleoarchean Era. “Huronian” glaciations during ca. 2.4–2.25 Ga
Basins formed within the growing cratons (e.g., review by Tang and Chen, 2013). When
during the Mesoarchean Era, and this Era this “Snowball Earth” episode ended, it was a
could be subdivided with a GSSP at the base different world. In the oxygenated oceans, the
of ca. 3 Ga quartz-rich sandstone in a platform complex-celled eukaryotic life forms with
setting. Dating of crustal rocks indicate that aerobic metabolism appeared and thrived,
there was another widespread growth period later evolving into Phanerozoic animals.
24  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Precambrian Time Scale

Current Time scale Iron & 13C
carb Alternate Time
AGE Crust Potential scale
Oxygen (per-mille PDB)
Era

Era
(Ma) Period Formation -10 -5 0 5 10 GSSP Markers Period
Formation
600 Ediacaran Ediacaran Neopro-
proterozoic proterozoic

FA of Ediacaran Fauna 635

Cryogenian glaciation ICIE
Beginning of near-
global Glaciation
720 Cryogenian terozoic
Neo-

800 Bitter
Tonian Rodinia Springs

Mesoproterozoic
assembly
1000
Stenian
1200
Meso-

‘Rodinian’
Ectasian
1400
Calymmian
1600
Nuna/
Statherian Columbia
Paleoproterozoic

FA of sulphidic
assembly marine deposits 1780
1800
?

proterozoic
Orosirian ‘Columbian’

Paleo-
End of LJE /
2000 Start of Corg-rich 2060
Rise deposition
in O2 Lomagundi- ‘Jatulian’/
2200 Rhyacian Jatuli isotopic
FA of positive δ13C
2250 ‘Eukaryian’
anomalies and
Event flood basalts
“Huronian”
glaciations ‘Oxygenian’
FA of glacial deposits 2420
2400 Siderian
late Archean

archean
super-event Hamersley- Siderian

Neo-
archean archean archean archean

2600 type FA of Hamersley BIF 2630

Neo-

banded
FA of continental flood
iron formation
basalts and negative 2780 ‘Methanian’
2800 δ13Ckerogen values

‘Pongolan’
Meso-

FA of terrestrial basins 3020

archean
3000

Meso-
3200
‘Vaalbaran’
Paleo-

3400 FA of macroscopic 3490

fossils (stromatolites)

3600
archean

‘Isuan’
Paleo-
Eo-

3800 Earth's oldest 3810

supracrustal rocks
‘Acastan’
4000 Earth’s oldest rocks 4030
Hadean (informal) (Acasta Gneiss) Hadean (informal)

Figure 3.2 Major trends in Precambrian geologic history. (Modified from synthesis diagrams in Van Kranendonk
et al. (2012; figs 16.15 and 16.32 in that paper), Van Kranendonk (2014), and O’Neill et al. (2015)). Relative rates of
crustal accumulation and possible relationship to supercontinent accretion and breakup are based on the compilation
by McCulloch and Bennett (1994; see discussions in O’Neill et al., 2015). Carbon-isotope curves are smoothed versions
from the syntheses for the Archean through middle Proterozoic by Halverson et al. (2005), and for the late Proterozoic
by Cohen and Macdonald (2015) calibrated by them to the Cryogenian–Ediacaran time scale of Rooney et al. (2015).
“ICIE” is the Islay carbon-isotope excursion, and “FA” indicates a first-appearance level or the onset of an episode.
The age model is from Van Kranendonk et al. (2012).
 Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  25

Proposed new subdivision of the Precambrian Time Scale

Age
(Ma)
0
Cenozoic Age of Mammals
Phanerozoic

200
Mesozoic Age of Dinosaurs

Coals, amphibians and insects

400 Paleozoic
Mainly only ocean life
541 First appearance of Ediacaran Fauna
600 Neopro- Ediacaran Ediacaran 635 End of Global Glaciation
terozoic Cryogenian Major ice ages
720 Beginning of near-global Glaciation
800 First appearance of δ13C anomalies
Mesoproterozoic

1000

1200
‘Rodinian’ Environment stability;
Proterozoic

reducing deep oceans

1400

1600

First appearance of sulphidic

1800 1780
marine deposits
‘Columbian’ Supercontinent formation
archean proterozoic

(Columbia/Nuna)
2000
Paleo-

2060 End of LJE / Start of Corg-rich deposition

‘Jatulian’/ Lomagundi-Jatuli isotopic
2200 ‘Eukaryian’ excursion 2250 First appearance of positive δ13C anomalies
Glaciations; rise in +/or breakout magmatism
‘Oxygenian’ atmospheric O
2
2400 2420 First appearance of glacial deposits
Siderian Deposition of banded iron formation;
waning continental growth
Neo-

2600 2630 First appearance of Hamersley BIF

‘Methanian’ Major crustal growth & recycling First appearance of continental flood
2780
2800 basalts and/or negative δ13Ckerogen values
‘Pongolan’ Basin deposition on
stable continents
archean

3000 3020 First appearance of terrestrial basins

Meso-
Archean

3200 Growth of stable continental nuclei;

‘Vaalbaran’ oldest macroscopic
evidence for life
3400
First appearance of macroscopic
3490
fossils (stromatolites)
3600 First preserved sedimentary rocks,
archean

‘Isuan’
Paleo-

with chemical traces of life

3800 3810 Earth's oldest supracrustal rocks
Oldest preserved pieces of
‘Acastan’ continental crust
4000 4030 Earth’s oldest rocks (Acasta Gneiss)
Hillsian’ or
‘Zirconian’

Rapid crust formation & recycling;

Hadean

4200 continued heavy meteorite

bombardement
‘Jack

‘Chaotian’ Earth’s oldest crustal material

4400 4404
Accretion of giant Moon-forming (detrital zircons)
impact event 4567 Formation of the solar system
4567

Figure 3.3 An option for a subdivision of the Precambrian time scale using geologic events. The definitions, age
estimates, and nomenclature for these subdivisions are by Van Kranendonk et al. (2012).
26  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Extensive flood basalts erupted onto several which has been termed the “boring billion”
continental plates. The isotopic composition (e.g., Young, 2013; Cawood and Hawkesworth,
of the global carbon cycle, which had been 2014). For the majority of this quiet time, evi-
remarkably stable through the late Archean, dence is relatively lacking for the evolution of
suddenly underwent the largest positive new life forms, major climatic changes, stron-
excursions in δ13Ccarb in the entire geologic tium- or carbon-isotope excursions, new pas-
record. This Lomagundi–Jatuli Excursion sive margins, and the formation of important
(LJE) was named after its initial recognition in ore deposits. Therefore, this interval is diffi-
the Lomagundi province in Zimbabwe and cult to subdivide (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
the Jatuli complex in Russian Karelia. There were major events on the regional
The LJE event ended suddenly at ca. 2.06 Ma, scale. At 1.85 Ga, the enormous Sudbury
nearly synchronous with (1) the eruption of bolide impact left a 200–250-km crater in
one of the world’s largest igneous provinces, southern Canada. The North American plate
the Bushveld Complex in southern Africa (e.g., was also affected by the giant Mackenzie vol-
Cawthorn et al., 2006); (2) the largest impact canic dike swarm in north Canada at 1.27 Ga,
structure preserved on Earth, the Vredefort by the major Keweenawan flood basalts in the
impact in southern Africa at ca. 2.02 Ga, with Midcontinent Rift System at 1.12 to 1.09 Ga,
ca. 250-km diameter crater, which is larger and the Franklin giant dike swarm in north
than the 180 km Chicxulub impact crater that Canada and northwest Greenland at 0.72 Ga
terminated the Cretaceous (e.g., Reimold and (Ernst et al., 2008). Other continental blocks
Koeberl, 2014); (3) the formation of the earli- experienced similar large igneous provinces
est major phosphorite deposits; and (4) the (LIPs); but, unlike the common coincidence of
beginning of a previously unprecedented LIPs and environmental disruptions through
accumulation of organic-rich “oil shale” the Phanerozoic, there has not yet been a
sedimentation in various parts of the world, direct correlation of any of these LIPs with
named the Shunga Event after the Shunga vil- other geochemical excursions that can be
lage in northwest Russia where a single deposit used for global correlation. However, toward
alone buried 250 billion tons of organic carbon the end of this interval there are two signifi-
(e.g., Melezhik et al., 1999). Reviews by Van cant negative excursions in δ13Ccarb (Fig. 3.2)—
Kranendonk et al. (2012), Young (2013), and the Bitter Springs event at ca. 810 Ma and the
Van Kranendonk (2014) postulate causal rela- Islay anomaly at 735–740 Ma (e.g., Halverson
tionships among all of these trends and events, and Shields-Zhou, 2011; Strauss et al., 2014).
including possible influences upon the early The onset of the Cryogenian “Snowball
evolution of eukaryote life. The global record Earth” glaciations at ca. 720 Ma was pre-
of these remarkable geologic features may be ceded by regional glaciations indicated by
used to correlate and subdivide the early part the Gucheng and Bayisi diamictites near
of the Paleoproterozoic (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3). base of Nanhuan System of China at ca. 760
Between about 1.8 and 1.4 Ga, the majority or 740 Ga (e.g., Stratigraphic Chart of China
of the continental plates were merged into the (2015)) and perhaps by the Kaigas Formation
Nuna/Columbia supercontinent of uncertain of Africa at ca. 740 Ma (reviewed in Shields-
configuration, and again were united between Zhou et al. (2012)), although dating of this
about 1.0 and 0.7 Ga into the Rodinia super- Kaigas event is uncertain (e.g., Rooney et al.,
continent (e.g., Li et al., 2008; Meert, 2012, 2015). The Cryogenian and the postglacial
2014; Evans, 2013). This Nuna–Rodinia inter- Ediacaran periods of the Neoproterozoic are
val is a unique “quiet” time in Earth’s history, summarized in the next chapter.
 Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN  27

Acknowledgments Evans, D.A.D., 2013. Reconstructing pre-Pangean supercon-

tinents. Geological Society of America Bulletin 125:
This brief Precambrian summary of selected highlights 1735–1751. [Link]
and current stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the Halverson, G.P., Hoffman, P.F., Schrag, D.P., Maloof, A.C.,
detailed overview and synthesis by Van Kranendonk et al. 2005. Towards a Neoproterozoic composite carbon-
(2012), and on discussions with Martin Van Kranendonk isotope record. Geological Society of America Bulletin
and Jim Gehling. Martin Van Kranendonk reviewed an 117: 1181–1207.
early version of the graphics, database, and text. Halverson, G.P., Shields-Zhou, G., 2011. Chemostratig-
raphy and the Neoproterozoic glaciations. In:
Arnaud, E., Halverson, G.P., Shields-Zhou, G.
(Eds.), The Geological Record of Neoproterozoic
Selected publications Glaciations, 36. Geological Society, London,
Memoirs, pp. 51–66. [Link]
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Cited publications DeWaele, B., Ernst, R.E., Fitzsimons, C.W., Fuck, R.A.,
Only select publications were cited in this review Gladkochub, D.P., Jacons, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S.,
with an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. Natapov, L.M., Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K.,
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the Vernikovsky, V., 2008. Assembly, configuration and
synthesis by Van Kranendonk et al. (2012) and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis. Precam-
some of the cited publications below. brian Research 160: 179–210.
Bleeker, W., 2004. Towards a “natural” Precambrian time McCulloch, M.T., Bennett, V.C., 1994. Progressive growth
scale. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Smith, A.G. of the Earth’s continental crust and depleted
(Eds.), A Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge Mantle – geochemical constraints. Geochimica et
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Bowring, S.A., Williams, I.S., 1999. Prisocan Melezhik, V.A., Fallick, A.E., Filippov, M.M., Larsen, O.,
(4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern 1999. Karelian shungite – an indication of 2.0 Ga-old
Canada. Contributions Mineralogy and Petrology metamorphosed oil-shale and generation of
134: 3–16. petroleum: Geology, lithology and geochemistry.
Bowring, S.A., 2014. Closing the gap. Nature Geoscience Earth-Science Reviews 47: 1–40.
7: 169–170. Meert, J.G., 2012. What’s in a name? The Columbia
Brasier, M.D., Anticliffe, J., Saunders, M., Wacey, D., 2015. (Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent. Gondwana
Changing the picture of Earth’s earliest fossils Research 21: 987–993.
(3.5–1.9 Ga) with new approaches and new discover- Meert, J.G., 2014. Strange attractors, spiritual interlop-
ies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ers and lonely wanderers: the search for pre-­
of the United States of America (PNAS) Pangean supercontinents. Geoscience Frontiers 5:
112: 4859–4864. [Link]/cgi/doi/10.1073/ 155–166.
pnas.1405338111. O’Neill, C., Lenardic, A., Condie, K.C., 2015. Earth’s
Cawood, P.A., Hawkesworth, C.J., 2014. Earth’s middle punctuated tectonic evolution: cause and effect. In:
age. Geology 42: 503–506. Roberts, N.M.W., Van Kranendonk, M.J., Parman, S.,
Cawthorn, R.G., Eales, H.V., Walraven, F., Uken, R., Shirey, S., Clift, P.D. (Eds.), Continent Formation
Watkeys, M.K., 2006. The Bushveld Complex. In: Through Time 389. Geological Society, London,
Johnson, M.R., Anhaeusser, C.R., Thomas, R.J. (Eds.), Special Publications, pp. 17–40. [Link]
The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of org/10.1144/SP389.4.
South Africa/Council for Geoscience, Johannesburg/ Plumb, K.A., James, H.L., 1986. Subdivision of Precam-
Pretoria, pp. 261–281. brian time: Recommendations and suggestions by
Cohen, P.A., Macdonald, F.A., 2015. The Proterozoic the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy.
record of eukaryotes. Paleobiology 41: 610–632. Precambrian Research 32: 65–92.
[Link] Plumb, K.A., 1991. New Precambrian time scale. Episodes
Ernst, R.E., Wingate, M.T.D., Buchan, K.T., Li, Z.X., 2008. 14: 139–140.
Global record of 1600–700 Ma Large Igneous Provinces Reimold, W.U., Koeberl, C., 2014. Impact structures in
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28  Chapter 3 PRECAMBRIAN

Rooney, A.D., Strauss, J.V., Brandon, A.D., Macdonald, Van Kranendonk, M.J., Altermann, W., Beard, B.L.,
F.A., 2015. A Cryogenian chronology: two long- Hoffman, P.F., Johnson, C.J., Kasting, J.F., Melezhik,
lasting synchronous Neoproterozoic glaciations. V.A., Nutman, A.P., Papineau, D., Pirajno, F., 2012. A
Geology 43: 459–462. [Link] chronostratigraphic division of the Precambrian:
G36511.1. possibilities and challenges. In: Gradstein, F.M.,
Shields-Zhou, G.A., Hill, A.C., Macgabhann, B.A., 2012. Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators). The
The Cryogenian Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp.
Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators). The Geologic 299–392. [Link]
Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 393–411. http:// 59425-9.00023-8 (An overview on all aspects,
[Link]/10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00018-4. including summaries of tectonic cycles, atmo-
Stratigraphic Chart of China (explanatory notes), in sphere-ocean history, climatic episodes and
press 2015. Cryoginian of China (Nanhuan evolution of life; plus age models and a set of
System). (preprint provided to [Link] by Yin Hongfu, suggested chronostratigraphic divisions.).
May 2015). Van Kranendonk, M.J., 2014. Earth’s early atmosphere
Strauss, J.V., Rooney, A.D., Macdonald, F.A., Brandon, and surface environments: a review. In: Shaw, G.H.
A.D., Knoll, A.H., 2014. 740 Ma vase-shaped micro- (Ed.), Earth’s Early Atmos. Surf. Environ., 504.
fossils from Yukon, Canada: implications for Geological Society of America Special Paper, pp.
Neoproterozoic chronology and biostratigraphy. 105–130. [Link]
Geology 42: 659–662. Young, G.M., 2013. Precambrian supercontinents,
Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy, 2014. glaciations, atmospheric oxygenation, metazoan
Annual report 2014. In: International Commission on evolution and an impact that may have changed the
Stratigraphy (ICS) Annual Report 2014. Submitted to second half of Earth history. Geoscience Frontiers 4:
International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) at: 247–261.
[Link]
Tang, H., Chen, Y., 2013. Global glaciations and atmo- Websites (selected)
spheric change at ca. 2.3 Ga. Geoscience Frontiers
4: 583–596. Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy
Valley, J.W., Cavosie, A.J., Ushikubo, T., Reinhard, D.A., (ICS)—[Link]
Lawrence, D.F., Larson, D.J., Clifton, P.H., Kelly, T.F., Website that currently briefly summarizes the official
Wilde, S.A., Moser, D.E., Spicuzza, M.J., 2014. divisions of the Precambrian.
Hadean age for a post-magma-ocean zircon Precambrian Research—[Link]
confirmed by atom-probe tomography. Nature com/precambrian-research/—Elsevier journal with
Geoscience 7: 219–223. articles on all aspects of the early stages of Earth’s
Van Kranendonk, M.J., Philippot, P., Lepot, K., history and nearby planets.
Bodorkos, S., Pirajno, F., 2008. Geological setting of Palaeos: Precambrian—[Link]
Earth’s oldest fossils in the ca. 3.5 Ga Dresser [Link]—A well-presented suite of diverse
Formation, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia. topics for a general science audience that was
Precambrian Research 167: 93–124. originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
 4
CRYOGENIAN AND
EDIACARAN
650 Ma Cryogenian
Late Proterozoic 650 Ma

South China

Arabia North China

Australia
India

Antarctica PANTHALASSIC OCEAN

South
Africa Alaska
Congo

PANAFRICAN Laurena
Siberia
OCEAN
West Africa
Greenland
Ancient Landmass Florida Amazonia Scandinavia
Modern Landmass
Grenville Province

End-Cryogenian paleogeographic reconstruction (ca. 640 Ma). The paleogeographic map of breakup
of Rodinia supercontinent was provided by Chris Scotese, although geographic distribution of the continents is
uncertain.

Basal definitions and status of is at the base of this cap carbonate in South
Australia (Fig. 4.1). Metazoans first appear on
international subdivisions Earth during the latter half of the Ediacaran in
association with microbial mats.
The Cryogenian Period consists of two
near-global glacial episodes between ca.
720 Ma and 635 Ma. The Ediacaran Period/
System begins with the return of warmer Cryogenian
marine conditions that created a distinctive The Cryogenian Period was named and
“cap carbonate”; and the Ediacaran Global defined in 1990 to encompass the major
boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) near-global glacial intervals within the
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 29
30  Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN

chronometric span of 850 to 650 Ma (Plumb, at ca. 660 Ma as bracketed by rhenium–

1991). Two of these glacial episodes depos- osmium (Re-Os) dates of 662.4  ±  4.6 Ma and
ited extensive diamictite and glaciomarine 659.0 ± 4.5 Ma (Rooney et al., 2015) and a ura-
sediments throughout the globe, including nium–lead (U-Pb) date of 663 ± 4 Ma from
onto the marine shelves in tropical latitudes, an ash bed above the Sturtian-age diamic-
thereby giving rise to the “Snowball Earth” tite in South China (Zhou et al., 2004). The
model (e.g., Kirschvink, 1992; Hoffman et al., interglacial interval spanned approximately
1998; Arnaud et al., 2011; Smith, 2009). These 20–25 myr; and the initial marine flooding on
two glacial episodes and the intervening most of the shelves deposited a distinctive cap
warm interglacial interval divide the Cryoge- carbonate.
nian into three globally synchronous units. The second near-global glaciation,
The earlier Sturtian glaciation, named named Marinoan after glacial deposits in
from the Sturt Formation of the Adelaide Rift the Adelaide suburb of Marino in South
Complex of South Australia, has been corre- Australia, began by 637 Ma; based on a
lated to diamictite deposits on other conti- U-Pb Isotope Dilution–Thermal Ioniza-
nents, which yielded maximum ages of slightly tion Mass Spectrometry (ID-TIMS) date
less than ca. 720 Ma (e.g., 717.4  ±  0.1 Ma from of 636.4   ±  
0.5 Ma above the basal Cot-
underlying volcanics; Macdonald et al., 2010) tons Breccia in Tasmania, Australia (Calver
(reviewed in Shields-Zhou et al., 2012; Rooney et al., 2013). The Marinoan glacial episode
et al., 2015). The Subcommission on Cryoge- spanned only 2 myr without any significant
nian Stratigraphy (2014) redefined the Cryo- interglacial fluctuations, until it ended sud-
genian Period to begin at the onset of that first denly at 635 Ma.
near-global Sturtian glaciation and assigned
a rounded “ca. 720 Ma” chronometric defi-
nition until a chronostratigraphic GSSP is Ediacaran
selected. The Ediacaran begins at the sharp contact
This redefinition of the Cryogenian has of the cap carbonate on the Marinoan glacio-
placed some precursor cooling episodes into marine deposits. At the GSSP in the central
the Tonian Period (reviewed in Shields-Zhou Flinders Ranges of South Australia is the con-
et al., 2012). These include the cold event at tact of the 6-m thick Nuccaleena Dolomite onto
base of the Changan Formation (assigned as the glaciomarine Elatina Formation (Fig. 4.1).
ca. 780 Ma) that defines the base of the Nan- Carbon isotopes become progressively nega-
huan System of China (Wang et al., 2014), the tive through the Nuccaleena Dolomite, which
diamictite of the Bayisi Formation of China is a trend seen in all basal Ediacaran cap car-
(either 755 or 768 Ma), and the diamictite of bonates (reviewed in Narbonne et al., 2012).
the Kalgas Formation of Namibia (ca. 740 The Ediacaran will be potentially subdi-
Ma; although dating and correlation of this vided into two or three series (Subcommission
Kalgas event has been questioned by Rooney on Ediacaran Stratigraphy, 2014). One can-
et al. (2015)). didate level for a series boundary might be
The Sturtian glacial episode lasted 60 myr the onset or termination of a relative brief
(e.g., Rooney et al., 2015). Whether the Sturtian (ca. 2 myr) regional episode named Gaskiers
episode was a single long-lasting Snowball Glaciation which is accompanied by a small
Earth condition or consisted of fluctuating negative carbon-isotope anomaly (Narbonne
glacial conditions is uncertain; but there do et al., 2012). The 250-m thick glacial Gaskiers
not appear to have been any significant inter- Formation on the Avalon Peninsula of south-
glacial intervals. The Sturtian suddenly ended east Newfoundland, Canada, is constrained
 Base of the Ediacaran System at Enorama Creek,
Flinders Ranges, South Australia

Nuccaleena
Formation

20cm
Teepee-structure,
Nuccaleena
Formation
(A) 0cm

Enorama Creek, Brachina Gorge

Bra- 150 GSSP
Ediacaran

china m Top of cap carbonate

Nucca- 6
5
leena GSSP 4
3
2
-3 -2 -1 1 Elatina
Formation
δ13Co/oo
(B)
Elatina Fm.

100 N
Parachilna
Australia Blinman
GSSP N
GSSP
Wilpena
Hawker
Cryogenian

Port Augusta
Yaltipena Fm.

Stromatolites
50
sandstone with
silty laminae
cap dolomite

sandstone
Trezona Fm.

siltstone Adelaide
limestone -
intraclastic
0 100km
(C) (D)

Figure 4.1 GSSP for base of the Ediacaran at Enorama Creek section, central Flinders Ranges, Adelaide Rift Com-
plex, South Australia. The GSSP level is defined as the sharp base of the cap carbonate (Nuccaleena Formation)
on the Marinoan glacial and glaciomarine diamictite deposits (Elatina Formation). The Nuccaleena dolomite has cm-
scale event beds and enigmatic teepee-like structures that are up to 1 m in amplitude. Carbon-isotope values in the
basal cap carbonate are anomalously low and decrease upward. This facies succession with the onset of a negative
excursion in δ13Ccarb in the cap carbonate is typical of the rapid decay of the global Marinoan ice sheets throughout
the world. Stratigraphic diagrams modified from Knoll et al. (2006). Photos by Gabi Ogg.
32  Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN

by U-Pb dating to span 584 to 582 Ma, and 810 Ma (Macdonald et al., 2010), the carbon-
similar-aged “Gaskiers” glacial deposits are isotope trend through the Mesoproterozoic
reported from Massachusetts, Norway, and through middle Tonian had been very stable
the Tarim Basin in China (e.g., Condon and (see Precambrian chapter Fig. 3.2). At 735–
Bowring, 2011). 740 Ma, approximately 15 myr before the Stur-
Another candidate for subdividing the tian glaciation at the base of the Cryogenian,
Ediacaran is the onset or nadir of the Shuram the Islay excursion is a sharp, high-amplitude
carbon-isotope excursion, the “largest nega- (ca. 10 per-mille excursion) negative anomaly at
tive carbon isotope excursion on Earth” (e.g., 735–740 Ma (e.g., Strauss et al., 2014).
Guerroué, 2010). The Shuram (or Shuram/ Each of the main glacial events (Sturtian,
Wonoka) excursion was named after its recog- Marinoan, Gaskiers) is preceded by a sharp
nition in the Shuram Formation of Oman, and is negative excursion in carbon isotopes that
sometimes called the Shuram/Wonoka excur- peaks just before the onset of the glacial epi-
sion in reference to its discovery in the Wonoka sode; and the thin cap carbonate that follows
Formation of South Australia. The exact timing the sudden termination of the glacial interval
of the full episode is uncertain; but it appears is also in a negative excursion (e.g., Halverson
that the Shuram excursion began at ca. 560 Ma, and Shields-Zhou, 2011; Shields-Zhou et al.,
rapidly reached a minimum in about 0.8 myr 2012). This direct association with glacia-
according to cycle stratigraphy (Minguez et al., tions led to speculation that aspects of these
2015; Kodama, 2015), then slowly returned carbon-isotope excursions may be caused by
to preexcursion carbon-isotope levels by ca. near-extinctions of marine life, buildup in vol-
550 Ma (Condon and Bowring, 2011) (e.g., Fig. canogenic carbon-dioxide levels in the atmo-
4.2 has the approximate signature and age sphere during Snowball Earth conditions until
placement according to Cohen and Macdonald a greenhouse threshold was reached, or other
(2015)). Macroscopic metazoan animals first processes (e.g., Hoffman et al., 1998). How-
appear during this Shuram excursion. ever, between the glacial episodes there were
Potential biostratigraphic subdivisions also pronounced negative excursions, such as
of the Ediacaran using biozones of distinc- the reported Taishir excursion during the mid-
tive acritarchs are being evaluated for inter- Cryogenian, and the major Shuram excursion
regional correlation (reviewed in Narbonne after the Gaskiers glaciation (Fig. 4.2).
et al., 2012). Strontium and sulfur isotopes also have
distinctive trends through the Cryogenian and
Ediacaran (e.g., reviews in Halverson et al.,
Selected main stratigraphic 2011; Shields-Zhou et al., 2012; Narbonne
scales and events et al., 2012).
Magnetostratigraphy has been underuti-
(1) Stable-isotope stratigraphy, lized in the Cryogenian–Ediacaran, although
the few studies indicate potential for high-
magnetostratigraphy, and selected resolution correlation. For example, the nadir
events of the Shuram carbon-isotope anomaly is near
There are several major negative excur- the base of a normal-polarity zone that can be
sions in carbon isotopes (δ13Ccarb) during the used for interregional correlation (Minguez
late Tonian, Cryogenian, and Ediacaran that et al., 2015; Kodama, 2015), and the late Edia-
are important for global correlations (e.g., caran may be predominantly reversed polarity
Halverson et al., 2005). Prior to the relatively with frequent normal-polarity zones (Bazhenov
low-amplitude Bitter Springs excursion at ca. et al., 2016).
 Cryogenian-Ediacaran Time Scale
13C

Period
carb
AGE (per-mille PDB) Microfossils Ediacara-type Fossils

Era
(Ma) -10 -5 0 5 10
Pal. Cam.

Tianzhushania-dominated ass.
540

Doushantuo

Complex Shells & Burrows

embryos
550

Cloudina Assemblage
Bilaterians
terminal Ediacaran leiosphere assemblage

Dickinsonia

Erniettomorphs

Simple Burrows
560

SE

Palaeopascichnids

Charniodiscus
570
Ediacaran

580

Rangeomorphs
Gaskiers Gl.

Late acanthomorph assemblage

590

Carbonaceous Algae
600

610

620

630 Fractofusus
Neoproterozoic

Marinoan Gl.
640 Tr

650 Tai

660
Cryogenian

670

680

Sturtian
690
Glaciation
700

710 “Snowball Earth”

Vase-shaped microfossil

720

730
Tonian

ICIE
740

Figure 4.2 Selected major trends in Cryogenian and Ediacaran geologic history. The carbon-isotope curve is a
smoothed version modified from the synthesis for the late Proterozoic by Cohen and Macdonald (2015) calibrated by
them to the Cryogenian time scale of Rooney et al. (2015)— SE, Tr, Tai, and ICIE are the Shuram, Trezona, Taishir, and
Islay carbon-isotope excursions, respectively. Ranges and images of organic-walled microfossils, Ediacaran metazoans,
and bioturbation styles are from Narbonne et al. (2012). Additional geochemical trends, biostratigraphic ranges,
regional stages, and details on calibrations are compiled in Shields-Zhou et al. (2012) and Narbonne et al. (2012).
34  Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN

The supercontinent of Rodinia was under- Vase-shaped microfossils (Fig. 4.3A), which
going progressive rifting immediately prior have been interpreted as the preserved tests
to and through the Cryogenian. The Franklin of Amoebozoa or Rhizaria (e.g., Porter et al.,
giant dike swarm in north Canada and north- 2003) and have potential for biostratigraphic
west Greenland at ca. 720 Ma (Ernst et al., correlation of different facies, appear in abun-
2008) coincides approximately with the onset dance only after the Bitter Springs excursion,
of the Sturtian glaciation at the base of the and disappear from the marine record at the
Cryogenian. beginning of the Cryogenian (Strauss et al.,
The rapid transgressions from the melt- 2014; Cohen and Macdonald, 2015).
ing Cryogenian and Gaskiers glaciations were After the Cryogenian glaciations, the diver-
accompanied by deposition of organic-rich sity of eukaryotes rapidly expanded. Rela-
units on the continental shelves. These are the tively large spiny acanthomorphic acritarchs
earliest major source rocks for commercially thrived during the early Ediacaran, and a suc-
produced petroleum and natural gas, includ- cession of their biozones has been indepen-
ing fields in Oman and Australia (e.g., reviews dently established in Australia and in South
in Craig et al., 2009; Ghori et al., 2009). China (e.g., Narbonne et al., 2012; Xiao et al.,
2014a). One class of large acanthomorphic
acritarch called Tianzhushania that is pres-
(2) Biostratigraphy and major trends ent as phosphatized or silicified microfos-
The late Proterozoic includes the evolution sils in the Doushantuo Formation of South
and radiation of eukaryotes and metazoans. China, has a controversial interpretation of
Prior to the advent of the diverse communi- the preserved embryos of early animals (e.g.,
ties of metazoans in the late Ediacaran, the Xiao and Knoll (2000) and Yin et al. (2013) ver-
fossil record consists mainly of a succession of sus nonembryo interpretation of Huldtgren
microscopic organic-walled spherical or vase- et al. (2011); see review in Xiao et al. (2014b)).
shaped forms. These are grouped under a gen- Smooth leiosphaerid acritarch forms are
eral name of “acritarchs,” but probably consist more characteristic of the upper Ediacaran,
of representatives of several phyla, including and vanish at the base of the Cambrian.
algae and possible metazoan egg cases. How- The most famous Ediacaran fossils are the
ever, molecular-clock analyses of the DNA of appearance of diverse metazoan animals after
modern phyla indicate that all major stem the Gaskiers glacial episode. Impressions of
groups (red and green algae, amoeba proto- the soft-bodied to stiffened (but not biomin-
zoa, ciliates, foraminifera, and metazoans) eralized) organisms are preserved on bedding
originated between about ca. 800 to 700 Ma surfaces, especially when a clastic turbidite or
(reviewed in Cohen and Macdonald, 2015). storm bed suddenly entombed an ecosystem.
These molecular-clock studies imply that Some types are bilateral forms that may have
there was a major explosion in eukaryote evo- been related to the later Cambrian animals,
lution preceding and during the Sturtian gla- but most cannot be placed confidently into
ciation, although verifying these predictions any post-Ediacaran group.
in the preserved fossil record is a challenge. The earliest “Avalon Assemblage” is pre-
A distinctive acritarch, Cerebrosphaera served in relatively deep water facies in New-
buickii (Fig. 4.3B), appears globally at the foundland and Britain and dominated by
approximate time of the Bitter Springs carbon- frond-like rangeomorphs, such as Charnia
isotope anomaly at 800 Ma, and became extinct (Fig. 4.4). These have fractal-architecture
before the beginning of the Sturtian glaciation branches from a central stalk, which was
(Grey et al., 2011; Shields-Zhou et al., 2012). attached to the seafloor in some types, and
 Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN   35

(A) (B)

30µm 100µm

Figure 4.3 Examples of advanced microfossils that became extinct at the beginning of the first Cryogenian global
glaciation. (A) A typical vase-shaped microfossil, Bonniea dacruchares, from the Chuar Group, western United
States (Photo courtesy of S. Porter; for details, see Porter et al. (2003)). These and other vase-shaped microfossils
are interpreted as tests of Amoebozoa or Rhizaria. (B) The distinctive acritarch, C. buickii, from the Hussar Formation,
Officer Basin, Australia (Photo courtesy of K. Grey; see Grey et al., 2011). These and images of other typical microfos-
sils are in Shields-Zhou et al. (2012).

(A) (B) (C)

3 cm

10 cm

2 cm

Figure 4.4 Examples of Ediacaran metazoans. (A) Dickinsonia, a flat-segmented animal that moved over the seafloor;
(B) Charniodiscus arboreus, a frond attached to the seafloor by a disk; and (C) the segmented Spriggina, which is
the first animal with a head; this animal has similarities with early arthropods. Photos by Gabi Ogg taken in the South
Australia Museum in Adelaide and in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia (2012).
36  Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN

some reached lengths of over 1 m (e.g., than relative meter-level positions within
Narbonne et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2015). stratigraphic sections, there have been only
The younger and more diverse shallow- rare applications of cycle stratigraphy to more
water ecosystems of the White Sea Assemblage accurately scale the duration and placement
and Nama Assemblage include rangeomorphs, of events and excursions. Indeed, the uncer-
and the appearances of bilaterians, crawling or tainties on the placement of events in the
gliding animals, shallow-burrowing animals, schematic summary of Fig. 4.2 are probably
and evidence of sexual reproduction (e.g., Dro- greater than 5 myr in many cases.
ser and Gehling, 2015). Excavation of bedding
planes below sand beds in the Ediacara Mem-
ber of the Rawnsley Quartzite in the Flinders Revised ages compared to GTS2012
Range reveal a range of lifestyles in these Base of Cambrian (retained 541 Ma in
complex ecosystems that were developed on GTS2012 with qualifier): Temporarily
microbial mats. For example, the oval-bodied set as nadir of BAsal Cambrian carbon-
Dickinsonia that grew up to 50-cm remained isotope negative Excursion (BACE) dated as
stationary for periods of time while decom- 541 Ma—see discussion on base-Cambrian
posing the microbial mat before moving to the GSSP. Landing et al. (2013) suggest that
next feeding site (Droser and Gehling, 2015). 543 Ma may be best estimate for the oldest
The latest Ediacaran has a different ecosys- appearance of Trichophycus pedum trace-
tem with an abundance of calcified megafos- fossil assemblage.
sils of Cloudina and Namacalathus, which, Base of Cryogenian (720 vs 850 Ma in GTS2012):
along with the soft-bodied erniettomorphs The base of the Cryogenian Period was ini-
(biserially quilted tubes alternately arranged tially set at 850 Ma (Plumb, 1991), but was
from a central midline) became extinct at the revised in 2014–15 to the ca. 720 Ma date of
Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary. Indeed, none the onset of the first global glaciation—the
of the main Ediacaran macrofossils types are criterion for placement of a future GSSP.
preserved in the earliest Cambrian; and there
are many hypotheses ranging from ecosys-
tem disruption to predation that explore this Acknowledgments
mysterious mass extinction (e.g., review in This brief summary of selected highlights and current
Laflamme et al., 2013). The basal Cambrian has stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the detailed overview
only small shelly fossils (e.g., Anabarites trisul- and synthesis by Shields-Zhou et al. (2012), by Narbonne
catus; Rogov et al., 2015), acritarch microfos- et al. (2012), and by Van Kranendonk et al. (2012), and on an
extensive field trip through the Cryogenian and Ediacaran
sils, and the nonpreserved burrowing animals.
of South Australia with Jim Gehling. Shuhai Xiao reviewed
an early version of the graphics, database and text.

Numerical age model

Selected publications and
GTS2012 age model and potential
websites
future enhancements
Cited publications
The ages for Cryogenian and Ediacaran
Only select publications were cited in this review with
glacial episodes, carbon-isotope excursions,
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. Pre-2011
and evolutionary stages are constrained by literature is well summarized in the syntheses by
suites of U-Pb and Re-Os dates (e.g., Condon Shields-Zhou et al. (2012) and by Narbonne et al.
and Bowring, 2011; Noble et al., 2015). Other (2012) and in some of the publications cited below.
 Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN   37

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synchronous Neoproterozoic glaciations. Geology 43: Phosphatized acanthomorphic acritarchs and
459–462. [Link] related microfossils from the Ediacaran Doushantuo
Shields-Zhou, G.A., Hill, A.C., Macgabhann, B.A., 2012. Formation at Weng’an (South China) and their
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Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators). The Geologic Journal of Paleontology 88: 1–67.
 Chapter 4 CRYOGENIAN AND EDIACARAN   39

Xiao, S., Muscente, A.D., Chen, L., Zhou, C., Schiffbauer, First Life (by David Attenborough, 2010)—http://
J.D., Wood, A.D., Polys, N.F., Yuan, X., 2014b. The [Link], with streaming video at https://
Weng’an biota and the Ediacaran radiation of [Link]/embed/video/xylzdw_first-
multicellular eukaryotes. National Science Review life-arrival_tech among other sources— “Arrival” is
1: 498–520. first episode (60 min) of a two-part BBC documen-
Yin, Z., Zhu, M., Tafforeau, P., Chen, J., Liu, P., Li, G., 2013. tary with extensive coverage of Ediacaran biota,
Early embryogenesis of potential bilaterian animals including computer simulations and onsite field
with polar lobe formation from the Ediacaran work/interviews.
Weng’an Biota, South China. Precambrian Research Palaeos: Cryogenian and Ediacaran—[Link]
225: 44–57. com/proterozoic/neoproterozoic/cryogenian/
Zhou, C., Tucker, R., Xiao, S., Peng, Z., Yuan, X., Chen, Z., [Link] and [Link]
2004. New constraints on the ages of Neoproterozoic proterozoic/neoproterozoic/ediacaran/ediacaran.
glaciations in South China. Geology 32: 437–440. htm—A well-presented suite of diverse topics for a
general science audience that was originally
compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
Websites (selected) Mistaken Point and Rangeomorph Reproduction—
Subcommission on Ediacaran Stratigraphy (ICS)— streaming videos at [Link]
[Link] episode-5-mistaken-point/(60 min, 2012) and
“Edies” newsletter. [Link]
Snowball Earth – [Link]—Website morph-reproduction/(40 min, 2015)—One of the
originally developed by Paul Hoffman with National best known and most important Ediacaran
Science Foundation funding to provide online localities is at Mistaken Point, Newfoundland,
explanations, teaching slides, and extensive Canada. These podcasts examine aspects of the
bibliography (through 2009). nature of its biota.
 5
CAMBRIAN
510 Ma Cambrian

PANTHALASSIC OCEAN

Siberia
Laurentia
IAPETUS
Arabia
OCEAN

Baltica GONDWANA
Africa

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Mid-Cambrian paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level+40) from Scotese (2014). Some other authors
(e.g., Landing et al., 2013) suggest from facies and biota patterns that most of the continental blocks were in more
temperate to tropical paleolatitudes.

Basal definition and status of synthesis in Landing et al., 2013). The bases of
international subdivisions the next seven Cambrian stages, each spanning
ca. 5 myr, correspond to widespread appear-
The Cambrian is characterized by the ances of distinctive trilobites, pelagic agnos-
appearance of mineralized skeletons of ani- toid arthropods, or conodonts (Fig. 5.1). These
mals. The initial three stages (ca. 25 myr) are Cambrian biological events are often associ-
major revolutions in Earth’s life—(1) the advent ated with major oscillations in the carbon cycle.
of deep complex burrowing of sediments at ca.
540 Ma; (2) the appearance of diverse multicel-
lular animals with “small shelly” mineralized Terreneuvian series
skeletons at ca. 530 Ma; and (3) the appear- Fortunian: The Ediacaran/Cambrian
ance of larger trilobites, pelagic agnostoid boundary (base of Terreneuvian Series and
arthropods, and brachiopods at ca. 520 Ma (e.g., Fortunian Stage) was placed at one of the
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 41
 Cambrian Time Scale
13C
Regional Subdivisions

Polarity Ch
Epoch
AGE Sea (per-mille PDB)
(Ma) Age/Stage GSSP Markers
North America Siberia Level -5 -2.5 0 2.5

Ordovician Stairsian

Ibexian
485.4 Khantaian
485 FAD of Iapetograptus fluctivagus Skullrockian
Age 10 TOCE
Furongian

489.5
FAD of Lotagnostus americanus Sunwaptan Tukalandian
490

Millardan
(candidate)
Jiangshanian
494
FAD of Agnostotes orientalis
495 Paibian Steptoean Gorbiyachinian SPICE
497
FAD of Glyptagnostus reticulatus
Kulyumbean
Guzhangian
500 500.5
FAD of Lejopyge laevigata Marjuman
Epoch 3

Mayan

Lincolnian
Drumian
504.5
FAD of Ptychagnostus atavus
505 DICE
Topazan
Age 5 Amgan
FAD of Oryctocephalus indicus /
509
Ovatoryctocara granulata Delamaran ROECE
510 (candidate)
Age 4 Toyonian AECE
Epoch 2

?FAD of Olenellus, Redlichia,

MICE
Waucoban

514 Judomia, Bergeroniellus or Dyeran

Arthricocephalus chauveaui Botomian
515 (candidate)
Age 3 Montezuman Atdabanian
~ 520 CARE
520 ?FAD of trilobites (candidate)

Tommotian
SHICE
525 Age 2
Terreneuvian

Begadean

?FAD of Watsonella crosbyi or

ZHUCE
~ 530 no
530 Aldanella attleborensis
(candidate) subdivisions
Nemakit -
Daldynian
535 Fortunian

540 541 BACE

FAD of Trichophycus pedum
Ediacaran Hadrynian Vendian

Figure 5.1 Cambrian overview. The main markers for the currently (as of January 2016) ratified Global Boundary
Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) of Cambrian stages are the trace fossil Tr. pedum for the base of the Cambrian
and first-appearance datums (FAD) of cosmopolitan agnostoid arthropod taxa in late Cambrian, as discussed in the
text and summarized in Fig. 5.5. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Magnetic
polarity scale is a composite by Peng et al. (2012), which included a Furongian pattern modified from Kouchinsky et al.
(2008) and an early Cambrian modified from a Siberian compilation by Varlamov et al. (2008), but most of the polarity
pattern awaits verification. Regional subdivisions are a selected subset of the extensive regional correlation chart by
Peng et al. (2012). Schematic sea-level curve is modified from Haq and Schutter (2008) following advice of Bilal Haq
(pers. comm., 2008); although Babcock et al. (2015) have a slightly different sea-level version that emphasizes that the
FADs of the GSSP-marker agnostoid arthropods coincide with rapid regional coastal onlaps. The δ13Ccarb curve with
major widespread events is modified from Zhu et al. (2006) [see their text for explanations of their acronyms]. The
vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to match the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in
all other Phanerozoic chapters.
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  43

“greatest enigmas of the fossil record; i.e., the For simplicity, pending future high-
relatively abrupt appearance of skeletal fos- resolution correlations and dating, the diagrams
sils and complex, deep burrows in sedimen- of Figs. 5.1 and 5.4 equate the Ediacaran/
tary successions around the world” (Brasier Cambrian boundary with the BACE peak, the
et al., 1994). The GSSP level in Newfoundland, age of 541.0 Ma, and the base of the Tr. pedum
Canada, was placed at the beginning of a trace-fossil assemblage zone.
rapidly diversifying assemblage of trace fos- Stage 2: The next major Cambrian evo-
sils of burrowers and complex feeding tracks, lutionary event was a diversification of ani-
of which the relatively large burrows called mal skeletons of micromollusks and many
Phycodes (now classified as Treptichnus or types of “small shelly fossil” taxa of uncertain
Trichophycus) pedum is the most distinctive affinity with phosphatic or calcareous min-
(Fig. 5.2). Underlying deposits have an assem- erals. Provisional Stage 2 has been proposed
blage (“Harlaniella podolica” Ichnozone) of to begin with the widespread appearance of
only shallow burrows and surface trails. This these types of small shelly fossils, especially
Tr. pedum deep burrowing appears relatively the Watsonella crosbyi (a possible micro-
suddenly in the majority of preserved shelf mollusk bivalve rostroconch) and Aldanella
facies, and is just after the disappearance of attleborensis (a possible microgastropod).
Cloudina and other typical Ediacaran fossils. This biological event is near the onset of a
However, the lowest Tr. pedum burrows major ZHUjianqing Carbon-isotope positive
were later found about 4.4 m below the GSSP Excursion (ZHUCE), named after the lower
level (Gehling et al., 2001). Although this off- Cambrian Zhujianqing Formation of east-
set does not change the main philosophy of ern Yunnan (China). The mollusk Watson-
the GSSP as representing a major change in ella crosbyi had been described under other
Earth’s marine ecosystems (e.g., Landing et al., names, such as Heraultia (Heraultipegma)
2013), it has generated discussions on whether sibirica and Watsonella yunnanensis, and
to redefine the Ediacaran/Cambrian boundary after the synonymies were established it was
to coincide with a more precise geochemical or proposed to be the primary marker for the
other marker that can be recognized in more base of Stage 2 (e.g., Li et al., 2011). Landing
settings (e.g., Babcock et al., 2014). One option et al. (2013) examined diachroneity problems
is to use the beginning or the peak of the “BAsal with the FAD of Wat. crosbyi and other taxa in
Cambrian carbon-isotope negative Excursion” this boundary interval. They proposed plac-
(BACE in Fig. 5.1) (Babcock et al., 2014). Radio- ing the GSSP within the lower range of Wat.
isotopic dating of ash beds in Oman yielded crosbyi at the peak of ZHUCE, 9.4 m below the
541.00 ± 0.13 Ma near the BACE peak (Bowring top of the Dahai Member in the Laolin section
et al., 2007), and this date was used in GTS2012 in Yunnan province, South China. This level
for the estimated age of the Precambrian/Cam- may have an age close to 531 Ma (e.g., Maloof
brian boundary (Peng et al., 2012; Narbonne et al., 2010a,b; Landing et al., 2013).
et al., 2012). Landing et al. (2013) suggest that
the base of the Tr. pedum Assemblage Zone is
below the peak of the BACE and suggest an age Series 2
of ca. 543 Ma. However, the relative appearance Stage 3: The appearance of the earliest tri-
of Tr. pedum burrowing ecosystems within the lobite skeletal remains has been the preferred
BACE is poorly known (Babcock et al., 2014), marker for the base of provisional Series 2 and
and carbon-isotope stratigraphy is not possi- Stage 3. However, the oldest trilobites in each
ble in noncalcareous sections such as the pres- region are endemic and include Profallotaspis
ent GSSP in Newfoundland. species in Siberia, Fritzaspis generalis in
44  Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN

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Figure 5.2 GSSP for base of the Cambrian (base of Terreneuvian Series, base of Fortunian Stage) at the Green Point
section, Newfoundland, eastern Canada. The GSSP level was selected to coincide with the first-appearance datum
(FAD) of the distinctive trace fossil Trichophycus pedum (shown in image (D)). Photographs and the ranges of trace
fossils (as published when the boundary was ratified in 1992) are from Peng et al. (2012). Occurrences of the T. pedum
trace fossil were later found 4.4 m lower in this section (Gehling et al., 2001).
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  45

Nevada–California, and Hupetina antiqua in Agnostoids, a type of pelagic arthropod

Morocco; therefore, it is difficult to determine often included within the trilobite group, are
if these are synchronous (e.g., Bushuev et al., the most useful for interregional correlation
2014; summarized in Landing et al., 2015a; in the middle and late Cambrian. They first
and in Clausen et al., 2015). Other alterna- appear slightly older than the beginning of
tives for interregional correlation and primary Stage 5, and are the primary correlation cri-
markers for a base of Stage 3 include FADs teria for the GSSPs of the Drumian through
of a micromollusk Pelagiella subangulata, a Jiangshanian stages:
lobopod sclerite Microdyction effusum, or an Drumian: The GSSP of the second stage of
archaeocyathid (Clausen et al., 2015). Another provisional Series 3 coincides with the FAD of
suggested level for the Stage 3 GSSP is the agnostoid arthropod Ptychagnostus atavus in
peak of the positive carbon-isotope excur- the Drum Mountains of Utah, United States.
sion (Cambrian Arthropod Radiation isotope Guzhangian: The GSSP of the third stage
Excursion or CARE of Zhu et al., 2006) that of provisional Series 3 coincides with the FAD
occurs shortly after the appearance of trilo- of agnostoid arthropod Lejopyge laevigata in
bites (Landing et al., 2015a). the Louyixi section of northwestern Hunan,
Stage 4: The primary marker for provi- China.
sional Stage 4 is intended to be the FAD of a
widespread trilobite taxon. Current possibili-
ties include a species of the genus Olenellus Furongian series
(sensu lato), Redlichia (sensu lato), Judomia, or Paibian: The GSSP for the base of Furon-
Bergeroniellus; or the species Arthricocephalus gian Series in the Paibi section of north-
chauveaui (e.g., Peng et al., 2012). western Hunan coincides with the FAD of
agnostoid arthropod Glyptagnostus reticula-
tus (Fig. 5.3).
Series 3 Jiangshanian: The GSSP for the second
Stage 5: The Olenellus and Redlichia gen- stage of Furongian Series coincides with the
era became extinct at the end of Stage 4 at FAD of agnostoid arthropod Agnostotes orien-
the onset of a major negative “Redlichid and talis near Duibian village, Jiangshan County,
Olenellid trilobites Extinction Carbon-isotope western Zhejiang Province, China. The Aux-
Excursion” (ROECE) (Zhu et al., 2006). The iliary boundary Stratotype Section and Point
peak of this sharp isotopic event, which is is in the Kyrshabakty section of southern
near the traditional Lower/Middle Cambrian Kazakhstan (Ergaliev et al., 2014).
boundary, would be an important correlation Stage 10: The final provisional Stage 10 of
marker for the base of provisional Series 3 and the Cambrian currently has two main proposed
Stage 5. The emergence of new trilobite taxa levels for the GSSP. The first is the FAD of agnos-
that appeared in shallow warm waters was toid arthropod Lotagnostus americanus. Three
highly endemic, therefore possible biostrati- candidate GSSP sections using this level are
graphic markers suggested for a future Stage at Wa’ergang, Hunan, China, at Khos-Nelege,
5 GSSP are cooler-water polymerid trilobites, western Yakutia Russia, and at Kyrshabakty,
such as the FAD of Ovatoryctocara granulata southern Kazakhstan (Lararenko et al., 2011;
or the FAD of Oryctocephalus indicus at the Ergaliev et al., 2014; Peng et al., 2014, 2015).
base of the next higher biozone, although The FAD of agnostoid arthropod Lotagnostus
interregional correlations are uncertain americanus in the Wa’ergang section is close
(Clausen et al., 2015). The famous Burgess to the lowest-known occurrences of the inter-
Shale fauna is in the middle of Stage 5. continentally distributed polymerid trilobites
46  Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN

Base of the Paibian Stage of the Cambrian System in the Paibi Section in the
Wuling Mountains, NW Hunan Province, China
109 30' E
Beijing
Baojing China
GSSP

Huayuan
GSSP
N
Paibi
0 10km
Jishou

Jishou

Guizhou
Glypagnostus stolidotus Zone (A) (B) Fenghuang (C)

0 1 2 3

0 1 2 3

(D)

Figure 5.3 GSSP for base of the Furongian Series (base of Paibian Stage) at the Paibi section, Paibi, northwest
Hunan, South China. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of agnostoid arthropod Glyptagnostus
reticulatus. Photographs and the stratigraphic section showing ranges of agnostoids and trilobites and the relatively
elevated δ13Ccarb values of the SPICE interval (see Fig. 5.1) are from Peng et al. (2012).
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  47

Hedinaspis regalis and Charchaqia norini, archaeocyathids, an extinct relative of sponges,

and is just above a transgressive surface that are very useful for regional zonations (e.g.,
is correlative with the onset of a minor posi- examples in Fig. 5.4), but global correlations
tive excursion in carbon isotopes. The sec- are uncertain. Phosphatic “pseudo-conodont”
ond and higher level is the FAD of conodont elements (sometimes inappropriately called
Eoconodontus notchpeakensis, which is near “protoconodonts”) are present beginning with
the onset of a distinctive negative carbon- Protohertzina in the middle Terreneuvian.
isotope excursion (“HEllnmaria–Red Tops Series 2 traditionally begins with the
Boundary,” or HERB excursion) and has a can- appearance of the famous trilobites, which
didate GSSP in the House Range of Utah, United have well-developed zonations that are
States (Landing et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2015). applied in their separate biogeographic
provinces through the rest of the Cambrian
(examples in Peng et al., 2012; with selected
Selected main stratigraphic examples in Fig. 5.4). The widespread pelagic
scales and events agnostoid arthropods enable the subdivi-
sion of Series 3 and the Furongian Series into
(1) Biostratigraphy and major trends about a dozen main interregional zones—in
ascending order, these are the Ptychagnos-
The strong faunal provincialism through- tus gibbus, Ptych. atavus, Ptych. punctuosus,
out the Cambrian has limited the usefulness of Goniagnostus nathorsti, Lejopyge armata,
biostratigraphy using benthic and nearshore Lejopyge laevigata, Proagnostus bulbus, Lin-
fauna (e.g., syntheses in Harper and Servais, guagnostus reconditus, Glyptagnostus stoli-
editors, 2011; especially Álvaro et al., 2011, for dotus, Glypt. reticulatus, Agnostotes orientalis,
trilobites). Acritarchs, a suite of organic-walled and Lotagnostus americanus zones; of which
microfossils that probably represent different the G. nathorsti zone is less cosmopolitan. In
groups of organisms, are more widespread, Fig. 5.4, these agnostoid arthropod zones are
but their zonation remains rather broad (e.g., partly combined with nonpelagic polymerid
review in Landing et al., 2013). trilobites, because hybrid zones are commonly
Pelagic organisms that had both a more used for regional subdivisions (e.g., correlation
widespread distribution and left mineralized diagrams in Peng et al., 2012).
remains did not appear until the advent of
agnostoid arthropods in the Drumian. Agnos-
toids are often included within the trilobite (2) Stable-isotope stratigraphy,
group, although agnostoids are eyeless with magnetostratigraphy, and selected
only two thoracic segments, whereas poly­
merid trilobites have eyes and a minimum of events
four segments (and eodiscoid trilobites have The Cambrian had a series of major
three segments). The earliest true conodonts changes in biota evolution, extinction epi-
(phosphatic jaw elements of a small eel-like sodes, carbon-cycle (excursions in δ13Ccarb),
animal) appeared in the late Cambrian and and eustatic sea level; and these events often
are used for biostratigraphy within the Furon- coincide (e.g., synthesis by Babcock et al., 2015).
gian Series. The most important tool for global corre-
The early Cambrian pre-trilobite Terreneu- lation within the Cambrian, especially for the
vian Series has been a particular challenge for Terreneuvian and Series 2, are major excur-
biostratigraphy. The “Small Shelly Fossils” of sions, both negative and positive, in δ13Ccarb
micromollusks and mineralized skeletons of (Fig. 5.1). These carbon-isotope excur-
taxa of uncertain affinities and larger colonial sions often coincide with major Cambrian
48  Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN

Cambrian Time Scale

Agnostoid Arthropod, Trilobite and Conodont Zonation

Polarity Ch
AGE Epoch/Age
(Ma) (Stage) South China Siberia Australia Laurentia
Cordylodus lindstromi Symphysurina
485 485.4 Ordovician Hysterolenus Loparella loparica - (conodont) bulbosa
asiaticus Plethopeltides magnus Symphysurina
Cord. prolindstromi (c)
486 Leiostegium constrictum - Dolgeuloma abunda - Hirsutodontus i l ((c)
i t d t simplex brevispicata
Shenjiawania brevis D. dolganensis Cordylodus proavus (c) Missisquoia
Mictosaukia striata -
487 Fatocephalus Mictosaukia perplexa Eurekia apopsis
Age 10 Leioagn. cf. bexelli Saukiella serotina
Archaeul. taoyuanens Lotagnostus Neoagnostus quasibilobus -
488 americanus Ketyna Shergoldia nomas
Lotagnostus ketiensis-
489 americanus Mono- Sinosaukia impages Saukiella junia /
489.5 sulcatina Saukiella pyrene -
Probinacunaspis nasalis - Parabolinites laeve Rhaptagn. clarki maximus-Rh. papilio Rasettia magna
Furongian

490 Peichiashania hunanensis rectus Rhhaptagn. bifax- Neoag. denticulatus

Eolotagnostus Rh. clarki prolatus - Caz. sectatrix

491 decoratus - Plicatolina perlata Rh.c. patulus -C. squamosa -
Ellipso-
Kaolishaniella H. lilyensis
Jiangshanian Peichiashania tertia - P. quarta cephaloides -
492 Rhaptagnostus ciliensis/
s Peichiash. secunda - Prochuangia Idahoia
Onchonotellus cf. Maladioidella abdita glabella
kuruktagensis Wentsuia iota - Rhaptagnostus apsis Taenicephalus
493
Agnostotes orientalis Agnostotes orientalis Irvingella tropica Elvinia
494
494 Stigmatoa diloma
Tomagnostus orientalis -
Corynexochus plumula Erixanium sentum Dunderbergia
Erixanium sentum
495
Paibian Agnostus inexpectans -
Stigmatoa destruncta Proceratopyge cryptica
Proceratopyge protracta
496 Aphelaspis
Glyptagnostus Glyptagnostus Glyptagnostus reticulatus
497 reticulatus reticulatus
497 Glyptagnostus stolidotus Glyptagnostus stolidotus Glyptagnostus stolidotus
Linguagnostus Crepicephalus
498 reconditus Clavagnostus spinosus Achmarhachis quasivespa

Guzhangian Proagnostus bulbus Proagnostus bulbus Erediaspis eretes Proagn.

g
499 bulbus Cedaria
Damesella torosa - Ferenepea janitrix
Lejopyge laevigata Lejopyge laevigata Lejopyge
500 Lejopyge laevigata laevigata
500.5
Lejopyge armata
501 Anomocarioides Goniagnostus nathorsti
limbataeformis Ptych-
Goniagnostus nathorsti agnostus
502 punctuosus Bolaspidella
Epoch 3

Drumian Ptychagnostus Doryagnostus deltoides

Anopolenus henrici -
punctuosus Corynexochus Ptychagnostus punctuosus
503 perforatus Euragnostus opimus Ptych-
Ptychagnostus agnostus
504 atavus Tomagnostus fissus Ptychagnostus atavus atavus
504.5
Ptychagnostus Ptychagnostus Ptychagnostus gibbus Ptychagnostus
505 gibbus gibbus gibbus Ehma-
niella
Pentagnostus shergoldi
506 Ptychagnostus Glosso-
Peronopsis Ptychagnostus praecurrens praecurrens pleura
Age 5 taijiangensis
Alber-
507 Kounamkites Pentagnostus anabarensis tella
Oryctocephalus
indicus Plagi-
508 Oryctocephalus indicus ura -
Poliella
509
509 Ovatoryctocara granulata -
Ovatoryctocara granulata - Schistocephalus Amecephalus
Bathynotus holopygus antiquus arrojosensis
510 Xystridura negrina/
Epoch 2

Protoryctocephalus Anabaraspis splendens Redlichia forresti

wuxuensis Eokochaspis nodosa
511
Age 4 Lermontovia grandis
512 Arthricocephalites
taijiangensis Bergeroniellus Olenellus
ketemensis ?
513 Arthricocephalus chauveaui Bergeroniellus ornata

Figure 5.4 (A, B) Selected principal regional biostratigraphic zonal schemes of the Cambrian. (“Age” is the term for
the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Compilation modified from Peng et al. (2012). In the combined zona-
tion columns, agnostoid arthropods are in bold and “(c)” denotes a conodont zone.
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  49

Cambrian Time Scale

Trilobite, Archaeocyathan and Shelly Fossil Zonation

Polarity Ch
AGE Epoch/Age
(Ma) (Stage) South China Siberia Australia Laurentia
513 Bergeroniellus ornata
Age 4 Arthricocephalus
chauveaui
514 Pararaia janeae
514 Bergeroniellus asiaticus Olenellus
Arthricoceph. jiangkouensis
Szechuanolenus - Bergeroniellus gurarii
515 Paokannia Bergeroniellus. Pararaia bunyerooensis
micmacciformis - Erbiella Pararaia tatei
Epoch 2

Ushaspis
516
Judomia Nevadella
Abadiella huoi
517 Age 3 Sinodiscus -
Hupeidiscus
Pagetiellus anabarus
518
Fallotaspis
Fallotaspis
519 Tsunyidiscus
niutitangensis
Profallotaspis jakutensis Fritzaspis
~ 520
520 ? ? ?
Archaeocyathan and Small Shelly Fossil Zonation
521 Dokidocyathus lenaicus-
Sinosachites flabelliformis - Tum. primigenius
Tannuolina zhangwentangi
522
Dokidocyathus
regularis
523
Poorly
524 fossiliferous
zone Nochoroicyathus
sunnaginicus
525 Age 2 Watsonella crosbyi

526

527
Watsonella
crosbyi [ Barren zone ]
528

529
Terreneuvian

~ 530
530
Wyattia
531 Paragloborilus
subglobosus -
Purella squamulosa
532 Purella antiqua

533

534
Anabarites trisulcatus -
535 Protohertzina anabarica
Fortunian
536
Anabarites trisulcatus

537

538

539

540
541
541
Ediacaran

Figure 5.4 (Continued) In the columns for archaeocyathids and small shelly fossils, genera names ending in
“-cyathus” are archaeocyathids. Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, regional stages, geochemical trends,
sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in Peng et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets within the
TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
50  Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN

extinction events or faunal turnovers. A set of Drumian Isotope-Carbon Excursion (DICE)

convenient acronyms for these major carbon- = negative maximum that nearly coin-
cycle episodes was suggested by Zhu et al. cides with beginning of Drumian stage
(2006) that also incorporates the SPICE acro- (although it is mainly at the end of Stage 5).
nym of Saltzman et al. (2000): FAD of Ptychagnostus atavus, the agnos-
BAsal Cambrian Carbon-isotope Excur- toid arthropod that is the marker for basal
sion (BACE) = large negative excursion. Drumian, occurs in lower part of eustatic
Extinctions of acritarchs and most Edi- rise associated with maximum of DICE.
acaran-type organisms are associated Steptoean Positive Isotope-Carbon Excursion
with a strong shift from positive C-13 (SPICE) begins with mass extinction at top
toward negative values in uppermost of Marjumiid biomere (Marjuman/Step-
Ediacaran. toean stage boundary; base of Pteroce-
ZHUjianqing Carbon-isotope Excursion phalid biomere) in the United States. Mass
(ZHUCE), named after the basal Cambrian extinction (top of Pterocephalid Biomere;
Zhujianqing Formation (eastern Yunnan, base of Ptychaspid Biomere) is at top of
China) = large positive excursion in lower SPICE.
Stage 2. Top of Cambrian carbon-isotope Excursion
SHIyantou Carbon-isotope Excursion (SHICE), (TOCE) = large negative excursion accom-
named after Shiyantou Formation (eastern panying a trilobite mass extinction (end of
Yunnan, China) = large negative excursion Ptychaspid Biomere)
immediately following ZHU-CE in mid- Strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) slowly decline
Stage 2 that is coeval with extinction of many during the Terreneuvian Series to reach a mini-
small shelly fossil organisms. mum in Stage 2, and then rapidly rise through
Cambrian Arthropod Radiation isotope Series 2 to a quasiplateau through Series 3 and
Excursion (CARE) = large positive excur- the Furongian Series (e.g., syntheses by Peng
sion near base of Stage 3 associated with et al., 2012; and McArthur et al., 2012).
appearance of wide variety of arthropods Magnetostratigraphy has been underuti-
(e.g., earliest trilobites). lized in the Cambrian, even though the lim-
MIngxinsi Carbon-isotope Excursion (MICE), ited studies have identified potential polarity
named after Mingxinsi Formation scales (e.g., Kirschvink et al., 1991; Kouchinsky
(Guizhou, China) = large positive excur- et al., 2008; Varlamov et al., 2008; although
sion in lower Stage 4 at the time of a major the Russian publications are sparse on docu-
archaeocyathid radiation. mentation). The schematic polarity pattern in
Archaeocyathid Extinction Carbon-isotope Fig. 5.1 was compiled by Peng et al. (2012)
Excursion (AECE) = significant nega- from these and other sources.
tive excursion in mid-Stage 4. Extinction The Cambrian is mainly a warm interval
of archaeocyathids occurred in Siberia and of relatively high sea levels. Superimposed
elsewhere. on the general high stand are some major
Redlichiid and Olenellid trilobites Extinction lowstands, some of which are interpreted
Carbon-isotope Excursion (ROECE) = large by Babcock et al. (2015) as cooling episodes
negative excursion near Stage 4/5 bound- causing extinctions of marine fauna and
ary that seems coeval with extinction of with possible extensive glacial ice on the
redlichiid trilobites in Gondwana and ole- continents. Major rapid rises of sea level that
nellid trilobites in Laurentia, and may be flooded the Cambrian shelves often coincide
coeval with the Kalkarindji–Antrim large with the FADs of the agnostoid arthropods
igneous province (LIP) of Australia. that are used as primary markers of Series 3
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  51

and Furongian Series stage boundaries (Bab- biozonations for the age models of the other
cock et al., 2015). Phanerozoic periods.
A major LIP, the Antrim and Kalkarindji Landing et al. (2013, 2015a,b) have cri-
basalts, erupted over more than 2 million km2 tiqued the age models of GTS2012 for the
of west-central and northern Australia at about lower Cambrian and upper Cambrian, respec-
511 Ma (minimum age from U-Pb on zircons tively. They recommend emphasizing that the
of 510.7 ± 0.6 Ma), which is nearly synchro- interpolated ages of lower Cambrian stage
nous with the estimated age for the extinction boundaries are highly approximate by round-
of redlichiid and olenellid trilobites that mark ing these values– e.g., use 530 Ma instead of
the Cambrian Series 2/3 boundary and coin- 529 Ma. They suggest that the bases of the
cides with the sharp negative carbon-isotope Guzhangian Stage and the Furongian Series
excursion of ROECE (e.g., Glass and Phillips, (base of Paibian Stage) might be signifi-
2006; Jourdan et al., 2014). This is the only cantly younger, which would imply a shorter
major LIP eruption currently documented duration to the upper Cambrian interval.
within the Cambrian; and, if the proposed Although, as emphasized by Landing et al.
causal association is correct, is one of the few (2015b), “However, ultimate resolution of this
well-dated Cambrian stage boundaries. problem will require re-dating of many rocks
dated before widespread use of EARTHTIME
protocols, including the use of precise cali-
Numerical age model brated tracers” and “Until high precision dates
are determined on the base of the traditional
GTS2012 age model and potential Upper Cambrian and base of the Furongian
future enhancements Series, the rates of biotic replacements and
There are very few high-precision radioiso- geological developments and the durations of
topic ages from Cambrian levels that can be biotic zones in the Middle/Series 3 and Upper
reliably correlated to cosmopolitan biozones Cambrian/Furongian Series remain as ‘best
or stage boundaries. The two exceptions are guesses’.” In Figs. 5.1 and 5.4, the GTS2012 age
(1) the base-Cambrian (albeit, depending on model has been retained for the middle and
whether the dating of nadir of the negative late Cambrian, but the recommendation by
excursion in carbon isotopes is preferred over Landing et al. (2015a) to round the estimates
the less-well constrained Tr. pedum trace fos- in the lower Cambrian has been adopted:
sil appearance) and (2) the Series 2/3 bound-
ary at 510 Ma, when the mass extinction that
preceded the appearances of new trilobite Revised ages compared to GTS2012
genera may have been partly triggered by Fortunian (base of Cambrian; retained
the eruption of the Kalkarindji/Antrim large 541 Ma in GTS2012 with qualifier): Tem-
igneous province at 511 Ma. The other stage porarily set as nadir of negative-excursion
boundaries were estimated from constraints BACE dated as 541 Ma as—see discussion
of selected radioisotopic dates and the rela- on base-Cambrian GSSP. Landing et al.
tive numbers of biozones (see extensive dis- (2013) suggest that 543 Ma may be a better
cussions and chart in Peng et al., 2012). This age estimate for the oldest appearance of
unsatisfactory situation in the Cambrian Tr. pedum trace fossil assemblage.
for deriving an age model is in contrast to Stage 2 (“ca. 530 Ma” vs. 529 Ma in GTS2012):
the ability to use cyclostratigraphy, oceanic- Following the recommendation of Landing
spreading rates, extensive U-Pb or Ar–Ar dat- et al. (2015a) the implied precision on this
ing suites, or statistical composites of global estimate is removed.
52  Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN

GSSPs of the Cambrian Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Agnostoid arthropod,
FAD of Lotagnostus
Stage 10 americanus or
conodont FAD of
Eoconodontus
notchpeakensis
Duibian B Section, 28°48.958´N 108.12m above base Agnostoid arthropod, Episodes 35/4,
Jiangshanian Jiangshan County, of the Huayansi FAD of Agnostotes
108º36.896´E 2012
Zhejing Prov., SE Formation orientalis
China
Paibi, Huayuan 28°23.37'N at 396 m above the Agnostoid arthropod, Lethaia 37,
Paibian County, NW Hunan base of the Huaqiao FAD of Glyptagnostus
Province, S. China 109°31.54'E Formation 2004
reticulatus
Luoyixi, Guzhang 28°43.20’ N 121.3 m above the Agnostoid arthropod,
Episodes 32/1,
Guzhangian County, NW Hunan base of the Huaqiao FAD of Lejopyge
Province, S. China 109°57.88’ E Formation 2009
laevigata
at the base of a dark-
gray thinly laminated Agnostoid arthropod,
Drum Mountains, Episodes 30/3,
Millard County, Utah, 39°30.705'N
Drumian calcisiltite layer, FAD of
USA 112°59.489'W 62 m above the base Ptychagnostus 2007
of the Wheeler atavus
Formation

candidate sections
are Wuliu-Zengjiayan Trilobite, FAD of
Stage 5 (east Guizhou, China) Oryctocephalus
and Split Mountain indicus / Ovatorycto-
(Nevada, USA) cara granulata

Trilobite, FAD of
Olenellus, Redlichia,
Stage 4 Judomia,
Bergeroniellus or
Arthricocephalus
chauveaui
Stage 3 FAD of trilobites
Small shelly fossils,
Stage 2 FAD of Watsonella
crosbyi or Aldanella
attleborensis
Fortune Head, Burin 2.4m above the Episodes
Fortunian Peninsula, 47°4'34.47"N base of Member 2 in Trace fossil, FAD of 17/1&2, 1994;
E Newfoundland, 55°49'51.71"W* the Chapel Island Trichophycus pedum Episodes
Canada Formation 30/3, 2007

* according to Google Earth

Figure 5.5 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Cambrian stages
(status as of early 2016). (Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.)
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  53

Stage 3 (base of Series 2; “ca. 520 Ma” vs. 521 Ma Tortello, M.F., Zhou, Z.Y., Zylinska, A., 2011. Global
in GTS2012): Following the recommenda- Cambrian trilobite palaeobiogeography assessed
using parsimony analysis of endemicity. In: Harper,
tion of Landing et al. (2015a) the implied
D.A.T., Servais, T. (Eds.), Early Palaeozoic Palaeobio-
precision on this estimate is removed. geography and Palaeogeography Geological Society
Stage 4 (514 Ma of GTS2012 retained). London, Memoirs, vol. 38, pp. 273–296. http://
Stage 5 (base of Series 3; 509 Ma of GTS2012 [Link]/10.1144/M38.19.
is retained)—The GTS2012 age estimate is Babcock, L.E., Peng, S.-C., Zhu, M., Xiao, S., Ahlberg,
2014. Proposed reassessment of the Cambrian GSSP.
supported by the theorized coincidence of
Journal of African Earth Sciences 98: 3–10.
the eruption of the Kalkarindji/Antrim LIP Babcock, L.E., Peng, S.-C., Brett, C.E., Zhu, M.,-Y.,
with a minimum age of 510.7 ± 0.6 Ma caused Ahlberg, P., Bevis, M., Robison, R.A., 2015. Global
the mass extinction that precedes this stage climate, sea level cycles, and biotic events in the
boundary (e.g., Jourdan et al., 2014). Cambrian Period. Paleoworld 24(1–2): 5–15. http://
[Link]/10.1016/[Link].2015.03.005.
Bowring, S.A., Grotzinger, J.P., Condon, D.J., Ramezani, J.,
Estimated uncertainties on assigned Newall, M.J., Allen, P.A., 2007. Geochronologic
constraints on the chronostratigraphic framework of
ages on stage boundaries the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup, Sultanate of
Oman. American Journal of Science 307: 1097–1145.
The GTS2012 age model had estimated
Brasier, M.D., Cowrie, J., Taylor, M., 1994. Decision on the
2-myr uncertainties on all stage boundaries, Precambrian-Cambrian boundary stratotype.
except for 1-myr uncertainties for the bases Episodes 17(1,2): 3–8.
of the Cambrian and Stage 5 (Table 1.2 in Bushuev, E., Goryaeva, I., Pereladov, V., 2014. New
Gradstein et al., 2012). As discussed previ- discoveries of the oldest trilobites Profallotaspis and
Nevadella in the northeastern Siberian platform,
ously, some boundaries, especially for Stage
Russia. Bulletin of Geosciences 89: 347–364.
2 and Stage 3, may have larger uncertainty. Clausen, S., Álvaro, J.J., Devaere, L., Ahlberg, P., Babcock,
L.E., 2015. The Cambrian explosion: its timing and
stratigraphic setting. Annales de Paléontologie 101:
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and current stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the M.G., Ergaliev, F.G., 2014. The Auxiliary boundary
detailed overview and synthesis by Peng et al. (2012); and Stratotype Section and Point (ASSP) of the Jiangshanian
Shanchi Peng reviewed an early version of the graphics, Stage (Cambrian: Furongian Series) in the Kyrshabakty
database, and text. section, Kazakhstan. Episodes 37: 41–47.
Gehling, J.G., Jensen, S., Droser, M.L., Myrow, P.M.,
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M.T.D., Evins, L.Z., Söderlund, U., Haines, P.W., Bowring, S.A., Higgins, J.A., Fike, D.A., Eddy, M.P.,
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Landing, E., Westrop, S.R., Adrain, J.M., 2011. The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 413–435.
Lawsonian Stage—the Eoconodontus notchpeakensis Peng, S.-C., Babcock, L.E., Cooper, R.A., 2012. The
(Miller, 1969) FAD and HERB carbon isotope Cambrian Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G.,
excursion define a globally correlatable terminal Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic
Cambrian stage. Bulletin of Geosciences (Czech Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 437–488 (An
Geological Survey) 86: 621–640. overview on all aspects, including graphics on the
Landing, E., Geyer, G., Brasier, M.D., Bowring, S.A., 2013. ratified GSSPs of the stages, diagrams and tables
Cambrian evolutionary radiation: context, correla- for the biostratigraphic scales, and discussion on
tion, and chronostratigraphy – overcoming deficien- the age models.).
cies of the first appearance datum (FAD) concept. Peng, S.-C., Babcock, L.E., Zhu, X., Zuo, J., Dai, T., 2014. A
Earth-Science Reviews 123: 133–172. potential GSSP for the base of the uppermost
Landing, E., Rushton, A.W.A., Fortey, R.A., Bowring, S.A., Cambrian Stage, coinciding with the first appearance
2015a. Improved geochronologic accuracy and of Lotagnostus americanus at Wa’ergang, Hunan,
precision for the ICS Chronostratigraphic charts: China. GFF 136: 208–213. [Link]
examples from the late Cambrian-Early Ordovician. 11035897.2013.865666.
Episodes 38(3): 154–161. Peng, S.-C., Babcock, L.E., Zhu, X., Ahlberg, P., Terfelt, F.,
Landing, E., Geyer, G., Buchwaldt, R., Bowring, S.A., 2015b. Dai, T., 2015. Intraspecific variation and taphonomic
Geochronology of the Cambrian: a precise Middle alteration in the Cambrian (Furongian) agnostoid
Cambrian U-Pb zircon date from the German margin Lotagnostus americanus: new information from
of West Gondwana. Geological Magazine 152: 28–40. China. Bulletin of Geosciences (Czech Geological
[Link] Survey) 90(2): 281–306.
Lazarenko, N.P., Gogin, I.Y., Pegel, T.V., Sukhov, S.S., Saltzman, M.R., Ripperdan, R.L., Brasier, M.D.,
Abaimova, G.P., 2011. The Khos-Nelege section of the Lohmann, K.C., Robison, R.A., Chang, W.T.,
Ogon’or Formation: a potential candidate for the Peng, S.C., Ergaliev, [Link]., Runnegar, B., 2000.
GSSP of Stage 10, Cambrian System. Bulletin of Global carbon isotope excursion (SPICE)
Geosciences 86: 555–568. during the Late Cambrian: relation to trilobite
Li, G.X., Zhao, D., Gubanov, A., Zhu, M.Y., Na, L., 2011. extinctions, organic-matter burial and sea level.
Early Cambrian mollusk Watsonella crosbyi: a Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
potential GSSP index fossil for the base of Cambrian 162: 211–223.
Stage 2. Acta Geologica Sinica 85: 309–319. Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Cambrian and Early Ordovician
Maloof, A.C., Ramezani, J., Bowring, S.A., Fike, D.A., Paleogeographic Maps (Mollweide Projection), Maps
Porter, S.M., Mazouad, M., 2010a. Constraints on 81–88, vol. 5, the Early Paleozoic, PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas
early carbon cycling from the duration of the for ArcGIS, PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, IL. https://
Nemakit-Daldynian–Tommotian boundary δ13C [Link]/16785571/Atlas_of_Cambrian_
shift, Morocco. Geology 38: 623–626. and_Early_Ordovician_Paleogeographic_Maps.
 Chapter 5 CAMBRIAN  55

Varlamov, A.I., Rozova, A.V., Khamentovsky, Yu. Ya., et al., Palaeos: Cambrian—[Link]
2008. Introduction. In: Rozanov, [Link], Varlamov, A.I. cambrian/[Link]—A well-presented suite of
(Eds.), The Cambrian System of the Siberian diverse topics for a general science audience that
Platform. Part 1: The Aldan-Lena Region. XIII was originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in
International Field Conference of the Cambrian Stage 1998–2002.
Subdivision Working Group. Paleontological Trilobites Family Album—[Link]
Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow and us—taxonomy, images (including agnostoid
Novosibirsk, pp. 6–11. arthropods) for each order/family.
Zhu, M.-Y., Babcock, L.E., Peng, S.-C., 2006. Advances in Burgess Shale—[Link] (for the
Cambrian stratigraphy and paleontology: integrating World Heritage Site), and [Link]
correlation techniques, paleobiology, taphonomy episode-48-the-burgess-shale/(for 44-min Podcast
and paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Palaeo- with slides by Prof. Simon Conway Morris)—the
world 15: 217–222. world’s more famous fossil locality in Canada for the
spectacular record of earliest animal life during the
Websites (selected) early stages of the “Cambrian Explosion”.
Palaeocast podcasts on Cambrian—streaming videos
Subcommission on Cambrian Stratigraphy (ICS)— and slide sets at [Link]
[Link] paleozoic/cambrian/—topical episodes (typically
html—brief summary of GSSPs, extensive bibliogra- 45 min, produced during 2013–2015) include
phy on chronostratigraphy and other information. Anomalocaridids, Emu Bay Shale locality, Lobopodi-
Guide to the Orders of Trilobites—[Link] ans, and early animal forms.
info—award-winning site (e.g., Scientific American,
GSA Geoscience Information Society, etc.) paleobiol-
ogy, images, and evolutionary trees for all trilobites
(plus agnostoid arthropods) and more. Developed
and maintained by Sam Gon III.
 6
ORDOVICIAN
456 Ma Ordovician

PANTHALASSIC OCEAN

Kazakstania

Australia
South
Siberia China

North China
Laurentia PALEO-TETHYS
OCEAN

IAPETUS Arabia
OCEAN
GONDWANA

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Sandbian (early Late Ordovician) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level+120 m maximum flooding
surface (MFS)) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and of GSSPs and primary correlation criteria for

international subdivisions these stages are in Cooper et al. (2012) and on
the Subcommission website ([Link]-
The Ordovician, named after the Welsh [Link]).
Ordovices tribe of Britain, has been subdivided The base of the Ordovician was placed at a
by the Subcommission on Ordovician Stra- wave-cut platform in Newfoundland at a level
tigraphy into seven stages grouped in three intended to be just below the FAD of pelagic
series (Fig. 6.1). Most of these stages do not graptolites and to coincide with the lowest
correspond to any preexisting regional stages, occurrence of conodont Iapetognathus fluc-
but were developed based on identification tivagus in the section. However, some later
of graptolite or conodont first-appearance studies concluded that the FAD of true Iapeto.
datums (FADs) that are useful for global cor- fluctivagus is in Bed 26 above the FAD of the
relation. A detailed correlation table of these graptolites, and that the current GSSP is in
international stages to other regional units is the middle of the range of a similar-looking
in Bergström et al. (2008), and descriptions Iapeto. preaengensis (Terfelt et al., 2011, 2012),
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 57
58  Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN

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Figure 6.1 Ordovician overview. Main markers for GSSPs of Ordovician stages are first-appearance datums (FADs)
of graptolite taxa (except conodont FADs for the GSSPs of the Tremadocian and the Dapingian stages) as detailed in
Fig. 6.6. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Magnetostratigraphy is from Pavlov
and Gallet (2005), but many intervals have not been studied or verified. Schematic sea-level curve is modified from
Haq and Schutter (2008) following advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2008). The δ13C curve with major widespread
events is modified from Bergström et al. (2008) with enhancements of the Early and Middle Ordovician from Edwards
and Saltzman (2014) and of the Late Ordovician from Melchin et al. (2013) and Bergström et al. (2014). (HICE, Hirnantian
positive Isotope Carbon Excursion (ICE); GICE, Guttenberg positive ICE; BDNICE, Basal Dapingian negative ICE; and
the C-set is from Edwards and Saltzman (2014).) The generalized δ18O curve and estimates of tropical sea-surface
temperatures from conodont apatite is averaged from Trotter et al. (2008) and shown for comparison is the adjusted
tropical sea-surface temperature of Veizer and Prokoph (2015) that they derived from a synthesis of oxygen-18 values
from carbonate fossils. The vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to match the vertical scales of the first
stratigraphic summary figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters. PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C standard; SST, sea-
surface temperature.
 Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN  59

although others have defended the origi- in placement of stage boundaries in relatively
nal taxonomic assignments and FAD at the clay-rich and low-oxygen depositional set-
GSSP (Miller et al., 2014). The decision has tings (e.g., Cooper et al., 2012; Fig. 6.5).
not yet been made whether to retain the cur- The microscopic phosphatic conodonts,
rent GSSP level or to shift it slightly to again thought to be the teeth and jaw elements of an
coincide with a less ambiguous and more eel-like vertebrate, are mainly used for correla-
widespread biological datum (e.g., FAD of tion of calcareous strata. They, like graptolites,
conodont Cordylodus intermedius or other lived in major biographic provinces—warm
taxa; Terfelt et al., 2012) that is accompanied water (e.g., North American midcontinent)
by a geochemical datum (e.g., Azmy et al., and cooler water (e.g., North Atlantic realm)
2014; Ordovician News, 2015, p. 9; Fig. 6.2). (Fig. 6.5). Organic-walled chitinozoan micro-
The GSSP for the base of Middle Ordo- fossils, which may have been the floating
vician (Dapingian Stage) in Hubei, South egg cases of a marine animal, appeared at
China, coincides with the lowest occurrence the beginning of the Ordovician nearly at the
of conodont Baltoniodus triangularis (Fig. same time as graptolites and peaked during
6.3). This level is followed closely by the FAD the Darriwilian. Other fossil groups used in
of conodont Microzarkodina flabellum and Ordovician biostratigraphy include organic-
is considered close to the FAD of graptolite walled acritarchs, the calcareous shells of bra-
Isograptus victoriae victoriae, although that chiopods and the phosphatic skeletons and
taxon is not found at the GSSP section (Wang molds of trilobites.
et al., 2009). The base of the Late Ordovician During the Middle Ordovician, especially
(Sandbian Stage) in southwestern Sweden through the Darriwilian Stage, the global
coincides with the lowest occurrence of grap- ecosystems underwent the Great Ordovician
tolite Nemagraptus gracilis (Fig. 6.4). Biodiversification Event as marine diversity
nearly tripled. The drivers for this “most sig-
nificant and sustained increase of marine
Selected main stratigraphic biodiversity in Earth history” are complex,
including increases in provincialism and
scales and events elevated sea levels flooding the continents
(e.g., reviews in Webby et al., 2004; Harper
(1) Biostratigraphy and major trends et al., 2015).
Graptolites and conodonts are the main The final, and relatively brief, Hirnantian
fossil groups for correlation of Ordovician Stage of the Ordovician had two major gla-
marine strata, with chitinozoans playing a cial episodes that caused a double wave of
secondary role. Graptolites, the floating col- extinctions—the first phase during the initial
onies of microscopic animals that are pre- cooling, and the second phase during the ris-
served in shales as flattened traces, appeared ing sea levels and widespread anoxic condi-
at the base of the Ordovician, underwent a tions as the second glaciation retreated (e.g.,
major surge in diversity during the late Floian reviews by Melchin et al., 2013; Armstrong
with other peaks in early Darriwilian, mid- and Harper, 2014; Harper et al., 2014). The
Sandbian, and latest Katian, then dramati- combined effect of these two Hirnantian mass
cally collapsed during the Hirnantian (e.g., extinctions rank with the end-Permian and
Cooper et al., 2014). Their relatively short the end-Cretaceous events as the largest three
stratigraphic ranges and widespread distri- mass extinctions during the Phanerozoic.
bution are ideal for standardized Ordovician The melting of the main mid-­Hirnantian gla-
graptolite zonations and as primary markers ciation was accompanied by a major episode
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Figure 6.2 GSSP for base of the Ordovician (base of Tremadocian Stage) at the Green Point section, Newfoundland,
eastern Canada. Strata in outcrop are overturned. The GSSP level at Bed 23 in the section was intended to coincide with
the lowest occurrence of conodont Iapetognathus fluctivagus; but later studies concluded that its true lowest occurrence
is in Bed 26. Specimen that had been interpreted as Iapeto. fluctivagus in image (C) is 0.5-mm long. The lowest appearance
of graptolites is 4.8 m above the GSSP; and the specimen of graptolite Rhabdinopora flabelliformis parabola in image (D) is
17-mm long. (Stratigraphic column and ranges of taxa are modified from the original GSSP publication (Cooper et al., 2001),
images of fossils are from Cooper et al. (2012), and the outcrop photograph is by S.H. Williams.)
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South China. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of conodont Baltoniodus triangularis. Images of
Balt. triangularis: (A) is Pa element, lateral view, 0.23 mm in height; (B) is Sa element, posterior view, 0.16 mm in height. (Set
of images and stratigraphic column from Cooper et al. (2012) is partly from Wang et al. (2005; Fig. 4).)
62  Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN

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southwestern Sweden. The GSSP level at the lowest occurrence of graptolite Nemagraptus gracilis. (Photograph
and stratigraphic column from Cooper et al. (2012) showing graptolite and chitinozoan ranges from Bergström et al.
(2000); Fig. 5.)
 Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN  63

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the rock-record “stage”.) Compilation modified from Cooper et al. (2012). The Australian graptolite scale is modified
from Cooper and Sadler (2004). British graptolite zones, North Atlantic and North America Midcontinent conodont
zones, and North Gondwana chitinozoan zones are from Webby et al. (2004).
64  Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN

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Figure 6.5 (Continued) Coastal onlap with labels for selected major sequence boundaries are modified from Haq
and Schutter (2008) following advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2008). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers,
regional stages, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in Cooper et al. (2012)
and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
 Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN  65

of widespread black-shale deposition—an very cold oceanic temperatures during the

important regional hydrocarbon source rock— Hirnantian glacial episodes.
that continued through the earliest Silurian Strontium 87Sr/86Sr ratios slowly decreased
(Melchin et al., 2013). during the Tremadocian to mid-Darriwilian,
rapidly decreased through the Sandbian, and
then leveled off at a minimum during the
(2) Stable-isotope stratigraphy and Katian–Hirnantian before reversing to a rising
selected events trend through the entire Silurian (e.g., McArthur
A distinct break occurs in the character- et al., 2012; Edwards et al., 2015). A compila-
istics of geochemical trends between the tion of the few magnetostratigraphic studies
relatively quiet early Ordovician and the of Ordovician strata suggests dominance by
excursions and rapid rates of change in the a superchron of a reversed-polarity magnetic
late Ordovician (Fig. 6.1). The graptolite turn- field during the middle Early through Middle
over rates also indicate a relatively steady Ordovician (Pavlov and Gallet, 2005; Pavlov
marine environment until the Katian onset of et al., 2008; Fig. 6.1).
a series of several sharp extinction episodes
during the latest Ordovician through Silurian
triggered by environmental crises (Cooper
Numerical age model
et al., 2012). GTS2012 age model and potential
The carbon–isotope curve has fine-scale
variations during the Early and Middle future enhancements
Ordovician that, when combined with biostra- A composite sequencing of the strati-
tigraphy, are useful for high-resolution cor- graphic ranges of over 2000 graptolite species
relation (e.g., Edwards and Saltzman, 2014). using a database from over 500 stratigraphic
Beginning with the Guttenberg positive Isotope sections was compiled using CONstrained
Carbon Excursion (GICE) at the base of the OPtimization methods (CONOP) by Cooper
Katian, a series of high-amplitude excursions and Sadler (in Cooper et al., 2012, 2014). Age
affected the global carbon cycle and culmi- models for the FADs and last-appearance
nated in the major Hirnantian excursion (HICE) datums (LADs) of the major taxa and for the
that accompanied the onset of the two glacial Ordovician and Silurian stage boundaries
episodes (e.g., compilations by Bergström calibrated to those events (placed at bases of
et al., 2008, 2014; Melchin et al., 2013). graptolite zones) were interpolated by both a
Oxygen-isotope ratios in the phosphate cubic spline fit and a polynomial fit to a set of
of conodonts indicate a general long-term 22 radioisotopic dates. The two interpolation
cooling through the Ordovician that may methods generally yielded very similar esti-
have played a role in increasing oceanic over- mates for the ages of Ordovician stage bound-
turning and the Middle Ordovician surge in aries, except for ca. 1.3-myr younger ages
marine biodiversity (Trotter et al., 2008). An from spline-fit method for the bases of the
independent estimate of average subtropical Floian and the Hirnantian (see comparison
temperatures from δ18O values of carbon- table and graphical-display comparison in
ates that is adjusted for potential long-term Cooper et al., 2012). The spline-fit interpola-
trends in Phanerozoic seawater δ18O (Veizer tions were used in GTS2012, whereas Cooper
and Prokoph, 2015) yields similar trends et al. (2014) used the polynomial-fit interpola-
but with significantly cooler average values tion for their statistics on rates of graptolite-
(Fig. 6.1). The cooling trend culminates in diversity trends.
66  Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN

After the publication of GTS2012, the only 451.9 ± 0.4 Ma, which is 1-myr younger than
significant new radioisotopic dates have the spline-fit interpolation of 453.0 ± 0.7 Ma
been mainly from the Late Ordovician. Dur- computed in GTS2012. A critique of the radio-
ing the Sandbian and Katian stages of the isotopic dates spanning the late Cambrian
Late Ordovician, there were some major and earliest Ordovician (Landing et al., 2015)
explosive volcanic episodes that deposited preferred using a single 207Pb/206Pb date of
thick ash beds over present-day eastern 486.8 ± 2.6 Ma from detrital zircons near the
North America and northern Europe. One Cambrian/Ordovician boundary in Wales as
episode, the Kinnekulle bentonite of north- its best age, rather than the 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma
western Europe, has been U-Pb redated as derived by the spline fit through this date plus
454.5 ± 0.5 Ma (Svenson et al., 2015), and adjacent dates; which highlights the need to
extrapolation of the regional placement of obtain much higher precision uranium–lead
the Sandbian/Katian boundary relative to isotope dilution thermal ionization mass
this and other ash beds yielded an estimate of spectrometry (U-Pb TIMS) dates from this

GSSPs of the Ordovician Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Wangjiawan North
section, N of Yichang 30°59'2.68"N 0.39m below the Graptolite, FAD of
Episodes 29/3,
Hirnantian
city, Western Hubei 111°25'10.76"E base
of the Metabolograptus
Kuanyinchiao Bed extraordinarius 2006
Province, China
Black Knob Ridge 34°25.829'N 4.0m above the base
Graptolite, FAD of
Episodes 30/4,
Katian Section, Atoka,
Oklahoma (USA) 96°4.473'W of the Bigfork Chert Diplacanthograptus 2007
caudatus
1.4m below a
Sularp Brook, 55°42'49.3"N phosphorite marker Graptolite, FAD of Episodes 23/2,
Sandbian Nemagraptus
Fågelsång, Sweden 13°19'31.8"E* bed in the E14b 2000
outcrop gracilis

Huangnitang section, 28°51'14"N Graptolite, FAD of Episodes 20/3,

Darriwilian Changshan, Zhejiang 118°29'23"E* base of Bed AEP 184 Undulograptus
Province, SE China 1997
austrodentatus
Huanghuachang
Dapingian section, NE of 30°51’ 37.8’’N 10.57 m above base Conodont, FAD of Episodes 32/2,
110°22’ 26.5’’E of
the Dawan Baltoniodus
Yichang city, Hubei Formation 2009
Province, S China triangularis

in the lower Tøyen

Diabasbrottet, 58°21'32.2"N Shale, 2.1m above Graptolite, FAD of Episodes 27/4,
Floian Tetragraptus
Hunneberg, Sweden 12°30'08.6"E the top of the 2004
Cambrian approximatus

Green Point Section, at the 101.8m level, Conodont, FAD of Episodes 24/1,
Tremadocian western New- 49°40'58.5"N within Bed 23, in the Iapetognathus
foundland 57°57'55.09"W* measured section fluctivagus
2001

* according to Google Earth

Figure 6.6 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers defining the Ordovician stages (status as of early 2016).
(Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.)
 Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN  67

interval. We have retained the GTS2012 age expertise of many colleagues, especially Roger Cooper,
model in this chapter. Peter Sadler, and Michael Melchin. Roger Cooper and
Shanchi Peng reviewed an early version of the graphics,
The Ordovician time scale and scaling database, and text.
of biozones within stages will eventually
be improved by applying cyclostratigraphy.
For example, the glacial episodes during the
Hirnantian appear to have been either modu- Selected publications and
lated by 405-kyr eccentricity cycles superim- websites
posed on lower frequencies (eg, Melchin et al.,
2013) or perhaps with a 1.2-myr modulation Cited publications
of obliquity (Ghienne et al., 2014). Detailed Only select publications were cited in this review
with an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates.
logging of Sandbian–Katian sections suggest
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the
400-kyr modulation of 100-kyr eccentricity synthesis by Cooper et al. (2012) and in some of the
cycles plus 30-kyr obliquity (e.g., Ellwood publications cited below.
et al., 2013; Elrich et al., 2013; Svensen et al., Armstrong, H.A., Harper, D.A.T., 2014. An Earth system
2015; Hinnov and Diecchio, 2015). approach to understanding the end-Ordovician
(Hirnantian) mass extinction. In: Keller, G., Kerr, A.
(Eds.), Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions:
Estimated uncertainties on assigned Causes and Effects, Geological Society of America
Special Paper, vol. 505, pp. 287–300. [Link]
ages on stage boundaries org/10.1130/2014.2505(14).
Azmy, K., Stouge, S., Brand, U., Bagnoli, G., Ripperdan,
The uncertainties on stage boundar- R., 2014. High-resolution chemostratigraphy of the
ies computed by the spline-fit method in Cambrian–Ordovician GSSP: enhanced global
GTS2012 were largely governed by the uncer- correlation tool. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
tainties and spacing of the radioisotopic tie Palaeoecology 409: 135–144. [Link]
points. The uncertainties from the spline-fit org/10.1016/[Link].2014.05.010.
Bergström, S.M., Finney, S.C., Xu, C., Palsson, C.,
statistics ranged from 1.9 myr at the base of Zhi-Gao, W., Grahn, Y., 2000. A proposed global
the Ordovician, decreasing to ca. 0.7 myr at boundary stratotype for the base of the Upper Series
the base of the Katian, and rising to 1.5 myr of the Ordovician System: The Fågelsång section,
at base-Hirnantian and the base of the Silu- Scania, southern Sweden. Episodes 23(2): 102–109.
rian. Reduction of these uncertainties will Bergström, S.M., Chen, X., Gutiérrez-Marco, J.-C.,
Dronov, A., 2008. The new chronostratigraphic
require reanalysis of the previously published classification of the Ordovician System and its
radioisotopic ages using the EARTHTIME relations to major regional series and stages and to
standards (e.g., Condon et al., 2015), adding δ13C chemostratigraphy. Lethaia 42: 97–107.
dates within the main gaps of Tremadocian Correlation chart available at: [Link]
and Katian stages, and applying and verifying [Link]/uploads/[Link].
Bergström, S.M., Eriksson, M.E., Young, S.A., Ahlberg, P.,
cyclostratigraphic scaling techniques. Schmitz, B., 2014. Hirnantian (latest Ordovician) δ13C
chemostratigraphy in southern Sweden and globally:
a refined integration with the graptolite and
Acknowledgments conodont zone successions. GFF 136(2): 355–386.
[Link]
This brief Ordovician summary of selected highlights Condon, D.J., Schoene, B., McLean, N.M., Bowring, S.A.,
and current stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the Parrish, R.R., 2015. Metrology and traceability of
detailed overview and synthesis by Cooper et al. (2012) U-Pb isotope dilution geochronology (EARTHTIME
and updates in the Ordovician News newsletters of the Tracer Calibration Part 1). Geochemica et Cosmochi-
Subcommission on Ordovician Stratigraphy ([Link] mica Acta. 164: 464–480. [Link]
[Link]. This review depended on the gca.2015.05.026.
68  Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN

Cooper, R.A., Nowlan, G.S., Williams, H.S., 2001. Global Harper, D.A.T., Zhan, R.-B., Jin, J., 2015. The Great
stratotype section and point for base of the Ordovi- Ordovician Biodiversification Event: Reviewing two
cian System. Episodes 24: 19–28. decades of research on diversity’s big bang illustrated
Cooper, R.A., Sadler, P.M., 2004. Ordovician. In: Grad- by mainly brachiopod data. Palaeoworld 24: 75–85.
stein, F., Ogg, J.G., Smith, A.G.(Coordinators) , A [Link]
Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge University Press, Haq, B.U., Schutter, S.R., 2008. A chronology of Paleozoic
Cambridge, pp. 165–187. sea-level changes. Science 322: 64–68. [Link]
Cooper, R.A., Sadler, P.M., Gradstein, F.M., Hammer, O., org/10.1126/science.116164.
2012. The Ordovician Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Hinnov, L.A., Diecchio, R.J., 2015. Milankovitch Cycles in
Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G. (Coordinators), The the Juniata Formation, Late Ordovician, Central
Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ, pp. 489–523 Appalachian Basin, USA. Stratigraphy 12: 287–296.
(An overview on all aspects, including graphics on Landing, E., Rushton, A.W.A., Fortey, R.A., Bowring, S.A.,
the ratified GSSPs of the stages, diagrams and tables 2015. Improved geochronologic accuracy and
for the biostratigraphic scales, and discussion on the precision for the ICS Chronostratigraphic charts:
age models.). examples from the late Cambrian-Early Ordovician.
Cooper, R.A., Sadler, P.M., Munnecke, A., Crampton, J.S., Episodes 38(3): 154–161.
2014. Graptoloid evolutionary rates track Ordovician-­ McArthur, J.M., Howarth, R.J., Shields, G.A., 2012.
Silurian global climate change. Geological Magazine Strontium isotope stratigraphy. In: Gradstein, F.M.,
151: 349–364. Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G. (Coordinators), The
Edwards, C.T., Saltzman, M.R., 2014. Carbon isotope Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 127–144.
(δ13Ccarb) stratigraphy of the Lower–Middle Ordovi- Melchin, M.J., Mitchell, C.E., Holmden, C., Štorch, P.,
cian (Tremadocian–Darriwilian) in the Great Basin, 2013. Environmental changes in the Late
western United States: implications for global Ordovician–­early Silurian: review and new insights
correlation. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, from black shales and nitrogen isotopes. Geological
Palaeoecology 399: 1–20. Society of America Bulletin 125: 165–1670. http://
Edwards, C.T., Saltzman, M.R., Leslie, S.A., Bergström, [Link]/10.1130/B30812.1.
S.M., Sedlacek, A.R.C., Howard, A., Bauer, J.A., Sweet, Miller, J.F., Repetski, J.E., Nicoll, R.S., Nowland, G.,
W.C., Young, S.A., 2015. Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) Ethington, R., 2014. The conodont Iapetognathus
stratigraphy of Ordovician bulk carbonate: implica- and its value for defining the base of the Ordovician
tions for preservation of primary seawater values. System. GFF 136: 185–188. [Link]
Geological Society of America Bulletin 127: 1275–1289. 11035897.2013.862851.
Ellwood, B.B., Brett, C.E., Tomkin, J.H., Macdonald, W.D., Ordovician News, 2015. In: Percival, I.G. (Ed.),
2013. Visual identification and quantification of Subcommission on Ordovician Stratigraphy
Milankovitch climate cycles in outcrop: an example Newsletter, vol. 32 Available as PDF at: http://
from the Upper Ordovician Kope Formation, [Link].
Northern Kentucky. In: Jovane, L., Herreo-Bervara, E., Pavlov, V., Gallet, Y., 2005. A third superchron during the
Hinnov, L.A., Housen, B.A. (Eds.), Magnetic Methods Early Paleozoic. Episodes 28: 78–84.
and the Timing of Geological Process. Geological Pavlov, V., Bachtadse, V., Mikhailov, V., 2008. New Middle
Society, vol. 373. Special Publications, London, pp. Cambrian and Middle Ordovician palaeomagnetic
341–353. [Link] data from Siberia: Llandelian magnetostratigraphy
Elrich, M., Reardon, D., Labor, W., Martin, J., Descrochers, and relative rotation between the Aldan and
A., Pope, M., 2013. Orbital-scale climate change and Anabar–­Angara blocks. Earth and Planetary Science
glacioeustasy during the early Late Ordovician Letters 276: 229–242. [Link]
(pre-Hirnantian) determined from δ18O values in 2008.06.021.
marine apatite. Geology 41: 775–788. [Link] Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Silurian and Middle-Late
org/10.1130/G34363.1. Ordovician Paleogeographic Maps (Mollweide
Ghienne, J.-G., Desrochers, A., Vandenbroucke, T.R.A., Projection), Maps 73-80, Volume 5, The Early Paleozoic,
Achab, A., Asselin, E., Dabard, M.-P., Farley, C., Loi, PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for ArcGIS, PALEOMAP Project,
A., Paris, F., Wickson, S., Veizer, J., 2014. A Cenozoic- Evanston, IL. [Link]
style scenario for the end-Ordovician glaciation. Atlas_of_Silurian_and_Middle-Late_Ordovician_
Nature Communications 5: 4485. [Link] Paleogeographic_Maps.
org/10.1038/ncomms5485 (9 pp.). Svenson, H.H., Hammer, Ø., Corfu, F., 2015. Astronomi-
Harper, D.A.T., Hammarlund, E.U., Rasmussen, C.M.O., cally forced cyclicity in the Upper Ordovician and
2014. End Ordovician extinctions: a coincidence of U-Pb ages of interlayered tephra, Oslo Region,
causes. Gondwana Research 25: 1294–1307. http:// Norway. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
[Link]/10.1016/[Link].2012.12.021. Palaeoecology 418: 150–159.
 Chapter 6 ORDOVICIAN  69

Terfelt, F., Bagnoli, G., Stouge, S., 2011. The base of the The Great Ordovician Biodiversity Event—www.
Ordovician System – a horizon in limbo. In: [Link]/episode-19-the-great-ordovician-
Gutiérrez-­Marco, J.G., Rábano, I., García-Bellido, D. biodiversity-event—Prof. David Harper (former chair
(Eds.), Ordovician of the World, 11th International of Ordovician Subcommission; and current ICS
Symposium on the Ordovician System (Alcalá de chair) leads an examination of the “causes and
Henares, Madrid, Spain, 9–13 May 2011), Guadernos consequences of this complex and fascinating
del Museao Geominero (Instituto Geológico y period” (2013).
Minero de España), vol. 14 (682 pp.), p. 587 free Geobiodiversity database—[Link].
download at: [Link] com—Extensive array of stratigraphic sections
ORDOVICIAN%20OF%20THE%[Link]. (ca. 14,000 localities) with a current emphasis on
Terfelt, F., Bagnoli, G., Stouge, S., 2012. Re-evaluation of the Ordovician–Silurian and on China. Also includes
conodont Iapetognathus and implications for the base SinoCor program for graphical correlation and other
of the Ordovician System GSSP. Lethaia 45: 227–237. tools. Developed by Fan Junxuan (Nanjing Inst.
Trotter, J.A., Williams, I.S., Barnes, C.R., Lécuyer, C., Geology and Paleontology).
Nicoll, R.S., 2008. Did cooling oceans trigger Commission Internationale Microflore Paléo-
Ordovician biodiversification? Evidence from zoïque—[Link]
conodont thermometry. Science 321: 550–554. Commission of the Paleozoic Microflora has
Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen separate subcommissions on acritarchs, chitinozoans,
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans. and miospores; and site has archive of their
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104. newsletters and other information; although number
Wang, X., Stouge, S., Erdtmann, B.-D., Chen, X., Li, Z., of active newsletters diminished since 2012.
Wang, C., Zeng, Q., Zhou, Z., Chen, H., 2005. A Palaeos: The Ordovician—[Link]
proposed GSSP for the base of the Middle Ordovician silurian/[Link]—A well-presented suite of
Series: the Huanghuachang section, Yichang, China. diverse topics for a general science audience that
Episodes 28(2): 105–117. was originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in
Wang, X., Stouge, S., Chen, X., Li, Z., Wang, C., Finney, 1998–2002.
S.C., Zeng, Q., Zhou, Z., Chen, H., Erdtmann, B.-D., Guide to the Orders of Trilobites—[Link]
2009. The Global Stratotype Section and Point for the info—award-winning site (eg, Scientific American,
base of the Middle Ordovician Series and the third Geological Society of America (GSA) Geoscience
stage (Dapingian). Episodes 32(2): 96–112. Information Society, etc.) paleobiology, images, and
Webby, B.D., Paris, F., Droser, M.L., Percival, I.G., 2004. evolutionary trees for all trilobites (plus agnostoid
The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. arthropods) and more. Developed and maintained
Columbia University Press, New York. 496 pp. (In by Sam Gon III.
addition to syntheses for most fossil groups, this
compilation has excellent summaries of Ordovician
climate, geochemistry and sea-level changes.).

Websites (selected)
Subcommission on Ordovician Stratigraphy
(International Commission on Stratigraphy
[ICS])—[Link]
Ordovician News PDFs, correlation charts, details
on each GSSP, and other information.
 7
SILURIAN
425.6 Ma Silurian

PANTHALASSIC OCEAN

Kazakstania
Siberia

PALEO-TETHYS South
Australia
OCEAN
Baltica China
Laurentia North China
Antarctica

RHEIC India
IAPETUS OCEAN OCEAN
Arabia

GONDWANA
CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Wenlock (middle Silurian) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 80 m). From Scotese (2014).

Czech Republic (Figs. 7.1 and 7.7). However,

Basal definition and many of these GSSPs were later found defi-
international subdivisions cient for precise global correlation, therefore
the International Subcommission on Silurian
The Silurian, named after the Silures tribe Stratigraphy (ISSS) has working groups for the
of Wales, begins during the recovery from priority needs of revising the early Silurian set
the two-phased mass extinction that accom- of the bases for Aeronian and Telychian stages
panied the pair of major glacial and inter- in the Llandovery Series and the base for the
glacial events of the early and middle part Wenlock Series (Sheinwoodian Stage).
of the Hirnantian Stage of latest Ordovician. The GSSP for the Ordovician/Silurian
The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and boundary in Scotland coincides with the local
Points (GSSPs) for the four Silurian series— occurrence of graptolite Akidograptus ascen-
Llandovery, Wenlock, Ludlow, and Pridoli sus (Fig. 7.2). Even though it was originally
(Přídolí )—and their stages were all placed in intended to coincide with the base of the next
the United Kingdom (e.g., field guide by Ray, higher zone of Parakidograptus acuminatus
2011), except for the base of the Pridoli in the which was later found to begin 1.6-m higher,
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 71
72  Chapter 7 SILURIAN

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Figure 7.1 Silurian overview. Main markers for GSSPs of Silurian stages are intended to be first-appearance datums
(FADs) of graptolite taxa, but some of the current GSSPs do not allow a precise calibration (e.g., Ray, 2011; Melchin
et al., 2012). (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Magnetostratigraphy is essentially
unstudied within the Silurian. Coastal onlap and schematic sea-level curve with labels for selected major sequence
boundaries are modified from Haq and Schutter (2008) following advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2008), but there
are several other published curves with different details (reviewed in Munnecke et al., 2010). The δ13C curve and the
placement of major widespread biotic events (extinction episodes, etc.) are from Cramer et al. (2011a) (Melchin et al.,
2012, 2013). The generalized δ18O curve from conodont apatite is averaged from the Baltica–Anticosti subset of
Trotter et al. (2016), with schematic trends of tropical sea-surface temperatures (without adjustment for possible
glacial ice). For comparison, Veizer and Prokoph (2015) derived an adjusted tropical sea-surface temperature curve
from a synthesis of oxygen-18 values from carbonate fossils. The vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to
match the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters.

the current GSSP level and the implied redefi- the FAD of graptolite Monograptus austerus
nition of the basal Silurian graptolite zone was sequens, which was interpreted to indicate the
retained (Rong et al., 2008). The GSSP level is graptolite Demirastrites triangulatus Zone.
within a widespread oceanic anoxic event that However, the Mono. austerus sequens grap-
continued through much of the Rhuddanian tolite is only found at a single other location
Stage and had produced extensive organic- (also in Wales), and the sparse graptolite
rich shale deposits that are an important record at the GSSP only indicates that it is
source rock for hydrocarbons (e.g., review in at an unknown level within the Demi. tri-
Melchin et al., 2013). angulates zone (Melchin et al., 2012). The
The GSSP for the base of the Aeronian working group is focusing on alternate can-
Stage near the Cwm-coed-Aeron Farm in didates in England, China (Shennongjia
Wales that gave the name to this stage is near section in western Hubei Province), and
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Figure 7.2 GSSP for base of the Silurian (base of Llandovery Series and base of Rhuddanian Stage) at the Dob’s Linn
section, southern Uplands, Scotland, United Kingdom. The GSSP level coincides with the local lowest occurrence
of graptolite Akidograptus ascensus. Strata in outcrop are overturned. Stratigraphic columns are from Melchin et al.
(2012); and photograph is by Michael Melchin.
74  Chapter 7 SILURIAN

the Prague Basin (ISSS Silurian Times, 2014, nilssoni Zone and above the Mulde posi-
p. 19). The GSSP for the following Telychian tive excursion in carbon isotopes (Fig. 7.1)
Stage, named after the Pen-lan-Telych Farm (reviewed in Melchin et al., 2012).
in Wales, has abundant brachiopods which The Pridoli (Přídolí) Series is unique in
indicate that the GSSP level is near the last being the only chronostratigraphic series,
occurrence (LAD) of Eocelia intermedia, other than Holocene, that has no stage divi-
which elsewhere suggests a level within the sions. This is partly because it was to fill a
upper part of the graptolite Stimulograptus “gap” between the top of the traditional
sedgwickii Zone (Melchin et al., 2012). If the British Silurian at a Ludlow Bone Bed (top of
current brief Stimul. sedgwickii zone is fur- Ludlow Series) below nonmarine strata and
ther subdivided into a lower Stimul. sedg- the Silurian/Devonian boundary as defined in
wickii zone and an upper Stimul. halli zone 1972 with the GSSP near Prague. The GSSP in
(corresponding to the graptolite Lituigrap- graptolite-bearing platy limestone near that
tus rostrum Zone in the Prague region), then Silurian/Devonian GSSP near Prague is within
carbon-isotope stratigraphy suggests that the graptolite Neocolonograptus parultimus
the GSSP level might be close to that new (formerly in the Monograptus genus when
internal zonal boundary (Melchin et al., GSSP was ratified) Zone (Fig. 7.5).
2015). Potential boundary sections are in
Shennongjia (Hubei, China) and Spain. A
reason to have a more precise placement is Selected main stratigraphic
that the Aeronian/Telychian boundary inter-
val is within a time of glaciation in the South scales and events
American part of Gondwana, and oscilla-
tions of sea level and carbon isotopes of ca.
(1) Biostratigraphy (marine;
100-kyr might enable precise global correla- terrestrial)
tion (Melchin et al., 2015). Graptolites, the floating colonies of micro-
The current GSSP for the base of the scopic animals that are preserved in shales as
Wenlock Series (base of Sheinwoodian Stage) flattened traces, recovered in diversity after
in Wales at the base of the Buildwas Forma- their collapse at the end of the Ordovician to
tion has a vague placement within biozones reach a Silurian peak during the early Tely-
(Fig. 7.3). It had been intended to be near the chian Stage (e.g., Cooper et al., 2014). After
base of the graptolite Cyrtograptus centrifu- a secondary peak in diversity during the late
gus Zone, but the current interpretation is Gorstian Stage, the graptolite diversity rap-
that it is closer to the base of the next higher idly declined into the Pridoli, and only a few
Cyrto. murchisoni Zone (reviewed in Melchin species continued into the early Devonian.
et al., 2012). The working group is searching Most graptolite taxa were widely distributed,
for a replacement section that has correla- and their relatively short stratigraphic ranges
tion potential with both graptolites and con- are ideal for a standardized Silurian graptolite
odonts, and potential sites include Gaspé zonation (e.g., Cramer et al., 2011a,b; Melchin
(Québec, Canada), Arctic Canada, Ziyang et al., 2012) (Fig. 7.6).
(South China), and Gotland (Sweden) (ISSS Although graptolites are most useful in
Silurian Times, 2014, p. 19). biostratigraphy of clay-rich strata, the Silurian
The Ludlow Series GSSP (base of Gorstian carbonate-rich formations are commonly
Stage) near the type area in Wales (Fig. 7.4) dated using conodonts, the phosphatic teeth
seems within the graptolite Neodiversograptus and jaw elements of eel-like vertebrates.
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Figure 7.3 GSSP for base of the Wenlock Series (base of Sheinwoodian Stage) at the Hughley Brook section, Wales,
United Kingdom. The GSSP level does not seem to coincide with any biostratigraphic or other datum that is useful for
widespread correlation, other than perhaps the highest occurrence of conodont Pterospathodus amorphognathoides;
therefore, the GSSP is under revision (see text and Melchin et al., 2012). Photograph (with 15-cm long white card for
scale) is by Michael Melchin, and the stratigraphic diagram is from Melchin et al. (2012).
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Figure 7.4 GSSP for base of the Ludlow Series (base of Gorstian Stage) at the Pitch Coppice Quarry near Ludlow,
Wales, United Kingdom. The GSSP level at the base of the Lower Elton Formation seems above the local lowest
occurrence of graptolite Neodiversograptus nilssoni and below the lowest Saetograptus (Colonograptus) varians,
but it is uncertain how to place this GSSP within the Neo. nilssoni Zone (Melchin et al., 2012). Photograph (with 15-cm
long white card for scale) is by Michael Melchin, and the stratigraphic diagram is from Melchin et al. (2012).
 %DVHRIWKH3ULGROt6HULHVRIWKH6LOXULDQ6\VWHPLQWKH'DOHMH9DOOH\
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Figure 7.5 GSSP for base of the Přídolí Series at the Požáry Section, Řeporyjie, near Prague, Czech Republic. The
GSSP level is above the lowest occurrence of graptolite Neocolonograptus parultimus, but because the immediately
underlying beds are barren of graptolites, then the relative placement within that N. parultimus Zone is uncertain (see
Melchin et al., 2012). The GSSP is just below the base of the chitinozoan Fungochitina kosovensis Zone. Stratigraphic
column is from Melchin et al. (2012); and photograph is by Michael Melchin.
 Silurian Time Scale
Epoch/Age

Polarity Ch
Graptolite Conodont Chitinozoan

Slices
AGE Spores Vertebrates

Time
(Ma) (Stage) Zones Zones Zones
Latericriodus
Monograptus woschmidti -
Devonian uniformis postwoschmidti
419 Katoporus
419.2 timanicus -
K. lithuanicus
Oulodus elegans
detortus
420 Monograptus Angochitina
transgrediens - superba
perneri
Pr2
Pridoli

421 Poracanthodes
Ozarkodina punctatus
Monograptus eosteinhornensis
bouceki s.l. Interval Zone
422
[Link] - Margachitina Synorisporites
tripapillatus - Nostolepis
Pr1 M. lochkov. branikensis elegans gracilis
Apiculiretusispora
423.0 Neocolonogr. ultimus Fungoch. kosovensis spicula
423 Lu3
Neocolonogr. parultimus
Ozarkodina crispa
Monograptus formosus Thelodus
Ozarkodina
Neocucullogr. kozlowskii - snajdri sculptilis
Lu2 Polonogr. podoliensis Eisenackitina
Interval Zone barrandei Lophozono-
Bohemograptus triletes?
424
Ludfordian Polygnathoides poecilomorphus -
siluricus Synorisorites Andreolepis
Saetograptus libycus hedei
Lu1 leintwardinensis - Eisenackitina
Ludlow

425 linearis phillipi

Ancoradella
ploeckensis Phlebolepis
425.6 elegans

Angochitina
426 Kockelella elongata Sclya. downiei - Phlebolepis
Lobograptus variabilis
Go2 scanicus variabilis Concen. ornata
Gorstian Interval Zone sagittarius

427 Neodiversograptus
427.4 Go1 nilssoni Kockelella crassa
Colonograptus
Ho3 ludensis Kockelella ortus Sphaerochitina
absidata lycoperdoides
428 Colonograptus? deubeli Paralogania
Colon? praedeubeli martinssoni
Ho2 Artemopyra
Gothograptus nassa - brevicostata -
Pristiog. dubius parvus
Hispanaediscus
Homerian Ozarkodina verrucatus
429 bohemica longa
Conochitina
Cyrtograptus
Wenlock

Ho1 pachycephala
lundgreni
430 Ozarkodina sagitta
sagitta
430.5
Loganellia
Kockelella ortus Archaeozono- grossi
Sh3 ortus triletes
431 Cyrtograptus chulus nanus -
rigidus - Kockelella Cingulochitina Archaeozono-
Sheinwoodian Monograptus walliseri cingulata triletes
antennularius - chulus chulus
M. belophorus Ozarkodina
432 Sh2 sagitta rhenana

Figure 7.6 (A,B) Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Silurian. (“Age” is the term for the
time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”.) Compilation modified from Melchin et al. (2012), which used graptolite and
conodont zonations based on Cramer et al. (2011a,b, respectively); chitinozoan zonation slightly modified from Verniers
et al. (1995); spore zonation from Subcommission on Silurian Stratigraphy (1995) modified after Burgess and Richardson
(1995) (Melchin et al., 2012).
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Figure 7.6 (Continued) And vertebrate zonation (mainly Thelodonti jawless fish with some Acanthodian jawed-fish
zones in the Prídolí) is from Märss et al. (1995). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends,
sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in Melchin et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets within
the TimeScale Creator visualization system. Free at [Link].
80  Chapter 7 SILURIAN

The zonation in Fig. 7.6 is the semiglobal com- are no major volcanic eruptive provinces yet
posite compiled by Cramer et al. (2011a,b), identified within the Silurian (e.g., compi-
and adding a slight modification by Trotter lation by Rampino and Self, 2015). The Lau
et al. (2016, suppl.) of a narrowed span for the Event that begins in the uppermost part of
Pterospathodus tenuis Zone within the Aero- the graptolite Saetograptus leintwardinensis
nian. Organic-walled chitinozoans, which zone of the Ludfordian Stage at 424.1 ± 0.2 Ma
may have been microscopic floating egg cap- (Cramer et al., 2015) is the largest positive
sules of a marine animal, are also widespread excursion of the global carbon cycle in the
in marine facies. The Silurian seas hosted a entire Phanerozoic.
variety of early forms of jawless Thelodonti Strontium 87Sr/86Sr ratios steadily climbed
fish, with jawed Acanthodian fish appearing in through the Silurian, with the most rapid rate
the Pridoli. The earliest land plants appeared of rise during the Ludlow Epoch until the
during the Silurian, and their spores enable a Lau Event (Melchin et al., 2012; Cramer et al.,
broad correlation of terrestrial and nearshore 2015).
settings. Temperature trends from δ18O measure-
ments using conodont apatite indicate that,
after the rapid warming following the cold
(2) Stable-isotope stratigraphy, mid-Hirnantian glacial, average tempera-
tures remained relatively warm during the
magnetostratigraphy, and selected Llandovery, underwent a set of cold epi-
events sodes during the Wenlock, and were gener-
The Silurian is characterized by a series ally warm during the Ludlow and Pridoli
of major oscillations in sea level, carbon (Trotter et al., 2016). The schematic temper-
isotopes, and sea-surface temperatures. ature curve from these conodont δ18O values
Although, there is not yet agreement on the in Fig. 7.1 illustrates the trends and relative
precise intercalibration and magnitude of oscillations; and actual temperatures would
some of these events, especially in sea-level require adjustment for uncertain extent
curves (see discussions of different sea-level of continental ice sheets. An independent
and sequence interpretations in Munnecke estimate of average subtropical tempera-
et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2010; Melchin tures from δ18O values of carbonates that
et al., 2012), it has become apparent that is adjusted for potential long-term trends
most of these events are interconnected. in Phanerozoic seawater δ18O (Veizer and
In general, but not always, a major wave of Prokoph, 2015) yields significantly cooler
extinctions of graptolites and conodonts average values with similar trends (Fig. 7.1).
occurs during the beginning of a climate- The major episode of widespread black-
cooling episode, a sea-level lowstand, a pos- shale deposition—an important hydrocarbon
sible expansion of continental ice sheets, source rock—at the beginning of the Silu-
and a positive excursion in carbon isotopes. rian (late Hirnantian through early Rhud-
In contrast to the common association of danian) was triggered by the melting of the
major large igneous province eruptions with large Hirnantian glacial sheets combined
such excursions during the Late Paleozoic with an influx of nutrients, and possible
through Cenozoic, the triggers for the major development of strong oceanic stratifica-
episodes, which are spaced at approximately tion, and then partly sustained by enhanced
5-myr intervals, remain speculative. There phosphate recycling under anoxic bottom
 Chapter 7 SILURIAN  81

water conditions (Melchin et al., 2013). The 422.96 Ma age on that stage boundary. The
Silurian ends with the Klonk Event of a posi- only new date that may suggest a revised
tive δ13C excursion and rapid cooling into the age for a stage boundary is a 431.83 ± 0.23 Ma
basal Devonian. date from the middle of the conodont
Pseudooneotodus bicornis subzone near
the Ireviken Event in basal Sheinwoodian
Numerical age model (base of Wenlock Series) (Cramer et al.,
2012), which suggests that this yet-to-be-
GTS2012 age model and potential revised Wenlock Series boundary might be
future enhancements ca. 1.5-myr younger than the interpolation
A composite sequencing of the strati- in GTS2012. In the Silurian scale used in
graphic ranges of over 2000 graptolite species Figs. 7.1 and 7.6, the GTS2012 age model was
using a database from over 500 stratigraphic retained.
sections was compiled using CONstrained In Fig. 7.6, a suite of radioisotopic dates
OPtimization methods (CONOP) by Coo- within the Homerian Stage including bracket-
per and Sadler (in Cooper et al., 2012, 2014). ing the Mulde Excursion (Cramer et al., 2012)
Age models for the FADs and LADs of the and within the Ludfordian stage at the base of
major taxa and for the Ordovician and Silu- the Lau Excursion (Cramer et al., 2015) have
rian stage boundaries calibrated to those been incorporated in adjustment of the asso-
events (placed at bases of graptolite zones) ciated graptolite- and conodont-zone bound-
were interpolated by both a cubic spline fit aries within those stages.
and a polynomial fit to a set of 22 radioiso-
topic dates. The two interpolation methods Estimated uncertainties on assigned
generally yielded very similar estimates for
the ages of Silurian stage boundaries, except ages on stage boundaries
for the bases of the Aeronian and Telychian The uncertainties on stage boundar-
stages, which were ca. 1.6- and 1.1-myr ies computed by the spline-fit method in
younger, respectively, using the spline-fit GTS2012 were largely governed by the uncer-
method (see comparison table in Melchin tainties and spacing of the radioisotopic tie
et al., 2012; and graphical-display compari- points. The uncertainties from the spline-
son in Cooper et al., 2012). The spline-fit fit statistics ranged from 1.5 myr at the base
interpolations were used in Geologic Time of the Silurian, decreasing to ca. 0.5 myr at
Scale 2012 (GTS2012), whereas the polyno- the base of the Gorstian (427.4 ± 0.5 Ma in
mial-fit interpolation was used by Cooper GTS2012, which was supported by a later-
et al. (2014) for their statistics on graptolite published date of 427.86 ± 0.32 Ma near that
diversity trends. stage base by Cramer et al., 2012), and rising
There are several radioisotopic dates for to 2.3 myr at base-Pridoli and 3.2 myr at the
the late Silurian published after GTS2012, base of the Devonian. Reduction of these rela-
and these are generally very close to the tively high uncertainties will require reanaly-
GTS2012 age model (e.g., Cramer et al., 2012, sis of the previously published radioisotopic
2015). For example, a 422.91 ± 0.07 Ma date ages using the EARTHTIME standards (e.g.,
from immediately below the basal grapto- Condon et al., 2015) and adding dates within
lite zone of the Pridoli Stage (Cramer et al., the main gaps of the late Llandovery and early
2015) is nearly identical to the interpolated Ludlow epochs.
82  Chapter 7 SILURIAN

GSSPs of the Silurian Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Episodes 8/2,
Požáry Section, Graptolite, FAD of 1985; Geol.
Přídolí (Series) Řeporyjie, Prague, 50°01'39.82"N
within Bed 96 Neocolonograptus Ser., Nat.
Czech Republic 14°19'29.56"E* parultimus Mus. Wales 9,
1989
Lethaia 14;
coincident with the Near base of Episodes 5/3,
Ludfordian Sunnyhill Quarry, 52°21'33"N base of the Graptolite, 1982; Geol.
near Ludlow, UK 2°46'38"W* Leintwardine Saetograptus Ser.,Nat. Mus.
Formation leintwardinensis Wales 9, 1989
Lethaia 14;
Graptolite, FAD of Episodes 5/3,
coincident with the
Gorstian Pitch Coppice Quarry 52°21'33"N base of the Lower Saetograptus 1982; Geol.
near Ludlow, UK 2°46'38"W* (Colonograptus) Ser., Nat. Mus.
Elton Formation
varians Wales 9, 1989
Lethaia 14;
within upper part of Episodes 5/3,
the Apedale Member Graptolite,
FAD of
Homerian Sheinton Brook, 52°36'56"N 1982; Geol.
Homer, UK 2°33'53"W* of the Coalbrookdale Cyrtograptus Ser., Nat. Mus.
Formation lundgreni
Wales 9, 1989
Imprecise, between Lethaia 14;
the base of acritarch Episodes 5/3,
Sheinwoodian Hughley Brook, UK 52°34'52"N base of the Buildwas biozone 5 and LAD 1982; Geol.
(under revision) 2°38"20"W* Formation of conodont Series, Nat.
Pterospathodus Mus. Wales 9,
amorphognathoides 1989
Just above LAD of Episodes 8/2,
approximately 31 m Brachiopod Eocoelia 1985; Geol.
Telychian Cefn-cerig Road 51.97°N below the top of the
Section, Wales, UK 3.79°W** Wormwood intermedia and below Series, Nat.
FAD of Eocoelia Mus. Wales 9,
Formation curtisi 1989
Graptolite, FAD of Geol. Series,
Aeronian Trefawr Track 52.03°N within Trefawar Monograptus Nat. Mus.
Section, Wales, UK 3.70°W** Formation Wales 9, 1989
austerus sequens
Episodes 8/2,
1.6m above the base Graptolite, FAD of
Rhuddanian Dob's Linn, Scotland 55.44°N of the Birkhill Shale Akidograptus 1985;
3.27°W** Episodes 31/3,
Formation ascensus 2008

* according to Google Earth, ** derived from map

Figure 7.7 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Silurian stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
edu/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.

Acknowledgments Times newsletters of the International Subcommission

on Silurian Stratigraphy ([Link] This
This brief Silurian summary of selected highlights review depended on the expertise of many colleagues,
and current stratigraphic issues relied heavily on the especially Michael Melchin, Roger Cooper, and Peter
detailed overview and synthesis by Melchin et al. (2012) Sadler. Mike Melchin reviewed an early version of the
and Cramer et al. (2011a,b); and updates in the Silurian graphics and text.
 Chapter 7 SILURIAN  83

Cramer, B.D., Schmitz, M.D., Huff, W.D., Bergström, S.M.,

Selected publications and 2015. High-precision U–Pb zircon age constraints on
the duration of rapid biogeochemical events during
websites the Ludlow Epoch (Silurian Period). Journal of the
Geological Society, London 172: 157–160. http://
Cited publications [Link]/10.1144/jgs2014-094.
Only select publications were cited in this review with Haq, B.U., Schutter, S.R., 2008. A chronology of Paleozoic
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. sea-level changes. Science 322: 64–68. [Link]
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the org/10.1126/science.116164.
synthesis by Melchin et al. (2012) and in some of the International Subcommission on Silurian Stratigraphy
publications cited in the following. (ISSS), 2014. (for 2014) Silurian Times 22. PDFs at
Burgess, N.D., Richardson, J.B., 1995. Late Wenlock to [Link]
early Prídolí cryptospores and miospores from Johnson, M.E., 2010. Tracking Silurian eustasy: align-
south and southwest Wales, Great Britain. ment of empirical evidence or pursuit of deductive
Palaeontographica Abteilung B: Palaeophytologie reasoning. Paleogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
236: 1–44. Palaeoecology 296: 276–284.
Condon, D.J., Schoene, B., McLean, N.M., Bowring, S.A., Märss, T., Fredholm, D., Talimaa, V., Turner, S., Jeppsson,
Parrish, R.R., 2015. Metrology and traceability of L., Nowlan, G.S., 1995. Silurian vertebrate biozonal
U-Pb isotope dilution geochronology (EARTHTIME scheme. In: Lelievre, H., Wenz, S., Blieck, A., Cloutier,
Tracer Calibration Part 1). Geochemica et Cosmochi- R. (Eds.), Premiers vertebrés et vertebrés inférieurs-
mica Acta 164: 464–480. [Link] Géobios, vol. 19, pp. 369–372.
gca.2015.05.026. Melchin, M.J., Sadler, P.M., Cramer, B.D., Cooper, R.A.,
Cooper, R.A., Sadler, P.M., Gradstein, F.M., Hammer, O., Gradstein, F.M., Hammer, O., 2012. The Silurian
2012. The Ordovician Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.,
Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale
Geologic Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publisher, pp. 2012. Elsevier Publisher, pp. 525–558 (An overview
489–523 (An overview on all aspects, including on all aspects, including graphics on the ratified
graphics on the ratified GSSPs of the stages, GSSPs of the stages, diagrams and tables for the
diagrams and tables for the biostratigraphic scales, biostratigraphic scales, and discussion on the age
and discussion on the age models.). models.).
Cooper, R.A., Sadler, P.M., Munnecke, A., Crampton, J.S., Melchin, M.J., Mitchell, C.E., Holmden, C., Štorch, P.,
2014. Graptoloid evolutionary rates track Ordovician- 2013. Environmental changes in the Late Ordovician–
Silurian global climate change. Geological Magazine early Silurian: review and new insights from black
151: 349–364. shales and nitrogen isotopes. Geological Society of
Cramer, B.D., Brett, C.E., Melchin, M.A., Männik, P., America Bulletin 125: 1635–1670. [Link]
Kleffner, M.A., McLaughlin, P.I., Loydell, D.K., org/10.1130/B30812.1.
Munnecke, A., Jeppsson, L., Corradini, C., Brunton, Melchin, M.J., MacRae, K.-D., Bullock, P., 2015. A multi-
F.R., Saltzman, M.R., 2011a. Revised chronostrati- peak organic carbon isotope excursion in the late
graphic correlation of the Silurian System of North Aeronian (Llandovery, Silurian): evidence from Arisaig,
America with global and regional chronostrati- Nova Scotia, Canada. Palaeoworld 24: 191–197.
graphic units and d13Ccarb chemostratigraphy. Munnecke, A., Calner, M., Harper, D.A.T., Servais, T.,
Lethaia 44: 185–202. 2010. Ordovician and Silurian sea-water chemistry,
Cramer, B.D., Davies, J.R., Ray, D.C., Thomas, A.T., sea level, and climate: a synopsis. Paleogeography,
Cherns, L., 2011b. Siluria Revisited: an introduction. Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 296: 389–413.
In: Ray, D.C. (Ed.), Siluria Revisited, a Field Guide, Rampino, M.R., Self, S., 2015. Large igneous provinces
International Subcommission on Silurian Stratigra- and biotic extinctions. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton,
phy Field Meeting 2011, pp. 6–27. B., McNutt, S., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), The
Cramer, B.D., Condon, D.J., Söderlund, U., Marshall, C., Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, second ed., Elsevier
Worton, G.J., Thomas, A.T., Calner, M., Ray, D.C., Publications, pp. 1049–1058. [Link]
Perrier, V., Boomer, I., Patchett, P.J., Jeppsson, L., org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385938-9.00061-4. Chapter 61.
2012. U-Pb (zircon) age constraints on the timing Ray, D.C.(editor), 2011. Siluria revisted: a field guide.
and duration of Wenlock (Silurian) paleocommunity International Subcommission on Silurian Stratigra-
collapse and recovery during the ‘Big Crisis’. phy: Field Meeting 2011(ISBN: 978-0-9569190-0-7):
Geological Society of America Bulletin 124: 166p. free download at: [Link]/down-
1841–1857. [Link] loads/siluria_revisited_excursion_2011.pdf.
84  Chapter 7 SILURIAN

Rong, J., Melchin, M.J., Williams, S.H., Koren, T.N., Palaeos: The Silurian—[Link]
Verniers, J., 2008. Report of the restudy of the defined silurian/[Link]—A well-presented suite of
global stratotype of the base of the Silurian System. diverse topics for a general science audience that was
Episodes 31: 315–318. originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Silurian and Middle-Late Geobiodiversity Database—[Link].
Ordovician Paleogeographic Maps (Mollweide com—Extensive array of stratigraphic sections
Projection), Maps 73–80, Volume 5, The Early (ca. 14,000 localities) with a current emphasis on
Paleozoic, PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for ArcGIS, Ordovician–Silurian and on China. Also includes
PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, IL. [Link] SinoCor program for graphical correlation and other
[Link]/16744278/Atlas_of_Silurian_and_ tools. Developed by Fan Junxuan (Nanjing Inst.
Middle-Late_Ordovician_Paleogeographic_Maps. Geology and Paleontology).
Trotter, J.A., Williams, I.S., Barnes, C.R., Männik, P., Commission Internationale Microflore Paléozoïque—
Simpson, A., 2016. New conodont δ18O records of [Link] Commission
Silurian climate change: Implications for environ- of the Paleozoic Microflora has separate subcommis-
mental and biological events. Palaeogeography, sions on acritarchs, chitinozoans, and miospores;
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 443: 34–48. and site has archive of their newsletters and other
Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen information; although number of active newsletters
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans. diminished since 2012.
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104. The Silurian Reef—[Link]
Verniers, J., Nestor, V., Paris, F., Dufka, P., Sutherland, S., collections/learn/reef/—An educational site by the
van Grootel, G., 1995. A global Chininozoa biozonation Milwaukee Public Museum that focuses on the
for the Silurian. Geological Magazine 132: 651–666. Silurian reef ecosystems.

Websites (selected)
International Subcommission on Silurian Stratigra-
phy—[Link] items,
PDFs of Silurian Times Newsletters (vol. 14 of 2006,
through present), and details (in future) on GSSPs
and working groups.
 8
DEVONIAN
388.2 Ma Devonian

Siberia

Kazakstania

South China

EURAMERICA North China Australia

(Laurentia &
Baltica)

RHEIC OCEAN Arabia Antarctica

India
Africa
GONDWANA
South America
CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Givetian (Middle Devonian) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 40 m, Frasnian supersequence

boundary) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and being considered as a marker for the base of the
international subdivisions Emsian Stage at ca. 15 myr after the current base
of the Devonian. The process to standardize
The Devonian was named after rock expo- usage of the Silurian/Devonian boundary cul-
sures in Devon County of southwest England. minated in the international ratified decision
In Britain, the type Silurian is truncated by the of 1972 to define a global boundary stratotype
nonmarine Old Red Sandstone that was shed section and point (GSSP) within a graptolite-
from the Caledonian orogeny when the Baltica bearing succession at Klonk, near Prague in the
plate collided with Laurentia. The extinction of Czech Republic. This decision was the impetus
graptolites had been used as a guide to the Silu- to define all geologic stages with precise GSSPs.
rian/Devonian boundary, until it was recog- The Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy
nized that graptolites continued much higher completed a set of seven GSSPs in 1996 (Fig. 8.1
than the traditional lithologic placement of the and Fig. 8.6), although some of these are now
boundary. Indeed, their last occurrence is now being reexamined.
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 85
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Figure 8.1 Devonian overview. Most main markers for GSSPs of Devonian stages are first-appearance datums (FADs)
of conodont taxa as detailed in the text and in Fig. 8.6. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of the rock-record
“stage”.) See Carboniferous chapter for discussion on potential revised definition of the Devonian/Carboniferous bound-
ary. Magnetic polarity scale is from Becker et al. (2012) with revised Frasnian–Famennian from Hansma et al. (2015).
Schematic sea-level curve was compiled by Becker et al. (2012) from various sources. An independent interpretation of
Devonian sequences by Haq and Schutter (2008) is shown in Fig. 8.5. The carbon isotope (δ13C) curve is from Buggisch
and Joachimski (2006) with global events (often associated with widespread anoxic events, as indicated in black) modified
from Becker et al. (2012). Generalized oxygen isotope (δ18O) curve and estimates of tropical sea-surface temperatures
from conodont apatite are averaged from Joachimski et al. (2009). For comparison, the adjusted tropical sea-surface tem-
perature curve that Veizer and Prokoph (2015) derived from a synthesis of oxygen-18 values from carbonate fossils is also
shown. The vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to match the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary
figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters. PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C standard; SST, sea-surface temperature.
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  87

The GSSP for the base of the Devonian has a GSSP at Zinzil’ban Gorge in Uzbekistan
and of the Lochkovian Stage is a point in the that coincides with the FAD of conodont
rock record that was selected to also coincide Eocostapolygnatus (formerly Polygnathus)
with the FAD of the graptolite Monograptus kitabicus, but this level was later found to
uniformis uniformis (Fig. 8.2). Recognition be much lower than the base of the classical
of the boundary in carbonate strata or in Emsian in Germany and essentially trans-
sections that lack graptolites is enabled by ferred the upper half of the traditional Pragian
a major turnover in conodont species and into the Emsian. Therefore, in 2008, the SDS
a major positive carbon-isotope excursion decided to shift the base of the Emsian to a
at the anoxic Klonk Event that straddles the higher level; and current discussions center
boundary interval. on the FAD of the conodont Eolinguipolygna-
All other GSSPs for Devonian stages were thus excavatus M114 (Fig. 8.5C) and on which
placed to coincide with FADs of conodont taxa section in eastern Uzbekistan is most suitable.
(reviewed by Becker et al., 2012) (Figs. 8.1 and
8.6). For example, the Lower/Middle Devo-
nian boundary (base of Eifelian Stage) GSSP
in the Eifel Mountains of Germany, near the
Selected main stratigraphic
border with Belgium, coincides with the FAD scales and events
of the conodont Polygnathus costatus partitus
(Fig. 8.3). The Middle/Upper Devonian GSSP Biostratigraphy (marine; terrestrial)
(base of Frasnian Stage) in the Montagne Conodonts, the phosphatic tooth and jaw
Noire of southern France coincides with the elements of eel-like chordates, provide both
FAD of the conodont Ancyrodella rotundiloba a standardized global biostratigraphic frame-
pristina (Fig. 8.4). work for the Devonian and a record of oceanic
Many of the Devonian stages have com- oxygen-18 values for sea-surface tempera-
monly used substage divisions. To avoid tures. Graptolites, the enigmatic floating colo-
confusion in usage, the Subcommission on nial clusters that are commonly preserved
Devonian Stratigraphy (SDS) is now working as elongate organic-rich films in Ordovi-
to formalize these substages with both agree- cian–Silurian shales, continued to the mid-
ments on stratigraphic datums (e.g., FADs of dle of the Early Devonian. The extinction of
conodonts) and formal GSSP placements (e.g., graptolites just predates the appearance and
Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy, increased diversity of ammonoids. Ammo-
2014). For example, a proposed base for the noid genus zones (e.g., Fig. 8.5) are used for
Upper Famennian substage would coincide interregional correlation (Becker et al., 2012).
with the global Annulata Event of extensive Images of typical Devonian ammonoid mark-
anoxic conditions and faunal turnover (Fig. ers and selected regional species-taxa zones
8.1). Potential substage levels are shown in Fig. are compiled by Korn and Klug (2015). Dac-
8.5 and discussed by Becker et al. (2012; see his ryoconarids (small cone-shaped shells of
Fig. 22.1). pelagic tentaculitid animals, which are known
Continued research has indicated that from the Ordovician through the Devonian),
some of the Devonian GSSPs were not placed pelagic ostracods, siliceous radiolarians, and
at levels that were intended (e.g., see discus- organic-walled microfossils of acritarchs, and
sion on the Devonian/Carboniferous bound- flask-shaped chitinozoans (another group of
ary in the Carboniferous chapter) or do not uncertain affinity) provide additional regional
enable useful correlations. For example, the to global zonations (reviewed with examples
base of the Emsian Stage of Lower Devonian of zonations in Becker et al., 2012). At the
88  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

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Figure 8.2 GSSP for base of the Devonian (base of Lochkovian Stage) at the Klonk section, Czech Republic. The
GSSP level was to coincide with the lowest occurrence of graptolite Monograptus uniformis uniformis. Outcrop
photograph and stratigraphic column are from Becker et al. (2012).
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  89

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patulus Zone and partitus Zone marks the GSSP of the basal
Eifelian (basal middle Devonian). Solid green lines delineate
P old and new trenches.

Figure 8.3 GSSP for base of the Middle Devonian (base of Eifelian Stage) in the trench at Wetteldorf, Eifel Mountains,
northwest Germany. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence (FAD) of the conodont Polygnathus
costatus partitus. Photographs (A) of the section details within the Happel Hut with marked GSSP position and
(B) of the index conodont Po. costatus partitus by K. Weddige. Section stratigraphy is from Becker et al. (2012).
90  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

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Figure 8.4 GSSP for base of the Upper Devonian (base of Frasnian Stage) Col du Puech de la Suque, Montagne
Noire, southern France. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence (FAD) of conodont Ancyrodella rotundiloba
pristina (= early morphotype). Photographs (D and E) of representative adult specimens of An. rotundiloba by G. Klapper.
Section stratigraphy and photograph is from Becker et al. (2012).
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  91

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Figure 8.5a,b,c Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Devonian. (“Age” is the term for the
time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”.) See Carboniferous chapter for discussion on potential revised definition of
the Devonian/Carboniferous boundary. Potential revised placement for base of Emsian Stage of Early Devonian is dashed
above the current GSSP assignment.
92  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

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Figure 8.5a,b,c (Continued) Magnetic polarity scale is from Becker et al. (2012) with Frasnian–Famennian from Hansma
et al. (2015). Conodont, ammonoid, graptolite, macroplants, and vertebrate zones are modified from Becker et al. (2012).
Coastal onlap sea-level curve with sequence boundary nomenclature is modified from Haq and Schutter (2008) following
advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2008); but see Fig. 8.1 for an independent compilation by Becker et al. (2012).
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  93

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Figure 8.5a,b,c (Continued) Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and
details on calibrations are compiled in Becker et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visual-
ization system (free at [Link]).
94  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

top of the marine food chain were large sea (Hansma et al., 2015) (Fig. 8.5) that may enable
scorpions, giant orthoconic nautiloids, and future marine to terrestrial correlations.
diverse fish, and their relatives. Armored fish
(pteraspidomorphs in the early half of the
Devonian, placoderms in the later half) were Stable-isotope stratigraphy
accompanied by sharks in the Middle and Late and selected events
Devonian (zonations in Becker et al., 2012). The shallow-marine Devonian strata have
There was a progressive increase in the aver- a series of widespread anoxic events that often
age size of these marine vertebrates through coincide with turnovers of conodonts and
the Devonian, until a sudden collapse in their other marine groups (Fig. 8.1). Many of these
sizes during the end-Devonian Hangenberg events coincide with positive excursions in the
Event (Salim and Galimberti, 2015). δ13C curve (e.g., Buggisch and Joachimski, 2006).
The barren land was progressively popu- Within the Mesozoic–Cenozoic, some of the
lated by vegetation through the Devonian, widespread anoxic events and carbon-isotope
especially following the evolution and rapid excursions have been linked to eruption of
spread of tree-sized Archaeopteris beginning at large igneous provinces. It has been proposed
the end of the Middle Devonian (Gradstein and that some of the Devonian excursions have
Kerp, 2012). In addition to providing macro- a similar initial causation, for example the
plant and miospore zonations for regional and Viluy and Yakutsk traps in eastern Siberia have
global correlation (example columns in Becker 40Ar/39Ar ages that cluster at 376.7 ± 1.7 Ma and
et al., 2012), the forestation of the landscape 364.4 ± 1.7 Ma, which, when combined with the
resulted in more mature soils with enhanced ±1.5-myr uncertainties of the Late Devonian
release of phosphate–nitrate nutrients which age model, suggest that the two main erup-
may have contributed to the organic-rich tive phases might overlap the Lower Kellwasser
events and general cooling in the Middle and event of latest Frasnian and the Annulata event
Late Devonian (e.g., Algeo et al., 2001). The of mid-Famennian (Ricci et al., 2013).
earliest semiaquatic tetrapods are known from The phosphatic conodonts preserve
the Eifelian (Niedźwiedzki et al., 2010), but they shallow-marine δ18O trends, which can be
became more widespread in the forested world interpreted as tropical temperatures (e.g.,
of the Famennian (e.g., Clack, 2012). Joachimski et al., 2009) (Fig. 8.1). A different
estimate of marine δ18O trends and adjusted
tropical sea-surface temperature has been
Magnetostratigraphy derived from carbonate fossils (e.g., com-
The generalized magnetostratigraphy syn- posite by Veizer and Prokoph, 2015; and
thesis in Becker et al. (2012) indicated that the merger of selected studies in Becker et al.,
Early Devonian had a dominance of reversed 2012). Although Becker et al. (2012) caution
polarity, the Eifelian was suggested a normal that the available reliable data is inadequate
polarity, and the latter Devonian was essen- to compile a detailed temperature curve, both
tially uncertain; but this scale mainly reflected methods show a general trend of warmer con-
a dearth of research and verification in multi- ditions in the Early and the Late Devonian,
ple sections. The Frasnian–Famennian polar- with relatively cooler conditions during the
ity pattern has now been partly resolved from Middle Devonian (Fig. 8.1).
several sections in the Canning Basin of West- In contrast to the suggested warmer condi-
ern Australia as a series of frequent reversals tions from these δ18O trends, there is evidence
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  95

from basins in the northern parts of South Eifelian Stage and of the succeeding Famen-
America, Africa, and the United States that nian Stage. However, there is the possibility
Gondwana experienced episodic glacial con- of “missed beats” in cyclostratigraphic analy-
ditions in latest Famennian and in the earliest sis; therefore, a cycle analysis is required to
Carboniferous (ca. middle of the Tournaisian justify lengthening those stages and to iden-
Stage) (e.g., Isaacson et al., 2008). tify which zones span considerably more time.
The timing of anoxic events and the dura-
tions of conodont zones in both the late Fra-
Numerical age model snian (L. and U. Kellwasser) and the latest
Famennian (Annulata–Dasberg–Hangenberg)
GTS2012 age model and potential were partly controlled by high-amplitude 405-
future enhancements kyr sea-level transgressions driven by postu-
lated regional glaciations in northern South
There are very few direct radioisotopic dates
America (De Vleeschouwer et al., 2013). This
on Devonian strata that are well constrained
aspect of cyclostratigraphy has been incor-
by biostratigraphy. Therefore, the scaling for
porated in Figs. 8.1 and 8.5; but all other ages
the Devonian conodont standard zonation in
and internal scaling are from GTS2012.
GTS2012 used a spline fit to a schematic dia-
To improve the Devonian time scale, it is
gram of relative thicknesses of those zones in
essential that more radioisotopic dates and
the rock record with tie-point constraints from
cyclostratigraphic analyses are obtained that
the few radioisotopic dates on those zones
are precisely tied to conodont zone or mag-
(Becker et al., 2012). The ages assigned to
netic zone boundaries.
stage boundaries (and all other stratigraphic
events) came from their placement rela-
tive to that conodont scale. Uncertainties for Estimated uncertainties on assigned
those stage boundary age assignments came
from the spline-fit statistics that incorporated ages on stage boundaries
uncertainty on the radioisotopic dates. The uncertainties on stage boundar-
After the publication of GTS2012, progress ies computed by the spline-fit method in
has been made in obtaining cyclostrati- GTS2012 were largely governed by the uncer-
graphic estimates for the actual durations of tainties on the radioisotopic tie points, and
stages and placement of events within those ranged from ca. ±2.9 myr for Early Devonian
stages—the Givetian (De Vleeschouwer et al., stages, ca. ±1.0 myr for Middle and Late Devo-
2014), the Frasnian (De Vleeschouwer et al., nian stages, and a tightly constrained ±0.4 myr
2012), and the upper part of the Famennian for base-Carboniferous. De Vleeschouwer and
(De Vleeschouwer et al., 2013)—using iden- Parnell (2014) applied a Bayesian statistical
tification of 405-kyr long–eccentricity cycles. method to the same conodont data set with
These initial cycle-derived estimates for the incorporation of “floating astronomical dura-
Givetian (4.35 ± 0.45 myr) and the Frasnian tions” for Givetian and Frasnian; and their
(6.7 ± 0.6 myr) are significantly shorter than method yielded similar uncertainties for the
those from the spline-fit method of GTS2012 Early Devonian and base-Eifelian (ca. ±3 myr),
(5.0 and 10.5 myr, respectively); therefore, and ca. ±1.5 myr on the ages for the bases of
De Vleeschouwer and Parnell (2014) sug- the Givetian through Famennian stages. These
gested compensating by adding to the yet- estimates of uncertainty by De Vleeschouwer
to-be-constrained durations of the preceding and Parnell (2014) are preferred.
96  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

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Figure 8.6 Ratified GSSPs and primary markers defining the Devonian stages. (Status as of early 2016.) Details of
each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link] and in
the Episodes publications.

Acknowledgments Selected publications

This brief overview of the Devonian was limited to only and websites
a few selected highlights and current stratigraphic issues.
A detailed overview and synthesis is by Becker et al. (2012); Cited publications
and updates are at the website and newsletters of the Sub- Only select publications were cited in this review with
commission on Devonian Stratigraphy ([Link] an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates.
[Link]/sds/). This review depended on the expertise of Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the
many colleagues, especially Thomas Becker, who reviewed syntheses by Becker et al. (2012) and in some of the
an early version of the graphics, database, and text. publications cited in the following.
 Chapter 8 DEVONIAN  97

Algeo, T.J., Scheckler, S.E., Maynard, J.B., 2001. Effects of Haines, P., Hocking, R., 2015. Late Devonian
the Middle to Late Devonian spread of vascular land carbonate magnetostratigraphy from the Oscar and
plants on weathering regimes, marine biota, and Horse Spring Ranges, Lennard Shelf, Canning Basin,
global climate. In: Gensel, P.G., Edwards, D. (Eds.), western Australia. Earth and Planetary Science
Plants Invade the Land: Evolutionary and Environmen- Letters 409: 232–242.
tal Approaches. Columbia University Press, New York, Haq, B.U., Schutter, S.R., 2008. A chronology of Paleozoic
pp. 213–236. sea-level changes. Science 322: 64–68. [Link]
Becker, R.T., Gradstein, F.M., Hammer, O., 2012. The org/10.1126/science.116164.
Devonian Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Isaacson, P.E., Díaz-Martínez, E., Grader, G.W., Kalvoda,
Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic J., Babek, O., Devuyst, F.X., 2008. Late Devonian–
Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 559–601 (An earliest Mississippian glaciation in Gondwanaland
overview on all aspects, including graphics on the and its biogeographic consequences. Earth and
ratified GSSPs of the stages, diagrams and tables for Planetary Science Letters 268: 126–142.
the biostratigraphic scales, and discussion on the age Joachimski, M.M., Breisig, S., Buggisch, W., Talent, J.A.,
models.). Mawson, R., Gereke, M., Morrow, J.R., Day, J.,
Buggisch, W., Joachimski, M.M., 2006. Carbon isotope Weddige, K., 2009. Devonian climate and reef
stratigraphy of the Devonian of Central and Southern evolution: insights from oxygen isotopes in apatite.
Europe. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 284: 599–609.
Palaeoecology 240: 68–88. Korn, D., Klug, C., 2015. Paleozoic ammonoid biostratigra-
Clack, J.A., 2012. Gaining Ground: The Origin and Evolution phy. In: Klug, C., Korn, D., De Baets, K., Kruta, I., Mapes,
of Tetrapods. Indiana University Press. 544 pp. R.H. (Eds.), Ammonoid Paleobiology: From Macroevo-
De Vleeschouwer, D., Parnell, A.C., 2014. Reducing lution to Paleogeography. Topics in Geobiology, 44.
time-scale uncertainty for the Devonian by integrat- Springer Publ., pp. 299–328. [Link]
ing astrochronology and Bayesian statistics. Geology 10.1007/978-94-017-9633-0_13 (Chapter 12).
42: 491–494. [Link] Niedźwiedzki, G., Szrek, P., Narkiewicz, K., Narkiewicz, M.,
De Vleeschouwer, D., Whalen, M.T., Day, J.E., Claeys, P., Ahlberg, P.E., 2010. Tetrapod trackways from the early
2012. Cyclostratigraphic calibration of the Frasnian Middle Devonian Period of Poland. Nature 463: 43–48.
(Late Devonian) time scale (western Alberta, Ricci, J., Quidelleur, X., Pavlov, V., Shatsillo, A., Courtillot,
Canada). Geological Society of America Bulletin 124: V., 2013. New 40Ar/39Ar and K–Ar ages of the viluy
928–942. [Link] traps (Eastern Siberia): further evidence for a
De Vleeschouwer, D., Ralpconski, M., Racki, G., Bond, relationship with the Frasnian–Famennian mass
D.P.G., Sobien, K., Claeys, P., 2013. The astronomical extinction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
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section, Holy Cross Mountains, Poland). Earth and org/10.1016/[Link].2013.06.020.
Planetary Science Letters 365: 25–37. [Link] Salim, L., Galimberti, A.K., 2015. Body-size reduction in
org/10.1016/[Link].w013.01.016. vertebrates following the end-Devonian mass
De Vleeschouwer, D., Boulvain, F., Da Silva, A.C., Pas, D., extinction. Science 350: 812–815 plus supplementary
Labaye, C., Claeys, P., 2014. The astronomical materials.
calibration of the Givetian (Middle Devonian) Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Devonian Paleogeographic
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Silva, A.C., Whalen, M.T., Hladil, J., Chadimova, L., Late Paleozoic, Maps 65–72, Mollweide Projection,
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Ogg, G., (coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale Newsletters of 2013 and 2014 at: [Link]
2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 233–237. [Link] [Link]/sds/.
org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00023-8. Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen
Hansma, J., Tohver, E., Yan, M., Trinajstic, K., Roelofs, B., isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
Peek, S., Slotznick, S.P., Kirschvink, J., Playton, T., Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
98  Chapter 8 DEVONIAN

Websites (selected) Devonian Times—[Link]

Extensive well-presented and illustrated site
Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy
compiled by Dennis Murphy that received Science &
(International Commission on Stratigraphy
Techonology award from Scientific American in 2005
[ICS])—[Link] items,
and illustrates most aspects of Devonian life.
PDFs of recent Newsletters (vol. 21 of 2008, through
(However, 2006 was the last indicated update.)
present), and details (in future) on GSSPs.
Palaeos: Devonian—[Link]
Commission Internationale Microflore Paléozoïque—
devonian/[Link]—A well-presented suite of
[Link] Commission
diverse topics for a general science audience that
of the Paleozoic Microflora has separate subcommis-
was originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in
sions on acritarchs, chitinizoans, and miospores; and
1998–2002.
site has archive of their newsletters and other
information; although number of active newsletters
diminished since 2012.
 9
CARBONIFEROUS
306Ma Carboniferous

Siberia

Ural Mts.
PANTHALASSIC OCEAN North China

PANGEA Harz Mts.

PALEO-TETHYS
Appalachian
Mts. SEA South China

South Africa Arabia

America
Australia
GONDWANA
India
Antarctica
CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Kasimovian (late Pennsylvanian) paleogeographic reconstruction. (Sea level + 120 m maximum-flooding

surface [MFS]) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and of conodont taxa on an evolutionary lineage,

international subdivisions and it appears the most complete sections in
deeper-water facies are in South China and
The Carboniferous is named after its abun- Russia (Richards, 2013; Chen et al., 2014). The
dance of coal (carbon) deposits in Europe evolution of this international Carbonifer-
and North America. The Carboniferous chro- ous chronostratigraphy and its comparison to
nostratigraphy is unique in that it has two the various regional series/stage divisions are
subsystems, Mississippian and Pennsylvanian, summarized by Davydov et al. (2012).
each with a set of Lower/Middle/Upper series, The Carboniferous began after the end-
but most of these series consist of a single stage Devonian episodes of cooling, waves of extinc-
(Fig. 9.1). The Global Boundary Stratotype Sec- tions, and widespread organic-rich deposits
tions and Points (GSSPs), ratified or under dis- (e.g., Hangenberg Event levels in Europe; see
cussion for these stages, are mainly placed to Devonian chapter Fig. 8.1). The Devonian–
coincide with first-appearance datums (FADs) Carboniferous GSSP at Bed 89 in the La Serre
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 99
 &DUERQLIHURXV7LPH6FDOH
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Figure 9.1 Carboniferous overview. Main markers or candidate markers for GSSPs of Carboniferous stages are
first-appearance datums (FADs) of conodont taxa as detailed in the text and in Fig. 9.6. (“Age” is the term for the
time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”.) Magnetic polarity scale is from Davydov et al. (2012). Coastal onlap and
schematic sea-level curve with labels for selected major sequence boundaries are modified from Haq and Schutter
(2008) following advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2008). The δ13C curve is from Saltzman (2003). The Carboniferous
δ18O curve is modified from the mean of the curve of Veizer and Prokoph (2015) with a smoothed schematic version
of their adjusted estimates of tropical sea-surface temperatures derived from those oxygen-18 values. The vertical
scale of this diagram is standardized to match the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in all other
Phanerozoic chapters. PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standard; SST, sea-surface temperature.
 Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS  101

section of southern France was intended to lineage L. nodosa-L. ziegleri. The two lead-
coincide with the FAD of conodont Sipho- ing candidate sections are Naqing (Nashui)
nodella sulcata within the lineage S. praesul- in southern Guizhou Province, South China
cata-S. sulcata, but this taxon was later found (e.g., Qi et al., 2014), and the Verkhnyaya
at a lower level that overlapped its presumed Kardailovka section on the Ural River in the
ancestor (Kaiser, 2009) (Fig. 9.2). Therefore, both Bashkortostan Republic of southern Russia
the criteria for global correlation and retention (Sevastopulo and Barham, 2014). A volcanic
of the GSSP section at La Serre are being reeval- ash bed in the Verkhnyaya Kardailovka sec-
uated with a focus on a potential level within tion about 1.5 m below the potential GSSP
the Hangenberg Event (Aretz, 2011). level gave an age of 333.87 ± 0.08 Ma (Schmitz
The Mississippian–Pennsylvanian bound- and Davydov, 2012).
ary GSSP at Arrow Canyon, Nevada, United Moscovian (Middle Pennsylvanian): The
States, was placed to coincide with the FAD FAD of conodont Declinognathodus donetzia-
of conodont Declinognathodus noduliferus nus had been considered as a potential index
(sensu lato) (Fig. 9.3). This taxon is now split for the base of this stage, but is not found in
into subspecies; and the FAD of subspecies North America. Therefore, the FAD of the
D. noduliferus inaequalis (D. inaequalis) is more cosmopolitan Diplognathodus ellesme-
commonly used as the boundary marker rensis, “one of the most widely recovered con-
(­Richards, 2013). odonts in the Upper Carboniferous,” in the
Other than the bases of the Mississip- lineage Decl. coloradoensis-Dipl. ellesmeren-
pian and the Pennsylvanian subsystems, as sis is considered to have the greatest poten-
of February 2016 only the base of the Visean tial for correlation (Alekseev and Task Group,
(Viséan) Stage (Middle Mississippian) has a 2014). The leading candidate GSSP section is
ratified GSSP. The Tournaisian–Visean bound- the same Naqing section in South China (e.g.,
ary interval does not have any significant Qi et al., 2016) that has been proposed for the
events in conodont or ammonoid stratigra- base-Serpukhovian; and other candidates are
phy; therefore, the Visean GSSP at the base of those in the southern Urals and Donets Basin
Bed 83 in a stream section near the village of (Sungatullina, 2014) that have yielded radio-
Pengchong (near Liuzhou city, Guangxi Prov- isotopic dates.
ince, South China) was selected to coincide Kasimovian (Late Pennsylvanian): There
with a change in morphotype within the ben- is a well-dated (U-Pb) conodont-zoned
thic foraminifer Eoparastaffella genus, from cyclostratigraphy (cyclothems) across the
Eo. rotunda (or the Eo. ovalis branch in the Moscovian–Kasimovian boundary (Schmitz
GSSP section) to Eo. simplex typica, and just and Davydov, 2012), and individual cycles
below the FAD of regional conodont Gnatho- can be correlated between the Southern
dus homopunctatus (Devuyst et al., 2003). Urals–Donets Basin and North America. The
The following summary of defining the boundary task group (Ueno and Task Group,
other stage GSSPs is from Richards (2013) and 2014) is considering the FAD of conodont
the Carboniferous Subcommission newsletters Idiognathodus heckeli in the lineage Id.
([Link]/Carboniferous/pub/ swadei—Id. heckeli—Id. turbatus (Rosscoe and
[Link]). Barrick, 2013). The FAD of Id. heckeli in the
Serpukhovian (Late Mississippian): The Exline lithologic cyclothem is at the base of
Visean/Serpukhovian boundary interval is regional Missourian Stage of North America
within a major glaciation. The boundary task (Heckel, 2013b) and would be close to the
group is focusing on a level coincident with base of the traditional Kasimovian Stage of
the FAD of conodont Lochriea ziegleri in the Russia. This level would be slightly younger
 Base of the Tournaisian Stage of the Carboniferous System in the
La Serre Section, Montagne Noire, France
(B) Clermont l'Herault Cabrieres
(A) Montpellier D 15
Area of
La Serre Section
N LA SERRE
Pezenas
Sete 252
Beziers
Agde
La Roquette
Sea
Mediterranean G F
E
E'C' C
GSSP
GSSP
0 300m 232
241
vineyards N
tracks Neffies

Quasiendothyra regularis vel communis

Spirifer cf. pseudosuavis vel Tenisia sp.
Pseudopolygnathus dentilineatus
(C)

Archegonus (Waribole) abruptirhachis

Cyathaxonia (Cyathocarinia) sp.

La Serre
Polygnathus purus subplanus

Voiseyella aff. tylothyriformis

Brachymetopus germanicus
Pseudowaribole cf. conifera
Protognathodus meischneri

Spinocarinifera ex. gr. nigra

Ammonoidea div. sp. indet.
Protognathodus collinsoni

Voiseyella pseudopostera
Siphonodella praesulcata

Endothyra parakosvensis
Siphonodella sulcata s.l.

Hemiplethorhynchus sp.
Montagne Noire
Protognathodus kuehni

Caninia cf. tregaensis

Ripidiorhynchus? sp.
Ectochoristites? sp.

Earlandia elegans
"Tolipammina" sp.
Typhloproetus sp.

Sedenticellula sp.
"Perliproetus" sp.

Rhynchopora sp.

Heterophyllia sp.
Wocklumeria sp.

Syringothyris sp.
Orbinaria? fallax

Sutherlandia sp.

Endothyra? sp.
reference section LS - E'

Unispirifer sp.
Phacops sp.

Ufimia sp. 2
Ovatia sp.
parallel sections F, G, CO

101
Carboniferous

100
99
98
97
96
95
93 - 94
92 Brachiopod
91 fauna of
90 shallow
89 open sea
GSSP
87 - 88
GSSP
86
85
Bispathodus ziegleri muessenbergensis

81 - 84
Devonian

Mud bottom
Brachiopods fauna
Cephalopods

Foraminifera
Brachiopods

80 Restricted
Brachiopod
Conodonts
Palmatolepis gracilis expansa

79 fauna
Trilobites

78
77
Corals

76
75
50 74
cm 73
72
71
70 Regression
0 Transgression
69

Figure 9.2 GSSP for base of the Carboniferous (base of Mississippian; base of Tournaisian Stage) at the La Serre
hill section, 2.5 km southwest of the village of Cabrières, Montagne Noire, southern France. The GSSP level was
intended to coincide with the lowest occurrence of conodont Siphonodella sulcata in the lineage S. praesulcata-
S. sulcata, but this taxon is now found at a lower level. A revised criteria for the basal marker and potentially a different
boundary section for the Devonian–Carboniferous boundary are now being sought. Outcrop photograph provided by
Marus Aretz; stratigraphic column from Paproth et al. (1991).
 Base of the Pennsylvanian Sub-system of the Carboniferous
System at Arrow Canyon, Nevada, U.S.A.
R.64E R.65E
Nevada
Arrow Canyon 0 1km

Study
6
Area

Las Vegas N

0
240
GSSP 7

00
M.

24
T

hF

00
14

s
Wa

20
.
FM
S

ip
sh

g
rin
0

ttle
240

Sp
Ba
x 2467

rd
Bi
Indian
Springs FM.
(A) (B)
SN IT ST
RS
15m Conodonts
A60

RST
Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous)

14m
x x x x x x

TR Sequence 5
A59 x x x x ?
13m x x x x ? x Water depth
increasing
x x x x x x x x x
Lower Morrowan

Declinognathodus noduliferus
12m x x x x x x x x

TST
Declinognathodus noduliferus transition

A58 x x x x x x x

Rhachistognathus muricatus
x

Rhachistognathus websteri

Rhachistognathus prolixus
Rhachistognathus primus
11m
x x
x x ? x x
Bird Spring Limestone

x x x x x x x
Gnathodus defectus transition

A57 RS
10m RS

TR4
RST
9m x
A56 RS
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x

RST
x x x x x x x x x x x
GSSP
8m
x

TR3
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x TST
Mississippian (Lower Carboniferous)

7m A55 x x x x x x RS
x x
RST

TR2
Upper Chesterian

Rhachistognathus muricatus

6m
x x x x x x x
Gnathodus girtyi simplex

Gnathodus girtyi simplex

Gnathodus girtyi simplex

TST

A54
RS
Adetognathus tytthus

5m
Adetognathus lautus
Gnathodus defectus

? x x x
TR Sequence 1
RST

4m A53 x x
x x x x x Water depth
increasing
3m
x x x
(C)
TST

A52

Figure 9.3 GSSP for base of the Pennsylvanian subsystem (base of Bashkirian Stage) at the Arrow Canyon section,
Nevada, United States. The GSSP level coincides with the first-appearance datum (FAD) of conodont Declinognatho-
dus noduliferus (sensu lato). (Photograph, stratigraphic column, and schematic sea-level trends from Davydov et al.
(2012) and Lane et al. (1999).)
104  Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS

than the Westphalian–Stephanian regional Barrick et al., 2013; Heckel, 2013b) (Fig. 9.4).
series boundary of Western Europe. A lead- Benthic foraminifers are particularly use-
ing potential GSSP section is the same Naqing ful in biostratigraphic correlations within
section of South China that is the candidate each region, but there are divergent standard
for the other GSSPs. zonations for Eurasia and North America
Gzhelian (mid-Late Pennsylvanian): The (e.g., Davydov et al., 2012; Wahlman, 2013).
FAD of conodont Idiognathodus simulator Ammonoids underwent increased provincial-
sensu stricto in the lineage Id. eudoraensis - ism during the Mississippian; therefore, they
Id. simulator was decided in 2008 as the have different regional standards (e.g., Korn
boundary-defining event, but the decision on and Klug, 2015; Boardman and Work, 2013). At
the GSSP section has progressed slowly even the top of the food chain in the marine realm,
though the Usolka section in southern Urals the average size of fish and their vertebrate
of Russia had also been proposed in 2008 cousins, which had been progressively get-
(­Davydov et al., 2008). One problem is that there ting larger during each succeeding Devonian
is a lack of a well-documented transition to the stage, underwent a sharp drop across the end-
Id. simulator; although the high-amplitude Devonian Hangenberg Event. Even though a
oscillations of global sea levels during the gla- few survivors regained larger dimensions, the
cial-influenced boundary interval, coupled marine fossil record is dominated by a pro-
with the local FAD of Id. simulator, might gressive and unexplained decrease in average
allow using a precise maximum-flooding level size of the marine vertebrates into the Visean
(Ueno and Task Group, 2014). Other potential and continuing into the Serpukhovian (Sallan
GSSP sections being investigated include the and Galimberti, 2015).
Rusavkino quarry and historical stratotype of Regional palynological spore and megafloral
the Gzhelian Stage in the Gzhel quarry east assemblages correlate the extensive Northern
of Moscow and the same Naqing section of Hemisphere coal deposits. The Devonian tree-
South China under consideration for other sized Archaeopteris continued into the Missis-
Pennsylvanian stage GSSPs. sippian, and the lycophyte Lepidodendron and
Sigillaria trees dominated the Pennsylvanian
Selected main stratigraphic coal forests until their extinction at the end of
the Carboniferous (Gradstein and Kerp, 2012).
scales and events Evolution of reptiles from amphibians
characterizes the top of terrestrial ecosys-
Biostratigraphy (marine; terrestrial) tems (Chen et al., 2014). Archaic Devonian
Marine biostratigraphy mainly relies on fish-like semiaquatic tetrapods continued
conodonts, benthic foraminifers (especially into the earliest Carboniferous. However,
fusulinaceans), and ammonoids, plus brachio- a ca. 20-myr “Romer’s Gap” without suit-
pods in marginal settings. The microscopic able preservation of terrestrial tetrapods
phosphatic feeding apparatuses of conodonts spans the majority of the Tournaisian to
are more ubiquitous in different marine facies; mid-Visean; and, after that gap, ecosystems
therefore, they are especially important for with reptile-like Anthracosauria amphibians
interregional correlation and as primary flourished into the Early Permian (e.g., Clack,
markers for stage GSSPs. The Pennsylvanian 2012). The sail-backed pelycosaur reptiles
conodont zonations of Europe and of the North (e.g., Dimetrodon and its ancestors), the earliest
American midcontinent have been precisely known herbivorous tetrapods, developed in
correlated using common high-amplitude the late Moscovian and continued through
sea-level cycles (Schmitz and Davydov, 2012; the Early Permian.
 Pennsylvanian Time Scale
European N. American European Europen

Glacials
AGE Age Donets Basin N. American

N. Am.
Conodont Mid-Continent Ammonoid Fusulinids &
(Ma) (Stage) 400-kyr cycle Zones Conodont Zones
400-kyr cycle
Zones Benthic Forams
298 Streptognathodus

Interglacial VI ?
sigmoidalis -
Streptognathodus Svetlanoceras -
Permian S. cristellaris
isolatus Paragastrioceras
Streptognathodus
298.9 SA1 isolatus Red Eagle 2
299 St. wabaunsensis - St. binodosus Daixina bosbytauensis
SG14-16 St. fissus St. farmeri Foraker 2 - Globifus. robusta
Streptognathodus St. flexuosus
SG13 simplex - Five Point
Daixina sokensis
St. bellus Streptognathodus
300 SG11-12 bellus Falls City

Glacial F
SG8-10 Brownville

SG7 Dover
301 Vidrioceras -
Gzhelian SG6b Streptognathodus Tarkio Shumardites
virgilicus Streptognathodus Jigulites jigulensis
SG6a virgilicus Howard

302 SG5 Topeka

Interglacial V
SG4 Deer Creek
Streptognathodus Rauserites
SG3 vitali St. vitali Lecompton rossicus -
303 Idiognathodus Idiognathodus Rauserites
303.4 SG2 simulator simulator Oread stuckenbergi
E
St. zethus
SG1 I. eudoraensis Stanton (& Cass)
IV
304 SK7 Streptognathodus Iola Rauserites
firmus Streptognathodus
D
quasiarcticus
SK6 gracilis Dewey
III
SK5 I. toretzianus I. confragus Dennis Dunbarites -
305 Kasimovian C Parashumardites
St. cancellosus I. cancellosus
SK4 Swope Montiparus
Idiognathodus Idiognathodus paramontiparus
sagittalis II
SK3 turbatus Hertha
306 SK2 St. subexcelsus - Sw. nodocarinata Lost Branch Protriticites
Sw. makhlinae B pseudomontiparus
306.7 SK1 Sw. neoshoensis Altamont
SM18 Pawnee Fusulina
307 Idiognathodus cylindrica -
Interglacial I

Eoschistoceras
delicatus Upper Fort Scott Protriticites
SM17
Neognathodus ovatus
Lower Fort Scott
SM16 roundyi (Excello)
308 SM15
Neognathodus Bevier Fusulinella bocki
roundyi
SM14 Verdigris

SM13 Fleming
309
Moscovian SM12 Russell Creek
Pseudopara-
legoceras Fusulinella
SM11 Neognathodus Upper Tiawah colaniae -
Idiognathodus asymmetricus
Glacial A ?

310 F. voshgalensis -
SM10 podolskensis Lower Tiawah Beedeina
kamensis
SM9 Post-Wainright

SM8 Inola
311
Neognathodus Doneley
SM7 Fusulinella
caudatus
Swadelina Paralegoceras / subpulchra
SM6 dissectus Spaniard Eowellerites

Figure 9.4 Selected marine biostratigraphic zonations of the Pennsylvanian subperiod with 405-kyr sea-level cycles
from eccentricity-forced oscillations of the Gondwana ice sheets. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of
the rock-record “stage.”) 400-kyr cycles (cyclothems) and scaling of European and North American Mid-Continent
conodont zones to these cycles are a composite from Schmitz and Davydov (2012), Davydov et al. (2010, 2012), Heckel
(2013b, and pers. comm., Sept. 2015) and Barrick et al. (2013).
 Pennsylvanian Time Scale
European N. American European European

Glacials
AGE Age Donets Basin N. American

N. Am.
Conodont Mid-Continent Ammonoid Fusulinids &
(Ma) (Stage) 400-kyr cycle Zones Conodont Zones
400-kyr cycle
Zones Benthic Forams
SM11 Upper Tiawah
310 Neognathodus
Lower Tiawah
Fusulinella
SM10 asymmetricus colaniae -
Idiognathodus Pseudopara- F. voshgalensis -
SM9 podolskensis Post-Wainright legoceras Beedeina

Glacial A ?
kamensis
SM8 Inola
311
SM7 Doneley
Fusulinella
Neognathodus subpulchra
SM6 Spaniard
caudatus
312 Moscovian Swadelina
SM5 dissectus Tamaha Paralegoceras /
Eowellerites Priscoidella
SM4 McCurtain priscoidea

313 SM3b
Neognathodus
unnamed

SM3a uralicus Neognathodus

colombiensis
Aljutovella
SM2b Diaboloceras - aljutovica
Diplognathodus
314 ellesmerensis - Winslowoceras
SM2a Declinognathodus
314.6 SM1 donetzianus
upper
315 Melekesian

Verella spicata -
Neognathodus Diaboloceras - Alj. tikhonovichi
atokaensis Neognathodus Axinolobus
atokaensis Pounds
316

317 Profusulinella
rhombiformis

Declinognathodus Branneroceras /
marginodosus Gastrioceras Profusulinella
primitiva -
318 Pseudostaffella
Neognathodus
nataliae gorskyi
Bostwick

319 Bashkirian Staffellaeformes

Idiognathodus staffellaeformis -
sinuosus Pseudostaffella
Bilinguites / praegorskyi
Cancelloceras
Neognathodus
320 bassleri Trace Creek
Neognathodus
askynensis Pseudostaffella
antiqua
321 Dye - Kessler
Neognathodus Baschkortoceras /
symmetricus Reticuloceras Semistaffella
Idiognathodus
sinuatus variabilis -
322 Id. sinuatus Prairie Grove 2 Semistaffella
minuscilaria

D. noduliferus,
Declinognathodus Rhachisto. primus Homoceras / Plectostaffella
noduliferus Cane Hill
323 323.2
Hudsonoceras bogdanovkensis
Monotaxinoides
Serpukhovian G. postbilineatus upper R. muricatus transitorius

Figure 9.4 (Continued) The main North American cycles in the Bashkirian Stage are from Heckel (2008, 2013b, and
pers. comm., Sept. 2015). Interpretation of the major glacial/interglacial intervals from the North American Mid-
Continent record is from Heckel (2013b and pers. comm., Sept. 2015). European ammonoid zones and fusulinid/benthic
foraminifer zones are mainly from Davydov et al. (2012) and Heckel (2008), which schematically positions these zones
relative to the conodont scales. Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves,
and details on calibrations are compiled in Davydov et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale
Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
 Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS  107

Magnetostratigraphy, stable-isotope a precise time scale and correlation of these

cyclothems between North America midcon-
stratigraphy, and selected events tinent and the southern Urals–Donets Basin
The Carboniferous magnetic polarity time (Fig. 9.4).
scale is poorly known. The Kiaman hyper- The relative magnitude of clusters of
chron of late Carboniferous through middle sea-level lowstands in the North American
Permian is dominated by reversed polarity. cyclothem record is interpreted by Heckel
The youngest significant pre-Kiaman normal- (2013b) as episodes of major glacial ice
polarity zones are upper Bashkirian. The buildup in Gondwana (Fig. 9.4). An inde-
polarity scale in Fig. 9.1 was compiled in pendent estimate of major Serpukhovian
Davydov et al. (2012). through Pennsylvanian glacial episodes is
In addition to other factors, the carbon- from influxes of glacial-derived sediment
isotope record is influenced by the major into the basins of eastern Australia (Field-
episodes of coal burial that preferentially ing et al., 2008). The ages for both of these
buried 12C to enrich the mean δ13C values in estimates of the main glacial (cooling) epi-
the ocean, but the timing and magnitude of sodes are only partially consistent with the
many of the reported major fluctuations have synthesis of a global oxygen-18 curve and
not yet been explained (reviewed in Davydov the approximations of tropical sea-surface
et al., 2012). The schematic curve in Fig. 9.1 is a temperatures by Veizer and Prokoph (2015,
running average of the data from several stud- shown in Fig. 9.1).
ies of Carboniferous compiled by Saltzman
and Thomas (2012), and many of the regional
features require additional global verification. Numerical age model
The Carboniferous–Permian had the longest
ice age of the Phanerozoic with a fluctuating ice GTS2012 age model
sheet dominating the southern high latitudes As the Gondwana ice sheets underwent
(e.g., the chapter opening figure, “Kasimovian regular expansion/contraction during the
(late Pennsylvanian) paleogeographic recon- late Carboniferous through early Permian
struction”). The contributing factors include in response to Milankovitch orbital-climate
the Gondwana paleogeography under the feedbacks, a set of high-amplitude cyclic sea-
South Pole, carbon burial in coal deposits, level onlaps (cyclothems) were generated on
atmospheric CO2 levels, and sea-level feed- continental margins. The detailed U-Pb dating
backs (e.g., synthesis by Montañez and Poulsen, of conodont-rich successions in the Donets
2013). The late Mississippian (Serpukhovian) Basin and southern Urals enabled recognition
through Pennsylvanian deposits on continen- of a full set of 405-kyr long-eccentricity cycles
tal margins are characterized by “cyclothems” spanning the Asselian and Sakmarian stages
caused by major periodic sea-level changes (Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). Those cycles also
driven by the response of the major Gondwana have counterparts in the North American Mid-
ice sheets to Milankovitch orbital-climate continent conodont-zoned lithostratigraphy
cycles. Most of these cyclothems are ca. 100- (Heckel, 2013b), thereby enabling a high-
kyr short-eccentricity oscillations modulated resolution age model for the duration of each
by long-eccentricity envelopes which produce conodont zone between the two regions (Fig.
periodic (405-kyr) enhanced major lowstand 9.4). Many of the benthic foraminifer and
and exposure surfaces flooded by major sea- ammonoid zones were independently cali-
level incursions. The combination of U-Pb brated to those cycles (e.g., Heckel, 2013a) or
dating with conodont datums has produced to the conodont scale (Fig. 9.5).
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Figure 9.5 Selected marine biostratigraphic zonations of the Mississippian subperiod. (Note that the age scale is
more compact than in Fig. 9.4). Conodont, ammonoid, and fusulinid/benthic foraminifer zones are from Davydov et al.
(2012) with the Tournaisian–Visean boundary interval partially modified according to the Carboniferous Subcommis-
sion Correlation Chart (2014). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves,
and details on calibrations are compiled in Davydov et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale
Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
 Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS  109

The age model for the combined Carbon- Kasimovian base (306.7 vs 307.0 ± 0.2 Ma
iferous–Permian in GTS2012 was a statisti- in GTS2012): The potential conodont
cal spline fit of a collection of U-Pb ages to marker, Idiognathodus heckeli in the Exline
a composite biostratigraphic scale that had cyclothem is used in Fig. 9.4 to place the
been constructed by applying CONstrained boundary.
Optimization (CONOP)-9 to an extensive Moscovian base (314.6 vs 315.2 ± 0.2 Ma in
suite of reference sections (Davydov et al., GTS2012): This is the cyclothem-calibrated
2012; Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). This age for the potential conodont marker,
technique yielded very similar ages for the Diplognathodus ellesmerensis.
conodont zones, but the cycle-tuned scale
of Schmitz and Davydov (2012) is used here
for the Pennsylvanian age model. However, Estimated uncertainties on assigned
the age model for the Mississippian through ages on stage boundaries
lower Bashkirian conodont and benthic fora- The high-precision radioisotopic dates
minifer zones retains the GTS2012 spline fit with well-constrained biostratigraphic ages
of the CONOP scale, except for revised zonal that constrain the Pennsylvanian portion of
calibrations within the Tournaisian–Visean this Carboniferous time scale typically have a
boundary interval by the Subcommission on published uncertainty less than 0.2 myr (e.g.,
Carboniferous Stratigraphy (2014). Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). However, an
external uncertainty of ca. 0.3 myr should be
included if comparing these Permian EARTH-
Revised ages compared to GTS2012 TIME-standardized dates to other dating
and potential future enhancements methods, as explained in Burgess et al. (2014).
The only changes in the age model for The duration of those stages, if computed
the Carboniferous are for the yet-to-be- from the dates in the same EARTHTIME data
formalized Pennsylvanian stages. The shift sets, have uncertainties that omit that exter-
to slightly younger ages is from the combi- nal factor.
nation of (1) enhanced high-precision U-Pb The Mississippian portion retained the
and cyclostratigraphic dating of conodont spline fit to the CONOP scale used in GTS2012,
zone boundaries (Schmitz and Davydov, which yielded a 0.4-myr uncertainty (­Davydov
2012), and (2) the conodont FADs currently et al., 2012). The Visean–Serpukhovian bound-
preferred by the Carboniferous boundary ary (330.9 Ma in GTS2012 and in Fig. 9.5), has
working groups as the stage-boundary mark- a U-Pb date of 333.87 ± 0.08 Ma just below the
ers. However, there is the possibility that the candidate GSSP level (Schmitz and Davydov,
eventual GSSPs for these stages may have 2012), therefore probably has a precision simi-
different conodont FADs or other primary lar that of the Pennsylvanian stages. The spline-
markers than the candidates in Figs. 9.1 and fit age for the Tournaisian–Visean boundary
9.6. [Note that an external uncertainty of ca. in GTS2012 (346.7 Ma) is constrained by a
0.3 myr should be included if comparing these 345.17 ± 0.4 Ma date in the benthic foramini-
EARTHTIME-standardized dates to other dat- fer Uralodiscus rotundus zone (Davydov et al.,
ing methods, as explained in Burgess et al. 2012; Schmitz, 2012); but because placement
(2014).] of that zone relative to the base-Visean is dis-
Gzhelian base (303.4 vs 303.7 ± 0.1 Ma in puted (e.g., Davydov et al., 2012 chart versus
GTS2012): This is the cyclothem-calibrated the Subcommission on Carboniferous Stratig-
age for the FAD of conodont marker Strep- raphy website chart of 2014), then an uncer-
tognathodus simulator. tainty of ca. 1 myr for the base-Visean might
110  Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS

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Figure 9.6 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Carboniferous stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.

be appropriate. The Devonian–Tournaisian Acknowledgments

boundary, even though the GSSP level might
This summary of the Carboniferous and its detailed
shift slightly to be associated with the imme- cyclostratigraphy was limited to only a few aspects,
diately underlying Hangenberg Event, is fairly selected highlights, and some current stratigraphic
well constrained by radioisotopic dates on the issues of this fascinating topic. For more information,
transition interval as 358.9 ± 0.4 Ma (Davydov see the detailed overviews and syntheses by Davydov
et al. (2012) and Richards (2013), and on updates of the
et al., 2012), which was verified by U-Pb
stratigraphic scales and GSSP status at the website and
dating that Hangenberg Event as between newsletters of the Subcommission on Carboniferous
358.89 ± 0.20 and 358.97 ± 0.11 Ma (Myrow Stratigraphy ([Link]/Carboniferous). This
et al., 2013). review depended on the expertise of many colleagues,
 Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS  111

including (in alphabetical order only): Vladimir Davydov, Davydov, V.I., Crowley, J.L., Schmitz, M.D., Poletaev,
Phil Heckel, Rich Lane, Barry Richards, and Mark V.I., 2010. High-precision U-Pb zircon age
Schmitz. Phil Heckel and Zhong-Qiang Chen reviewed calibration of the global Carboniferous time scale
an early version of the graphics, database, and text. and Milankovitch-band cyclicity in the Donets
Basin, eastern Ukraine. Geochemistry, Geophysics,
Geosystems 11: Q0AA04. [Link]
Selected publications 2009GC002736.
Davydov, V.I., Korn, D., Schmitz, M.D., with Gradstein,
and websites F.M., Hammer, O., 2012. The Carboniferous Period.
In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G.,
Cited publications (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Only select publications were cited in this review with Elsevier Publication, pp. 603–651. [Link]
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00023-8 (An
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the overview on all aspects, including graphics on the
synthesis by Davydov et al. (2012) and in some of the ratified GSSPs of the stages, diagrams and tables for
cited publications in the following. the biostratigraphic scales, and discussion on the age
Alekseev, A.S., Task Group, 2014. Report of the Task models.).
Group to establish a GSSP close to the existing Devuyst, F.-X., Hance, L., Hou, H., Wu, X., Tian, S., Coen,
Bashkirian-Moscovian boundary. Newsletter on M., Sevastopulo, G., 2003. A proposed Global
Carboniferous Stratigraphy 31: 33–36. Available at: Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the
[Link]/Carboniferous/pub/[Link]. Viséan Stage (Carboniferous): the Pengchong
Aretz, M., 2011. Report on the workshop of the task section, Guangzi, south China. Episodes 26(2):
group for defining the Devonian-Carboniferous 105–115.
boundary. Subcommission on Devonian Stratigraphy Fielding, C.R., Frank, T.D., Birgenheier, L.P., Rygel, M.C.,
Newsletter 26: 18–20. Jones, A.T., Roberts, J., 2008. Stratigraphic imprint of
Barrick, J.E., Lambert, L.L., Heckel, P.H., Rosscoe, S.J., the late Paleozoic ice age in eastern Australia: a
Boardman, D.R., 2013. Midcontinent Pennsylvanian record of alternating glacial and non-glacial climate
conodont zonation. In: Heckel, P.H. (Ed.), Pennsylva- regime. Journal of the Geological Society of London
nian Genetic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy of 165: 129–140.
Midcontinent North AmericaStratigraphy 10(1/2): Gradstein, S.R., Kerp, H., 2012. A brief history of plants
55–72. on Earth. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.,
Boardman, D.R., Work, D.M., 2013. Pennsylvanian Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale
(Desmoinesian-Virgilian) ammonoid zonation for 2012. Elsevier Publication, pp. 233–237. http://
Midcontinent North America. In: Heckel, P.H. (Ed.), [Link]/10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-
Pennsylvanian Genetic Stratigraphy and Biostratig- 9.00023-8.
raphy of Midcontinent North AmericaStratigraphy Haq, B.U., Schutter, S.R., 2008. A chronology of Paleozoic
10(1/2): 105–116. sea-level changes. Science 322: 64–68. [Link]
Burgess, S.D., Bowring, S., Shen, S.Z., 2014. High-precision org/10.1126/science.116164.
timeline for Earth’s most severe extinction. Heckel, P.H., 2008. Carboniferous Period. In: Ogg, J.G.,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science Ogg, G., Gradstein, F.M., (Eds.), The Concise Geologic
(PNAS) 111: 3316–3321. Time Scale. Cambridge University Press,
Clack, J.A., 2012. Gaining Ground: The Origin and Evolution pp. 73–83.
of Tetrapods. Indiana University Press, p. 544. Heckel, P.H., (Ed.), 2013a. Pennsylvanian Genetic
Chen, Z.-Q., Wang, X., Richards, B., Aretz, M., 2014. Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy of Midcontinent
Multidisciplinary studies of global Carboniferous North America. Stratigraphy 10(1/2): 1–126.
stage boundaries: towards a better definition and Heckel, P.H., 2013b. Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of the
global correlations: an introduction. Geological northern Midcontinent shelf and biostratigraphic
Magazine 151(2): 199–200. correlation of cyclothems. In: Heckel, P.H. (Ed.),
Davydov, V.I., Shernykh, V.V., Chuvashov, B.I., Schmitz, Pennsylvanian Genetic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy
M., Snyder, W.S., 2008. Faunal assemblage and of Midcontinent North AmericaStratigraphy
correlation of Kasimovian-Gzhelian transition at 10(1/2): 3–40.
Usolka section, southern Urals, Russia (a potential Kaiser, S.I., 2009. The Devonian/Carboniferous bound-
candidate for GSSP to define base of Gzhelian Stage). ary stratotype section (La Serre, France) revisited.
Stratigraphy 5: 113–136. Newsletters on Stratigraphy 43: 195–205.
112  Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS

Korn, D., Klug, C., 2015. Chapter 12. Paleozoic ammonoid Saltzman, M.R., 2003. Late Paleozoic ice age: oceanic
biostratigraphy. In: Klug, C., Korn, D., De Baets, K., gateway or pCO2? Geology 31: 151–154 (and on-line
Kruta, I., Mapes, R.H. (Eds.), Ammonoid Paleobiology: supplement for dataset).
From Macroevolution to Paleogeography Topics in Saltzman, M.R., Thomas, E., 2012. Carbon isotope
Geobiology 44: 299–328. [Link] stratigraphy. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz,
978-94-017-9633-0_13 Springer Publication. M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale
Lane, H.R., Brenckle, P.L., Baesemann, J.F., Richards, B., 2012. Elsevier Publication, pp. 207–232. http://
1999. The IUGS boundary in the middle of the [Link]/10.1016/B978-0-444-
Carboniferous; Arrow Canyon, Nevada, USA. 59425-9.00023-8.
Episodes 22: 272–283. Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Permo-Carboniferous
Montañez, I.P., Poulsen, C.J., 2013. The late Paleozoic ice Paleogeographic Maps (Mollweide Projection), Maps
age: an evolving paradigm. Annual Review of Earth 53-64. PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for ArcGIS The Late
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Racki, G., Rakocinski, M., 2013. High-precision U-Pb Schmitz, M.D., 2012. Appendix 2. Radiometric ages used
age and duration of the latest Devonian (Famennian) in GTS2012. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz,
Hangenberg Event, and its implications. Terra Nova M., Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale
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Devonian-Carboniferous boundary stratotype. Schmitz, M.D., Davydov, V.I., 2012. Quantitative
Episodes 14: 331–336. radiometric and biostratigraphic calibration of the
Qi, Y.-P., Nemyrovska, T.I., Wang, X.-D., Chen, J., Wang, Z., Pennsylvanian–Early Permian (Cisuralian) time
Lane, H.R., Richards, B.C., Hu, K., Wang, Q.-L., 2014. scale and pan-Euramerican chronostratigraphic
Late Visean – Early Serpukhovian conodont succes- correlation. Geological Society of America Bulletin
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China. Geological Magazine 151(2): 254–268. http:// and data-repository item 2012020.
[Link]/10.1017/S001675681300071X. Sevastopulo, G.D., Barham, M., 2014. Correlation of the
Qi, Y.-P., Lambert, L.L., Nemyrovska, T.I., Wang, X.-D., Hu, base of the Serpukhovian Stage (Mississippian) in
K.-Y., Wang, Q.-L., 2016. Late Bashkirian and Early NW Europe. Geological Magazine 151(2): 244–253.
Moscovian conodonts from the Naqing section, Subcommission on Carboniferous Stratigraphy, 2014.
Luodian, Guizhou, South China. Palaeoworld. http:// Stratigraphic Chart of Carboniferous Conodont,
[Link]/10.1016/palwor.2015.02.005. [Link] Fusulinid & Benthic Foraminifer, and Ammonoid
[Link]/science/article/pii/ Zones and T-r Cycles. Available at: [Link].
s187174x15000207. org/Carboniferous (viewed Nov’ 15).
Richards, B.C., 2013. Current status of the international Sungatullina, G., 2014. Determination of the Bashkirian–
Carboniferous time scale. In: Lucas, S.G., et al. (Ed.), Moscovian boundary in the Volga region via
The Carboniferous-Permian TransitionNew Mexico conodont species Declinognathodus donetzianus
Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 60: Nemirovskaya. Geological Magazine 151(2): 299–310.
348–353. Ueno, K., Task Group, 2014. Report of the task group to
Rosscoe, S.J., Barrick, J.E., 2013. North American species establish the Moscovian-Kasimovian and Kasimovian-
of the conodont genus Idiognathodus from the Gzhelian boundaries. Newsletter on Carboniferous
Moscovian-Kasimovian boundary composite Stratigraphy 31: 36–40. Available at: [Link].
sequence and correlation of the Moscovian- org/Carboniferous/pub/[Link].
Kasimovian stage boundary. In: Lucas, S.G., Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen
DiMichele, W., Barrick, J.E., Schneider, J.W., isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
Spielmann, J.A. (Eds.), The Carboniferous-Permian Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
TransitionNew Mexico Museum of Natural History Wahlman, G.P., 2013. Pennsylvanian to Lower Permian
and Science, Bulletin 60: 354–371. (Desmoinesian-Wolfcampian) fusulinid biostratigra-
Sallan, L., Galimberti, A.K., 2015. Body-size reduction in phy of Midcontinent North America. In: Heckel, P.H.
vertebrates following the end-Devonian mass (Ed.), Pennsylvanian Genetic Stratigraphy and
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tary materials). Stratigraphy 10(1/2): 73–104.
 Chapter 9 CARBONIFEROUS  113

Websites (selected) Palaeos: Carboniferous—[Link]

carboniferous/[Link]—A well-presented
Subcommission on Carboniferous Stratigraphy
suite of diverse topics for a general science audience
(International Commission on Stratigraphy [ICS])—
that was originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in
[Link]
1998–2002.
on GSSPs, Portable Document Formats (PDFs) of the
Climate and the Carboniferous Period (by Monte Hieb,
full set of Newsletters (1992 to present).
under Plant Fossils of West Virginia)—http://
Paleozoic Forests—[Link]
[Link]/WVFossils/Carboniferous_climate.
GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/[Link]—
html—continental drift, ice ages, and coal deposit
a well-presented exploration that focuses on the
overview.
Carboniferous coal forests.
 10
PERMIAN
255.7 Ma Permian

Siberia

PANTHALASSIC OCEAN
North China

North
America PALEO-TETHYS South
OCEAN China

South Africa
America

GONDWANA

India
Australia
Antarctica
CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Lopingian (late Permian) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level−40 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and type regions (summarized in Henderson et al.

international subdivisions (2012a) and in Shen et al. (2013b)).
The base of the Permian was originally
The Permian, named after exposures in the placed at the onset of evaporites in the type
southern Urals of Russia, which was within the area of the Urals—a level now within the
ancient kingdom of Permia, has three named Kungurian Stage—and was progressively
series/epochs—Cisuralian (type area is the shifted to older biostratigraphic levels with
southern Urals), Guadalupian (type area is the the creation of additional early Permian
Guadalupe Mountain region of West Texas), and stages upon the distinguishing of Carbon-
Lopingian (type area is South China) (Fig. 10.1). iferous versus Permian faunas. The base of
The ratified or candidate Global Boundary the Russian Permian stabilized in 1992 at
Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) for the the appearance of three ammonoid families
nine Permian stages (Figs. 10.1 and 10.7), all of and the first inflated “Schwagerina” group
which coincide with first-appearance datums of fusulinids (benthic foraminifers). The
(FADs) of conodont taxa, are mainly in these base of the Permian (base of Asselian Stage)
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 115
116  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

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Figure 10.1 Permian overview. Main markers or candidate markers for GSSPs of Permian stages are first-appear-
ance datums (FADs) of conodont taxa as detailed in the text and in Fig. 10.7. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent
of the rock-record “stage.”) Magnetic polarity scale is modified from Steiner (2006). Coastal onlap and schematic
sea-level curve with labels for selected major sequence boundaries are modified from Haq and Schutter (2008)
following advice of Bilal Haq (personal communication, 2008). The Late Permian sea-level sequences are mainly
derived from South China (Chen et al., 1998). The δ13C curve is from the composite by Buggisch et al. (2015), who con-
cluded that none of the reported excursions in regional studies can yet be reliably verified on a global scale (except
for the latest Permian) and that a stable mean (+4 per mil on their diagram) would currently fit those inconsistent
trends. Superimposed are schematic placements of possible interregional negative excursions in latest Capitanian
through Wuchiapingian (e.g., Shen et al., 2013a), and there may be another negative excursion within the early part of
late Capitanian (Zhong-Qiang Chen, written communication, January 2016). The Permian δ18O curve is modified from
the mean of the schematic curve of Veizer and Prokoph (2015) with their adjusted estimates of tropical sea-surface
temperatures derived from those oxygen-18 values. P1–P4 glacial episodes are according to the dated glacial
deposits in eastern Australian basins (Frank et al., 2015; Metcalfe et al., 2015). The vertical scale of this diagram is
standardized to match the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters.
PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standard; SST, sea-surface temperature.
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  117

at the Aidaralash stream section in north- of the Sakmarian coincides with a major
west Kazakhstan coincides with the FAD of sea-level lowstand.
conodont Streptognathodus isolatus and Artinskian: The candidate GSSP near the
is 6.3 m below the appearance of the tradi- proposed Sakmarian GSSP is at 1.8 m above
tional “Schwagerina” group (Fig. 10.2). How- the base of Bed 4 as exposed in trenches
ever, this main conodont marker has only along the Dal’ny Tulkus stream section on
rare well-documented occurrences outside the southern end of the Usolka anticline
of the Urals, may have taxonomic identifica- (Chuvashov et al., 2013). This level would
tion problems, and there is a possibility that coincide with the evolutionary appearance
its FAD might be diachronous relative to the of Sweetognathus aff. whitei in the lineage
Schwagerina secondary markers (e.g., Lucas, of Sw. aff. merrilli—Sw. binodosus—Sw.
2013b; with reply by Davydov, 2013). anceps—Sw. aff. whitei.
GSSPs to define the other three stages of the Kungurian: The accepted base of the Kun-
Cisuralian based on evolutionary lineages of gurian Stage is the evolution of conodont
conodonts were nearing completion in 2014, Neostreptognathodus pnevi from Neostr.
but then complications arose from “disagree- pequopensis, but there are at least two com-
ments on the taxonomy of conodonts and the peting candidates for that level. The candi-
index species for definition” of the Sakmarian date level at 26.5 m in the Rockland section
and Artinskian stages ­(Permophiles, v.59, 2014) near Wells, Nevada, United States (Henderson
and failure to get a two-thirds majority vote for et al., 2012b) did not receive a supermajority
placing the Kungurian GSSP in an expanded vote from the working group. Therefore, work
section in Nevada. The ­current statuses are is continuing on a small quarry section near
found at [Link] and Mechetlino in the southern Pre-Urals, where
its post-2015 issues of Permophiles. the proposed GSSP level would be in a sandy
Sakmarian: GSSPs for the base and the Bed 9 (Chernykh et al., 2012). Even though
top of the Sakmarian Stage were proposed the Mechetlino section is nearly an order-
near the health resort of Krasnousol’sky vil- of-magnitude more compact than the Rock-
lage (Bashkortostan Republic, southeast Volga land section, the conodonts are more pristine
district, southwestern Russia) on the western (Henderson et al., 2012b).
slope of the southern Urals, near the historical The base of the Guadalupian (base of
type-section (Chernykh et al., 2013). The can- Roadian Stage) at Stratotype Canyon in West
didate for the Sakmarian GSSP on the right Texas coincides with the FAD of conodont
bank of the Usolka river in Bed 25 (51.6 m Jinogondolella nankingensis (Fig. 10.3). The
above base of section) would coincide with other GSSPs for stages in the Guadalupian in
the FAD of conodont Mesogondolella ura- nearby sections are based on the evolution of
lensis which evolved from M. arcuata. This that Jinogondolella genus.
datum is just below the FAD of the widespread The base of the Lopingian (base of Wuchi-
conodont Sweetognathus aff. merrilli in the apingian Stage) at Penglaitan, Guangxi Prov-
lineage that later evolved into Sweetognathus ince, South China coincides with the FAD of
aff. whitei, which is proposed to coincide with conodont Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri
the GSSP for the following Artinskian Stage (Fig. 10.4), although the actual GSSP will need
[Note that the usage of “aff” (affinity) for both to be relocated in the near future when a new
taxa is necessary because the lineage of the dam floods the stream outcrop. The GSSP for
original named Sw. merrilli and Sw. whitei the base of the Changhsingian Stage is in the
taxa (holotypes) were found to be restricted same exposure at Meishan in southern China
to the underlying Asselian Stage.]. The base as the base-Triassic GSSP that defines its top.
118  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

Carboniferous - Permian Boundary at Aidaralash near the town of

Aktobe, Kazakhstan

to Chromtau Aidaralash section

Aktjubinsk

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10 19.7 f
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-10
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Figure 10.2 GSSP for base of the Permian (base of Cisuralian Series; base of Asselian Stage) at the Aidaralash
section, southern Urals of northwest Kazakhstan. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of conodont
Streptognathodus isolatus. Holotype of St. isolatus in left image is 1.2-mm long, and in right image is 0.8-mm long.
(Outcrop photograph provided by Vladimir Davydov; conodont and section photographs and stratigraphic column
from Henderson et al. (2012a).)
 Base of the Roadian Stage of the Guadalupian Series at Stratotype
Canyon, Texas, U.S.A.
(A) (B)

Be
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Guadalupe Mountain

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Mesogondolella idahoensis
Roadian

50
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GSSP
Cutoff Formation

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(D)
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40
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Kungurian
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30
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GSSP
20

10
(C) (E)

Figure 10.3 GSSP for base of the Guadalupian Series (base of middle Permian; base of Roadian Stage) at the
Stratotype Canyon section, western Texas, United States. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest evolutionary
occurrence of conodont Jinogondolella nankingensis from its ancestors Mesogondolella idahoensis idahoensis and
M. idahoensis lamberti. Holotype of J. nankingensis in image is 1.0 mm long. (Photographs and stratigraphic column
are from Henderson et al. (2012a).)
120  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

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Figure 10.4 GSSP for base of the Lopingian Series (base of late Permian; base of Wuchiapingian Stage) at the Penglaitan
section, Guangxi province, South China. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of Clarkina postbitteri
postbitteri within an evolutionary lineage from C. postbitteri hongshuiensis to C. dukouensis. Holotype of C. postbitteri
postbitteri in image is 1.0-mm long. (Photographs and stratigraphic column are from Henderson et al. (2012a).)
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  121

Selected main stratigraphic Korn and Klug (2015). Three of the four major
clades of Permian ammonoids vanished dur-
scales and events ing the end-Permian mass extinction, and
all Mesozoic ammonoids appear descended
(1) Biostratigraphy (marine; from the single family of morphologically
terrestrial) simple Xenodiscidae of the Ceratitida clade
A trio of conodonts, benthic foraminifers (Brayard and Bucher, 2015).
(especially fusulinaceans) and ammonoids The amphibian and reptile records of west-
are the main biostratigraphic tools for corre- ern United States and South Africa are used to
lation of marine successions. A selected sub- subdivide the Permian into 10 land-vertebrate
set of the regional zonations for these groups fauna-chrons named after selected reference
and approximate correlations in Fig. 10.5 is sections (Lucas, 2006). There were slow rates
based on Henderson et al. (2012a) and Shen of evolution of the classic sail-backed pelyco-
et al. (2015), who emphasized that there is not saur reptiles during the early Permian. There is
yet a precise correlation between the zonal a ∼5-myr long “Olson’s Gap” in the preserved
boundaries among the different groups for tetrapod-evolution record which obscures the
most time intervals. transition from that pelycosaur-dominated
The phosphatic feeding apparatus of early Permian into the rapid initial diversifica-
conodonts, a small, probably eel-like ver- tion and domination of mammal-like therap-
tebrate, provides the main global subdivi- sid reptiles during the middle Permian (Lucas,
sions for middle Devonian through Triassic. 2006, 2013a). The therapsids are considered
All Permian conodont zones begin with the the distant ancestors of modern mammals.
first-appearance datum (FAD) of their index
taxa. The early Permian (late Asselian through
Sakmarian and basal Artinskian) portion of the (2) Magnetostratigraphy
conodont zonation in Fig. 10.5 is for the Strep- The early through middle Permian is
tognathodus–Sweetognathus lineage, and within the long reversed-polarity Kiaman
there is a parallel one for Mesogondolella for hyperchron. The first verified normal-polarity
this ca. 6-myr interval. Concentrated research chron, named the Illawarra after its initial
on the late-Permian environmental changes report from magnetostratigraphy in the Illa-
and mass extinction led to a very detailed warra coal measures of the Sydney Basin of
conodont zonation for the upper Changhsin- Australia, is in the upper part of the Capi-
gian Stage through basal Triassic, especially in tanian Stage. Reports of an earlier normal-
the important South China reference sections polarity zone within the preceding Wordian
(e.g., Fig. 10.6). In that upper Changhsingian Stage are consistent with magnetostratigra-
interval, the progressive recognition of more phy from Japan (Kirschvink et al., 2015); and,
conodont taxa and a practice of giving a new even though the Illawarra coal measures do
zonal name to every consecutive FAD, while not extend to this older level (Metcalfe et al.,
useful for detailed discussions, has resulted 2015), the generalized name “Illawarra series”
in some incredibly brief zones (e.g., Clarkina is applied. The schematic polarity pattern for
meishanensis Zone spans only 0.02 myr (Yuan the late Permian in Fig. 10.1 is based on the
et al., 2014) or 0.008 myr (Chen et al., 2015)). compilation of Steiner (2006); however, some
Permian ammonoid zonations are not as of the magnetostratigraphic studies from this
detailed or as useful as in the Devonian or Car- interval are difficult to intercorrelate, and,
boniferous. A comparison of zonations with in many cases, the source data were never
images of the main Permian index taxa is in published.
122  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

(3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy Ice sheets in Gondwana underwent sev-

eral major expansions and retreats during
and selected events the Carboniferous–Permian in addition to
The calibration of the stable-isotope and smaller oscillations in response to Milankov-
glacial-episode records of the Permian has itch orbital–climate feedbacks, especially as
undergone major revisions since the publica- modulated by 100-kyr and 400-kyr eccentric-
tion of GTS2012. ity cycles. Major Gondwana glacial advances
The schematic carbon-isotope curve in and retreats are recorded as diamictites and
GTS2012 was a merger of two major reference other glacial facies within the basins of east-
sections in slope-to-basinal carbonate suc- ern Australia. Using the pre-2013 calibration
cessions near the Yangtze Platform of South of Australian palynology zones to Permian
China. These had been considered potentially stages, Fielding et al. (2008) intercalibrated
representative of significant global excur- the records of several basins to identify four
sions superimposed on a gradual negative major glacial “P” episodes within the Cisura-
trend from base-Permian to mid-Wuchiap- lian and Guadalupian epochs in the eastern
ingian—a composite of upper Carboniferous Australian basins. A major program to radio-
to mid-Capitanian by Buggisch et al. (2011) metrically date over 100 interbedded volcanic
and of upper Capitanian through basal Tri- bentonites within these basins has signifi-
assic by Shen et al. (2010). However, Shen cantly revised the calibration of these Aus-
et al. (2013a) cautioned in their comparative tralian palynology zones and revealed that
study of several South China and Iranian sec- the final two glacial episodes are significantly
tions that “the extent to which the end-Gua- younger (e.g., Metcalfe et al., 2015; Nicoll et al.,
dalupian and Wuchiapingian/Changhsingian 2015). The earliest and most intense glacials,
boundary excursions result from local versus P1 and P2, are biostratigraphically calibrated
global controls remains unresolved. “Indeed, in the lithologic record of eastern Australian
after examining additional reference sec- basins as spanning the end-Carboniferous
tions outside of South China and compiling to middle Artinskian with a relatively brief
an extensive comparison of other published nonglacial in the middle Sakmarian (Fielding
studies, Buggisch et al. (2015) concluded that et al., 2008; Frank et al., 2015). Constraints
“an overall negative trend … is not obvious from U-Pb dating indicate that the lesser gla-
and negative excursions related to changes in cials of P3 (271–263.5 Ma) spans the Roadian
the carbon isotope composition of the global to mid-Capitanian, and P4 (260–254.5 Ma)
oceanic carbon pool cannot be confirmed, begins with the end-Capitanian mass extinc-
except for the Permian–Triassic boundary tion and continues to the middle of the Wuch-
interval.” There are probably such carbon- iapingian (Metcalfe et al., 2015). The glacials
isotope excursions within the Permian that of P3 may, in part, have accounted for the
will be useful as global signatures, such as one global nutrient-rich oceans in that time (Large
reported in late Guadalupian (the “Kamura et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2016). The cooling of
event” of Isozaki et al., 2007), but these require sea-surface temperatures would have accel-
improved interregional correlation for veri- erated oceanic circulation, thereby increasing
fication. Therefore, only the average value of the return of nutrients from the deep water to
4‰ (per mille or per thousand) for the major- surface oceans, to stimulate a high primary
ity of the Permian, as diagrammed in the sum- productivity by the blooming of plankton (Shi
mary of Buggisch et al. (2015), is shown in Fig. et al., 2016).
10.1 with dotted schematic placement of pos- However, revised ages of these main glacial
sible negative excursions. episodes are only partially consistent with the
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  123

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 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  125

Figure 10.5 Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Permian. (“Age” is the term for the
t

time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Scaling of Lopingian conodont zones from South China in Changhsingian
is from Yuan et al. (2014; see Fig. 10.6 for details in latest Permian), and in Wuchiapingian is from Shen et al. (2013a).
Scaling of Guadalupian and Cisuralian conodont zones is from Henderson et al. (2012a). Ammonoid zones and fusulinid
(fusulinacean)/benthic foraminifer zones are mainly derived from the chart without explicit zonal boundaries compiled
by Shen et al. (2015), who seem to schematically estimate the bases of the index taxa relative to the conodont zonal
scales. Land-vertebrate zones and markers are from Lucas (2006, 2013a). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers,
geochemical trends, sea-level curves, regional stages, and details on calibrations are compiled in Henderson et al.
(2012a) and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).

current syntheses of a global oxygen-18 curve This episode coincides with the initiation of
and the estimates of tropical sea-surface tem- the redated Glacial P4 episode, the reversal
peratures (e.g., the schematic composites of in the trend of seawater 87Sr/86Sr ratios, and
Veizer and Prokoph, 2015; shown in Fig. 10.1). the eruption of the Emeishan large igneous
For example, in South China, the oxygen iso- province in China at ca. 260 Ma (e.g., Wignall
topic data from conodonts indicate a steady et al., 2009, 2015; Metcalfe et al., 2015; Yang
rise of surface seawater temperatures through et al., 2015). This end-Guadalupian episode
the Roadian–Capitanian interval (Chen et al., may also be associated with a potential global
2013), and thus questions the influence of the major negative excursion in carbon-isotopes
Glacial P3. Similarly, sea-surface temperatures (e.g., Shen et al., 2013a). The Permian ends
remained high through the earliest to middle with a catastrophic mass extinction, a major
Wuchiapingian (Chen et al., 2013), equivalent negative carbon-isotope excursion, and the
to the Glacial P4 period. During the late Ceno- eruption of the Siberian Traps large igneous
zoic, a comparative oxygen-isotope record from province (e.g., Shen et al., 2013a; see next
surface and deeper water fauna is used to deter- chapter on Triassic).
mine the timing and magnitudes of ice-volume
changes, but this type of record has not yet been
obtained for the glacial record of the Permian. Numerical age model
There was a continuous decline in the
87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater through the Cisura- GTS2012 age model
lian and Guadalupian that reached a minimum The age model for the combined Carbon-
in latest Capitanian. That minimum, the low- iferous–Permian in GTS2012 was a statisti-
est 87Sr/86Sr value for the entire Phanerozoic, cal spline-fit of a collection of U-Pb ages to
coincides with the greatest global regression at a composite biostratigraphic scale that had
the end of the Guadalupian (Chen et al., 1998, been constructed by applying CONstrained
2009). An extensive set of high-precision U-Pb Optimization (CONOP)-9 to an extensive suite
dates indicates that the steep decline during of reference sections (Davydov et al., 2012;
the Asselian–Sakmarian was essentially linear; Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). This yielded age
therefore, 87Sr/86Sr from carbonates in this estimates for each conodont zone bound-
interval can be used to assign their ages. This ary. All other stratigraphic and geochemical
linear slope may continue into the Guadalu- events were calibrated to that primary con-
pian. During the Lopingian and into the Early odont scale. The main U-Pb constraints were
Triassic, the 87Sr/86Sr values rose at a rate that several dated ash beds within the Asselian to
was more rapid than their previous decrease. early Artinskian (later published by Schmitz
A significant mass extinction of marine and Davydov, 2012) and within the Lopingian
fauna occurred at the end of the Guadalupian. of South China (e.g., Shen et al., 2010). There
126  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

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Figure 10.6 High-resolution conodont zonation and radioisotopic dating constraints across Permian–Triassic
boundary GSSP at Meishan, South China. This Meishan section also has the Changhsingian GSSP; therefore, it
has been extensively studied as a standard for the Changhsingian Stage. Radioisotope dates on altered volcanic
ash components within Bed 25 (251.941 ± 0.037 Ma) and Bed 28 (251.880 ± 0.031 Ma) are by Burgess et al. (2014).
The main end-Permian mass extinction event is at the base of Bed 25. The base of the Clarkina yini zone is approxi-
mately 1 m below the base of this diagram, with an extrapolated basal age of 252.06 Ma (Yuan et al., 2014). There
are minor differences between recent studies, including (1) rare Clarkina meishanensis are reported slightly lower
by Yuan et al. (2014), (2) conodonts assigned as Clarkina taylorae are classified as Clarkina zhejiangensis in this
section by Yuan et al. (2014), who also shift the Hindeodus changxingensis zone to be topmost Permian, and (3) a
brief Clarkina planata zone within the lower Induan at Meishan is proposed by Chen et al. (2015), which truncates
the Isarcicella isarcica zone as used in previous publications. Isarcicella staeschei is now assigned to “Morpho­
type 2” of the broader Isarcicella isarcica taxon concept used in older publications (e.g., Triassic Fig. 11.2 from Yin
et al., 2001; see discussion in Jiang et al., 2007). Yuan et al. (2014) did not study conodonts above the basal Hindeo-
dus parvus zone. Details of conodont taxonomy, definitions of zones, comparisons to other conodont zonations, and
other biostratigraphic and geochemical features of this important reference section are in Chen et al. (2015) and
Yuan et al. (2014).
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  127

were no radio-isotopic dates to constrain the interpreted by cyclostratigraphy (Wu et al.,

scaling of the composite standard in the ca. 2013).
25-myr interval between the mid-Artinskian The main differences in the age models
and late Wordian; and only a single Wordian between GTS2012 and Fig. 10.5 for the Perm-
age constrained the scaling of the Guadalu- ian stage boundaries are:
pian Epoch. Kungurian base (282.0 vs. 279.3 Ma in
GTS2012): GTS2012 compared two meth-
Revised ages compared to GTS2012 ods for the Permian scaling of the CONOP-
composite. A linear-fit yielded 282.0 Ma
and potential future enhancements for the base-Kungurian, but a spline fit
Between GTS2012 and the preparation yielded 279.3 Ma. Both were constrained
of this Permian chapter at the end of 2015, by only a ca. 288.3 Ma U-Pb date in lower
three major publications or revisions have Artinskian and a ca. 266 Ma U-Pb date in
appeared of radioisotopic dating constraints upper Wordian. It seems that the degree of
or within-stage scaling of biostratigraphic “smoothed-curve bending” in the spline-
zones that are incorporated in the diagrams fit version, hence the curve intersection
of Fig. 10.5. As the Gondwana ice sheets with the base-Kungurian conodont zone,
underwent regular expansion/contraction may have been distorted by the uncer-
during the late Carboniferous through early tain placement of the 288 Ma date rela-
Permian in response to Milankovitch orbital- tive to the CONOP composite, because
climate feedbacks, a set of high-amplitude that dated level had come from a broad
cyclic sea-level onlaps (cyclothems) were biostratigraphic zone with no upper
generated on continental margins. The bound. Therefore, the linear-fit version of
detailed U-Pb dating of conodont-rich suc- 282.0 Ma (Schmitz and Davydov, 2012) is
cessions in the Donets Basin and southern used here, which is closer to an indepen-
Urals enabled recognition of a full set of 405- dent estimate of 283.5 Ma for the base of
kyr long eccentricity cycles spanning the Kungurian derived by assuming that the
Asselian and Sakmarian stages (Schmitz and slope of the linear segment of the 87Sr/86Sr
Davydov, 2012). Those cycles also have coun- curve of the Asselian–Sakmarian con-
terparts in the North American Midcontinent tinued with the identical slope through
conodont-zoned lithostratigraphy, thereby the ca. 7 myr of the Artinskian (Hender-
enabling a high-resolution age model for the son et al., 2012b; which they humorously
duration of each conodont zone between the had referred to as a “smoke on the water”
two regions. This cycle scaling of conodont method).
zones has been incorporated in Fig. 10.5. Changhsingian base (254.15 vs. 254.2 Ma in
In the Lopingian (Late Permian) of South GTS2012): This is a very minor adjustment
China, the durations of conodont zones are based on Yuan et al. (2014), and is hidden
constrained by enhanced U-Pb dating and in the rounding to one decimal.
cyclostratigraphy of reference sections. The Triassic base (Base of Induan) (251.902 ± 0.024
Wuchiapingian conodont scale in Fig. 10.5 vs. 252.16 ± 0.2 Ma in GTS2012): The ura-
is the well-dated Shangsi section in Sichuan nium–lead isotope dilution–thermal ion-
(Shen et al., 2013a). The Changhsingian con- ization mass spectrometry (U-Pb TIMS)
odont scale (enlarged in Fig. 10.6) from the dating of volcanic ash beds and associated
Changhsing Formation between its bound- interpolated base-Triassic boundary age
ing GSSPs at the Meishan section (Yuan from the Meishan GSSP section reported in
et al., 2014) has durations similar to those Shen et al. (2010) was reanalyzed by them
128  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

(­Burgess et al., 2014) using revised EARTH- dates to other dating methods, as explained
TIME standards, which shifted the bound- in Burgess et al. (2014).]
ary age younger by about 0.26 myr. [Note The main requirement for improving the
that an external uncertainty of ca. 0.29 myr Permian age model and the scaling of events
should be included if comparing these ear- within stages is the acquisition of radioiso-
liest Triassic EARTHTIME-standardized topic dates within the ca. 30-myr span of

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Figure 10.7 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Permian
stages. (status as of early 2016). (Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] https://
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.)
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  129

the mid-Artinskian through mid-Capita-

nian stages. If the volumes of the Permian
Acknowledgments
glacial ice episodes fluctuated in response This brief summary of the Permian gave only a few of
the main aspects, selected highlights, and some of the cur-
to Milankovitch cycles, then the intervals
rent stratigraphic issues. A detailed overview and synthesis
with P2 (Artinskian), P3 (Guadalupian), and is by Henderson et al. (2012a), and updates are at the web-
P4 (lower Wuchiapingian Stage) may yield site and the Permophiles newsletters of the Subcommis-
a 405-kyr and 100-kyr cyclostratigraphy to sion on Permian Stratigraphy ([Link]).
scale the majority of the within-stage events, This review would not have been possible without the edu-
cation and advice over the past two decades from Vladimir
similar to what has been accomplished dur-
Davydov, Charles Henderson, Lance Lambert, John Laurie,
ing P1 (e.g., Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). Daniel Mantle, Bob Nicoll, Mark Schmitz, Shu-zhong
The P3–P4 global climate cycles, coupled Shen, and Bruce Wardlaw (in alphabetical order only); and
with a better-calibrated Lopingian magne- from field experience with Nanjing and Wuhan colleagues
tostratigraphy, will also enable a better cor- studying the Permian of South China. Zhong-Qiang Chen
reviewed and greatly enhanced the graphics and text.
relation of Late Permian terrestrial deposits
and the evolution of tetrapods.
Selected publications
Estimated uncertainties on assigned and websites
ages on stage boundaries Cited publications
The high-precision radioisotopic dates Only select publications were cited in this review with
with well-constrained biostratigraphic ages an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates.
that constrain the Permian timescale typi- Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the
cally have a published uncertainty less than synthesis by Henderson et al. (2012) and in some of
0.2 myr (e.g., Schmitz and Davydov, 2012). the publications cited in the following.
Brayard, A., Bucher, H., 2015. Chapter 17. Permian-
However, an external uncertainty of ca. Triassic extinctions and rediversifications. In: Klug,
0.29 myr should be included if comparing C., Korn, D., De Baets, K., Kruta, I., Mapes, R.H.
these Permian EARTHTIME-standardized (Eds.), Ammonoid Paleobiology: From Macroevolu-
dates to other dating methods, as explained tion to Paleogeography. Topics in Geobiology, 44.
in Burgess et al. (2014). Those are the mini- Springer Publications, pp. 465–473. [Link]
10.1007/978-94-017-9633-0_13.
mum uncertainties that apply to the bases Buggisch, W., Wang, X.D., Alekseev, A.S., Joachimski,
of the Asselian, Sakmarian, and Artinskian M.M., 2011. Carboniferous-Permian carbon isotope
stages of the Cisuralian and to the bases stratigraphy of successions from China (Yangtze
of the Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian platform), USA (Kansas) and Russia (Moscow Basin
stages of the Lopingian. The duration of and Urals). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology 301: 18–38.
those stages, if computed from the dates in Buggisch, W., Krainer, K., Schaffhauser, M., Joachimski,
the same EARTHTIME data sets, have uncer- M., Korte, C., 2015. Late Carboniferous to Late
tainties that omit that external factor. Permian carbon isotope stratigraphy: a new record
In contrast, the extrapolated ages for the from post-Variscan carbonates from the Southern
Kungurian, Roadian, Wordian, and Capitanian Alps (Austria and Italy). Palaeogeography, Palaeo-
climatology and Palaeoecology 433: 174–190.
stages probably have a 2-myr uncertainty, Burgess, S.D., Bowring, S., Shen, Z.Q., 2014. High-
based on the comparison given previously precision timeline for Earth’s most severe extinction.
of the different published methods for esti- Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
mating the base-Kungurian age. That empiri- (PNAS) 111: 3316–3321.
cal uncertainty of 2 myr is higher than the Chen, B., Joachimski, M.M., Shen, S.Z., Lambert, L.L.,
Lai, X.L., Wang, X.D., Chen, J., Yuan, D.X., 2013.
ca. 0.5-myr uncertainties computed by the Permian ice volume and palaeoclimate history:
simple statistics of the spline-fit technique in oxygen isotope proxies revisited. Gondwana Research
GTS2012. 24: 77–89.
130  Chapter 10 PERMIAN

Chen, Z.Q., Jin, Y.G., Shi, G.R., 1998. Permian transgres- Haq, B.U., Schutter, S.R., 2008. A chronology of Paleozoic
sion-regression sequences and sea-level changes of sea-level changes. Science 322: 64–68. [Link]
South China. Proceedings of the Royal Society of org/10.1126/science.116164.
Victoria 110: 345–367. Henderson, C.M., Davydov, V.I., Wardlaw, B.R., 2012a.
Chen, Z.Q., George, A.D., Yang, W.R., 2009. Effects of The Permian Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G.,
Middle-Late Permian sea-level changes and mass Schmitz, M., Ogg, G.M. (Coordinators), The Geologic
extinction on the formation of skeletal mound from Time Scale 2012. Elsevier Publication, pp. 653–679.
Laibin area. South China. Australian Journal of Earth [Link]
Sciences 56: 745–763. 9.00023-8 (An overview on all aspects, including
Chen, Z.Q., Yang, H., Luo, M., Benton, J.J., Kaiho, K., Zhao, graphics on the ratified GSSPs of the stages,
L., Huang, Y., Zhang, K., Fang, Y., Jiang, H., Qiu, H., Li, diagrams and tables for the biostratigraphic scales,
Y., Tu, C., Shi, L., Zhang, L., Feng, X., Chen, L., 2015. and discussion on the age models).
Complete biotic and sedimentary records of the Henderson, C.M., Wardlaw, B.R., Davydov, V.I., Schmitz,
Permian–Triassic transition from Meishan section, M.D., Schiappa, T.A., Tierney, K.E., Shen, S., 2012b.
South China: Ecologically assessing mass extinction Proposal for base-Kungurian GSSP. Permophiles 56:
and its aftermath. Earth-Science Reviews 149: 67–107. 8–21. Available at: [Link]
[Link] Isozaki, Y., Kawahata, H., Ota, A., 2007. A unique carbon
Chernykh, V.V., Chuvashuv, B.I., Shen, S.-Z., Henderson, isotope record across the Guadalupian–Lopingian
C.M., 2013. Proposal for the Global Stratototype (Middle–Upper Permian) boundary in mid-oceanic
Section and Point (GSSP) for the base-Sakmarian paleoatoll carbonates: the high-productivity
Stage (lower Permian). Permophiles 58: 16–26. “Kamura event” and its collapse in Panthalassa.
Available at: [Link] Global and Planetary Change 55: 21–38.
Chernykh, V.V., Chuvashuv, B.I., Davydov, V.I., Schmitz, Jiang, H.S., Lai, X., Luo, G., Aldridge, R., Zhang, K.,
M.D., 2012. Mechetlino section: a candidate for the Wignall, P.B., 2007. Restudy of conodont zonation
Global Stratototype Section and Point (GSSP) of the and evolution across the P/T boundary at Meishan
Kungurian stage (Cisuralian, lower Permian). section, Changxing, Zhejiang, China. Global and
Permophiles 58: 16–26. Available at: [Link] Planetary Change 55: 39–55.
[Link]. Kirschvink, J.L., Isozaki, Y., Shibuya, H., Otofuji, Y., Raub,
Chuvashuv, B.I., Chernykh, V.V., Shen, S.Z., Henderson, T.D., Hilburn, I.A., Kasuya, T., Yokoyama, M.,
C.M., 2013. Proposal for the Global Stratototype Bonifacie, M., 2015. Challenging the sensitivity limits
Section and Point (GSSP) for the base-Sakmarian of paleomagnetism: magnetostratigraphy of weakly
Stage (lower Permian). Permophiles 58: 26–34. magnetized Guadalupian–Lopingian (Permian)
Available at: [Link] limestone from Kyushu, Japan. Palaeogeography,
Davydov, V.I., Korn, D., Schmitz, M.D., Gradstein, F.M., Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 418: 75–89.
Hammer, O., 2012. The Carboniferous Period. In: Korn, D., Klug, C., 2015. Chapter 12. Paleozoic ammo-
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G.M. noid biostratigraphy. In: Klug, C., Korn, D., De Baets,
(Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. K., Kruta, I., Mapes, R.H. (Eds.), Ammonoid Paleobi-
Elsevier Publications, pp. 603–651. [Link] ology: From Macroevolution to Paleogeography.
org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00023-8. Topics in Geobiology, 44. Springer Publications,
Davydov, V.I., 2013. The GSSP at the Aidaralash section is pp. 299–328. [Link]
solid and has no alternative. Permophiles 58: 13–15. 10.1007/978-94-017-9633-0_13.
see also the immediately following article: Lucas, Large, R.R., Halpin, J.A., Lounejeva, E., Danyushevsky,
S.G., The Aidaralash GSSP – Reply to Davydov. L.V., Malsennikov, V.V., Gregory, D., Sack, P.J., Haines,
Permophiles, 58: 15–16. Available at: [Link] P.W., Long, J.A., Makoundi, C., Stepamov, S., 2015.
[Link]. Cycles of nutrient trace elements in the Phanerozoic
Fielding, C.R., Frank, T.D., Birgenheier, L.P., Rygel, M.C., ocean. Gondwana Research 28: 1282–1293.
Jones, A.T., Roberts, J., 2008. Stratigraphic imprint of Lucas, S.G., 2006. Global Permian tetrapod biostratigra-
the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age in eastern Australia: a phy and biochronology. In: Lucas, S.G., Cassinis, G.,
record of alternating glacial and non-glacial climate Schneider, J.W. (Eds.), Non-Marine Permian Biostra-
regime. Journal of the Geological Society of London tigraphy and Biochronology Geological Society of
165: 129–140. London Special Publication, 263, pp. 65–93.
Frank, T.D., Schultis, A.I., Fielding, C.R., 2015. Acme and Lucas, S.G., 2013a. No gap in the Middle Permian record
demise of the late Palaeozoic ice age: a view from the of terrestrial vertebrates: COMMENT. Geology 41:
southeastern margin of Gondwana. Palaeogeography, e293. [Link] (online
Palaeoclimatology and Palaeoecology 418: 176–192. comment/reply).
 Chapter 10 PERMIAN  131

Lucas, S.G., 2013b. We need a new GSSP for the base of Shi, L., Feng, Q., Shen, J., Ito, T., Chen, Z.Q., 2016.
the Permian. Permophiles 58: 8–13. Available at: Proliferation of shallow-water radiolarians coincid-
[Link] ing with enhanced oceanic productivity in reducing
Metcalfe, I., Crowley, J.L., Nicoll, R.S., Schmitz, M., 2015. conditions during the Middle Permian, South China:
High-precision U-Pb CA-TIMS calibration of Middle evidence from the Gufeng Formation of western
Permian to Lower Triassic sequences, mass extinc- Hubei Province. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
tion and extreme climate-change in eastern Palaeoecology 444: 1–14.
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CA-IDTIMS dating of tuffs, calibration of paly- Society of London Special Publication, 263, pp. 15–38.
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radiometric and biostratigraphic calibration of the Védrine, S., Widdowson, M., Ali, J.R., Lai, X., Jiang, H.,
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Triassic paleogeographic maps (Mollweide projec- Princeton University Press. 224 pp.
tion), maps 43–48, volume 3, Jurassic and Triassic, Wu, H., Zhang, S., Hinnov, L.A., Jiang, G., Feng, Q., Li, H.,
and maps 49–52 volume 4, the late Paleozoic. In: Yang, T., 2013. Time-calibrated Milankovitch cycles
PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for ArcGIS (Late Paleozoic). for the late Permian. Nature Communications 4:
PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, IL. [Link] 2452. [Link]
[Link]/11300143/ Yang, J., Cawood, P.A., Due, Y., 2015. Voluminous silicic
Atlas_of_Middle_and_Late_Permian_and_Trias- eruptions during late Permian Emeishan igneous
sic_Paleogeographic_Maps. province and link to climate cooling. Earth and
Shen, S.Z., Henderson, C.M., Bowring, S.A., Cao, C.Q., Planetary Science Letters 432: 166–175.
Wang, Y., Wang, W., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y.C., Mu, L., Yin, H., Zhang, K., Tong, J., Yang, Z., Wu, S., 2001. The
2010. High resolution Lopingian (late Permian) Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the
timescale of South China. Geological Journal 45: Permian–Triassic boundary. Episodes 24(2): 102–114.
122–134. Yuan, D.-X., Shen, S.-Z., Henderson, C.M., Chen, J.,
Shen, S.-Z., Cao, C.-Q., Zhang, H., Bowring, S.A., Zhang, H., Feng, H.-Z., 2014. Revised conodont-
Henderson, C.M., Payne, J.L., Davydov, V.I., Chen, B., based integrated high-resolution timescale for the
Yuan, D.-X., Zhang, Y.-C., Wang, W., Zheng, Q.-F., Changhsingian Stage and end-Permian extinction
2013a. High-resolution δ13Ccarb chemostratigraphy interval at the Meishan sections, South China. Lithos
from latest Guadalupian through earliest Triassic in 204: 220–245.
South China and Iran. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 375: 156–165. Websites (selected)
Shen, S.-Z., Schneider, J.W., Angiolini, L., Henderson,
C.M., 2013b. The international Permian timescale: Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy (International
March 2013 update. In: Lucas, S.G., DiMichele, W., Commission on Stratigraphy [ICS])—[Link]
Barrick, J.E., Schneider, J.W., Spielmann, J.A. (Eds.), [Link]—Details on GSSPs and their
The Carboniferous-Permian Transition New Mexico conodont taxa used for global correlation; plus the
Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 60, Permophiles newsletter (Portable Document Formats
pp. 411–416. [PDFs] of the full set, 1978 to present).
Shen, S.-Z., Henderson, C.M., et al., June 2015. Permian Palaeos: Permian—[Link]
timescale. Synthesis diagram in: Permophiles. 375: permian/[Link]—A well-presented suite of
40. [Link] diverse topics for a general science audience that was
[Link], most recent version at: originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
[Link]
 11
TRIASSIC
222.6 Ma Triassic
Siberia

North
Europe China
South
China

PANTHALASSIC OCEAN North

America
TET
PANGEA HY
SO
CEA
South Africa N
America

GONDWANA India
Australia

Antarctica

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Carnian paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 40 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and Earth system through the Triassic. Only some
international subdivisions select examples will be briefly cited here.
The Triassic is bounded by mass extinc-
The Mesozoic Era is divided into the tions that coincide with enormous outpour-
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. ings of volcanic flood basalts. The bases of
The Triassic was named from a trio (trias) of the Triassic and of the Jurassic are defined by
widespread terrestrial to shallow-marine for- the initial recovery of marine life from each
mations in Germany; however, the majority of those environmental catastrophes. The
of its stages and commonly used substages Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy of
were originally defined in the uplifted Tethyan the International Commission on Stratigra-
ammonite-rich oceanic sediments exposed in phy (ICS) has adopted seven international
the Alpine–Himalaya chain (e.g., Tozer, 1984). Triassic stages. Except for the Rhaetian, these
International research during the past decade stages have a semistandardized nomencla-
has established a high-resolution time scale ture of substages. The traditional definitions
and revealed major global disruptions of the for these stages (and substages) were based
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 133
134  Chapter 11 TRIASSIC

on lowest occurrences of ammonoid gen- rapid ∼9°C increase in local sea-surface tem-
era within exposures in the Alpine, Mediter- perature (reviewed by Chen et al., 2015) (see
ranean, or Himalayan exposures. However, Permian Fig. 10.1). This GSSP level is bracketed
some candidates for the unassigned Global by volcanic ash beds, thereby enabling precise
Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points radioisotopic ages for both the main end-
(GSSPs) for the global stages utilize the phos- Permian mass extinction (251.950 ± 0.042 Ma
phatic teeth of the enigmatic conodonts, for the abrupt decline in δ13Ccarb) and the base
which provide a more widespread method of the Triassic (251.902 ± 0.024 Ma) (Burgess
of correlation (Figs. 11.1 and 11.7). However, et al., 2014; however, an external uncertainty
the possible apparent diachroneity in interre- of ca. 0.3 myr should be included if comparing
gional appearances of these conodont markers, to non-EARTHTIME U-Pb dating methods).
their possible offsets from the traditional low- The Meishan section also hosts the GSSP for
est ammonoid zones of substages, and the the underlying Changhsingian Stage of upper-
taxonomic disagreements with the potential most Permian, and is within a special GeoPark
marker conodonts are among the factors that that includes a museum of Earth’s history.
have contributed to the delays in formalizing As of 2015, the following stages await inter-
the GSSPs for half of the Triassic stages and national definition.
standardized recognition of substages. Other Olenekian (mid-Lower Triassic): The tra-
factors include difficulties in finding suit- ditional Induan–Olenekian boundary was at a
able sections that have multiple methods relatively sharp change to ammonoid assem-
for global correlation and in achieving reli- blages with Hedenstroemia, Euflemingites,
able correlations between tropical Tethyan Flemingites, and other genera. This turnover
and cooler Boreal marine realms (e.g., sum- in ammonoids is at approximately the lowest
maries in Konstantinov and Klets, 2009). As occurrence of the conodont Novispathodus
with most of the other stage boundaries in waageni (its Nov. eowaageni subspecies), and
the geologic time scale that have not been seems to be at or just below an upward change
formally defined, the controversies lie in the from a long-duration reversed-polarity to a
details on how to actually achieve reliable brief normal-polarity magnetic zone. Can-
global correlations. didates include West Pingdingshan section
The Permian ended in a mass extinction near Chaohu town in Anhui Province of South
of up to 80% of marine genera; and this catas- China (first proposed in 2004; and used here
trophe is generally considered to be caused to make the age estimate based on its cyclo-
by the initial phases of the eruption of the magnetostratigraphy) and Muth section of
Siberian Trap volcanic complex (e.g., reviews Spiti region of the Himalayas in northwest
by Erwin, 2006; Chen et al., 2014; Wignall, India (proposed in 2005). However, a decision
2015). The GSSP for the base of the Triassic on the base-Olenekian definition awaits how
(base of Induan stage, Griesbachian sub- these Tethyan-based events can be correlated
stage) was selected in the Meishan section of to the Boreal realm (Triassic Subcommission
Zhejiang Province in South China to coincide section of ICS annual report, 2014).
with the lowest occurrence of the conodont, Anisian (Lower-Middle Triassic boundary):
Hindeodus parvus (e.g., Yin et al., 2001; and The Olenekian–Anisian boundary in ammo-
see historical review by Baud, 2014) (Fig. noid zonations was placed at the appear-
11.2). This level followed a pronounced brief ance of Paracrochordiceras (closely followed
negative excursion in carbon isotopes (up to by Japonites) and Karangatites genera. In the
−6 δ13Ccarb relative to the late-Changhsingian candidate GSSP at Deşli-Caira Hill in North
Clarkina yini conodont zone) and is within a Dobrogea of Romania, this level is slightly
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Figure 11.1 Triassic overview. Main markers or candidate markers for GSSPs of Triassic stages are a first-appear-
ance datum (FAD) of ammonite taxa as detailed in the text and in Fig. 11.7. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of
the rock-record “stage.”) See text for Rhaetian-stage boundary options. Magnetic polarity scales are a composite of
Induan through early Carnian from Hounslow and Muttoni (2010) and of the Newark Basin (Kent and Olsen, 1999) with
estimated calibrations to late Carnian through Rhaetian following the “long-Rhaetian” option (Ogg, 2012; Ogg et al.,
2014) as partly recalibrated by Maron et al. (2015). These magnetic polarity scales are enlarged and detailed in Figs.
11.4–11.6. Coastal onlap and schematic sea-level curve with labels for selected major sequence boundaries are modi-
fied from Haq and Al-Qahtani (2005) following advice of Bilal Haq (pers. comm., 2006); it is possible that the very long
sequences of lower Norian and uppermost-Norian through early Rhaetian contain other significant sea-level excur-
sions. The δ13C curve is a merger of generalized trends with relative magnitudes of Early Triassic to earliest Ladin-
ian from Sun et al. (2012) and late Ladinian through Rhaetian from Muttoni et al. (2014). The Triassic δ18O curve from
conodont apatite (inverted scale) has the Early Triassic from Sun et al. (2012) modified to smoothly fit the Middle and
Late Triassic trend from Trotter et al. (2015); and the tropical sea-surface temperatures derived from those oxygen-18
values are adjusted following Veizer and Prokoph (2015). The vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to match
the vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters. PDB, PeeDee Belemnite
13C and 18O standard; SST, sea-surface temperature.
 Base of the Induan Stage of the Triassic System at Meishan, China
Zhenjiang GSSP
0 50km

Ch
ng

a
Jiang
Jianyin Ch
ong
min
g Is
Changshu lan
Changzhou d

Wuxi

Licheng
Shanghai
Tai Lake
Dingshuzhen
Meishan
GSSP Xishan
Niutoushan Changxing
Huangzishan
Huzhou

Beijing
Linping
China
N GSSP

(A) (B) Hangzhou

Meishan Section D Conodontophoridea Ammonoidea Conodont

Zones
Hindeodus typicalis

ophiceratids
Lower Triassic

Isarcicella isarcica

30
Yinkeng Formation

Clarkina changxingensis
Triassic

Induan

Clarkina meishanensis

b
Hindeodus latidentatus

29
Clarkina deflecta

isarcica zone
Clarkina planata

28
Clarkina subcarinata

d parvus zone
c GSSP
Rotodiscoceras

27
b
typicalis Fauna
Hindeodus parvus

a
Pleuronodoceras mirificus

26 latidentatus-

Clarkina changxingensis Zone

meishanensis
Hypophiceras spp.
Tompophiceras
Otoceras sp.?

25 Fauna
e
changxingensis-
e e e
e deflecta-sub-
Changhsingian

carinata Fauna
Changxing Formation

e e
e
Lopingian

e e
Permian

si
e e
e
d e e
e
si
24
Pseudogastrioceras
Clarkina carinata

e 25
e e cm
e
si
e
e e
c e
e e
e 0
(C) b
e
e
e

Figure 11.2 GSSP for base of the Triassic (base of Mesozoic; base of Induan Stage) at the Meishan section, South
China. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of conodont Hindeodus parvus, and is within a major negative
excursion in carbon isotopes. Note that vertical scale is in centimeters to show details of this boundary interval. Conodont
ranges are from the ratified GSSP document (Yin et al., 2001), but later studies have revised the assignments (see Chen
et al., 2015; and Fig. 10.6 in the Permian chapter). Zircons from the altered volcanic ash components in Bed 25 and Bed 28
have been dated (eg, Burgess et al., 2014). The main end-Permian mass extinction event is at the base of Bed 25. The GSSP
is preserved within a GeoPark, with the GSSP site located at the top of the stairs on the right side of the decorative wall.
 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  137

above the lowest occurrence of conodont the top of the conodont Meta. parvus subzone
Chiosella timorensis and is close to the base (Orchard, 2010, 2014, pers. comm. January
of a brief normal-polarity zone (“MT1n” of 2016). The other leading candidate is Pizzo
Hounslow and Muttoni, 2010) (Gradinăru Mondello in Sicily, which also has a detailed
et al., 2007). However, the Romania section magnetostratigraphy (e.g., Balini et al., 2012;
might have condensation in the boundary Hounslow and Muttoni, 2010). However, the
interval. If the lowest occurrence of Ch. timo­ conodont faunas at these two candidates
rensis is selected as the global marker, then appear different and difficult to correlate, so
the uppermost part of the ammonoid Neopo­ potentially the lowest occurrence of bivalve
panoceras haugi Zone “latest Olenekian” in Halobia austriaca will be used as a primary
Tethyan realm continues into basal Anisian. marker, if it can be reliably correlated between
In South China, the succession of Ch. timo­ the two sections (Triassic Subcommission
rensis and other conodont datums within the section of ICS annual report, 2014).
boundary interval are interbedded with volca- Rhaetian (uppermost Triassic): The
nic ash beds. Although the individual zircons Norian–Rhaetian boundary working group
within each of those beds have a wide range selected the lowest occurrence of the con-
of U-Pb radioisotopic dates, the suites enable odont Misikella posthernsteini as the pre-
estimates of the approximate ages for the ferred marker for the Rhaetian GSSP. This
various datums with a mean near 247 Ma conodont has a transition from Misikella
(Lehrmann et al., 2015; Ovtcharova et al., 2015). hernsteini and continues upward to nearly
The Dolomites of northern Italy host the the end of the Rhaetian. Even though this
ratified Ladinian GSSP at Bagolino, where morphogenesis is seen worldwide, it appears
it coincides with the base of the Eoprotra­ that the distinctions between the component
chyceras curionii Zone (lowest occurrence of taxa are not standardized (e.g., discussions in
Eoprotrachyceras ammonoid genus, which is Rigo et al., 2016; Lucas, 2016; Orchard, 2016).
the onset of the Trachyceratidae ammonoid In the candidate GSSP section of Steinberg-
family). The Dolomites also host the ratified kogel in Austria, the interpreted base of Mi.
Carnian GSSP, which coincides with the low- posthernsteini is just above a change from a
est occurrence of Daxatina ammonoid genus major normal-polarity magnetozone upward
(Fig. 11.3). to a reversed-polarity-dominated magne-
Norian (Upper Triassic): The Carnian– tozone. In contrast, at the second candidate
Norian boundary interval has no recognized section of Pignola–Abriola in Sicily, the inter-
major events of global significance. The preted base of the same Mi. posthernsteini
boundary is traditionally placed at the base of taxon is very high within a reversed-polarity-
the ammonoid Guembelites jandianus Zone dominated magnetozone (Maron et al., 2015;
in the Tethyan realm and at the base of the Rigo et al., 2016). It appears that the finer fea-
ammonoid Stikinoceras kerri Zone in western tures of both of these reversed-dominated
Canada. These levels may be approximately magnetozones can be reliably correlated
coincident (e.g., Jenks et al., 2015). The low- between Austria and Sicily. Therefore, the
est occurrences of the conodont group of proposed correlation of these Rhaetian mag-
Metapolygnathus communisti and range of netostratigraphies to the astronomical-cycle-
Meta. echinatus (reclassified as Meta. parvus scaled magnetic polarity reference pattern of
by Orchard, 2014) are calibrated to ammonoid the Newark Basin implies nearly a 4-myr offset
zones at the candidate GSSP at Black Bear of the interpreted bases of Mi. posthernsteini
Ridge in British Columbia, where the tradi- between those two candidate GSSPs (Maron
tional base of the S. kerri Zone is aligned with et al., 2015; Rigo et al., 2016). To explain this
 Base of the Carnian Stage of the Triassic System in the Prati di Stuores/
Stuores Wiesen Section, near San Cassiano, Italy
(A) (C) 1536
San Cassiano
Piz la Villa 2078
N
l

r es
o co

e
.P

Stu
Corvara in Badia R
1555

R.
Pralongia
200µm

GSSP Stuores
2181
It
a
GSSP

R.
GSSP Carnian
ly
2571

Sal
Settsass

vaz
Ladinian
1875 0 2km
(B)

za
(C) Prati di Stuores/Stuores Wiesen Stakes Ammonoids Conodonts Pollen
and spores

90

Paragondolella polygnathiformis noah

regoledanus subzone canadensis subzone

Patinasporites densus
cf. Concentricisporites bianulatus
Trachyceras Zone

Budurovignathus longobardicus
8
Budurovignathus mungoensis
Daxatina cf. laubei

Vallasporites ignacii
"Lueckisporites" cf. singhii
Enzonalasporites vigens
80
Carnian

Budurovignathus diebeli
Trachyceras muensteri
San Cassiano Formation

Zestoceras barwicki

7
70
Zestoceras cf. enode Frankites johnstoni

6
60

5b

Camerosporites secatus
Protrachyceras sp.

50
Zestoceras lorigae

S W4 S2n GSSP
Sirenotrachyceras thusneldae

5
Protrachyceras Zone

Daxatina sp.
Daxatina canadensis

40
S1r
Ladinian

30
4

20 3
Frankites apertus

10 2
S1n full normal full reversed
polarity polarity
Wen-
gen
0 1

Figure 11.3 GSSP for base of the Upper Triassic (base of Carnian Stage) at the Prati di Stuores (Stuores Wiesen)
section, Dolomites region of north Italy. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of the cosmopolitan
ammonoid Daxatina (base of Daxatina canadensis Subzone, lowest subzone of Trachyceras Zone), and is near the
lowest occurrence of conodont Paragondolella polygnathiformis (inset “B,” which is reassigned to Quadralella genus
by Orchard [pers. comm., January 2016]). (Photographs of outcrop and conodont provided by Manuel Rigo.)
 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  139

discrepancy, Maron et al. (2015) proposed can be problems for high-resolution biostrati-
that the interpreted earliest form of Mi. post­ graphic correlation and for comparison to
hernsteini at the Austria GSSP candidate is an older literature.
initial transitional form (“sensu lato”) at ca. The distinctive thin-shelled bivalves of the
209.5 Ma, whereas the interpreted lowest Mi. Daonella, Halobia, and Monotis genera are
posthernsteini at the Sicily GSSP is the devel- important for subdividing the Middle and
oped form (“sensu stricto”) with an estimated Late Triassic (McRoberts, 2010). Radiolarians
age of 205.7 Ma. They consider that the higher and ostracods are underutilized biostrati-
level (and shorter Rhaetian) is more consis- graphic tools; and calcareous nannofossils
tent with the traditional recognition of the have great potential after their initial appear-
base of the Rhaetian in other regions. Both ance in late Carnian.
options are shown on the figures in this chapter During much of the Triassic, the sedimen-
(Figs. 11.1 and 11.5). tary record across the Pangea superconti-
nent was dominated by terrestrial deposits,
therefore widespread conchostracan (clam
Selected main stratigraphic shrimp), ostracod, spore pollen, and tetra-
pod remains are important for global correla-
scales and events tion, although their precise correlation to the
marine-based subdivisions is a work in pro­
(1) Biostratigraphy (marine; gress. The major dinosaur lineages became
terrestrial) established in the Carnian; and these became
Detailed discussions of each major Triassic the dominant land reptiles in the Norian
biostratigraphic scale are in the different (e.g., Lucas, 2010b; Benton et al., 2014).
chapters authored by specialists in The Triassic
Timescale (Lucas, 2010a). Ammonoid zona-
tions from the Alps, Canada, and Siberia have (2) Magnetic stratigraphy
been the primary standards for subdivid- The Triassic magnetic polarity reference
ing the Triassic, and the correlation of these scales proposed for biostratigraphically dated
regional zonations using other stratigraphic marine successions (e.g., composite synthe-
tools has been a focus of Triassic workers (e.g., sis by Hounslow and Muttoni, 2010) and for
Jenks et al., 2015; Konstantinov and Klets, astronomically scaled terrestrial basins (e.g.,
2009) (Figs. 11.4–11.6). Early Triassic by Szurlies, 2007; Late Triassic
Conodonts are generally more wide- by Kent and Olsen, 1999) have been verified
spread than ammonites both in paleogeo­ by extensive conodont-dated magnetostratig-
graphy and in different marine facies; and raphy in European and Chinese sections
are approaching a well-defined taxonomy (e.g., Muttoni et al., 2014; Maron et al., 2015;
and biostratigraphy (e.g., Anisian-through- ­Lehrmann et al., 2015) including cycle scaling
Carnian synthesis by Chen et al., 2016; dis- of significant intervals (e.g., Li et al., 2016; Zhang
cussions between Orchard, 2016; and Lucas, et al., 2015). As noted previously, the com-
2016). However, as indicated by the examples parison between the magnetostratigraphies
given previously for potential GSSPs, the lack of marine sections and of cycle-scaled terres-
of standardization of taxonomic concepts trial sections appear to have resolved some
among conodont specialists for some taxa of the uncertainties about the age models for
(e.g., Fig. 10.6 in Permian chapter), rarity of the Late Triassic and for the Early Triassic and
some primary markers, and possible apparent Anisian. For example, the “long Rhaetian-
diachroneity among their preserved records short Tuvalian” option that was preferred for
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Figure 11.4 Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Early Triassic. (“Age” is the term for the
time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”.) Magnetic polarity zones with nomenclature of Hounslow and Muttoni (2010)
are scaled to astronomical cycles (e.g., Szurlies, 2004, 2007; Li et al., 2016) and calibrated to conchostracan zones of the
Germanic Basin (Kozur and Weems, 2010, 2011) and Tethyan conodont zones as used in South China (e.g., Orchard in Leh-
rmann et al., 2015; with their general Tethyan zones are shown here). [Clarkina krystyni is classified as Neoclarkina krystyni
by some experts (M. Orchard, pers. comm., 2016)]. Tethyan ammonoid zones are from Jenks et al. (2015), and Tethyan
bivalve zones are from McRoberts (2010). Land vertebrate zones and markers are from Lucas (2010b) and Lucas and Tan-
ner (2015). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibra-
tions are compiled in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
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Figure 11.5 Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Middle Triassic. (Note that this scale
is more compact than in Fig. 11.4.) Magnetic polarity zones with nomenclature of Hounslow and Muttoni (2010) are
scaled to astronomical cycles within Anisian (Li et al., in prep.), and are scaled relative to an arbitrary quasiequal-
ammonite-subzone scaling for the Ladinian. Tethyan ammonoid zones are from Jenks et al. (2015); Tethyan conodont
zones are modified from Orchard (in Lehrmann et al., 2015) and Kozur (2003). [Conodont Budurovignathus praehungar-
icus appears near base of Ladinian (M. Orchard, pers. comm., 2016); and Bud. supralongobardica of Kozur (2003) was
reclassified by him as “n. sp. Kozur” pending full description (H. Kozur, pers. comm., 2006).] Tethyan bivalve zones are
from McRoberts (2010). Conchostracan zones of the Germanic Basin are from Kozur and Weems (2010, 2011), and land
vertebrate zones and markers are from Lucas (2010b) and Lucas and Tanner (2015). Additional zonations, biostrati-
graphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in the internal data
sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
142  Chapter 11 TRIASSIC

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 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  143

Figure 11.6 Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Late Triassic. (Note that this scale is
t

more compact than in Figs. 11.4 or 11.5). Magnetic polarity zones with nomenclature of Hounslow and Muttoni (2010)
of late Carnian through Rhaetian are shown with their estimated calibrations to the astronomical-scaled polarity
chrons of the Newark Basin (Kent and Olsen, 1999) using the “long-Rhaetian” option (Ogg, 2012; Ogg et al., 2014) as
partly recalibrated by Maron et al. (2015). [Note, the durations of Newark Basin polarity zones E1 through E8, which
are within noncyclic fluvial sediments, were projected by Kent and Olsen (1999) based on the average accumulation
rate for the overlying polarity zones E9 through E14 preserved in lacustrine sediments.] The magnetic polarity zones
of lower Carnian are as scaled by cycle stratigraphy in South China (Zhang et al., 2015). Tethyan ammonoid zones
are from Jenks et al. (2015), Tethyan conodont zones are modified from Kozur (2003), and Tethyan bivalve zones are
from McRoberts (2010). Conchostracan zones of the Germanic Basin are from Kozur and Weems (2010, 2011) and land
vertebrate zones and markers are from Lucas (2010b) and Lucas and Tanner (2015). Additional zonations, biostrati-
graphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in the internal data
sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).

the GTS2012 scale (Ogg, 2012; Ogg et al., 2014) tropical carbonate platforms, and a brief major
is consistent with those later compilations; negative excursion in δ13Ccarb (e.g., Ogg, 2015;
however, Rhaetian appears to correspond to Ruffell et al., 2015). Both of these environmen-
the “sensu lato” interpretation of the marker tal perturbations may have been induced by
conodont taxon (Maron et al., 2015). volcanic activity—a late-stage phase in the
Siberian Traps and the eruption of the Wran-
gellia large igneous province, respectively.
(3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy
and selected events
In addition to the major disruptions of
Numerical age model
climate accompanying the end-Permian and The merger of astronomical cycles with
end-Triassic mass extinctions, there are at magnetostratigraphy is the framework for
least two major climatic events indicated by scaling the majority of the Triassic. For the
simultaneous excursions in oxygen (tempera- Early Triassic through early Anisian, the mag-
ture) and carbon isotopes (e.g., compilations netic polarity pattern that was calibrated to
and reviews by Preto et al., 2010; Muttoni short-eccentricity (100-kyr) changes in mon-
et al., 2014; Trotter et al., 2015). The anoma- soon intensity recorded by clastic cycles in
lous “lethal” tropical temperatures of the Early the Germanic Basin (e.g., Szurlies, 2007) has
Triassic (Sun et al., 2012) include an abrupt been duplicated in the magnetostratigraphy
drop in ammonoid and conodont diver- of conodont-bearing calcareous deposits off-
sity coincident with a negative excursion in shore of the Yangtze Platform of South China
δ13Ccarb near the end of the Smithian substage that record both long- and short-eccentricity
(Fig. 11.1). A dramatic event in the middle of oscillations in relative clay content (Li et al.,
the Carnian stage that is considered “the most 2016). This cycle-magnetic compilation of
distinctive climate change within the Trias- South China includes the Induan (base Trias-
sic” (Preto et al., 2010) was a global disruption sic) GSSP, and normal-polarity zone of low-
of the Earth’s land–ocean–biological system. est Griesbachian substage at Meishan with
This “Carnian Humid Episode”, “Carnian their high-precision U-Pb dating (Burgess
Pluvial Event” or “Middle Carnian Wet Inter- et al., 2014), the section with the candidate
mezzo”, was marked by sudden warming and GSSP for the Olenekian at West Pingdingshan
associated increased rainfall in many conti- (Chaohu), and the potential GSSP candidate for
nental regions, the widespread termination of the Anisian at Guandao (Guizhou province).
144  Chapter 11 TRIASSIC

The magnetostratigraphy and interpreted spectrometry (U-Pb CA-TIMS) radio-isotopic

405-kyr eccentricity-driven cycles at the dates of 223.81 ± 0.78 and 224.52 ± 0.22 Ma
Guandao section continue through the reported from volcanic tuffs in British Colum-
Anisian to lowest Ladinian (Lehrmann et al., bia that bracket the lower/middle Norian
2015; Li et al., in prep.). This enables calcu- substage boundary according to adjacent
lation of the ages of events by their cumu- conodont assemblages as used in North
lative cycle offset in South China relative to America (Diakow et al., 2011, abstract; and
the base of the Triassic at 251.9 Ma. This age Mike Orchard, pers. comm., Sept 2015).
model was applied to the candidate GSSPs, The age model for the early Carnian is
to the bases of substages of Induan through partly constrained by cycle scaling of its
Anisian using their ammonoid-based correla- polarity zones in marine carbonates of South
tions to magnetic polarity zones from Europe China (Zhang et al., 2015). There is no veri-
(e.g., Hounslow and Muttoni (2010), which fied cyclostratigraphy calibrated to ammo-
are different in some cases from their con- noid/conodont biostratigraphy for the
odont-based placements relative to polarity underlying Ladinian stage. Therefore, until
zones in South China, e.g., by Lehrmann et al. additional constraints become accepted,
(2015)), and to the conodont datums and iso- a schematic display of Tethyan ammonoid
topic excursions as recorded in South China zones within each interval was incorporated
in these sections (Figs. 11.1, 11.4, and 11.5). in GTS2012, in which their relative durations
A similar cycle scaling of magnetic polar- within the span of the Ladinian (241.5 to
ity patterns in the Newark Basin of eastern 237 Ma) were partly apportioned according
North America relative to the U-Pb-dated to their relative number of ammonite sub-
basalt flows that cap the succession (e.g., zones or allocating 1.5 “subzonal units” for
Kent and Olsen, 1999) has been used by Mut- undivided zones.
toni et al. (2014) and Maron et al. (2015) to
calibrate their composite magnetostrati­ Revised ages compared to GTS2012
graphies of upper Carnian through Rhaetian
marine strata. Their compilation includes and potential future enhancements
the candidate GSSPs for Norian and Rhae- Induan base (Base of Triassic) (251.902 ± 0.024
tian and a detailed carbon-isotope reference. vs 252.16 ± 0.2 Ma in GTS2012): The U-Pb
Muttoni et al. (2014) assigned the normal- TIMS dating of volcanic ash beds and asso-
polarity-dominated interval at the base of ciated interpolated base-Triassic bound-
the proposed Norian (Pizzo Mondelo [PM]5n ary age from the Meishan GSSP section
magnetozone) to the “E8n” magnetozone of reported in Shen et al. (2010) was reana-
the Newark reference scale, therefore an age lyzed by them (Burgess et al., 2014) using
of ca. 227 Ma. However, this lowest Norian revised EARTHTIME standards, which
normal-polarity zone could be a slightly con- shifted the boundary age younger by about
densed merger of magnetozones “E7n-E8n” of 0.26 myr. [Note that an external uncer­
the Newark scale. This alternative of the base tainty of ca. 0.29 myr should be included if
of the Norian as the base of magnetozone E8n comparing these earliest Triassic EARTH­
is adopted here implying a Carnian–Norian TIME-standardized dates to other dating
boundary age of 228.45 Ma. This slightly methods, as explained in Burgess et al.
older age assignment was partly influenced (2014).]
by the uranium–lead chemical abrasion– Olenekian base (249.8 vs 250.0 Ma in GTS2012)
isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass and Anisian base (246.8 vs 247.1 Ma in
 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  145

GTS2012): The age model for the Early using updated EARTHTIME tracers. This
Triassic is based on astronomical-tuning changed the interpolated boundary age
(eccentricity orbital–climate cycles) rela- from 201.31 ± 0.18 Ma (as used in GTS2012)
tive to the base of the Triassic. Therefore, to a slightly older 201.36 ± 0.17 Ma.
when that base-Triassic age was shifted The main future enhancements to the age
younger by 0.26 myr (Burgess et al., 2014), model for the Triassic stages will be the deci-
then the ages of those other stage bound- sions on GSSP definition for the Olenekian,
aries are also shifted younger by a similar Anisian, Norian and Rhaetian. Other essen-
amount. In addition, there is now astro- tial developments will be the verification of
nomical scaling of the proposed Chio­ the cycle scaling and interregional correla-
sella timorensis conodont marker for tion of the magnetostratigraphy of each stage,
base-Anisian (Li et al., 2016). U-Pb-dated and obtaining an astronomical tuning for the
volcanic ash beds bracketing this base- zonations within the Ladinian and Carnian
Anisian marker by Ovtcharova et al. (2015) stages. It is anticipated that the integration
are interpreted by them to imply a slightly of magnetostratigraphy, astronomical cycles
older age (ca. 247.3 Ma), but they caution coupled with periodic major changes in sea
that there are inconsistencies in the pro- level, and distinctive stable isotopic excur-
gression of interpreted dates from the zir- sions will enable a more reliable interregional
con populations in successive layers. correlation of biostratigraphic datums for
Carnian base (237.0 Ma in GTS2012 is both marine (Tethyan through Boreal realms)
retained): The Carnian is now defined by and terrestrial settings.
GSSP in the Southern Alps of Italy which is
one ammonite subzone above a level dated
at 237.77 ± 0.14 Ma (Mietto et al., 2012).
Estimated uncertainties on assigned
Applying the average duration (0.6 myr) of ages on stage boundaries
ammonite subzones in the Ladinian sug- The few high-precision radioisotopic dates
gests that the rounded age in GTS2012 is with well-constrained biostratigraphic ages
appropriate. that constrain the Triassic time scale typi-
Rhaetian base: The correlations of the mag- cally have a published uncertainty less than
netostratigraphy of the boundary interval 0.2 myr. However, an external uncertainty of
to the cycle-scaled Newark Basin magnetic ca. 0.29 myr should be included if compar-
polarity reference pattern indicates a cor- ing these Triassic EARTHTIME-standardized
relation to either 209.5 Ma (GTS2012 using dates to other dating methods, as explained
proposed GSSP in Austria) or 205.7 Ma in Burgess et al. (2014). Such dates anchor
(proposed GSSP in Sicily) that appears to the cyclostratigraphic scaling for much of
depend on interpreted taxonomy of the the Early and the Late Triassic (and “current
earliest forms of the proposed conodont working definitions” for their stages), but
marker Misikella posthernsteini (summa- there is probably an additional ca. 0.1-myr
rized by Maron et al., 2015). Therefore, uncertainty in the assignment of any event
both options for defining the Rhaetian are within a 405-kyr long eccentricity cycle. Those
shown on the figures in this chapter. are the minimum uncertainties, but the
Jurassic base: The dating of the bracketing age estimates for the bases of Ladinian and
ash beds by Schoene et al. (2010) was Carnian require additional extrapolation
revised by them (in Wotzlaw et al., 2014) from the nearest radioisotopic date.
146  Chapter 11 TRIASSIC

GSSPs of the Triassic Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Near FADs of
Candidates are Pizzo
Mondello, Sicily, Italy, conodont Misikella
Rhaetian posthernsteini s.s. or,
and Steinbergkogel, Misikella post-
Austria
hernsteini s.l.
Base of Stikinoceras
kerri ammonoid zone
Candidates are Black and near FAD of
Bear Ridge in British conodont Metapoly-
Norian Columbia (Canada) gnathus communisti
and Pizzo Mondello, group, or top of M.
Sicily, Italy parvus subzone, or
FAD of bivalve
Halobia austriaca
FAD of ammonoid
GSSP is base of
Section at Prati di marly limestone bed Daxatina canadensis,
Carnian 46°31'37"N conodont Episodes 35/3,
Stuores, Dolomites, 11°55'49"E SW4, 45m from base "Paragondolella" 2012
Italy of San Cassiano
Formation polygnathiformis an
Halobia bivalves
base of a 15 – 20cm
thick limestone bed
overlying a distinctive Ammonoid, FAD of
groove (“Chiesense Eoprotrachyceras
Bagolino, Province of 45°49'09.5"N groove”) of limestone curionii and near FAD Episodes 28/4,
Ladinian Brescia, Northern
10°28'15.5"E nodules in a shaly of conodont 2005
Italy matrix, located about Budurovignathus
5m above the base praehungaricus
of the Buchenstein
Beds
Candidate section at FAD of conodont
Desli Caira
(Dobrogea, Romania); Chiosella timorensis
or Magnetic - base of
Anisian significant sections in magnetic normal-
Guizhou Province
(China) and South polarity chronozone
Primorye (Russia) MT1n

FAD of conodont
Candidates are Novispathodus
Chaohu, China and waageni, just above
Olenekian Mud (Muth) village, base of Rohillites
Spiti valley, India rohilla ammonite
zone

Induan Meishan, Zhejiang 31° 4'47.28"N base of Bed 27c in Conodont, FAD of Episodes 24/2,
Province, China 119°42'20.90"E the Meishan Section Hindeodus parvus 2001

Figure 11.7 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Triassic stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.
 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  147

Acknowledgments the Permian–Triassic transition from Meishan

section, South China: ecologically assessing mass
The Triassic compilation benefited enormously from extinction and its aftermath. Earth-Science Reviews.
a 3-day working visit to the home of the late Heinz Kozur 149: 67–107. [Link]
in 2010, and sessions with Leopold Krystyn, Spencer earscirev.2014.10.005.
Lucas, Michael Orchard, and Paul Olsen. Two graduate Chen, Y.L., Krystyn, L., Orchard, M.J., Lai, X.L., Richoz, S.,
students from Wuhan, Mingsong Li and Yang “Wendy” 2016. A review of the evolution, biostratigraphy,
Zhang, gave preprints of their important cycle scaling of provincialism and diversity of Middle and early Late
Early Triassic, Anisian and early Carnian stratigraphy. My Triassic conodonts. Papers in Paleontology. 1–29.
colleagues in Wuhan, especially Chunju Huang, [Link] [and data at
­Zhong-Qiang Chen, Hongfu Yin, and Haishui Jiang, were Dryad Digital Repository, [Link]
instrumental in my participation in their work on Triassic dryad.34r55].
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the selected taxonomic nomenclature for zones used in ages for the Norian Stage: a contribution from
the figures or with the age models, but all agree that fur- southern British Columbia, Canada. In: 21st
ther international efforts will soon resolve all of the dis- Canadian Paleontological Conference, University of
puted calibrations. Mike Orchard and Maureen Steiner British Columbia, 19–20 Aug 2011. [Abstracts and
reviewed an early draft, and Zhong-Qiang Chen enhanced Additional Details Sent by M.J. Orchard to J. Ogg, July
the text and graphics. 2011 and Sept 2015].
Erwin, D.H., 2006. Extinction: How Life on Earth Nearly
Ended 250 Million Years Ago. Princeton University
Press, Princeton. 320 pp.
Selected publications Gradinăru, E., Orchard, M.J., Nicora, A., Gallet, Y., Besse, J.,
Krystyn, L., Sobolev, E.S., Atudorei, N.-V., Ivanova, D.,
and websites 2007. The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and
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an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. albertiana/.
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publications cited in the following. 10(2): 127–160.
Balini, M., Krystyn, L., Levera, M., Tripodo, A., 2012. Late Hounslow, M.K., Muttoni, G., 2010. The geomagnetic
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118: 47–84. Special Publication, 334, pp. 61–102.
Baud, A., 2014. The global marine Permian-Triassic ICS (International Commission on Stratigraphy), 2014.
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timeline for Earth’s most severe extinction. Proceedings ogy: From Macroevolution to Paleogeography. Topics
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Chen, Z.Q., Algeo, T.J., Bottjer, D.J., 2014. Global review of Kent, D.V., Olsen, P.E., 1999. Astronomically tuned
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Chen, Z.Q., Yang, H., Luo, M., Benton, J.J., Kaiho, K., Web page update (2002) posted at Newark Basin
Zhao, L., Huang, Y., Zhang, K., Fang, Y., Jiang, H., Qiu, Coring Project website: [Link]
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148  Chapter 11 TRIASSIC

Konstantinov, A.G., Klets, T.V., 2009. Stage boundaries of [Link]/albertiana/ ([and his “Conodonts,
the Triassic in Northeast Asia. Stratigraphy and Triassic chronostratigraphy and the GSSP for the
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importance of conchostracans in the continental Zaffani, M., Muttoni, G., 2015. Magnetostratigraphy,
Triassic of the northern hemisphere. In: Lucas, S.G. biostratigraphy, and chemostratigraphy of the
(Ed.), The Triassic Timescale. The Geological Society, Pignola-Abriola section: new constraints for the
334. Special Publication, London, pp. 315–417. Norian-Rhaetian boundary. Geological Society of
Kozur, H.W., Weems, R.E., 2011. Detailed correlation and America Bulletin 127: 962–974. [Link]
age of continental late Changhsingian and earliest org/10.1130/B31106.1.
Triassic beds: implications for the role of the McRoberts, C.A., 2010. Biochronology of Triassic pelagic
Siberian Trap in the Permian-Triassic biotic crisis. bivalves. In: Lucas, S.G. (Ed.), The Triassic Timescale.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. The Geological Society, 334. Special Publication,
308: 22–40. [Link] London, pp. 201–219.
palaeo.2011.02.020. Mietto, P., Manfrin, S., Preto, N., Rigo, M., Roghi, G., Furin,
Kozur, H.W., 2003. Integrated ammonoid, conodont and S., Gianolla, P., Posenato, R., Muttoni, G., Nicora, A.,
radiolarian zonation of the Triassic. Hallesches Buratti, N., Cirilli, S., Spöti, C., Ramezani, J., Bowring,
Jahrbuch fur Geowissenschaften B25: 49–79. S.A., 2012. The Global Boundary Stratotype Section
Lehrmann, D.J., Stepchinski, L., Altiner, D., Orchard, M.J., and Point (GSSP) of the Carnian Stage (Late Triassic)
Montgomery, P., Enos, P., Ellwood, B.B., Bowring, at Prati di Stuores/Stuores Wiesen section (Southern
S.A., Ramezani, J., Wang, H., Wei, J., Yu, M., Griffiths, Alps, NE Italy). Episodes 35: 414–430.
J.D., Minzoni, M., Schaal, E.K., Li, X., Meyer, K.M., Muttoni, G., Mazza, M., Mosher, D., Katz, M.E., Kent,
Payne, J.L., 2015. An integrated biostratigraphy D.V., Balini, M., 2014. A Middle-Late Triassic (Ladin-
(conodonts and foraminifers) and chronostratigra- ian-Rhaetian) carbon and oxygen isotope record
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ity, elemental chemistry, carbon isotopes and matology, Palaeoecology 399: 246–259 (and on-line
geochronology) for the Permian-Upper Triassic data repository item 2015069).
strata of Guandao section, Nanpanjiang Basin, South Ogg, J.G., Huang, C., Hinnov, L., 2014. Triassic timescale
China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 108: 117–135. status: a brief overview. Albertiana 41: 3–30 [A
[Link] slightly revised summary of the status of the GSSPs
Li, M., Ogg, J.G., Zhang, Y., Huang, C., Hinnov, L., Chen, and age models of GTS2012.].
Z.-Q., Zou, Z., 2016. Astronomical tuning of the Ogg, J.G., 2012. Triassic. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G.,
end-Permian extinction and the Early Triassic Epoch Schmitz, M., Ogg, G. (Coordinators), The Geologic Time
of South China and Germany. Earth and Planetary Scale 2012. Elsevier Publ., pp. 681–730 [An overview,
Science Letters, 441: 10–25. especially with extensive details and graphics on the
Lucas, S.G., Tanner, L.H., 2015. Triassic timescale based GSSPs of the stages, the different marine microfossil
on tetrapod biostratigraphy and biochronology. In: and terrestrial vertebrate biostratigraphic scales, and
Rocha, R., et al. (Eds.), STRATI 2013. Springer the astronomical tuning of the magnetic polarity scale.].
Geology, pp. 1013–1016. [Link] Ogg, J.G., 2015. The mysterious Mid-Carnian “Wet
org/10.1007/978-3-319-04364-7_192. Intermezzo” global event. Journal of Earth Science
Lucas, S.G. (Ed.), 2010a. The Triassic Timescale. The 26(2): 181–191.
Geological Society, 334. Special Publication, London. Orchard, M.J., 2010. Triassic conodonts and their role in
500 pp [An invited suite of authoritative compilations stage boundary definitions. In: Lucas, S.G. (Ed.), The
on all aspects of Triassic stratigraphy; which provided Triassic Timescale. The Geological Society, 334.
the foundation for most of the zonal scales in Special Publication, London, pp. 139–161.
GTS2012.]. Orchard, M.J., 2014. Conodonts from the Carnian-Norian
Lucas, S.G., 2010b. The Triassic timescale based on boundary (Upper Triassic) of Black Bear Ridge,
nonmarine tetrapod biostratigraphy and biochronol- northeastern British Columbia, Canada. New Mexico
ogy. In: Lucas, S.G. (Ed.), The Triassic Timescale. The Museum of Natural History and Sciences Bulletin 64
Geological Society, 334. Special Publication, London, 139 pp.
pp. 447–500. Orchard, M.J., 2016. Base of the Rhaetian and a critique
Lucas, S.G., 2016. Conodonts, Triassic chronostratigra- of Triassic conodont-based chronostratigraphy:
phy and the GSSP for the base of the Rhaetian Stage. comment. Albertiana 43. in press. Available at:
Albertiana 43. in press. Available at: [Link] [Link]
 Chapter 11 TRIASSIC  149

Ovtcharova, M., Goudemand, N., Hammer, Ø., Guodun, Szurlies, M., 2007. Latest Permian to Middle Triassic
K., Cordey, F., Galfetti, T., Schaltegger, U., Bucher, H., cyclo-magnetostratigraphy from the Central
2015. Developing a strategy for accurate definition of European Basin, Germany: implications for the
a geological boundary through radio-isotopic and geomagnetic polarity timescale. Earth and Planetary
biochronological dating: the Early-Middle Triassic Science Letters 261: 602–619.
boundary (South China). Earth-Science Reviews. 146: Tozer, E.T., 1984. The Trias and its ammonoids: the
65–76. [Link] evolution of a time scale. Geological Survey of
earscirev.2015.03.006. Canada Miscellaneous Report 35 171 pp [A fascinat-
Preto, N., Kustatscher, E., Wignall, P.B., 2010. Triassic ing historical view of the personalities, debates, and
climates – state of the art and perspectives. In: gradual understanding of the Triassic system.].
Kustatscher, E., Preto, N., Wignall, P. (Eds.), Triassic Trotter, J.A., Williams, I.S., Nicora, A., Mazza, M., Rigo,
Climates. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, M., 2015. Long-term cycles of Triassic climate
Palaeoecology, 290, pp. 1–10. change: a new δ18O record from conodont apatite.
Rigo, M., Bertinelli, A., Concheri, G., Gattolin, G., Earth and Planetary Science Letters 415: 165–174.
Godfrey, L., Katz, M.E., Maron, M., Mietto, P., Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen
Muttoni, G., Sprovieri, M., Stellin, F., Zaffani, M., isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
2016. The Pignola-Abriola section (southern Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
Apennines, Italy): a new GSSP candidate for the base Wignall, P., 2015. The Worst of Times: How Life on Earth
of the Rhaetian Stage. Lethaia. [Link] Survived Eighty Million Years of Extinctions.
org/10.111/let.12145 in press . Princeton University Press. 224 pp.
Ruffell, A., Simms, M.J., Wignall, P.B., 2015. The Wotzlaw, J.-F., Guex, J., Bartolini, A., Gallet, Y., Krystyn, L.,
Carnian Humid Episode of the late Triassic: a McRoberts, C.A., Taylor, D., Schoene, B., Schaltegger,
review. Geological Magazine, 153(2): 1–14. http:// U., 2014. Towards accurate numerical calibration of
[Link]/doi/10.1111/let.12145/full the Late Triassic: high-precision U-Pb geochronology
in press. constraints on the duration of the Rhaetian. Geology
Schoene, B., Guex, J., Bartolini, A., Schaltegger, U., 42: 571–574.
Blackburn, T.J., 2010. Correlating the end-Triassic Yin, H., Zhang, K., Tong, J., Yang, Z., Wu, S., 2001. The
mass extinction and flood basalt volcanism at the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the
100 ka level. Geology 38: 387–390. Permian–Triassic boundary. Episodes 24(2): 102–114.
Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Middle & Late Permian and Zhang, Y., Li, M., Ogg, J.G., Montgomery, P., Huang, C.,
Triassic Paleogeographic Maps, Maps 43-48 From Chen, Z.-Q., Shi, Z., Enos, P., Lehrmann, D.J., 2015.
Volume 3 of the PALEOMAP Atlas for ArcGIS (Jurassic Cycle-calibrated magnetostratigraphy of middle
and Triassic) and Maps 49-52 from Volume 4 of the Carnian from South China: implications for Late
PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for ArcGIS (Late Paleozoic), Triassic time scale and termination of the Yangtze
Mollweide Projection. PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, platform. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
IL. [Link] Palaeoecology. 436: 135–166. [Link]
Atlas_of_Middle_and_Late_Permian_and_Trias- org/10.1016/[Link].2015.05.033.
sic_Paleogeographic_Maps.
Shen, S.-Z., Henderson, C.M., Bowring, S.A., Cau, C.-Q., Websites (selected)
Wang, Y., Wang, W., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y.-C., Mu, L.,
2010. High-resolution Lopingian (Late Permian) Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy (ICS)—http://
timescale of South China. Geological Journal 45: [Link]/sts/ with Albertiana (official
122–134. journal of the Subcommission) at [Link]
Sun, Y., Joachimski, M.M., Wignall, P.B., Yan, C., Chen, Y., [Link]/albertiana/. The main subcommission
Jiang, H., Wang, L., Lai, X., 2012. Lethally hot site has basic information; and the Albertiana
temperatures during the early Triassic greenhouse. journal site has PDFs from 2001 to present. The
Science 338: 366–370. Albertiana journal is the primary publication for
Szurlies, M., 2004. Magnetostratigraphy: the key to global GSSP discussions, biostratigraphy and inter-regional
correlation of the classic Germanic Trias case study correlations.
Volpriehausen Formation (Middle Buntsandstein), Palaeos: Triassic—[Link]
Central Germany. Earth and Planetary Science [Link]—A well-presented suite of diverse topics
Letters, 227: 395–410. for a general science audience that was originally
compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
 12
JURASSIC
158.4 Ma Jurassic
Alaska Siberia

LAURASIA North
Europe China
North
South
America
China
PACIFIC
OCEAN Africa
Central Indochina
Atlantic TETHYS
Ocean South OCEAN
America
Arabia

GONDWANA
India

Australia
Antarctica

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Oxfordian paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 80 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and ammonite genus, Psiloceras. The earliest form,

international subdivisions Psiloceras spelae, first occurs during a global
sea-level fall and extended hiatus in shal-
The Jurassic, named after the exposures in low seas; therefore, this taxon is only found
the Jura Mountains along the Swiss–French in rare complete sections (e.g., Peru, Alps,
border, begins with the recovery from the Nevada) (Hillebrandt and Krystyn, 2009).
major end-Triassic mass extinction (Fig. The GSSP for the base of the Jurassic (base of
12.1). This end-Triassic event was particu- Hettangian Stage) was ratified in the Kuhjoch
larly catastrophic to marine fauna, including section within the Northern Calcareous Alps of
the conodonts, the distinctive phosphatic jaw Austria (Hillebrandt et al., 2013) (Fig. 12.2).
elements which are used for biostratigraphy The lowest Psiloceras spelae horizon as
from uppermost Cambrian through Triassic, dated by bracketing volcanic ash beds in Peru
and nearly all of the ammonoid groups. occurs at 201.36 ± 0.17 Ma, which is about
The primary marker for the base of the 0.15 myr after the onset (201.51 ± 0.15 Ma) of a
Jurassic is the lowest occurrence of the carbon-isotope excursion that coincides with

A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]

Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 151
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Figure 12.1 Jurassic overview; Main markers or candidate markers for Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and
Points (GSSPs) of Jurassic stages are first-appearance datums (FADs) of ammonite taxa as detailed in Fig. 12.5. See
text and Fig. 13.2 for Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary options. Magnetic polarity scale is a composite as compiled in
Ogg (2012) and Ogg et al. (2012), and is enlarged in Fig. 12.4. Coastal onlap and schematic sea-level curve are modi-
fied from Hardenbol et al. (1998). The δ13C curve (with widespread excursion events; “OAE” = oceanic anoxic event)
represents generalized trends from synthesis by Katz (in supplement to Muttoni et al., 2014) and by Jenkyns (2002), with
additional schematic enhancements for the Triassic–Jurassic boundary interval (Hillebrandt et al., 2013), for the late
Sinemurian through early Toarcian (Kemp et al., 2005; Bodin et al., 2010; Korte and Hesselbo, 2011), for the Callovian
through early Oxfordian (Pellenard et al., 2004b), and for the middle Oxfordian through early Kimmeridgian of Central
Europe (Wierzbowski, 2015). However, the δ13C values are usually systematically offset among different regions. The
simplified Jurassic δ18O curve (scale is inverted) and adjusted estimates of tropical sea-surface temperatures (SST)
derived from those oxygen-18 values are modified from Veizer and Prokoph (2015) with details of trends for the Sine-
murian through Aalenian (Korte and Hesselbo (2011) and Korte et al. (2015)), and the Callovian through Kimmeridgian
of Central Europe (e.g. Pellenard et al. (2004b) and Wierzbowski (2015)). PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standard.
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Figure 12.2 GSSP for base of the Jurassic (base of Hettangian Stage) at Kuhjoch section, Northern Calcareous Alps,
Austria. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of the ammonite Psiloceras spelae (subsp. tirolicum),
marking the beginning of a new marine ecosystem after the major end-Triassic extinctions. The brief negative excursion
in carbon isotopes is approximately simultaneous with those end-Triassic extinctions and main eruption phase of the
Central Atlantic magmatic province. (Photograph provided by Axel von Hillebrandt.)
154  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

the main end-Triassic mass extinction and the of Macrocephalites herveyi Zone in the Sub-
massive volcanism of the Central Atlantic mag- Boreal province (Great Britain to southwest
matic province (CAMP) at 201.48 ± 0.02 Ma. Germany). A proposed GSSP in the Swabian
These dates are from Schoene et al. (2010, as Alb of southwest Germany has both an appar-
recalibrated by Wotzlaw et al., 2014, who note ently complete succession at the resolution
that the same lower CAMP flow was dated by level of ammonites and a magnetostratigra-
Blackburn et al., 2013, as 201.566 ± 0.031 Ma). phy interpreted as correlating the boundary
The concept of biostratigraphic zones was interval to within marine magnetic anomaly
first developed in the succeeding ammo- M39n, but is in a very condensed iron-oolite-
nite-rich Jurassic strata in Europe, and these rich calcareous facies (e.g., Callomon and
ammonite zones remain the main method Dietl, 2000; Gipe, 2013). The Callovian stage
of relative dating and definition of Juras- task group is also considering potential rela-
sic stages. GSSPs for the Hettangian through tively expanded sections in East Greenland
Bathonian stages have ammonite horizons (Mönnig, 2014).
as their basal markers (Fig. 12.1; 12.5). The Oxfordian (Middle–Upper Jurassic bound-
GSSP and its ammonite marker for the Lower– ary): The Callovian–Oxfordian boundary in
Middle Jurassic boundary (Toarcian–Aalenian both England and France is at the base of the
boundary) are diagrammed in Fig. 12.3. The ammonite Cardioceras scarburgense Subzone
ratification of the Toarcian GSSP in 2014 to of the Quenstedtoceras mariae Zone, but there
coincide with the first occurrence of the genus have been different opinions of which spe-
Dactylioceras (Eodactylites) at the co-occurring cific ammonite horizon to use for that sub-
D. (E.) simplex and D. (E.) polymorphum hori- zone definition. In Geologic Time Scale 2012
zon in Peniche, Portugal (Rocha et al., 2016) (GTS2012), the working definition had been
completed the GSSPs for the initial seven the proposed lowest occurrence of ammo-
stages of the Jurassic. nite Cardioceras redcliffense in a coastal sec-
Many of the ammonite taxa are restricted tion in Dorset, England (Page et al., 2010), but
to the European exposures of Sub-Mediter- that event is difficult to correlate and might
ranean or of Sub-Boreal paleogeographic be a morphotype of the index species of the
realms. In particular, a pronounced provin- uppermost Callovian subzone (Pellenard
ciality during the Late Jurassic has inhibited et al., 2014a). The current Oxfordian working
efforts to establish GSSPs that can be used group is now favoring a slightly higher level
on a global scale. Alternative methods for with a brief, marked faunal turnover of the
global correlation with widespread microfos- disappearance of several Callovian genera
sil datums and stable-isotope excursions are and the appearance of new species, especially
being considered. As of February 2016, the Hecticoceras (Brightia) thuouxensis followed
uppermost four stages of the Jurassic (and by the lowest Cardioceras scarburgense. In
the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary) still await the candidate GSSP at Thuoux in southeast-
international agreement on the primary cor- ern France (Pellenard et al., 2014a), this level
relation markers and the GSSP location: also coincides with the first appearance of
Callovian (upper Middle Jurassic): The dinocyst Wanaea fimbriata. The Dubki
Bathonian–Callovian boundary is within section candidate in European Russia is excel-
an interval of rising sea level and is rarely lent for the basal Oxfordian, but is poor for
preserved, although it has been tradition- the uppermost Callovian (Kiselev et al., 2013).
ally placed at the lowest occurrence of the Even though the candidate GSSP in France
ammonite genus Kepplerites (Kosmocera- has been unsuitable for paleomagnetism,
tidae) at the base of the K. keppleri Subzone the comparison of ammonite assemblages
 Chapter 12 JURASSIC  155

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Figure 12.3 GSSP for base of the Middle Jurassic (base of Aalenian Stage) at Fuentelsaz section, Castilian Branch
of the Iberian Range, Spain. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of ammonite Leioceras opalinum
(base of Leioceras opalinum Zone). (Photographs provided by Marie Soledad Ureta.)
156  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

enables approximate correlation to the mag- elegans Zone in the Sub-Boreal province
netostratigraphy of the Dorset section at the and with the base of normal-polarity Chron
base of the local Cardioceras woodhamense M22An. However, the working group has not
biohorizon (Kiselev et al., 2013), which would yet agreed on a GSSP section.
project this boundary as the lower part of End-Jurassic (Tithonian–Berriasian bound-
Chron M36Br. ary) is not yet defined, and is discussed in the
Kimmeridgian (mid-Upper Jurassic): The Cretaceous chapter. Two alternative working
Colloque du Jurassique à Luxembourg in definitions—the base of microfossil Calpio-
1962 fixed the base of the Kimmeridgian as nella alpina and the base of magnetic polarity
the base of the Pictonia baylei Zone (appear- Chron M18r—are shown in the stratigraphic
ance of Pictonia genus) in the Sub-Boreal figures.
pro­vince, and, in 2007, the Kimmeridgian
working group accepted the Flodigarry section
(Wierzbowski et al., 2006) on the Isle of Skye, Selected main stratigraphic
Scotland, to be the GSSP section pending a
precise definition of the base of the Pictonia scales and events
baylei Zone. However, the traditional place-
ment of the Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian bound-
(1) Biostratigraphy (marine;
ary in the Sub-Mediterranean province at the terrestrial)
base of the ammonite Sutneria platynota Zone Ammonite workers in the Jurassic, in con-
is over 1 myr younger than this level; indeed, trast to formalized practices in other peri-
the Sub-Boreal definition falls in the middle of ods, often use a “standard zone” that is only
the Tethyan ammonite Epipeltoceras bimam- indirectly associated with the biotic range
matum Zone. To allow a uniform Oxfordian– of the ammonite taxon that lends its name,
Kimmeridgian boundary that corresponds to and these are usually indicated by a nonitali-
an ammonite zonal boundary in the different cized name (e.g., as indicated above, the basal
provinces, which had been a major cause of Oxfordian “Mariae Zone” does not begin with
the postponed decision, Wierzbowski and the lowest occurrence of Quenstedtoceras
Matyja (2014) have used enhanced corre- mariae). A synthesis of major evolutionary
lations to recommend the elevation of the trends, regional paleogeographic distribu-
E. hypselum subzone of the lower E. bimam- tion, and ammonite zones is compiled by
matum Zone to zonal status (used in Fig. 12.4). Schweigert (2015). However, to show the taxo-
In the candidate GSSP at the Isle of Skye, the nomic relationships of these ammonite zones,
lowest occurrence of a new Pictonia flodigar- the full genus–species-name taxa are used in
riensis taxon to define the base of the P. baylei the stratigraphic charts in this book.
Zone matches the base of the Boreal Amoebo- The other major marine biostratigraphic
ceras bauhini Zone (first appearance of sub- zonations utilize calcareous nannofossils and
genus Plasmatites), and is essentially coeval organic-walled cysts of dinoflagellates. These
with base of polarity Chron M26r (Przybylski single-celled pelagic phytoplankton origi-
et al., 2010). nated in the middle of the Triassic. Siliceous
Tithonian (uppermost Jurassic): The events radiolarians, which had originated in the early
near the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian boundary Paleozoic, are a major component of deep-sea
seem fairly well established in that the base sediments, including “ribbon radiolarites” of
of ammonite Hybonoticeras hybonotum Zone the Tethyan basins. During the Tithonian, sin-
in Sub-Mediterranean province is coeval with gle-celled calcareous calpionellids appeared
the base of Pectinatites (Virgatosphinctoides) and are an important biostratigraphic tool in
 Chapter 12 JURASSIC  157

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158  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

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 Chapter 12 JURASSIC  159

Figure 12.4 (A, B): Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Jurassic. (“Age” is the term
t

for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Comparison of the M-sequence of marine polarity zones and its
deep-tow extension to M45 (e.g., Tominaga et al., 2008) is plotted relative to its proposed calibration to a composite
reference Middle and Late Jurassic magnetic polarity timescale from ammonite-zoned outcrops. Ammonite zone
standards are shown for the Tethyan (Sub-Mediterranean province) and Boreal (Sub-Boreal for Late Jurassic)
realms. An expanded listing of ammonoid zones with an explanation of each GTS2012 age calibration is in Ogg et al.
(2012). Calcareous nannofossil zones with their Tethyan zone markers are a composite from Casellato (2010), Mattioli
and Erba (1999) and Bown (1998). Land vertebrate zones and markers are from Lucas (2009). Additional zonations,
biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in the
internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).

moderate-depth settings until their extinc- studies of ammonite-, nannofossil-, and/or

tion in the mid-Valanginian of the early calpionellid-zones outcrops (e.g., Channell
Cretaceous. et al., 2010; Przybylski et al., 2010; Ogg et al.,
Dinosaurs are the famous Jurassic Park 2010; Gipe, 2013; reviews in Ogg, 2012 and
vertebrates, but the schematic Pangea-wide Ogg et al., 2012; etc.); and, with assumptions
zonation of characteristic assemblages is of a linearly very-slowly decreasing spread-
only loosely calibrated to marine stages ing rate, serves as the age model for the upper
(e.g., Lucas, 2009, Fig. 12.4). Pollen-spore Aalenian through basal Aptian stages.
zonations and clam-shrimp conchostracans The Early Jurassic magnetic polarity
are useful in some terrestrial and marginal- time scale is currently a composite from mag-
marine settings. netostratigraphy studies on ammonite-zoned
outcrops in Europe [e.g., synthesis in Ogg
et al., 2012; with partial verification of scal-
(2) Magnetostratigraphy ing of Kent and Olsen (2008) by Hüsing et al.
The reference magnetic polarity scale (2014) using cyclostratigraphy for Hettangian
for the Kimmeridgian to basal Aptian is the to earliest Sinemurian].
M-sequence of marine magnetic polarity
anomalies from the Pacific spreading cen- (3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy
ters correlated to magnetostratigraphy of
ammonite-zoned successions in the Sub-­ and selected events
Mediterranean and Sub-Boreal realms. Deep- Major negative excursions in carbon
tow magnetic surveys have extended this isotopes occur in the Triassic–Jurassic bound-
“pre-M25” Pacific magnetic anomaly to “M45” ary interval, basal Pliensbachian, a pair in the
on the relative fast-spreading “Japanese” lin- basal and lowest Toarcian, and in uppermost
eations with a calibration to Ocean Drilling Callovian. The lower Toarcian event, one of the
Site 801C (on anomaly/subchron “M42n.4r”, largest negative excursions in the Phanerozoic,
dated near Bathonian–Bajocian boundary by is followed by widespread “anoxic event”
biostratigraphy or 168.4 ± 0.1.7 Ma by 40Ar/39Ar enrichment in organic carbon in marine sec-
ratio (Ar/Ar) radioisotopes recalibrated to tions (Fig. 12.1). The main significant positive
GTS2012 standards) (e.g., Tivey et al., 2006; excursion in carbon isotopes is reported in
Tominaga et al., 2008). This pre-M25 pattern the middle Oxfordian (e.g., Głowniak and
has been partly verified by deep-tow surveys Wierzbowski, 2007; Wierzbowski, 2015) within
on the older Hawaiian succession (Tominaga a broad elevated C-13 enrichment that is coeval
et al., 2015). The entire M45 through M0r with major carbon-rich sediment deposits that
marine magnetic anomaly pattern has been became the hydrocarbon source rocks of Saudi
calibrated by numerous magnetostratigraphic Arabia, North Sea, Siberia, and other regions.
160  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

Oxygen-isotope trends and other proxies Hettangian and lower Sinemurian are scaled by
suggest a general warming from Hettangian cyclostratigraphy in ammonite-zoned succes-
through Sinemurian, a cool Late Pliensba- sions that includes the Sinemurian GSSP (Ruhl
chian, a warm to very warm Toarcian, then a et al., 2010). However, due to lack of radiometric
cooling Aalenian through Bajocian (e.g., Korte dating and verified cyclostratigraphy, the major-
and Hesselbo, 2011; Korte et al., 2015). The ity of the Sinemurian and Pliensbachian scal-
generally warm climate of Callovian through ing in GTS2012 assumed a linearly decreasing
Kimmeridgian was interrupted by an anoma- 87Sr/86Sr ratio in ammonite-zoned successions

lous late Callovian cold spell (e.g., Dromart in England tied to the negative excursion in car-
et al., 2003; Pellenard et al., 2014b). The Titho- bon isotopes at the base-Toarcian in a reversed-
nian and Berriasian are generally interpreted polarity zone that was considered coeval with
as cooler and more arid in many regions. the initial reversed-polarity eruptive episode of
However, most of these carbon-isotope, the Karoo–Ferrar volcanic province.
oxygen-isotope, and temperature trends are There are essentially no direct radioiso-
derived from individual basins in Western tope dates on ammonite-zoned deposits for
Europe, and a verified global synthesis has the majority of the Jurassic that meets the
not yet been compiled (e.g., discussions in standards used for most other geologic peri-
Wierzbowski, 2015). ods; therefore, the majority of the Jurassic age
Marine 87Sr/86Sr progressively decreased model is extrapolated using a combination of
from an end-Norian peak to a low during cycle stratigraphy and magnetostratigraphic
basal Toarcian. Strontium isotope ratios correlations to a spreading-rate model for
rose during the Toarcian to crest with a sus- the M-sequence of Pacific marine magnetic
tained plateau through the Aalenian, and anomalies. The middle Toarcian through
then decreased through Callovian to reach Aalenian is scaled according to cyclostrati­
its lowest ratio of the entire Phanerozoic in graphy interpretations of deposits in the Paris
early Oxfordian. After the middle Oxfordian, Basin (Huret et al., 2008; as revised by C. Huang
the strontium isotope ratio began a long- in Ogg et al., 2012). This floating astronomical
term increase that peaked in the Barremian scale is constrained by the age for Aalenian–
of Early Cretaceous. Bajocian boundary as calibrated by correlation
The Karoo–Ferrar volcanic province (south- of its magnetostratigraphy to the upper part
ern Africa and preseparation A ­ ntarctica with of the relatively long reversed-polarity marine
extensive tuffs into preseparation A ­ rgentina) magnetic anomaly M44n.1r.8. The age model
erupted during the basal and earliest Toar- for this oldest part of the M-sequence incorpo-
cian. As with many large igneous provinces, it rates a slow decrease in Pacific spreading rates
coincides and was probably the cause of the derived from a linear fit to cyclostratigraphic-
carbon-isotope excursions, biotic turnover, derived durations for groups of polarity zones/
organic-enrichment horizons, and elevated anomalies and constraints from selected
temperatures during the early Toarcian. radio-isotopic dates (e.g., Ocean Drilling Pro-
gram [ODP] Site 801C) (detailed in Ogg, 2012).
The GTS2012 age model has been par-
Numerical age model tially supported and partially questioned by
later radioisotopic and cyclostratigraphic
GTS2012 age model; and potential studies; but requires independent verifica-
future enhancements tion studies before making major revisions
The age of the base of the Jurassic is well according to any single publication. There-
constrained by U-Pb dates (see following). The fore, only the base-Toarcian in this GTS2016
 Chapter 12 JURASSIC  161

was provisionally shifted ca. 1 myr older due correlated to the onset of the Karoo–Ferrar
to revised and enhanced dating by later stud- volcanism. That onset and base-Toarcian
ies. An example of a pending potential future boundary had been dated as 182.7 ± 0.7 Ma
revision possibility is a 40Ar/39Ar date of (e.g., Jourdan et al., 2007; Svensen et al.,
156.1 ± 0.9 Ma from a volcanic ash layer that is 2007); but those authors and others have
considered to equate to Middle Oxfordian lev- revised their syntheses, especially in indi-
els in another section (Pellenard et al., 2013). cating an older age for the following nor-
This report and one or two other published mal-polarity most-voluminous phase of
dates, if verified independently, would imply Karoo volcanism (ca. 183.0 Ma by Svensen
that much of the Late Jurassic age model for et al., 2012) that is considered to initiate
the M-sequence or a set of magnetostrati- a second major negative excursion in the
graphic correlations should be shifted about beginning of the second Toarcian ammo-
3 myr younger than the GTS2012 age model. nite zone. This conclusion is supported
by dating an ash bed (183.2 ± 0.3 Ma;
Sell et al., 2014) in the upper part of the low-
Revised ages compared to GTS2012 est Toarcian ammonite zone that precedes
Jurassic (Hettangian) base (minor shift): this excursion. When incorporating an
The dating of the bracketing ash beds by estimated 0.8-myr duration for this lowest
Schoene et al. (2010) was recalculated Toarcian ammonite zone from cyclostratig-
by them (in Wotzlaw et al., 2014) using raphy (Suan et al., 2008), then the base of
updated EARTHTIME tracers. This changed the Toarcian is now projected as 183.7 Ma,
the interpolated boundary age from or ca. 1-myr older than in the GTS2012 age
201.31 ± 0.18 Ma (as used in GTS2012) to a model. However, because the upper Toar-
slightly older 201.36 ± 0.17 Ma. cian through Aalenian ammonite zones are
Sinemurian (199.4 ± 0.3 vs 199.3 ± 0.3 Ma in scaled according to cyclostratigraphy in the
GTS2012): The duration of the Hettangian French Basin with projected ages from the
from cyclostratigraphy determines the M-sequence spreading rate model, then
assigned age for the Hettangian–Sinemu- the shift of base-Toarcian to this revised
rian boundary; therefore becomes slightly older date results in an anomalously long
younger to be consistent with the revised Middle Toarcian. Direct dating on the
base-Hettangian date. upper Toarcian through Bathonian stages
Pliensbachian (191.36 ± 1.0 vs 190.8 ± 1.0 Ma are required to obtain a reliable age model
in GTS2012): The projected age for the that does not rely on these extrapolations.
Sinemurian–Pliensbachian stage bound- Oxfordian (163.1 ± 1.1 vs 163.5 ± 1.1 Ma in
ary is currently scaled relative to the GTS2012): The revised working definition of
assigned ages from radioisotopes and the basal Oxfordian ammonite zone shifted
cyclostratigraphy for the base-Toarcian one ammonite horizon from the Oxfordian
and base-Sinemurian; therefore, the age into the Callovian compared to that used on
was adjusted when those other boundar- the GTS2012 scale, and this current ammo-
ies were revised. nite marker is about 0.4 myr younger. This
Toarcian (183.7 ± 0.5 vs 182.7 ± 0.7 Ma in change in boundary definition does not sig-
GTS2012): The most significant change nificantly change the assigned dates to any
from the GTS2012 age model is the pro- other biostratigraphy datums, magnetic
jected age of the base Toarcian and its polarity, or other stratigraphic levels.
negative excursion in carbon isotopes dur- Cretaceous (Berriasian) base (145.7 ± 0.8 vs
ing a reversed-polarity zone which was 145.0 ± 0.8 Ma in GTS2012): In GTS2012, a
162  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

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Figure 12.5 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Jurassic stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
edu/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.
 Chapter 12 JURASSIC  163

working definition of the base of magnetic discussions during the past four years on placement of
Chron M18r was used to place the Jurassic– GSSPs and improved zonations within stages with numer-
ous colleagues. These include (in alphabetical order) Slah
Cretaceous boundary. Now, as detailed at Boulila, Angela Coe, Bruno Galbrun, Andy Gale, Steve
the beginning of the Cretaceous chapter, Hesselbo, Chunju Huang, Linda Hinnov, Mark Hounslow,
the current Jurassic–Cretaceous working Hugh Jenkyns, Pierre Pellenard, and Bill Wimbledon. All
group is favoring a slightly older level in of them recognize that the age model and many of the
the middle of Chron M19n at the “explo- calibrations require future research. Steve Hesselbo
reviewed a draft of this chapter for general presentation.
sion” of small, globular Calpionella alpina
(base of Calpionellid Zone B). Therefore,
both options are shown for the base of the Selected publications
Cretaceous.
and websites
Estimated uncertainties on assigned Cited publications
ages on stage boundaries Only select publications were cited in this review with
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates.
The few radioisotopic dates with well- Pre-2011 literature is summarized in the synthesis by
constrained biostratigraphic ages that con- Ogg et al. (2012) and in some of the publications cited
in the following.
strain the Jurassic time scale typically have
Blackburn, T.J., Olsen, P.E., Bowring, S.A., McLean, N.M.,
an uncertainty greater than 0.4 myr, when Kent, D.V., Puffer, J., McHone, G., Rasbury, E.T.,
including external factors. In contrast, the Et-Touhami, M., 2013. Zircon U-Pb geochronology
durations for those stages that are scaled from links the end-Triassic extinction with the Central
cyclostratigraphy (e.g., Hettangian; Aalen- Atlantic Magmatic Province. Science 340: 941–945.
[Link]
ian; Kimmeridgian–Tithonian; and portions
Bodin, S., Mattioli, E., Fro¨hlich, S., Marshall, J.D.,
of other stages) and for many events within Boutib, L., Lahsini, S., Redfern, J., 2010. Toarcian
those stages are considered to have an uncer- carbon isotope shifts and nutrient changes from the
tainty of ca. 100-kyr (short-eccentricity cycle. Northern margin of Gondwana (High Atlas, Morocco,
The greatest uncertainty on the estimated Jurassic): palaeoenvironmental implications.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
numerical ages is for the “floating” timescale
297: 377–390.
of the Aalenian through Tithonian stages, Bown, P.R. (Ed.), 1998. Calcareous Nannofossil Biostrati­
which is mainly derived from their magneto- graphy. Chapman & Hall, London. 328 pp.
stratigraphic correlations to a spreading-rate Callomon, J.H., Dietl, G., 2000. On the proposed basal
model for the Pacific M-sequence. Therefore, boundary stratotype (GSSP) of the Middle Jurassic
Callovian Stage. In: Hall, R.L., Smith, P.L. (Eds.),
the GTS2012 age model projected an increas-
Advances in Jurassic Research, GeoResearch Forum,
ing ±0.8 to ± 1.4 myr uncertainty for most of 6, pp. 41–54.
the Aalenian through base-Berriasian stage Casellato, C.E., 2010. Calcareous nannofossil biostra-
boundaries and “working definitions” for tigraphy of upper Callovian-lower Berriasian
the yet-to-be-formalized stage boundaries of successions from the Southern Alps, North Italy.
Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 116:
Callovian through Berriasian depending on
357–404.
their temporal “distance” from the anchoring Channell, J.E.T., Casellato, C.E., Muttoni, G., Erba, E.,
radioisotopic dates at the lowermost Toarcian 2010. Magnetostratigraphy, nannofossil stratigraphy
and the lowermost Aptian. and apparent polar wander for Adria-Africa in the
Jurassice-Cretaceous boundary interval. Palaeogeo­
graphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293: 51–75.
Acknowledgments Dromart, G., Garcia, J.P., Picard, S., Atrops, F., Lécuyer, C.,
Sheppard, S.M.F., 2003. Ice age at the Middle-Late
This brief Jurassic summary and update of the Juras- Jurassic transition? Earth and Planetary Science
sic chapter in GTS2012 was assisted by extensive Letters 213: 205–220.
164  Chapter 12 JURASSIC

Gipe, R.A., 2013. Callovian (upper Middle Jurassic) Jenkyns, H.C., Jones, C.E., Gröcke, D.R., Hesselbo, S.P.,
magnetostratigraphy: a composite polarity pattern Parkinson, D.N., 2002. Chemostratigraphy of the
from France, Britain and Germany, and its correla- Jurassic System: applications, limitations and
tion to the Pacific marine magnetic anomaly model. implications for palaeoceanography. Journal of the
Purdue University Open Access Theses. Paper 36: Geological Society 159: 351–378.
107 pp. [Link] Jourdan, F., Féraud, G., Bertrand, H., Watkeys, M.K.,
theses/36. Plus abstract at, Gipe, R.A., Ogg, J.G., and Renne, P.R., 2007. Distinct brief major events in the
Coe, A.L., 2013. Magnetostratigraphy of the Callovian Karoo large igneous province clarified by new
(upper Middle Jurassic) from outcrops in France, 40Ar/39Ar ages on the Lesotho basalts. Lithos 98:

England and Germany and calibration of the Pacific 195–209.

M-sequence of magnetic anomalies. Geological Kemp, D.B., Coe, A.L., Cohen, A.S., Schwark, L., 2005.
Society of America Abstracts With Programs. 45, Astronomical pacing of methane release in the Early
No. 7: 811, [Link] Jurassic Period. Nature 437: 396–399.
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Głowniak, E., Wierzbowski, A., 2007. Comment on stratigraphy and paleolatitudes from the Hartford
mid-Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) positive carbon- continental rift basin (eastern North America):
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36: 162–198. e Stratigrafia 105: 343–376.
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basins (Tethys). In: 33rd International Geological D.V., Balini, M., 2014. A Middle-Late Triassic
Congress. Norway, abstract, Oslo. (Ladinian-Rhaetian) carbon and oxygen isotope
Hüsing, S.K., Beniest, A., van der Boon, A., Abels, H.A., record from the Tethyan Ocean. Palaeogeography,
Deenen, M.H.L., Krijgsman, W., 2014. Astronomi- Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 399: 246–259 (and
cally-calibrated magnetostratigraphy of the Lower on-line data repository item 2015069).
Jurassic marine successions at St. Audrie’s Bay and Ogg, J.G., Coe, A.L., Przybylski, P.A., Wright, J.K., 2010.
East Quantoxhead (Hettangian-Sinemurian; Oxfordian magnetostratigraphy of Britain and its
Somerset, UK). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, correlation to Tethyan regions and Pacific marine
Palaeoecology 403: 43–56. magnetic anomalies. Earth and Planetary Science
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Letters 289: 433–448. [Link] Hettangian stage and recovery rates following the
epsl.2009.11.031. end-Triassic mass extinction (St Audrie’s Bay/East
Ogg, J.G., 2012. Geomagnetic polarity time scale. In: Quantoxhead, UK). Earth and Planetary Science
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., Letters 295: 262–276.
(Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Schoene, B., Guex, J., Bartolini, A., Schaltegger, U.,
Elsevier Publ, pp. 85–113. Blackburn, T.J., 2010. Correlating the end-Triassic
Ogg, J.G., Hinnov, L.A., Huang, C., 2012. Jurassic. In: mass extinction and flood basalt volcanism at the
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., 100 ka level. Geology 38: 387–390.
(Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Schweigert, G., 2015. Chapter 14. Ammonoid biogeogra-
Elsevier Publ., pp. 731–791 (An overview on all phy in the Jurassic. In: Klug, C., Korn, D., De Baets,
aspects, including graphics on the ratified GSSPs K., Kruta, I., Mapes, R.H. (Eds.), Ammonoid Paleobio­
of the stages, diagrams and tables for the biostrati- logy: From Macroevolution to Paleogeography.
graphic scales, and discussion on the age Topics in Geobiology, 44. Springer Publ, pp. 389–402.
models.). [Link]
Page, K.N., Melendez, G., Hart, M.B., Price, G., Wright, J.K., Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Jurassic Paleogeographic
Bown, P., Bello, J., 2010. Integrated stratigraphic study Maps, PALEOMAP Atlas for ArcGIS, Volume 4, the
of the candidate Oxfordian Global Stratotype Section Jurassic, Maps 32-42, Mollweide Projection. PALEO-
and Point (GSSP) at Redcliff Point, Weymouth, Dorset, MAP Project, Evanston, IL. [Link]
UK. Volumina Jurassica 7: 101–111. edu/11245556/Atlas_of_Jurassic_
Pellenard, P., Nomade, S., Martire, L., De Oliveira Paleogeographic_Maps.
Ramalho, F., Monna, F., Guillou, H., 2013. The first Sell, B., Ovtcharova, M., Guex, J., Bartolini, A.,
40Ar-39Ar date from Oxfordian ammonite-cali- Jourdan, F., Spangenberg, J.E., Vicente, J.-C., Schalteg-
brated volcanic layers (bentonites) as a tie-point ger, U., 2014. Evaluating the temporal link between
for the Late Jurassic. Geological Magazine 150: the Karoo LIP and climatic–biologic events of the
1136–1142. Toarcian Stage with high-precision U–Pb geochronol-
Pellenard, P., Fortwengler, D., Marchand, D., Thierry, J., ogy. Earth and Planetary Science 408: 48–56.
Bartolini, A., Boulila, S., Collin, P.-Y., Enay, R., Suan, G., Pittet, B., Bour, I., Mattioli, E., Duarte, L.V.,
Galbrun, B., Gardin, S., Huault, V., Huret, E., Mailliot, S., 2008. Duration of the Early Toarcian
Martinez, M., Chateau Smith, C., 2014a. Integrated carbon isotope excursion deduced from spectral
stratigraphy of the Oxfordian global stratotype analysis – Consequence for its possible causes. Earth
section and point (GSSP) candidate in the Subalpine and Planetary Science Letters 267: 666–679.
Basin (SE France). Volumina Jurassica 12(1): 1–44. Svensen, H., Planke, S., Chevallier, L., Malthe-Sørenssen,
Pellenard, P., Tramoy, R., Pucéat, E., Huret, E., Martinez, A., Corfu, F., Jamtveit, B., 2007. Hydrothermal venting
M., Brueau, L., Thierry, J., 2014b. Carbon cycle and of greenhouse gases triggering Early Jurassic global
sea-water palaeotemperature evolution at the warming. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 256:
Middle-Late Jurassic transition, eastern Paris Basin 554–566.
(France). Marine and Petroleum Geology 53: 30–43. Svensen, H., Corfu, F., Polteau, S., Hammer, Ø., Planke,
[Link] S., 2012. Rapid magma emplacement in the Karoo
Przybylski, P.A., Ogg, J.G., Wierzbowski, A., Coe, A.L., large igneous province. Earth and Planetary Science
Hounslow, M.W., Wright, J.K., Atrops, F., Settles, E., Letters 325–326: 1–9.
2010. Magnetostratigraphic correlation of the Tivey, M.A., Sager, W.W., Lee, S.-M., Tominaga, M., 2006.
Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian boundary. Earth Planet. Origin of the Pacific Jurassic quiet zone. Geology 34:
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Rocha, R.B., Mattioli, E., Duarte, L.V., Pittet, B., Elmi, S., Tominaga, M., Sager, W.W., Tivey, M.A., Lee, S.-M., 2008.
Mouterde, R., Cabral, M.C., Comas-Rengifo, M.J., Deep-tow magnetic anomaly study of the Pacific
Gómez, J.J., Goy, A., Hesselbo, S.P., Jenkyns, H.C., Jurassic Quiet Zone and implications for the
Littler, K., Mailliot, S., Oliveira, L.C.V., Osete, M.L., geomagnetic polarity reversal time scale and
Perilli, N., Pinto, S., Ruget, C., Suan, G., 2016. The geomagnetic field behavior. Journal of Geophysical
Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Research B07110(113). [Link]
Toarcian Stage at the base of the polymorphum zone org/10.1029/2007JB005527 20 pp.
in the Peniche section (Portugal). Episodes in press. Tominaga, M., Tivey, M.A., Sager, W.W., 2015. Nature of
Ruhl, M., Deenen, M.H.L., Abels, H.A., Bonis, N.R., the Jurassic magnetic quiet zone. Geophysical
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constraints on the duration of the early Jurassic 1002/2015GL065394.
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Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen Websites (selected)
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans.
International Subcommission on Jurassic Stratigraphy
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104.
(of ICS)— [Link] on
Wierzbowski, A., Coe, A.L., Hounslow, M.W., Matyja, B.A.,
ratified GSSPs and status of future ones.
Ogg, J.G., Page, K.N., Wierzbowski, H., Wright, J.K.,
Jurassic of Russia and adjacent areas (maintained by
2006. A potential stratotype for the Oxfordian/
Mikhaile Rogov and colleagues) —[Link]
Kimmeridgian boundary: Staffin Bay, Isle of Skye,
[Link]/[Link]—extensive collection of
U.K. Volumina Jurassica 4: 17–33.
Portable Document Formats (PDFs), including scans
Wierzbowski, A., Matyja, B.A., 2014. Ammonite biostrati­
of difficult-to-find Russian papers; and hosting
graphy in the Polish Jura sections (central Poland) as
Callovian Working Group Website ([Link]
a clue for recognition of the uniform base of the
[Link])
Kimmeridgian Stage. Volumina Jurassica 12(1): 45–98.
The Jurassic Coast UNESCO World Heritage site; Dorset,
Wierzbowski, H., 2015. Seawater temperatures and
United Kingdom) —[Link]
carbon isotope variations in Central European basins
Volumina Jurassica (journal; published by Polish
at the Middle-Late Jurassic transition (Late Callo-
Geological Institute of the National Research
vian–Early Kimmeridgian). Palaeogeography,
Institute and the Faculty of Geology, University of
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440: 506–523.
Warsaw) —[Link]
Wotzlaw, J.-F., Guex, J., Bartolini, A., Gallet, Y., Krystyn, L.,
Palaeos: Jurassic—[Link]
McRoberts, C.A., Taylor, D., Schoene, B., Schltegger,
[Link]—A well-presented suite of diverse
U., 2014. Towards accurate numerical calibration of
topics for a general science audience that was
the Late Triassic: high-precision U-Pb geochronology
originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
constraints on the duration of the Rhaetian. Geology
42: 571–574.
 13
CRETACEOUS
96.6 Ma Cretaceous
Alaska ARCTIC
OCEAN

Eurasia
North
North
America China

Gulf of South
Mexico NORTH China
ATLANTIC Indochina
PACIFIC
Arabia
OCEAN Proto-
Caribbean
Sea Africa TETHYS OCEAN
South
America
Madagascar
India

Australia

Antarctica
CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Cenomanian paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 80 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and current Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary work-

international subdivisions ing group has used the distinctive magnetic
polarity pattern of the transitional interval to
The Cretaceous, named from “Creta” (Latin intercorrelate the main zonal schemes, pale-
for chalk), has 12 stages in 2 series (Fig. 13.1). ontological markers, and regional reference
The Cretaceous is the only system/period sections (Fig. 13.2). Therefore, in GTS2012,
of the Phanerozoic that has not yet been the base of reversed-polarity Chron M18r was
defined by a basal GSSP. Contributing factors used as a temporary boundary placement for
include the lack of any significant evolution- the base of the Berriasian stage (Wimbledon
ary or physical/chemical event on either the et al., 2011). The current boundary working
regional or global scale within the commonly group is favoring a slightly older level in the
used boundary interval, the challenge to cor- middle of Chron M19n at the “explosion” of
relate any biostratigraphic datum among small, globular Calpionella alpina (base of
paleogeographic provinces, and the divergent Calpionellid Zone B) in deep-shelf to pelagic
traditional working definitions within each limestones on either side of the former Tethys
province (e.g., review in Wimbledon, 2014). The seaway from modern Mexico to Iraq. Both
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 167
168  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

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 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  169

Figure 13.1 Cretaceous overview. Main markers or candidate markers for Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and
t

Points (GSSPs) of stages are detailed in text and in Fig. 13.5. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent of the rock-
record “stage”.) See text and Fig. 13.2 for Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary options. Coastal onlap and schematic sea-
level curve is modified from Haq (2014). The δ13C curve (with widespread anoxic events and the “Weissert” positive
excursion) is a synthesis of generalized trends with relative magnitudes: Berriasian through middle–late Aptian from
Föllmi et al. (2006) with early Aptian modifications from Renard et al. (2005); late Aptian to early Albian generalized
from Herrle et al. (2004) and Kennedy et al. (2014); middle and late Albian from Gale et al. (2011); Cenomanian through
Campanian from Jarvis et al. (2006); early Maastrichtian from Voigt et al. (2010, 2012); and late Maastrichtian from
Thibault et al. (2012); although values of the observed δ13C measurements are usually systematically offset among
different regions. The Late Cretaceous δ18O curve is a schematic merger from several sources: Late Cretaceous
from Norris et al. (2001) and Huber et al. (2002); early and middle Albian from Bottini et al. (2015); early Barremian
from Mutterlose et al. (2014); and the other intervals and estimates of tropical sea-surface temperatures derived from
those oxygen-18 values are modified from Veizer and Prokoph (2015). Estimates of tropical temperatures from the
tetraether index of 86 carbon atoms (TEX86) technique (Forster et al., 2007; Linnert et al., 2014) are significantly hotter.
PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standard; SST, sea-surface temperature.

options for a future international Tithonian– calpionellid Calpionellites darderi (base of

Berriasian stage boundary are shown on the calpionellid Zone E), which is recorded from
synthesis diagrams for the Jurassic and the Mexico to Turkey, is nearly coincident with
Cretaceous in this handbook. the base of the Tethyan ammonite Thurman-
niceras pertransiens Zone, is just below the
FAD of calcareous nannofossil Calcicalathina
Lower Cretaceous oblongata, and is used as the basal level in a
The Berriasian through Aptian stages of detailed cycle-scaling of the ammonite and
the Lower Cretaceous were originally derived other events through the entire Valanginian
from exposures in southeast France and adja- stage in southeastern France (e.g., Charbonnier
cent northwest Switzerland. Unfortunately, et al., 2013; Martinez et al., 2013). The lead-
the ranges for most of the fauna and micro- ing GSSP candidate that also enables a direct
flora thriving in the tropical ocean of this correlation to the magnetic polarity scale
Tethyan Realm during the Early Cretaceous (lower part of polarity Chron M14r) is near
did not extend into the colder Boreal Realm of Caravaca in southern Spain (Aguado et al.,
northwest Europe and other northern regions. 2000; ­ Cretaceous Subcommission section of
Nevertheless, the applications of strontium- and International Commission on Stratigraphy
­
carbon-isotope trends, calcareous nanno- [ICS] annual report, 2014).
fossils, and other methods have constrained Hauterivian: The leading GSSP candidate
correlations and aided in the decisions is the base of the Tethyan ammonite Acan-
for assigning these stage boundaries (e.g., thodiscus radiatus Zone in the La Charce
Reboulet et al., 2014; Mutterlose et al., 2014). section of southeastern France (Cretaceous
As of late 2015, only a GSSP for the Albian Subcommission section of ICS annual report,
Stage has been submitted for formal recogni- 2014). However, its precise correlation to the
tion of a Lower Cretaceous stage boundary. Boreal ammonite zonation is uncertain [e.g.,
The status of the probable biostratigraphic or compare Mutterlose et al. (2014) with Reboulet
other markers for the other stage boundaries et al. (2014)], and the calibration of this
are summarized in Figs. 13.1 and 13.5, and event to the magnetic polarity scale is not yet
briefly below: determined (e.g., Martinez et al., 2015).
Valanginian: The proposed GSSP marker Barremian: The proposed GSSP and
is the first appearance datum (FAD) of the primary marker is the FAD of the Tethyan
170  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

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Figure 13.2 Relative placement of selected markers for defining the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary among paleo-
geographic regions of the Sub-Mediterranean Tethys, Sub-Boreal (North Sea, Dorset), and Boreal (Nordvik, Russian
Platform) realms. Modified from Schnabl et al. (2015). In GTS2012, the preferred working definition was the base of
Chron M18r (Wimbledon et al., 2011); but the working group is currently favoring the base of the calpionellid C. alpina
Zone.
 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  171

Base of the Cenomanian Stage of the Cretaceous

System, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France.
Mont Risou N
Montélimar
Dieulefit Gap

Rhone
GSSP
Rosans

nce
Hyèges
Vergons

ra
Du
rd on Nice
Ve

GSSP Marseilles
Mediterranean
Sea
0 50km

N
4
D99
Col de

91
Palluel

GR
Risou

D425
Moydans
(A) D 25 4
9
D9 Mt. Risou
Rosans
Foraminifera Ammonites Nannofossils d13 C carb PDB 2 5
D3 La
Limestone 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 Baume
GSSP
FO common Thalmanninella globotruncanoides

-0m marker
FO Neostlingoceras oberlini, Mantelliceras mantelli,
Hyphoplites curvatus, Sciponoceras roto -30m

bed La Basse
Baume
LO Lechites gaudini, Stoliczkaia clavigera etc. -32m

e
an St.-André
Lid
FO Thalmanninella globotruncanoides -36m

D225
0
de-Rosans
1km (B)
FO Gartnerago theta -8m

-10

a b
Cenomanian

LO Staurolithites glaber -12m

-20
FO Calculites anfractus -40m
Cretaceous

-27m
FO Rotalipora tehamensis -48m

-30

GSSP GSSP
c
-40
FO Rotalipora gandolfi -40m
LO Rotalipora ticinensis -40m
Albian

-50

marl
better-cemented,
(C) weathering-resistant (D)
intervals in marls

Figure 13.3 GSSP for base of the Upper Cretaceous (base of Cenomanian Stage) at Mont Risou, southeastern
France. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of the planktonic foraminifera Thalmanninella
globotruncanoides (formerly Rotalipora globotruncanoides). FO, first occurrence; LO, last occurrence; PDB,
PeeDee Belemnite 13C standard. Photographs of the marker foraminifer were provided by Atsushi Ando.
172  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

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 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  173

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174  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

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Figure 13.4 (Continued)

 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  175

Cretaceous Time Scale

Planktonic Calcareous

Verteb.
Epoch/Age

Polarity
AGE Ammonite Zones

Chron
Foraminifera Nannofossils

Land
(Ma) (Stage) Tethyan Boreal CC NC Tethyan
131 Pseudothurmannia Simbirskites Rucinolithus
M5 ohmi variabilis terebrodentarius,
5 Ruc. windleyae
M6 Simbirskites 5 Lithraphidites
132 Lt
Balearites balearis marginatus bollii
M7 Hedbergella
Pleisiospitidiscus sigali /
Hauterivian M8 ligatus
Craspedodiscus gottschei
Hedbergella Speetonia colligata
133 Subsaynella sayni Milanowskia speetonensis delrioensis
M9
Lytico. nodosoplicatus
Speetoniceras inversum Lithraphidites Cruciellipsis
M10 bollii cuvillieri
134 Endemoceras regale 4
E Crioceratites loryi
Endemoceras noricum 4
134.7 Acanthodiscus radiatus Endemoceras amblygonium
M10N

No land-based vertebrate fossils in North America

Criosarasinella Eleniceraspaucinodum
135 furcillata
Eiffellithus striatus
Stolcoceras tuberculatum
Globuligerina
M11 Neocomites hoterivica
136 peregrinus
Dichotomites Tubodiscus
Lt verenae
M11A (common)
137 Valanginian Saynoceras Extinction of
M12 verrucosum
Prodichotomites Calpionellids 3 3
Karakaschiceras
138 M12A inostranzewi
Neocomites Eiffellithus windii
E M13 Polyptychites E
neocomiensiformis Calpionellites
139 139.4 M14
"Thurmanniceras" Platylenticeras/Paratollia darderi Calcicalathina
pertransiens Peregrinoceras albidum oblongata
Surites
140 M15 stenomphalus D3
L. hungarica
Subthurmannia
Lt boissieri Surites icenii
D2 Calpionellopsis
141 oblonga
M16 Hectoroceras kochi D1 Calpionellopsis
simplex
142 Berriasian T. carpathica 2 2
C (large var.)
Subthurmannia
M occitanica Runctonia runctoni
143 M17

144
E
Subcraspedites B Retecapsa
M18 lamplughi angustiforata
145.0 Berriasella jacobi Calpionella
145 Subcraspedites alpina 1 1 Nannoconus kamtneri,
preplicomphalus (intermediate N. steinmannii
145.7 var.)
M19
146 Jurassic Subcraspedites A
Durangites primitivus

Figure 13.4 (A, B, C, D): Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Cretaceous. (“Age” is the
term for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage.”) Marine macrofossil zones for Late Cretaceous are ammo-
noids and inoceramids of the Western Interior of North America (e.g., Cobban et al., 2006; with partial modification by
A. Gale, pers. comm., 2010; of North America). The Early Cretaceous ammonoid zones for the Tethyan realm (Sub-
Mediterranean province) and Boreal realm (Sub-Boreal province) are mainly modified from Reboulet et al. (2014).
An expanded listing of ammonoid zones with an explanation of each GTS2012 age calibration is in Ogg et al. (2012).
Selected microfossil zones are planktonic foraminifers (e.g., Petrizzo et al., 2012; Huber and Petrizzo, 2014; Coccioni
and Premoli Silva, 2015; among many other sources, including B. Huber and M.R. Petrizzo, pers. comm., 2011 and 2016)
and Early Cretaceous calpionellid zones (numbered-zone system of Remane, 1998). Early Cretaceous calcareous nan-
nofossil zones for the Tethyan (tropical) realm with selected zone/subzone markers are compiled from several sources,
including J. Bergen, P. Bown, J. Lees, and D. Watkins, pers. comm., 2007–15). Land vertebrate zones and markers
for North America are from Lucas et al. (2012); of which no fossil record exists for most of the lower Cretaceous.
Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are
compiled in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).
176  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

ammonite Taveraidiscus hugii at Bed 171 the coincides with the FAD of Thalmanninella
Rio Argos section near Caravaca in southern (formerly Rotalipora) globotruncanoides (Fig.
Spain (Cretaceous Subcommission section of 13.3), which is slightly earlier than the base of
ICS annual report, 2014). This event is dur- the ammonite Mantelliceras mantelli Zone.
ing the latter part of Chron M5n and ca. 0.7 The Turonian GSSP near Pueblo, Colorado,
myr after the onset of a regional “Faraoni” United States, coincides with the FAD of the
organic-enrichment episode that was accom- ammonite Watinoceras devonense.
panied by a small positive δ13Ccarb event Coniacian: The working group had pro-
(e.g., Martinez et al., 2012). posed a composite section for the GSSP
Aptian: The base of reversed-polarity candidate based on the FAD of the inocera-
Chron M0r at the Gorgo a Cerbara section in mid Cremnoceramus deformis erectus as the
the Umbria–Marche Basin in central Italy is primary correlation marker. This composite
the proposed Aptian GSSP (e.g., Patruno et al., would have merged the succession at Salzgit-
2015). This level approximately coincides with ter–Salder Quarry (Lower Saxony, Germany)
the base of the Tethyan ammonite Deshayes- where the boundary is condensed with a
ites oglanlensis Zone, is above the FAD of the more expanded boundary interval (but lim-
calcareous nannofossil Rucinolithus irregularis, ited to a narrow slice of stratigraphic time)
and is below a nannoconid crisis. at the Slupia Nadbrzena River cliff outcrop
Albian: A major turnover in planktonic (central Poland). Other candidate sections
fora­minifers, during which long-ranging in North America and Kazakhstan have con-
Aptian taxa are replaced by a brief episode of densed intervals with gaps, safety issues, or
minute-sized Microhedbergella, occurs at the other problems, with the possible exception
onset of a negative δ13Ccarb excursion and the of Big Bend in southwest Texas (Cretaceous
base of a widespread “Kilian” organic-rich Subcommission section of ICS annual report,
level in western Mediterranean sections (e.g., 2014).
Huber and Leckie, 2011; Huber et al., 2011). The Santonian: The GSSP for the Coniacian–
Albian GSSP that has been submitted for ratifi- Santonian boundary was ratified in 2013 to
cation (status in January 2015) is in the middle coincide with the local lowest occurrence of
of this Niveau Kilian at the Col de Pré-Guittard the inoceramid bivalve Platyceramus undu-
section in southeastern France, where it latoplicatus (called Cladoceramus undulato-
coincides with the base of the planktonic plicatus in the US Western Interior zonation),
foraminifer Microhedbergella renilaevis Zone above a significant inoceramid-barren inter-
(Petrizzo et al., 2012; Kennedy et al., 2014). val at the Cantera de Margas quarry near
This level is near the transition of the calcar- Olazagutia in the Navarra province of north-
eous nannofossil Prediscophaera columnata ern Spain about 8 km from the Bay of Biscay
from its subcircular to circular morpho­logy; (Lamolda et al., 2014). The lowest occurrence
although this lowest occurrence may be dia- of the planktonic foraminifer Globotruncana
chronous among regions (e.g., review by linneiana within the Dicarinella asymetrica
­Herrle et al., 2004). Zone is a secondary marker for the basal San-
tonian (Coccioni and Premoli Silva, 2015). In
chalk successions of Britain, the FAD of Platy-
Upper Cretaceous ceramus undulatoplicatus is near a δ13C stable
Four of the six Upper Cretaceous stages carbon isotope event called “Michel Dean”
have GSSPs. The primary marker for the (Jarvis et al., 2006), which may enable corre-
Lower–Upper Cretaceous boundary, the GSSP lation, but there is not yet an unambiguous
for the Cenomanian Stage at Mont Risou, carbon-isotope signature from the Olazagutia
 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  177

GSSP. The GSSP section lacks ammonites is considered to coincide with this reversal, is
in this interval; but in the North Ameri- constrained by radioisotopic and cyclostratig-
can Western Interior, this inoceramid FAD raphy at 84.19 ± 0.38 Ma (Sageman et al.,
marker is just below the base of the ammonite 2014); whereas the interpreted cyclostratig-
Clioscaphites saxtonianus Zone. If the inoc- raphy of the Bottaccione section relative
eramid FAD in North America is coeval with to the well-dated Cenomanian–Turonian
its local FAD at the Olazagutia GSSP, then the boundary would imply that the reversal is at
radioisotopic-dated cyclostratigraphy of the 83.06 ± 0.4 Ma (Sprovieri et al., 2013)—over
Western Interior implies an age assignment of 1.1 myr higher. Until these reported discrep-
ca. 86.49 ± 0.44 Ma (Sageman et al., 2014). ancies are resolved and the GSSP for the global
Campanian: There are two potential cri- Campanian is decided, we retain the working
teria as the main marker for the base of the equivalence of the bases of Chron C33r and of
Campanian: (1) The base of magnetic polar- the base of the ammonite S. leei III Zone with
ity Chron C33r, which is near the base of the the revised age of 84.19 ± 0.38 Ma (Sageman
ammonite Scaphites leei III Zone in the North et al., 2014).
American Western Interior, and is just above Maastrichtian: The level of the GSSP at
the last-appearance datum (LAD) of the plank- Tercis, France, does not have a specific marker,
tonic foraminifer Dicarinella asymetrica (base but is constrained by several biostratigraphic
of Globotruncanita elevata Zone), and near the datums and geochemical signatures. This
FAD of the nannofossil Aspidolithus parcus level is close to the radioisotopic-dated base
parcus (also called Broinsonia parca parca) in of the ammonite Baculites baculus Zone of the
Italian sections (e.g., review in Coccioni and Western Interior, which is in the age model for
Premoli Silva, 2015). (2) The extinction of the magnetic polarity time scale in GTS2012,
the pelagic crinoid genus, Marsupites, as projected to about 88% up in Subchron
re­presented by the LAD of Mar. testudinarius, C32n.2n. This correlation to the upper part
which has been the traditional placement in of Subchron C32n.2n was verified by detailed
the chalk facies of the English–Paris–northern carbon-isotope and microfossil calibration to
Germany basin and is observed worldwide magnetostratigraphy in pelagic sections (e.g.,
(reviewed in Gale et al., 2008). But these two Voigt et al., 2012; Thibault et al., 2012; and
criteria may have a considerable offset. A reviewed in Coccioni and Premoli Silva, 2015).
high-resolution carbon-isotope stratigraphic Cyclostratigraphy of Maastrichtian sections
comparison between the candidate GSSP sec- and ocean drilling cores have enabled high-
tion of Bottaccione near Gubbio in Italy and the resolution age assignments among different
main chalk reference section in northern Ger- regions (e.g., Thibault et al., 2012; Batenberg
many has been interpreted to imply that the et al., 2014).
option of the LAD of Mar. testudinarius occurs
near the top of polarity Chron C33r, rather than
near its base, which would imply a 3.5-myr off- Selected main stratigraphic
set in these two competing criteria (­Razmjooei
et al., 2014). However, other studies show nearly
scales and events
an exact equivalence between the base of As with the other chapters in this concise
Chron C33r and the extinction of Marsupites booklet, it was necessary to omit most details,
(e.g., A. Gale, written comm., Jan 2016). There is interesting aspects, and important article cita-
also a discrepancy in interpreted dating of the tions on these topics. The GTS2012 book has a
base of Chron C33r—the base of the ammonite more extended discussion and bibliography,
S. leei III Zone in the Western Interior, which as do the selected later articles that are cited.
178  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

(1) Biostratigraphy (marine; the Hawaiian lineations has been the standard
for relative durations of polarity chrons, and it
terrestrial) has been calibrated to numerous ammonite,
Ammonites, despite their ecological and calpionellid, calcareous nannofossil, stable-
facies restrictions, provide the primary refer- isotope, and other datums. Cycle-calibrated
ence scale for the majority of the Cretaceous in durations of polarity zones in some of these
each paleogeographic region (e.g., syntheses sections indicate a fairly constant spreading
in Lehmann, 2015; Lehmann et al., 2015; Ifrim rate for the Hawaiian magnetic lineations dur-
et al., 2015). The Lower Cretaceous standard is ing the Valanginian through Barremian (e.g.,
the Tethyan ammonite succession in the west- Sprovieri et al., 2006). In contrast, methods that
ern Mediterranean region with its revised and apply statistical techniques to partly normalize
enhanced zonal schemes developed by the relative polarity widths and minimize spread-
Kilian working group (e.g., Reboulet et al., 2014). ing rate changes during the Early Cretaceous
The Upper Cretaceous ammonite and bottom- and Late Jurassic for all Pacific global spreading
dwelling inoceramid bivalve successions of centers (Tominaga and Sager, 2010) or globally
the Western Interior is in a carbonate-to-marl (Malinverno et al., 2012) would require a ca.
facies with abundant radioisotopic-dated vol- 5-myr interval of relatively significant slower
canic ash beds and orbital-tuned cycles that (73%) spreading for those Hawaiian magnetic
are the basis for the Late Cretaceous age model lineations during much of the Hauterivian. If
(e.g., Sageman et al., 2014). that hypothesis is supported by reevaluations
Calpionellid microfossils are important of the published direct cycle-scaling of magne-
in pelagic carbonates of the upper Tithonian tostratigraphic sections, then it would imply a
through Valanginian, followed by dominance by longer duration for the Hauterivian stage than
pelagic foraminifers, which are a major biostrati- is currently derived from its correlation to the
graphic tool from the Cretaceous through Ceno- quasiconstant-spreading-rate Hawaiian refer-
zoic. Calcareous nannofossils are another main ence scale (e.g., Martinez et al., 2015).
constituent of the Cretaceous chalk (“creta”). A 40-myr “Cretaceous Quiet Zone” of
Dinoflagellate cysts are important in global cor- constant normal-polarity extends from the
relation of organic-rich marine deposits. early Aptian through the Santonian. The
Even though dinosaurs are the famous land- C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies
dwellers through the Cretaceous, there is only a spans the Campanian to the Present.
generalized “land-vertebrate age” division for
North America with poorly constrained correla-
tions to marine-based stages (Lucas et al., 2012).
(3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy
Despite important fossil-rich beds that provide and selected events
insights into the Cretaceous evolution of birds There are several major excursions, both
and mammals, most of these are only snapshots positive and negative, in carbon-isotope ratios
in time for a limited region. Only the uppermost during the Cretaceous that are important for
Cretaceous deposits in North America have an global correlation. Several of these are associ-
adequate record of local mammals to enable a ated with organic-rich black shales or other
general zonation of land-mammal ages. low-oxygen-influenced horizons in oceanic to
shelf settings (Fig. 13.1). The causes of these
main “oceanic anoxic events” (OAEs) are
(2) Magnetic stratigraphy thought to be massive releases of carbon diox-
The M-sequence of Early Cretaceous and ide by large igneous provinces. For example, the
Late Jurassic marine magnetic anomalies from early Aptian OA1a, called the Selli level in Italian
 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  179

exposures, and its initial negative δ13C excursion through Barremian was the M-sequence
is synchronous with the massive outpouring of magnetic polarity time scale (Hawai-
Ontong Java Plateau flood basalts in the Pacific ian pattern) with base of Chron M0r (base
at about 120 Ma (e.g., review by Erba et al., Aptian) as 126.3 ± 0.4 Ma (derived from
2015). A relatively high level of carbon dioxide the cycle-duration of Aptian–Albian rela-
during the Aptian through middle Campanian, tive to base-Cenomanian; and consistent
coupled with sequestering of calcium carbon- with U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar ages from Great
ate in the flooded continental interiors, resulted Valley and Ocean Drilling sites) and a lin-
in enhanced carbonate dissolution in deeper ear fit to spreading rates derived from five
waters and an elevated carbonate compensa- studies of cycle-durations on magneto-
tion depth (CCD) through much of this interval. stratigraphic intervals (e.g., Sprovieri et al.,
Even though the Cretaceous lacks docu- 2006); (2) Aptian–Albian cyclostratigraphy
mented glacial intervals, the trends in oxygen analysis of the Piobbico borehole in Italy
isotopes and localized suggestions of sea ice and of sections in southeastern France that
in high-latitude basins (e.g., possible ice-rafted calibrated a set of planktonic foraminifer
dropstones in Australia during portions of the and calcareous nannofossil datums and of
late Aptian–Albian) indicate that the sustained carbon-isotope events; in turn, constrained
greenhouse was interrupted by several cool by a 100.5 ± 0.4 Ma age for the base of Ceno-
intervals. The oxygen-isotope and temperature manian and 113.1 ± 0.3 Ma for the Aptian–
trends in Fig. 13.1 are a schematic generalization Albian boundary (e.g., Selby et al., 2009;
from several sources. In contrast, the interpre- Huang et al., 2010; Gale et al., 2011; etc.);
tation of tropical temperatures from the TEX86 (3) spline fit for an array of radioisotopic
(“tetraether index of tetraethers consisting of 86 dates and selected cycle-scaled durations
carbon atoms”) technique implies much higher of Cenomanian through early Campanian
temperatures (e.g., Forster et al., 2007; Linnert ammonite zones in the Western Interior
et al., 2014); indeed, at levels approaching those (e.g., Siewert, 2011, and a preprint of Siew-
interpreted to have been lethal to most land ert et al. “Geol. Soc. Amer. Bulletin, 2012 in
animals during the similarly hot Early Triassic. press”); and (4) cycle-scaled chrons of the
Strontium-isotope curves display major C-sequence for the Campanian through
progressive rises during the Berriasian Maastrichtian (and into Paleogene) (e.g.,
through Barremian and during the Conia- Husson et al., 2011).
cian through Maastrichtian. The compari- Following the publication of GTS2012,
sons of the high-resolution strontium curves some aspects of this age model required
among Tethyan, Boreal, and North American revision or have been questioned by other
Interior Seaway successions has enabled studies. As noted, the Late Cretaceous of
intercorrelation of those regional biostrati- GTS2012 had used “Siewert et al., GSA Bul-
graphic zonations (e.g., McArthur et al., 1994; letin, 2012 in press”, which when eventually
Mutterlose et al., 2014; etc.). published in 2014 (Sageman et al., 2014)
had incorporated enhanced radioisotopic
dating and cyclostratigraphy for some of
Numerical age model the ammonite and inoceramid zones and
associated stage boundaries. The scaling of
GTS2012 age model and potential Aptian ammonite zones is also constrained
future enhancements by an 40Ar/39Ar date of 114.9 ± 0.4 Ma near
The GTS2012 merged four main age the top of the Parahoplites nutfieldiensis
models and primary scales: (1) Late Jurassic Zone (Singer et al., 2015).
180  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

The derivation of the base-Aptian age of stages, and revision of some radioisotopic
126.3 Ma in GTS2012 has been examined dates required some slight modification of the
by Erba et al. (2015) who prefer an age of assigned ages from the GTS2012 age model.
121.5 Ma, thereby implying a 5-myr short- The revised-age scales used in these diagrams
ening of the Aptian Stage relative to the also have incorporated extensive revised bio-
cyclostratigraphy interpretations of the Piob- stratigraphic correlations within stages.
bico reference core. However, the older age is Cretaceous (Berriasian) base (145.7 ± 0.8 vs
currently supported by Ontong Java Plateau 145.0 ± 0.8 Ma in GTS2012): In GTS2012,
volcanism (124.3 ± 1.8 Ma; Chambers et al., a working definition of the base of mag-
2004, recalculated using 40Ar/39Ar monitor netic Chron M18r was used to place the
standards in GTS2012) that is considered Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary. Now, as
coeval with the lowermost Aptian car- detailed at the beginning of this chapter,
bon-13 excursion and by a U-Pb date of the current Jurassic/Cretaceous working
124.1 ± 0.2 Ma from volcanic beds within group is favoring a slightly older level in
the early Aptian calcareous nannofos- the middle of Chron M19n at the “explo-
sil Chiastozygus litterarius subzone NC6b sion” of small, globular Calpionella alpina
(­Shimokawa, 2010). There is also an appar- (base of Calpionellid Zone B). Therefore,
ent discrepancy in the Berriasian through both options are shown for the base of the
Barremian between 40Ar/39Ar dates from Cretaceous.
oceanic basalts drilled by the Ocean Drilling Hauterivian base (134.7 ± 0.7 vs 133.9 ± 0.6 Ma
Program (ODP) and U-Pb-dated bentonites in GTS2012): The published estimate that
from the Great ­Valley (e.g., Mahoney et al., the base of the Hauterivian is near the base
2005; ­Shimokawa, 2010; ­Pringle and Duncan, of Chron M10n (e.g., Weissert et al., 1998)
1995, as recalculated using 40Ar/39Ar monitor that was used in GTS2012 has been rejected
standards in GTS2012) and some new signifi- by later ammonite and cyclostratigraphy
cantly younger U-Pb dates from volcanic ash studies, which have converged on a dura-
beds in the Neuquén Basin of Argentina (e.g., tion of the Valanginian stage at its candi-
Vennari et al., 2014; Aguirre-Urreta et al.,
­ date GSSP sections for its upper and lower
2015; Schwarz et al., 2016). boundaries of 4.7 myr, with only its base
Until these incompatibilities are resolved calibrated to magnetostratigraphy (lower
by applying magnetostratigraphy and other Chron M14r) [e.g., Gréselle and Pittet, 2010;
verifications of the chronostratigraphic ages Gréselle, 2012; Martinez et al. (2013) as
of these important Argentina and other sec- revised by Charbonnier et al., 2013]. There-
tions and by additional radioisotopic dating fore, the base of the Hauterivian is placed
of the array of ODP basalts and Great Val- 4.7 myr younger than the base of the
ley bentonites, then the GTS2012 age model Valanginian (currently 139.4 ± 0.7 Ma, as
for the M-sequence polarity pattern and the in GTS2012); and the scaling of ammonite
associated magnetostratigraphic calibrations zones within the Valanginian and much
should be considered a working option. of the Hauterivian are according to those
studies. [NOTE: The Early–Late Hauteriv-
ian boundary is the base of the ammonite
Revised ages compared to GTS2012 Subsaynella sayni Zone; it was acciden-
The establishment of new GSSPs since tally drawn one zone lower in one of the
2011, changes in the preferred criteria from GTS2012 graphics; but text and table were
the working groups for some Cretaceous correct.]
 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  181

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Figure 13.5 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Cretaceous stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.
182  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

Albian base (113.14 ± 0.4 vs 113.0 ± 0.4 Ma in change between the earlier 2012 draft and
GTS2012): GTS2012 had used a working the 2014-published version is the deri-
placement for the Aptian/Albian bound- vation of an older age for the base of the
ary as the FAD of calcareous nannofossil Campanian; which now omits a relatively
P. columnata (base of Nannofossil zone young 40Ar/39Ar date from the regional
CC8 or NC8), which was the placement for “base Campanian” ammonite zone. How-
the boundary in the Piobbico core used ever, it must be emphasized that the Cam-
for cycle-scaling of calcareous nannofossil panian stage has not yet been defined by
and planktonic foraminifer zones (Huang an international GSSP.
et al., 2010), and was assigned in that study
above an organic-rich unit interpreted Estimated uncertainties on assigned
as the local manifestation of the Niveau
Kilian event of southeastern France. The ages on stage boundaries
proposed Albian GSSP in France is in the Radioisotopic dates that constrain the
middle of this Niveau Kilian bed (Kennedy Cretaceous timescale typically have an uncer-
et al., 2014). However, the correlation of tainty greater than 0.4 myr, when including
this level to U-Pb-dated tuffs near a similar external factors. In contrast, the durations
calcareous nannofossil datum in northern are considered to have an uncertainty of ca.
Germany (113.08 ± 0.14 Ma; Selby et al., 100-kyr (short-eccentricity cycle for those
2009) is uncertain, due to use of differ- stages that are scaled from cyclostratigraphy
ent taxonomic morphologies. [NOTE: and for many events within those stages).
The Early–Middle Albian is the base of The greatest uncertainty is on the floating
the ammonite Hoplites dentatus zone; it timescale for the Early Cretaceous stages, for
was accidentally drawn one zone lower in which there are not yet verified constraints
GTS2012 graphic; but text and table were from high-precision radioisotopic dates
correct.] with reliable international biostratigraphic
Coniacian base (89.75 ± 0.38 vs 89.8 ± 0.4 Ma correlations. Therefore, the GTS2012 age
in GTS2012—no significant change), model arbitrarily projected a ±0.5 to ±0.8 myr
­Santonian base (86.49 ± 0.44 vs 86.3 ± 0.5 Ma uncertainty for most of the “working defini-
in GTS2012), and Campanian base tions” for those yet-to-be-formalized stage
(84.19 ± 0.38 vs 83.6 ± 0.3 Ma in GTS2012): boundaries.
As explained earlier, the age model for
these Late Cretaceous stages was based
on an array of “2012, in press” radioiso- Acknowledgments
topic and cycle-stratigraphic calibrations This brief summary and update of the Cretaceous
from the North American Western Inte- chapter in GTS2012 was assisted by extensive discus-
sions during the past four years on placement of GSSPs
rior. However, when this publication was
and improved zonations within stages with numerous
eventually published (Sageman et al., colleagues, including (in alphabetical order) Elisabetta
2014), it included additional dates, revised Erba, Andy Gale, Chunju Huang, Brian Huber, Linda
biostratigraphic calibrations (and the use Hinnov, Steve Meyers, Brad Singer, and Bill Wimble-
of the inoceramid marker for the base of don. Andrew Gale and W. James Kennedy provided
advice on correlation of the Aptian–Albian boundary
the Santonian, rather than the ammonite
GSSP between Sub-Mediterranean and Sub-Boreal
marker), and other enhancements that realms. Brian Huber and Andy Gale reviewed an early
also changed some of the scaling of the draft and recommended many enhancements and
ammonite zones. The most significant updates.
 Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS  183

Selected publications Cretaceous Middle Cenomanian-Maastrichtian of the

Western Interior of the United States Based on
and websites Ammonites, Inoceramids, and Radiometric Ages. U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report, 2006-1250: 45 pp.
Cited publications Erba, E., Duncan, R.A., Bottini, C., Daniele, T., Weissert, H.,
Jenkyns, H.C., Malinverno, A., 2015. Environmental
NOTE: To keep the length of this chapter as short as
consequences of Ontong Java Plateau and Kerguelen
possible, only select publications were cited in this
Plateau volcanism. In: Neel, C.R., Sager, W.W., Sano, T.,
review with an emphasis on aspects of post-2011
Erba, E. (Eds.), The Origin, Evolution and Environ-
updates. Pre-2011 literature is summarized in the
mental Impact of Oceanic Large Igneous Provinces.
synthesis by Ogg et al. (2012) and in some of the
Geological Society of America Special Paper 511:
publications cited below.
271–303. [Link]
Aguado, R., Company, M., Tavera, J., 2000. The Berriasian/
Föllmi, K.B., Godet, A., Bodin, S., Linder, P., 2006. Interac-
Valanginian boundary in the Mediterranean region:
tions between environmental change and shallow
new data from the Caravaca and Cehegín sections,
water carbonate buildup along the northern Tethyan
SE Spain. Cretaceous Research 21: 1–21.
margin and their impact on the Early Cretaceous car-
Aguirre-Urreta, B., Lescano, M., Schmitz, M.D., Tunik,
bon isotope record. Paleoceanography 21: PA4211.
M., Concheyro, A., Rawson, P.F., Ramos, V.A., 2015.
[Link]
Filling the gap: new precise Early Cretaceous
Forster, A., Schouten, S., Moriya, K., Wilson, P.A., Sinninghe
radioisotopic ages from the Andes. Geological
Damsté, J.S., 2007. Tropical warming and intermittent
Magazine 152(3): 557–564. [Link]
cooling during the Cenomanian/Turonian Oceanic
org/10.1017/S001675681400082X.
Anoxic Event 2: sea surface temperature from the
Battenburg, S.J., Gale, A.S., Sprovieri, M., Hilgen, F.J.,
equatorial Atlantic. Paleoceanography 22: 1–14.
Thibault, N., Boussaha, M., Orue-Etxebarria, X., 2014.
Gale, A.S., Hancock, J.M., Kennedy, W.J., Petrizzo, M.R.,
An astronomical time scale for the Maastrichtian based
Lees, J.A., Walaszczyk, I., Wray, D.S., 2008. An
on the Zumaia and Sopelana sections (Basque country,
integrated study (geochemistry, stable oxygen and
northern Spain). Journal of the Geological Society 171:
carbon isotopes, nannofossils, planktonic foramin-
165–180. [Link]
ifera, inoceramid bivalves, ammonites and crinoids)
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184  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

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grated stratigraphy across the Aptian/Albian Astrochronology of the Valanginian–Hauterivian
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the Late Cretaceous: direct numerical age calibration E.J., Çaglar, M.K., Fözy, I., González-Arreola, C.,
of the Sr-isotope curve for the U.S. Western Interior Kenjo, S., Lukeneder, A., Raisossadat, S.N., Rawson,
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the subtropical North Atlantic. In: Kroon, D., Norris, a methane hydrate dissociation event and
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Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., Jurassic chart of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequence
(Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012, chronostratigraphic framework of European basins,
Elsevier Publication, pp. 793–853. (Overview with by Hardenbol, J., Thierry, J., Farley, M.B., Jacquin, Th.,
extensive details and graphics on the GSSPs of the de Graciansky, P.-C., and Vail, P.R. (coordinators)). In:
stages, the different marine macrofossil and de Graciansky, P.-C., Hardenbol, J., Jacquin, Th., Vail,
microfossil biostratigraphic scales, synthesis of P.R. (Eds.), Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy
radio-isotopic age and cyclo-stratigraphy constraint of European Basins, vol. 60, pp. 763–781 SEPM
as of 2011, and the astronomical tuning of the Special Publication.
magnetic polarity scale.). Sageman, B.B., Singer, B.S., Meyers, S.R., Siewert, S.E.,
Patruno, S., Triantaphyllou, M.V., Erba, E., Dimiza, M.D., Walaszczyk, I., Condon, D.J., Jicha, B.R., Obradovich,
Bottini, C., Kaminski, M.A., 2015. The Barremian and J.D., Sawyer, D.A., 2014. Integrating 40Ar/39Ar, U-Pb,
Aptian stepwise development of the ‘oceanic anoxic and astronomical clocks in the Cretaceous Niobrara
event 1a’ (OAE 1a) crisis: integrated benthic and Formation, Western Interior Basin, USA. Geological
planktic high-resolution palaeoecology along the Society of America Bulletin 126: 956–973. http://
Gorgo a Cerbara stratotype section (Umbria–Marche [Link]/10.1130/B30929.1.
Basin, Italy). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Schnabl, P., Pruner, P., Wimbledon, W.A.P., 2015. A review
Palaeoecology 424: 147–182. of magnetostratigraphic results in the Tithonian-
Petrizzo, M.R., Huber, B.T., Gale, A.S., Barchetta, A., Berriasian of Nordvik. (Siberia) and possible
Jenkyns, H.C., 2012. Abrupt planktic foraminiferal biostratigraphic constraints. Geologica Carpathica
turnover across the Niveau Kilian at Col de Pré-Guit- 66: 489–498. [and W.A.P. Wimbledon, written
tard (Vocontian Basin, southeast France): new commun., July 2015].
criteria for defining the Aptian/Albian boundary. Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Late Cretaceous Paleogeo-
Newsletters on Stratigraphy 45/1: 55–74. graphic Maps, PALEOMAP Atlas for ArcGIS, Volume 2,
Pringle, M.S., Duncan, R.A., 1995. Radiometric ages of the Cretaceous, Maps 16–22, Mollweide Projection.
basaltic lavas recovered at Lo-En, Wodejebato, MIT, PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, IL. [Link]
and Takuyo-Daisan Guyots, northwestern Pacific [Link]/11193387/Atlas_of_Late_Cretaceous_
Ocean. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Paleogeographic_Maps. [Link]
Scientific Results 144: 547–557. edu/11245383/Atlas_of_Early_Cretaceous_
Razmjooei, M.J., Thibault, N., Kani, A., Mahanipour, A., Paleogeographic_Maps.
Boussaha, M., Korte, C., 2014. Coniacian–Maastrich- Schwarz, E., Spalletti, L.A., Veiga, G.D., Fanning, C.M.,
tian calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and 2016. First U–Pb SHRIMP age for the Pilmatué
carbon-isotope stratigraphy in the Zagros Basin (Iran): Member (Agrio Formation) of the Neuquén Basin,
consequences for the correlation of Late Cretaceous Argentina: implications for the Hauterivian lower
stage boundaries between the Tethyan and Boreal boundary. Cretaceous Research 58: 223–233.
realms. Newsletters on Stratigraphy 47/2: 183–209. Selby, D., Mutterlose, J., Condon, D.J., 2009. U/Pb and
Reboulet, S., Szives, O., Aguirre-Urreta, B., Barragán, R., Re/Os geochronology of the Aptian/Albian and
Company, M., Idakieva, V., Ivanov, M., Kakabadze, Cenomanian/Turonian stage boundaries; implications
M.V., Moreno-Bedmar, J.A., Sandoval, J., Baraboshkin, for timescale calibration, osmium isotope sea water
186  Chapter 13 CRETACEOUS

composition and Re-Os systematics in organic-rich Voigt, S., Friedrich, O., Norris, R.D., Schönfeld, J., 2010.
sediments. Chemical Geology 265(3–4): 394–409. Campanian-Maastrichtian carbon isotope stratigra-
Shimokawa, A., 2010. Zircon U-Pb Geochronology of the phy: shelf-ocean correlation between the European
Great Valley Group: Recalibrating the Lower Creta- shelf sea and the tropical Pacific Ocean. Newsletters
ceous Time Scale (M.S. thesis) University of North on Stratigraphy 44: 57–72. [Link]
Carolina at Chapel Hill, p. 46. Also: Shimokawa, A., org/10.1127/0078-0421/2012/0016.
Coleman, D.S., and Bralower, T.J., 2010. Recalibrating Voigt, S., Gale, A.S., Jung, C., Jenkyns, H.C., 2012. Global
the Lower Cretaceous time scale with U-Pb zircon correlation of Upper Campanian-Maastrichtian
ages from the Great Valley Group. Geological Society successions using carbon-isotope stratigraphy:
of America Annual Meeting, Denver, 31 Oct–3 Nov development of a new Maastrichian timescale.
2010, Abstract, 160–7 [Link] Newsletters on Stratigraphy 45: 25–53.
gsa/2010AM/finalprogram/abstract_182413.htm. Weissert, H., Lini, A., Föllmi, K.B., Kuhn, O., 1998.
and T.J. Bralower, pers. commun., Nov. 2015. Correlation of Early Cretaceous carbon isotope
Siewert, S.E., 2011. Integrating 40Ar/39Ar, U-Pb and stratigraphy and platform drowning events: a
Astronomical Clocks in the Cretaceous Niobrara possible link? Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Formation. University of Wisconsin at Madison, p. 74 Palaeoecology 137: 189–203.
(M.S. thesis). Wimbledon, W.A.P., 2014. Warsaw remarks – Berriasian
Singer, B.S., Meyers, S.R., Sageman, B.B., Jicha, B.R., progress. Volumina Jurassica XII(1): 107–112.
Condon, D., 2015. Improving Cretaceous time scale Wimbledon, W.A.P., Casellato, C.E., Reháková, D., Bulot,
uncertainties via multi-collector 40Ar/39Ar dating. L.G., Erba, E., Gardin, S., Verreussel, R.M.C.H.,
Geological Society of America Abstracts With Munsterman, D.K., Hunt, C.O., 2011. Fixing a basal
Programs. 47(7): 172. [Link] Berriasian and Jurassic–Cretaceous (J-K) boundary – is
gsa/2015AM/webprogram/[Link]. there perhaps some light at the end of the tunnel?
Sprovieri, M., Coccioni, R., Lirer, F., Pelosi, N., Lozar, F., Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 117:
2006. Orbital tuning of a lower Cretaceous composite 295–307.
record (Maiolica Formation, central Italy). Pale-
oceanography 21: PA4212. [Link] Websites (selected)
2005PA001224.
Sprovieri, M., Sabatino, N., Pelosi, N., Batenburg, S.J., All Things Cretaceous (by Jen Aschoff, Montana State
Coccioni, R., Iavarone, M., Mazzola, S., 2013. Late University, as part of the DLESE Community Services
Cretaceous orbitally-paced carbon isotope stratigra- Project on Integrating Research in Education;
phy from the Bottaccione Gorge (Italy). Palaeogeog- ca.2009)—[Link]
raphy Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 379–380: tion/cretaceous/[Link]—an assortment of digital
81–94. resources for teaching.
Thibault, N., Husson, D., Harlou, R., Gardin, S., Galbrun, Palaeos: Cretaceous—[Link]
B., Huret, E., Minoletti, F., 2012. Astronomical cretaceous/[Link]—A well-written compen-
calibration of upper Campanian–Maastrichtian dium of many aspects of Cretaceous life, climate,
carbon isotope events and calcareous plankton tectonics, and other aspects for a general science
biostratigraphy in the Indian Ocean (ODP Hole audience that was originally compiled by M. Alan
762C): implications for the age of the Campanian– Kazlev in 1998–2002.
Maastrichtian boundary. Palaeogeography, Palaeocli- Cretaceous Publications (maintained by Mikhail Rogov
matology, Palaeoecology 337–338: 52–71. and colleagues)—[Link]
Tominaga, M., Sager, W.W., 2010. Revised Pacific [Link]—extensive collection of Portable Document
M-anomaly geomagnetic polarity time scale. Formats (PDFs), including scans of difficult-to-find
Geophysical Journal International 182: 203–232. Russian papers.
Veizer, J., Prokoph, A., 2015. Temperatures and oxygen Cretaceous Research (journal; published by Elsevier)—
isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans. [Link]
Earth-Science Reviews 146: 92–104. cretaceous-research/.
Vennari, V.V., Lescano, M., Naipauer, M., Aguirre-Urreta,
B., Concheyro, A., Schaltegger, U., Armstrong, R., There are also extensive Cretaceous pages
Pimentel, M., Ramos, V.A., 2014. New constraints on and links at Smithsonian Institution, Wikipe-
the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary in the High Andes dia, and other organizations.
using high-precision U-Pb data. Gondwana Research
26: 374–385.
 14
PALEOGENE
52.2 Ma Paleogene
Greenland

North
America Europe
Asia

PACIFIC
OCEAN Himalayas
Arabia
Africa India
South
America

SOUTH INDIAN
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Australia
OCEAN

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Early Eocene (Ypresian) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 120 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and and “few” + “new”]. Their component stages are
international subdivisions named after the locations of deposits in Den-
mark, Germany, England, Belgium, and France,
The Cenozoic Era had been traditionally except for the Priabonian stage of uppermost
divided either into the Tertiary and Quater- Eocene that was named after a location in
nary (“third” and “fourth”) periods or into the northern Italy. However, because most of those
Paleogene and Neogene (“old”- and “new”- deposits were delimited by unconformities at
“birth”) periods. In 2009, the International sea-level lowstands, all of the ratified Global
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) formally Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points
adopted a three-fold division—Paleogene, (GSSPs) are within uplifted marine deposits
Neogene, and Quaternary. in Tunisia, northern Spain, Egypt, and central
The Paleogene [palaios = old, genes = born] Italy. The GSSP levels were selected to coincide
of the Cenozoic [kainos = new, zoic = animal life] with global oxygen- or carbon-isotope excur-
is subdivided into the Paleocene, Eocene, and sions, magnetic polarity reversals, or calcareous
Oligocene epochs [respectively “old,” “dawn” nannofossil appearances (Figs. 14.1 and 14.6).

A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]

Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 187
188  Chapter 14 PALEOGENE

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 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  189

Figure 14.1 Cenozoic overview. Main markers or candidate markers for GSSPs of Paleogene, Neogene, and Quater-
t

nary stages are detailed in text and in Fig. 14.6, 15.4, and 16.6, respectively. (“Age” is the term for the time equivalent
of the rock-record “stage.” Abbreviation “Prec. Excursion 250 fr. Present” = orbital precession cycle excursion #250
before present). Mean sea-level curve (schematic between ca. 0 and 250 m) is modified from Hardenbol et al. (1998)
and does not show high-frequency oscillations during the Quaternary. Oxygen-isotope curve from benthic foramini-
fers and the carbon-isotope curve are derived from a nine-point moving window of recalibrated data from Cramer
et al. (2009). Subsets of named Oligocene–Miocene events from Boulila et al. (2011) based on definitions by Miller
et al. (1991, 1998) and additional calibrations by Pekar et al. (2002); and of named Paleocene–Eocene events after
Zachos et al. (2010), Westerhold et al (2008, 2014, 2015), and Dinarès-Turell et al. (2014) [CIE, carbon-isotope excursion;
EECO, early Eocene climatic optimum; ETM, Eocene thermal maximum; LDE, late Danian event; MECO, mid-Eocene
climatic optimum; PCIM, Paleocene carbon-isotope excursion maximum; PETM, Paleocene–Eocene thermal maxi-
mum; PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standards]. The vertical scale of this diagram is standardized to match the
vertical scales of the first stratigraphic summary figure in all other Phanerozoic chapters.

The base of the Cenozoic (base of Paleo- section in central Italy is a possible candidate.
cene) is placed at the catastrophic asteroid A former possible candidate at the Cape of
impact that terminated the majority of Meso- Oyambre in Cantabria, Spain, failed to yield
zoic species in the oceans and on land. The a magnetostratigraphy for that interval, but
GSSP of the Paleogene System/Period (Paleo- also indicated a questionable reliability of
cene Series/Epoch, Danian Stage/Age) at an planktonic foraminifer Zone E11, that had
exposure in Tunisia of that impact ejecta layer been presumed to span the boundary inter-
and the mass extinction of planktonic micro- val (Payros et al., 2015). The status is continu-
organisms was ratified by IUGS in 1991, but ously updated at the working group website
not formally published until 2006 (Molina ([Link]
et al., 2006, 2009) (Fig. 14.2). The age of this bartonian/).
impact has been dated from ash beds in Mon- Priabonian (uppermost Eocene): The
tana as 66.043 ± 0.043 Ma (Renne et al., 2013) candidate levels in central and northern
and occurs at a minimum in a short-eccen- Italy for the Middle/Late Eocene subepoch
tricity 100-kyr orbital–climate cycle (e.g., boundary focus on the double extinction in
Husson et al., 2014). The global ecosystems planktonic foraminifera of the distinctive
may have been already stressed by several “muricate” genus Morozovelloides and the
short cold episodes from the ongoing erup- large acarininids (Zone E13/E14 boundary)
tions of the Deccan Traps volcanic province in which occurred within 11 kyr in the middle
India (Renne et al., 2013; Schoene et al., 2014). (ca. 40% up) of magnetic polarity Subchron
The base of the Eocene (Fig. 14.3) is placed C17n.3n (Wade et al., 2012) and the acme of
at the onset of a pronounced negative excur- nannofossil Cribrocentrum erbae. The lead-
sion in carbon-13 and a PETM (Fig. 14.3). ing candidate for the GSSP is at the Alano
In contrast, the base of the Oligocene was di Piave section, located ∼80 km northeast
selected close to the onset of a major cooling of the historical Priabonian Stratotype in
event (Fig. 14.4). northeastern Italy. The position of this for-
As of 2015, three stages in the upper Eocene aminifer-zone boundary is lower than the
and Oligocene await international definition: provisional definition used in GTS2012 of
Bartonian (upper Eocene): The provisional the base of polarity Chron C17n.1n. The sta-
base for the Lutetian–Bartonian boundary tus is continuously updated at the working
is base of reversed-polarity Chron C18r (top group website ([Link]
of brief Chron C19n), for which the Gubbio working-group/priabonian/).
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Figure 14.2 GSSP for base of the Paleogene (base of Cenozoic Era, Paleocene Epoch, and Danian Stage) at the El Kef
section, Tunisia. The GSSP level coincides with the mass extinction of Cretaceous microfossils, with brief enrichment
in iridium (note that scale is logarithmic) and with a sudden negative shift in δ13Ccarb. Photograph (A) is from Ogg et al.
(2008) and stratigraphic data (C) are from Molina et al. (2006).
 %DVHRIWKH<SUHVLDQ6WDJHRIWKH3DOHRJHQH6\VWHPDW'DEDEL\D(J\SW

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Figure 14.3 GSSP for base of the Eocene (base of Ypresian Stage) at the Dababiya section, Egypt. The GSSP level
coincides with the onset of a major negative excursion in carbon isotopes. “CIE—PETM interval” refers to this
carbon-isotope excursion and associated Paleocene/Eocene boundary thermal maximum. Photograph and strati-
graphic data are modified from Aubry et al. (2007).
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Figure 14.4 GSSP for base of the Oligocene (base of Rupelian Stage) at the Massignano section, central Italy. The
GSSP level coincides with extinction of Hankeninidae foraminifers. (CP and NP are Paleogene calcareous nan-
noplankton zones, P and O/E are planktonic foraminifera zones). Photograph of the outcrop provided by E. Molina;
photograph of Hantkenina alabamensis provided by Brian Huber, and stratigraphic data based on Premoli Silva and
Jenkins (1993).
 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  193

Chattian (mid-Oligocene): The section Subcommission on Paleogene Stratigraphy).

at Monte Cagnero in central Italy had been Dating of volcanic ash beds bracketing
proposed as a candidate with the GSSP this level, coupled with an interpretation
assigned at meter level 188 to coincide of potential climatic cycles, yield an esti-
with the highest (last) common occurrence mated age of 27.8 Ma for this revised GSSP
(HCO) of planktonic foraminifer Chiloguem- candidate in lower Chron C9n (Coccioni
belina cubensis (base of Zone O5) (Coccioni et al., 2016; unpublished); however, that age
et al., 2008, 2013). That placement of the is ca. 0.5 myr older than on the Oligocene
HCO level was in the upper half of magnetic cycle-magnetic timescale of Pälike et al.
polarity Chron C10n at Monte Cagnero, and (2006) which had been used in GTS2012
below an oxygen-isotope cooling event Oi2a (Fig. 14.5A). Pending formal decision on
(Fig. 14.1) that is associated with a wide- the Chattian GSSP and reexamination of
spread sea-level lowstand (sequence bound- the astronomical tuning of the Oligocene
ary “Ch1”; Fig. 14.5). In GTS2012, the age of time scale by cycle stratigraphers, the place-
the Rupelian–Chattian boundary used the ment of the Rupelian–Chattian boundary
base of magnetic polarity Subchron C10n.1n by Vandenberghe et al. (2012) is retained
(near middle of Chron C10n; 28.1 Ma); which here (Fig. 14.5A). The current status of the
is close to the interpolated ages of 27.99 Ma Chattian GSSP candidate is at the working
from astronomical-cycle interpolation and group website ([Link]
of 28.27 ± 0.1 Ma from dating bracketing vol- working-group/chattian/).
canic ash beds in that Monte Cagnero sec-
tion. [The paleomagnetic sampling within
magnetic polarity zone C10n at Monte Cag-
nero does not yet have the resolution to
Selected main stratigraphic
resolve the brief C10n.1r subzone (Coccioni scales and events
et al., 2008).] The HCO of Ch. cubensis is com-
monly reported from a level within polarity (1) Biostratigraphy (marine; terrestrial)
zone C10n in the ocean basins. However, in Detailed intercalibrated datums and zones
some sites, the HCO is observed as high as for calcareous, siliceous, and organic-walled
the lower part of polarity zone C9n, approxi- microfossils have been compiled from micro-
mately 1 myr later, which led King and Wade paleontology studies of Cenozoic deposits
(2015) to suggest that these occurrences drilled from the ocean basins, continental
“question the legitimacy of the biostrati- shelves, and interior basins. The correlation
graphic utility of Chiloguembelina cubensis of these events to orbital–climate cycles and
as a reliable boundary marker for the early/ magnetic polarity chrons has been progres-
late Oligocene.” Nevertheless, following addi- sively enhanced (e.g., Wade et al., 2011; for
tional extensive sampling of foraminifer planktonic foraminifers). For calcareous nan-
abundances at Monte Cagnero, the pro- nofossils in low- to midlatitude settings, many
posed GSSP level using a revised “HCO” of the traditional markers were found dia-
concept was shifted 9 m upward to meter chronous or difficult to apply between basins;
level 197 (in lower part of polarity zone C9n) therefore, Agnini et al. (2014) assembled a
which is above the oxygen-isotope cooling new zonation which is diagrammed in Fig.
event Oi2a and would precede the cooling 14.5. For terrestrial deposits, the evolution
event Oi2b (Oligocene Glacial Maximum of and migratory exchanges of mammals on the
Van Simaeys, 2004) by ca. 0.5 myr (Coccioni distributed continents are used for different
et al., 2016, unpublished resubmission to regional scales.
194  Chapter 14 PALEOGENE

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 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  195

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 196  Chapter 14 PALEOGENE

Figure 14.5 (A, B): Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Paleogene. (“Age” is the term for
t

the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”; and subepoch groupings of these “ages” into “late,” “early” are informal
common usage.) Magnetic polarity zones are scaled to astronomical cycles (e.g., Vandenberghe et al., 2012; Westerhold
et al., 2015). Planktonic foraminifer zones and main markers are modified from Wade et al (2011; and pers. comm.).
Placement of proposed base-Chattian marker of last common occurrence (LCO) of Chiloguembelina cubensis relative
to magnetic polarity chrons of the Oligocene, hence the assigned age to Rupelian–Chattian boundary, is uncertain (see
text). Calcareous nannofossil “CN” zones and markers from Agnini et al. (2014) are shown together with the commonly
used Paleogene nannofossil (“NP”) zonation of Martini (1971). Land Mammal Ages of North America (NALMA) and
Europe (ELMA) are from the compilation by Hooker (in Vandenberghe et al., 2012). Major sea-level sequence boundar-
ies and highstands are from Hardenbol et al. (1998). Additional zonations, biostratigraphic markers, geochemical trends,
sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in Vandenberghe et al. (2012) and in the internal data sets
within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).

(2) Magnetostratigraphy the recognition of precursor episodes and of

a following series of early Eocene hyperther-
Beginning with the landmark papers by
mal events composing the EECO (e.g., reviews
Cande and Kent (1992, 1995) and Berggren
and calibrations to astronomical cycles in
et al. (1995), a high-resolution Paleogene time
Vandenberghe et al., 2012; Littler et al., 2014;
scale was derived by applying spreading-rate
Lauretano et al., 2015; Westerhold et al., 2014,
models to the C-sequence patterns of marine
2015). The general cooling trend of the Middle
magnetic anomalies, and then correlating
through Late Eocene is interrupted by a rela-
microfossil and other events to those polar-
tively brief MECO during the early Bartonian.
ity chrons in ocean drilling cores and land
In contrast, the Oligocene through Mio-
outcrops. In the past decade, a suite of more
cene benthic oxygen-isotope curve indicates
precise durations and ages for these polar-
recurrent cooling episodes (Oi-1 through
ity chrons have been derived from extensive
Mi-6), which seem to be of a semiperiodic
cyclostratigraphy studies; and this philosophy
nature (e.g., synthesis by Boulila et al., 2011).
begun by Berggren et al. (1995) is still the basis
Some of the major hyperthermal and cool-
for the age model for most Paleogene micro-
ing episodes and carbon-isotope excursions are
fossil events (e.g., Agnini et al., 2014).
shown on the Cenozoic time scale in Fig. 14.1.

(3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy and

selected events Numerical age model
The negative excursion in carbon-13 and a The entire Cenozoic timescale is based on
PETM at the base of the Eocene is also recorded the progressive recognition of Milankovitch
in deep-sea carbonates by a dissolution event orbital–climate cycles to tune reference sections
that is interpreted as a rise in the carbonate of oceanic sediments to precise astronomical
compensation depth (CCD). This release of calculations of the orbital and obliquity history
12C-enriched carbon dioxide and/or meth- of the planet Earth. Those reference sections of
ane and the resulting greenhouse warming is uplifted or cored deposits have magnetostratig-
considered to have been triggered by a main raphy and microfossil biostratigraphy.
eruptive phase of the North Atlantic Igneous In GTS2012, the placement for nearly all
Province. The identification of these PETM Paleogene events, including the bases of geo-
signatures in oceanic sediment deposits led to logic stages, were derived from the direct or
 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  197

indirect placement of biostratigraphic datums base of magnetic polarity chron C17n.1n

and zones relative to magnetic polarity chrons. was employed; and the revised astronomi-
The age model for those polarity chrons cal tuning would shift this to 37.4 Ma. How-
(Vandenberghe et al., 2012) was in three seg- ever, the current working group favors use
ments—(1) astronomical cycle tuning from of the last occurrence of the Morozovelloides
the base of the Miocene (set as 23.0 Ma) genus, which occurs in the middle of Chron
“downward” to the base of the Oligocene C17n.3n, therefore at 37.97 Ma in the current
(polarity Chron C13r) by Pälike et al. (2006), age model.
(2) cycle tuning of durations “upward” from The age assigned to the base of the Chat-
the base-Cenozoic (set as 66.0 Ma) through tian, provisionally set as the Chron 10n.1n,
early Eocene to polarity Chron C23n, and (3) may change when a GSSP definition has been
a bridge by interpolating a smoothed spread- decided (see previous discussion of the poten-
ing-rate spline applied to the seafloor marine tial shift to Chron 9n). In addition, as explained
magnetic anomaly record for middle through in the next chapter on the Neogene, the
late Eocene Chrons C22n through C13r. assigned 23.0 Ma for the Oligocene–Miocene
That temporary spline bridge for interpolat- boundary has not yet been verified by detailed
ing within the Eocene has now been replaced astronomical tuning; and, if it is revised, this
by astronomical-cycle tuning of the middle and may have minor impacts on the assigned ages
late Eocene from a suite of ocean drilling cores for many of late Oligocene events.
(Westerhold et al., 2014, 2015). This astronom- Future enhancements for the Paleogene
ical-tuned time scale for Chrons C22n through time scale include extending correlations to
C13r (used here) implied that the assigned ages the high-latitude oceanic realms and improv-
for events (including the provisional base of ing the correlations to terrestrial events and
the Bartonian stage) are shifted slightly from deposits on the different continents. The
the GTS2012 extrapolations (Fig. 14.5). recognition of the suites of hyperthermal and
cooling events from the deep-sea records,
Revised ages compared to GTS2012; when coupled with magnetostratigraphy, is
one important tool for these goals.
and potential future enhancements
Danian base (66.04 Ma): The mean age derived
by Renne et al. (2013) of 66.043 ± 0.43 Ma
Estimated uncertainties on assigned
for the Cretaceous–Paleogene bound- ages on stage boundaries
ary from a suite of U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar All Paleogene stage boundaries and mag-
dates has verified the GTS2012 estimate netic polarity zones, plus some of the marine
of 66.04 ± 0.05 Ma derived from the place- microfossil and calcareous nannofossil mark-
ment of the boundary within the astro- ers, have age assignments according to astro-
nomical-tuned age for magnetic polarity nomical tuning to calculated long-eccentricity
Chron C29r. (405-kyr frequency) and short-eccentricity
Bartonian base (41.03 vs 41.15 Ma in GTS2012): (ca. 100-kyr) cycles with additional precision
The revised astronomical tuning for the in the Oligocene through tuning to a full Mila-
provisional definition of the base of the Bar- nkovitch target curve that incorporates obliq-
tonian as the base of Chron C18r has shifted uity (ca. 40-kyr) and precession (ca. 20-kyr).
this chron age slightly younger by 0.1 myr. Most published calibrations do not explicitly
Priabonian base (37.97 vs 37.7 Ma in GTS2012): give uncertainties. None of the Paleogene
In GTS2012, a provisional definition of the stage boundary GSSPs is in a cycle-tuned
198  Chapter 14 PALEOGENE

reference section, but are correlated through Acknowledgments

stable-isotope or biostratigraphic markers. The compilation of this Paleogene summary relied
Therefore, ignoring the additional factors of heavily on the GTS2012 chapter by Noel Vandenberghe
the not-yet-formalized stage boundaries and and his colleagues and on microfossil/nannofossil cali-
possible Oligocene–Miocene boundary reca- brations from Bridget Wade, Paul Bown, and Erik
Anthonissen. Advice on improving the GTS2012 age
libration, it is probable that the uncertainty
model was from Thomas Westerhold, Frits Hilgen, and
for stage boundaries in the current compila- Linda Hinnov. Nöel Vandenberghe and Heiko Pälike
tion is ca. 50 kyr (one-half of a 100-kyr short- reviewed an early draft and provided updates on the sta-
eccentricity cycle). tus of the Chattian GSSP candidate.

GSSPs of the Paleogene Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Candidate section at Foraminifer, LCO of
Chattian Monte Cagnero, at meter level 188 Chiloguembelina
Urbania, central Italy cubensis
Base of a 0.5m thick, Foraminifer, LAD of
Rupelian Massignano, near 43°31'58.2"N greenish-grey marl Hantkenina and Episodes 16/3,
Ancona, Italy 13°36'03.8"E* bed, 19 m above 1993
base of section Cribrohantkenina

Foraminifer, LAD of
Candidate section at Morozovelloides and
Priabonian Alano di Piave, acme of nannofossil
NE Italy Cribrocentrum erbae

Candidate section at provisional: base of

Bartonian magnetic polarity
Gubbio, central Italy chronozone C18r
Gorrondatxe beach 167.85m above the Calcareous nanno-
Lutetian section near Getxo 43º22'46.47"N base of the Episodes 34/2,
Gorrondatxe section fossil,
FAD of
village, W Pyrenees, 3º00'51.61"W 2011
Spain in a dark marly level Blackites inflatus

Ypresian Dababiya, near 25º30'04.70"N* Base of Bed 1 in DBH Base of Carbon Episodes 30/4,
Luxor, Egypt 32º31'19.14"E* subsection Isotope Excursion 2007
(CIE)

43º17'58.4"N* 6.5m
above the base Base of magnetic
Thanetian Zumaia section, Episodes 34/4,
02º15'39.1"W* of
Member B of the polarity chronozone
northern Spain 2011
Itzurun Formation C26n

Selandian Zumaia section, 43º17'57.1"N* Base of the red marls 2nd radiation of
of the Itzurun nannofossil Episodes 34/4,
northern Spain 02º15'39.6"W* Formation Fasciculithes 2011

Reddish layer at the

Danian Oued Djerfane, west 36°09'13.2"N base of the 50cm Iridium geochemical Episodes 29/4,
of El Kef, Tunisia 8°38'54.8"E thick, dark boundary anomaly 2006
clay

* according to Google Earth

Figure 14.6 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Paleogene stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.
 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  199

Selected publications and Coccioni, R., Bellanca, A., Bice, D.M., Brinkhuis, H.,
Church, N., Deino, A., Lirer, F., Macalady, A.,
websites Maiorano, P., Marsili, A., Mcdaniel, A., Monechi, S.,
Neri, R., Nini, C., Nocchi, M., Pross, J., Rochette, P.,
Sagnotti, L., Sprovieri, M., Tateo, F., Touchard, Y.,
Cited publications Simaeys, S.V., Williams, G.L., 2008. Integrated
Only select publications were cited in this review stratigraphy of the Oligocene pelagic sequence in the
with an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. Umbria-Marche basin (northeastern Apennines,
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the Italy): a potential Global Stratotype Section and Point
synthesis by Vandenberghe et al. (2012) and in some (GSSP) for the Rupelian/Chattian boundary.
of the publications cited in the following. Geological Society of America Bulletin 120: 487–511.
Agnini, C., Fornaciari, E., Raffi, I., Catazariti, R., Pälike, [Link]
H., Backman, J., Rio, D., 2014. Biozonation and Coccioni, R., Montanari, A., Bellanca, A., Bice, D.M.,
biochronology of Paleogene calcareous nannofossils Brinkhuis, H., Church, N., Deino, A., Frontalini, F.,
from low and middle latitudes. Newsletters on Lirer, F., Macalady, A., Maiorano, P., McDaniel, A.,
Stratigraphy 47: 131–181. Marsili, A., Monechi, S., Neri, R., Nini, C., Nocchi, M.,
Aubry, M.-P., Ouda, K., Dupuis, C., Berggren, W.A., Van Pross, J., Rochette, P., Sagnotti, L., Sideri, M.,
Couvering, J.A., the Members of the Working Group Sprovieri, M., Tateo, F., Touchard, Y., Van Simaeys, S.,
on the Paleocene/Eocene Boundary, 2007. The Williams, G.L., July 1–7, 2013. Integrated stratigraphy
Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) of the Monte Cagnero pelagic sequence in the
for the base of the Eocene Series in the Dababiya Umbria-Marche basin (northeastern Apennines,
section (Egypt). Episodes 30: 271–286. Italy): A potential candidate for defining the Global
Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Flynn, J.J., 1985. Paleogene Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the Rupe-
geochronology and chronostratigraphy. In: Snelling, lian/Chattian boundary. STRATI 2013, Lisbon, p. 15.
N.J. (Ed.), The Chronology of the Geological Record. Ciencias da Terra, Numero Especial VII.
Geological Society Memoir 10, pp. 141–195. Coccioni, R., Montanari, A., Bice, D.M., Brinkhuis, H.,
Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Swisher III, C.C., Aubry, M.-P., Deino, A., Frontalini, F., Lirer, F., Maiorano, P.,
1995. A revised Cenozoic geochronology and McDaniel, A., Monechi, S., Pross, J., Rochette, P.,
chronostratigraphy. In: Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Sagnotti, L., Sideri, M., Sprovieri, M., Tateo, F.,
Aubry, M.-P., Hardenbol, J. (Eds.), Geochronology, Touchard, Y., Van Simaeys, S., Williams, G.L., 2016.
Time Scales, and Global Stratigraphic Correlation, 54, Proposal for Establishing the GSSP for the Base of the
pp. 129–212 SEPM Special Publication. Chattian Stage in the Monte Cagnero Section, Italy
Bice, D.M., Montanari, A., 1988. Magnetic stratigraphy of (revised GSSP proposal submitted 16 Jan 2016 to
the Massignano section across the Eocene/ International Subcommission on Paleogene
Oligocene boundary. In: Premoli Silva, I., Coccioni, Stratigraphy; 31 pp plus figures/tables).
R., Montanari, A. (Eds.), The Eocene/Oligocene (unpublished).
Boundary in the Marche-Umbria Basin (Italy). Cramer, B.S., Toggweiler, J.R., Wright, J.D., Katz, M.E.,
Aniballi, Ancona, pp. 111–117. Miller, K.G., 2009. Ocean overturning since the Late
Blow, W.H., 1969. Late middle Eocene to Recent Cretaceous: inferences from a new benthic forami-
planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy. In: niferal isotope compilation. Paleoceanography 24:
Bronnimann, P., Renz, H.H. (Eds.), Proceedings 1st PA4216. [Link]
International Conference on Planktonic Microfossils, Dinarès-Turell, J., Westerhold, T., Pujalte, V., Röhl, U.,
Geneva, 1967. 1. E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp. 199–422. Kroon, D., 2014. Astronomical calibration of the
Boulila, S., Galbrun, B., Miller, K.G., Pekar, S.F., Browning, Danian Stage (Early Paleocene) revisited: settling
J.V., Laskar, J., Wright, J.D., 2011. On the origin of chronologies of sedimentary records across the
Cenozoic and Mesozoic “third-order” eustatic Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Earth and Planetary
sequences. Earth-Science Reviews 109: 94–112. Science Letters 405: 119–131.
Cande, S.C., Kent, D.V., 1992. A new geomagnetic Hardenbol, J., Thierry, J., Farley, M.B., Jacquin, Th., de
polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Graciansky, P.-C., Vail, P.R., with numerous contribu-
Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical Research 97: tors, 1998. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequence
13917–13951. chronostratigraphic framework of European basins.
Cande, S.C., Kent, D.V., 1995. Revised calibration of the In: de Graciansky, P.-C., Hardenbol, J., Jacquin, Th.,
geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Vail, P.R. (Eds.), Mesozoic-cenozoic Sequence
Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical Stratigraphy of European Basins. SEPM Special
Research 100: 6093–6095. Publication 60: 763–781.
200  Chapter 14 PALEOGENE

Husson, D., Galbrun, B., Gardin, S., Thibault, N., 2014. Okada, H., Bukry, D., 1980. Supplementary modification
Tempo and duration of short-term environmental and introduction of code number to the low latitude
perturbations across the Cretaceous-Paleogene coccolith biostratigraphic zonation (Bukry, 1973,
boundary. Stratigraphy 11: 159–171. 1975). Marine Micropaleontology 5: 321–325.
Keller, G., Lindinger, M., 1989. Stable isotope, TOC and Pälike, H., Norris, R.D., Herrie, J.O., Wilson, P.A., Coxall,
CaCO3 record across the Cretaceous/Tertiary H.K., Lear, C.H., Shackleton, N.J., Tripati, A.K., Wade,
boundary at El Kef, Tunisia. Palaeogeography, B.S., 2006. The heartbeat of the Oligocene climate
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 73: 243–265. system. Science 414: 1894–1898.
King, D.J., Wade, B.S., 2015. The extinction of Chiloguem- Payros, A., Dinarès-Turell, J., Monechi, S., Orue-Etxebarria,
belina cubensis in the Pacific Ocean (Sites U1334 and Ortiz, S., Apellaniz, E., Martínez-Braceras, 2015. The
1237): implications for defining the base of the Lutetian/Bartonian transition (Middle Eocene) at the
Chattian. In: STRATI 2015 (2nd International Congress Oyambre section (northern Spain): implications for
on Stratigraphy; 19–23 July 2015, Graz Austria) standard chronostratigraphy. Palaeogeography,
Abstracts (Berichte des Institutes für Erdwissenschaften Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440: 234–248.
Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Band 21): 202. Pekar, S.F., Christie-Blick, N., Kominz, M.A., Miller, K.G.,
Lauretano, V., Littler, K., Polling, M., Zachos, J.C., 2002. Calibrating eustasy to oxygen isotopes for the
Lourens, L.J., 2015. Frequency, magnitude and early icehouse world of the Oligocene. Geology 30:
character of hyperthermal events at the onset of the 903–906.
Early Eocene Climatic Optimum. Climate of the Past Premoli Silva, I., Jenkins, D.G., 1993. Decision on the
11: 1795–1820. Eocene-Oligocene boundary stratotype. Episodes 16:
Littler, K., Röhl, U., Westerhold, T., Zachos, J.C., 2014. A 379–382.
high-resolution benthic stable-isotope record for the Renne, P.R., Deino, A.L., Hilgen, F.J., Kuiper, K.F., Mark, D.F.,
South Atlantic: implications for orbital-scale changes Mitchell III, W.S., Morgan, L.E., Mundil, R., Smit, J.,
in Late Paleocene–Early Eocene climate and carbon 2013. Time scales of critical events around the
cycling. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 401: Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Science 339: 684–687.
18–30. [Link] Robin, E., Rocchia, R., 1998. Ni-rich spinel at the
Martini, E., 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary Cretaceous-­Tertiary boundary of El Kef, Tunisia.
calcareous nannoplankton zonation. In: Farinacci, A. Bulletin de la Socièté géologique de France 169(3):
(Ed.), Proceedings of the II Planktonic Conference, 365–372.
Roma, 1969. Tecnoscienza, Rome, pp. 739–785. Schoene, B., Samperton, K.M., Eddy, M.P., Keller, G., Adatte,
Miller, K.G., Wright, J.D., Fairbanks, R.G., 1991. Unlocking T., Bowring, S.A., Khadri, S.F.R., Gertsch, B., 2014. U-Pb
the ice house: Oligocene-Miocene oxygen isotopes, geochronology of the Deccan Traps and relation to the
eustasy, and margin erosion. Journal of Geophysical end-Cretaceous mass extinction. Science 347: 182–184.
Research 96: 6829–6848. [Link]
Miller, K.G., Mountain, G.S., Browning, J.V., Kominz, Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Paleogene Paleogeographic
M.A., Sugarman, P.J., Christie-Blick, N., Katz, M.E., Maps (Mollweide Projection), Maps 8-15, PALEOMAP
Wright, J.D., 1998. Cenozoic global sea level, Atlas for ArcGIS, Version 2, Volume 1, the Cenozoic.
sequences, and the New Jersey Transect: results from PALEOMAP Project, Evanston, IL. [Link]
coastal plain and continental slope drilling. Reviews [Link]/11099001/
of Geophysics 36: 569–601. Atlas_of_Paleogene_Paleogeographic_Maps.
Molina, E., Alegret, L., Arenillas, I., Arz, J.A., Gallala, N., Van Simaeys, S., 2004. The Rupelian–Chattian boundary
Hardenbol, J., Von Salis, K., Steurbaut, E., Vandenbeghe, in the North Sea Basin and its calibration to the
N., Zaghbib-Turki, D., 2006. The Global Boundary international time scale. Netherlands Journal of
Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Geosciences 83: 241–248.
Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, “Tertiary,” Vandenberghe, N., Hilgen, F.J., Speijer, R.P., with
Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia: original definition and contributions by, Ogg, J.G., Gradstein, F.M., Hammer,
revision. Episodes 29(4): 263–273. O., Hollis, C.J., Hooker, J.J., 2012. The Paleogene
Molina, E., Alegret, L., Arenillas, I., Arz, J.A., Gallala, N., Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.,
Grajales, M., Murillo-Muñetón, G., Zaghbib, D., 2009. Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale
The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point 2012. Elsevier Publication, pp. 855–921 (A compre-
for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, hensive Paleogene overview, especially with
Paleogene, “Tertiary”, Cenozoic): auxiliary sections extensive details on marine microfossil and mammal
and correlation. Episodes 32(2): 84–95. biostratigraphy and on the age model compiled from
Ogg, J.G., Ogg, G.M., Gradstein, F.M., 2008. Concise Geologic cycle stratigraphy, plus graphics on the GSSPs of the
Time Scale. Cambridge University Press (177 pages). stages and the different biostratigraphic scales).
 Chapter 14 PALEOGENE  201

Wade, B.S., Pearson, P.N., Berggren, W.A., Pälike, H., Westerhold, T., Röhl, U., Frederichs, T., Bohaty, S.M.,
2011. Review and revision of Cenozoic tropical Zachos, J.C., 2015. Astronomical calibration of the
planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and geological timescale: closing the Middle Eocene gap.
calibration to the geomagnetic polarity and Climate of the Past. 11: 1181–1195. [Link]
astronomical time scale. Earth-Science Reviews 104: org/10.5194/cp-11-1181-2015. [Link]-past.
111–142. net/11/1181/2015.
Wade, B.S., Fucek, V.P., Kamikuri, S.-I., Bartol, M., Zachos, J.C., McCarren, H., Murphy, B., Röhl, U.,
Luciani, V., Pearson, P.N., 2012. Successive extinc- Westerhold, T., 2010. Tempo and scale of late
tions of muricate planktonic foraminifera (Morzovel- Paleocene and early Eocene carbon isotope cycles:
loides and Acarinina) as a candidate for marking the implications for the origin of hyperthermals. Earth
base Priabonian. Newsletters on Stratigraphy 45: and Planetary Science Letters 299: 242–249.
245–262. [Link]
org/10.1127/0078-0421/2012/0023.
Westerhold, T., Röhl, U., Raffi, I., Fornaciari, E., Websites (selected)
Monechi, S., Reale, V., Bowles, J., Evans, H.F., 2008. Subcommission on Paleogene Stratigraphy (ICS)—
Astronomical calibration of the Paleocene time. [Link] or [Link]
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology isps/—well-illustrated Website with extensive details
257: 377–403. of each stage, its GSSPs, including Portable Document
Westerhold, T., Röhl, U., Pälicke, H., Wilkens, R., Wilson, Formats (PDFs).
P.A., Acton, G., 2014. Orbitally tuned timescale and Palaeos: The Paleogene—[Link]
astronomical forcing in the middle Eocene to early [Link]—A well-presented suite of diverse
Oligocene. Climate of the Past 10: 955–973. http:// topics for a general science audience that was
[Link]/10.5194/cp-10-955-2014. originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
 15
NEOGENE
14.9 Ma Neogene
Greenland

Europe Asia
North
America
NORTH Tibetan
ATLANTIC Plateau
PACIFIC OCEAN Arabia India
OCEAN
Indonesia

South
America INDIAN
SOUTH
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
Australia
OCEAN

CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Antarctica

Middle Miocene (Langhian) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level + 80 m) from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and sequence boundary on continental margins

international subdivisions (Fig. 14.1).
The top of the Neogene was revised in
A Neogénique period was recommended in 2009 when the International Union of Geo-
1894 to the International Geological Congress logical Sciences (IUGS) ratified a Quaternary
to incorporate the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleisto- Period that encompassed a redefined Pleis-
cene epochs [respectively, “less,” “more,” and tocene Epoch beginning with the first major
“most” + “new”], and the “Recent” [now called episode of continental glaciation (base of the
Holocene, meaning “entire” + “new”]. Gelasian Stage) at ∼2.6 Ma (see Chapter 16 on
The base of the Neogene Period and Quaternary).
the Miocene Epoch (Aquitanian Stage) is The historical bases of the stages of the
defined by a GSSP in Italy (Fig. 15.1) that cor- Miocene and Pliocene were placed at major
responds to the base of magnetic polarity sequence boundaries on the European and
chron C6Cn.2n. At this level, the positive shift Mediterranean shelves. For global correlation
Mi-1 in oxygen isotopes marks the onset of a and dating, the GSSP levels for these stages
global cooling event and an associated major were placed in uplifted deep-marine carbonate
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 203
204  Chapter 15 NEOGENE

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Figure 15.1 GSSP for base of the Neogene (base of Miocene Epoch, base of Aquitanian Stage) at Lemme–Carrosio,
northern Italy. The GSSP level coincides with the lowest occurrence of calcareous nannofossil Sphenolithus capri-
cornutus and the base of magnetic polarity Chron C6Cn.2n. From Hilgen et al. (2012).
 Chapter 15 NEOGENE  205

successions in the Mediterranean region that Langhian (base of middle Miocene):

exhibited cyclic alternations of clay and/or The working definition for the Burdigalian–­
organic contents and were close to magnetic Langhian boundary in GTS2012 is the base
polarity reversals, oxygen-isotopic shifts, and/ of magnetic polarity Chron C5Br (15.97 Ma),
or microfossil datums (Hilgen et al., 2012; see which is near the lowest occurrence of the
Cenozoic summary Fig. 14.1). For example, the planktonic foraminifer Praeorbulina genus.
GSSP for the Pliocene was placed at the flood- Potential GSSP sections are at La Vedova beach
ing of the Mediterranean following the Mes- (northern Italy) and St. Peter’s Pool (Malta).
sinian salinity crisis, but its precise age was
determined from the orbital–climate cycles
and magnetic stratigraphy above that GSSP Selected main stratigraphic
(Fig. 15.2). Those lithologic cycles could be
correlated and tuned to Milankovitch insola- scales and events
tion curves for precise age control.
As of 2015, the bases of the Burdigalian and (1) Biostratigraphy (marine;
Langhian stages of lower Miocene have not terrestrial)
yet been formally defined, partly because the The extensive micropaleontology studies
examined land exposures do not have adequate of Cenozoic deposits drilled from the ocean
simultaneous preservation of reliable orbital– basins, continental shelves, and interior
climate cycles, magnetic stratigraphy, and basins have enabled the compilation of very
micropaleontology. Therefore, one alternative detailed intercalibrated datums and zones
under discussion is to use the detailed records for calcareous, siliceous, and organic-walled
in ocean drilling cores spanning the potential microfossils that are correlated to orbital–­
boundary intervals. climate cycles and to magnetic polarity
Burdigalian (lower Miocene): The Aqui- chrons. The main reference scales for calcare-
tanian–Burdigalian boundary in GTS2004 ous microfossils are summarized in Fig. 15.3,
and GTS2012 was provisionally placed at the including the low- to midlatitude calcareous
lowest occurrence of calcareous nannofos- nannofossil biozonation by Backman et al.
sil H­elicosphaera ampliaperta, which was (2012). For terrestrial deposits, the evolution
dated by astronomical cycles at Ceara Rise as and migratory exchanges of mammals on the
20.43 Ma (e.g., Hilgen et al., 2012) and is near distributed continents are used for different
the base of magnetic polarity Chron C6An.1r regional scales.
(20.44 Ma; used here). An older option for this
boundary is a level coinciding with the last
occurrence of planktonic foraminifer Paraglo- (2) Magnetostratigraphy
borotalia kugleri (base of zone M2; formerly Prior to the success of progressive high-
called N4) at 21.12 Ma; and younger options resolution astronomical tuning for dating
are levels to coincide with either the base of of marine deposits, the Neogene time scale
Chron C6r (20.04 Ma) or the lowest occurrence was largely based on applying spreading-rate
of calcareous nannofossil Sphenolithus belem- models to the C-sequence patterns of marine
nos at 19.03 Ma. No suitable land outcrops for magnetic anomalies (e.g., Cande and Kent,
this boundary interval have been identified in 1992, 1995; Berggren et al., 1995). In the pres-
the Mediterranean region; therefore, the work- ent Neogene scale, the ages and durations of
ing group is considering a definition that uses most polarity chrons are adjusted according
Ocean Drilling Program/Integrated Ocean to these cyclostratigraphy calibrations (e.g.,
Drilling Program (ODP/IODP) cores. synthesis by Hilgen et al., 2012).
206  Chapter 15 NEOGENE

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Figure 15.2 GSSP for base of the Pliocene (base of Zanclean Stage) at the Eraclea Minoa section in southwestern Sicily,
Italy. The GSSP level at the base of the Trubi Marl Formation coincides with the flooding of the Mediterranean following
the Messinian salinity crisis at the end of the Miocene and is positioned five precession-related cycles below the base of
magnetic polarity Chron C3n.1n. From Hilgen et al. (2012).
 Chapter 15 NEOGENE  207

(3) Stable-isotope stratigraphy and cycle, hence less than 10,000 years. An approxi-
mate correlation of marine Neogene events,
selected events isotopic excursions, and magnetic polarity
The past 34 myr of the Oligocene Epoch chrons to the astronomical time scale has been
through Neogene and Quaternary periods accomplished for most of the major marine
were a relatively cold “ice-house” interval. microfossil markers, and has enabled par-
The volume of the ice sheets at high lati- tial quantification of the diachroneity of taxa
tudes responded to orbital climate cycles. It appearances and extinctions among ocean
appears that the 1.2-myr modulation of the basins and climatic latitudes (Fig. 15.4) (e.g.,
amplitude of obliquity was a major control Backman et al., 2012).
on the medium-term oscillations of these ice
sheets. Intervals of reduced obliquity ampli-
tudes correspond to cooler climates (“Oi” and Revised ages compared to GTS2012;
“Mi” oxygen-isotope events during the Oligo- and potential future enhancements
cene and Miocene, respectively) and to low- Only a portion of the Early Miocene has
stands in global sea level (e.g., Boulila et al., not yet been fully tuned; and this presents
2011). These “Oi” and “Mi” isotope events an uncertainty on the estimated astronomi-
and simultaneous sequence boundaries on cal age for the base of the Miocene. The
continental shelves were superimposed on current age assignment for the Oligocene–
the long-term trends toward a mid-Miocene Miocene boundary of 23.03 Ma was based
warming followed by the pronounced global mainly on interpretations of obliquity-dom-
cooling from the Serravallian Stage through inated pelagic sediments from ODP Leg 154
early Pliocene (Cenozoic summary in Fig. on the Ceara Rise in the equatorial Atlantic
14.1). Most stage boundaries occur near one (e.g., Shackleton et al., 2000; Pälike et al.,
of these events. 2006a,b), but these deposits did not pre-
serve a magnetostratigraphy. Until the full
Numerical age model astronomical tuning is accomplished in con-
tinuous overlapping sections to the base of
A major international collaboration has the Miocene and into the upper Oligocene,
enabled the development of an astronomical including the polarity zones, there is the pos-
time scale for the variations of Earth’s orbital sibility of a small adjustment in the age of the
parameters that affect climate and the correla- Oligocene–­Miocene boundary (Hilgen et al.,
tion of variations in pelagic sedimentary suc- 2012; p. 963). This will slightly impact the age
cessions to these orbital–climate cycles. Indeed, model for the Early Miocene and Late Oligo-
this astronomical tuning of the Neogene time cene events.
scale has also improved the ages assigned to The main frontiers in Neogene strati­
the monitor standard used for argon–argon graphy, other than fixing the two remaining
(40Ar/39Ar) dating methods. The GSSP levels Miocene stage GSSPs, include compiling
for Neogene stages had been selected to cor- more precise time scales for terrestrial events
respond to a particular orbital–climate cycle, and deposits on the different continents and
therefore the uncertainty in their assigned extending correlations to the Arctic and high
ages is generally less than one-half–precession southern-latitude oceans.
208  Chapter 15 NEOGENE

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 Chapter 15 NEOGENE  209

Figure 15.3 Selected marine and terrestrial biostratigraphic zonations of the Neogene and Quaternary. (“Age” is the
t

term for the time equivalent of the rock-record “stage”; and subepoch groupings of these “ages” into “late,” “early” are
informal common usage.) Magnetic polarity zones are scaled to astronomical cycles (e.g., Hilgen et al., 2012). Planktonic
foraminifer zones and main markers are from GTS2012 (Hilgen et al., 2012; Anthonissen and Ogg, 2012); but the late
Pliocene details for PL4–PL5 between the Atlantic and Pacific basins have been omitted. Calcareous nannofossil “CN”
zones and markers from Backman et al. (2012) are shown together with the commonly used “NN” zonation of Martini
(1971). Land Mammal Ages of North America (NALMA) are from the compilation by Van Dam (in Hilgen et al., 2012).
Major sea-level sequence boundaries and highstands are from Hardenbol et al. (1998). Additional zonations, biostrati-
graphic markers, geochemical trends, sea-level curves, and details on calibrations are compiled in Hilgen et al. (2012)
and in the internal data sets within the TimeScale Creator visualization system (free at [Link]).

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Figure 15.4 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Neogene stages
(status as of early 2016). Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.
210  Chapter 15 NEOGENE

Acknowledgments sequence chronostratigraphic framework of

European basins. In: de Graciansky, P.-C., Hardenbol,
The compilation of this Neogene summary relied J., Jacquin, Th., Vail, P.R. (Eds.), Mesozoic-Cenozoic
extensively on discussions and the GTS2012 chapter on Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM
Neogene by Frits Hilgen and his colleagues. Special Publication 60, pp. 763–781.
Hilgen, F., Lourens, L.J., Van Dam, J.A., with contributions
by Beu, A.G., Boyes, A.F., Cooper, R.A., Krigsman, W.,
Ogg, J.G., Piller, W.E., Wilson, D.S., 2012. The Neogene
Selected publications and Period. In: Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.,

websites Ogg, G., (Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale

2012, Elsevier Publ., pp. 923–978. [A comprehensive
Neogene overview, especially extensive details and
Cited publications
graphics on the astronomical tuning and GSSPs of
Only select publications were cited in this review with the stages, and on the different marine microfossil
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. and terrestrial mammal biostratigraphic scales.]
Pre-2011 literature is well summarized in the Martini, E., 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary
synthesis by Hilgen et al. (2012) and in some of the calcareous nannoplankton zonation. In: Farinacci, A.
publications cited in the following. (Ed.), Proceedings of the II Planktonic Conference,
Anthonissen, D.E., Ogg, J.G., compilers, 2012. Cenozoic Roma, 1969. Tecnoscienza, Rome, pp. 739–785.
and Cretaceous biochronology of planktonic Pälike, H., Norris, R.D., Herrle, J.O., Wilson, P.A., Coxall,
foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils. In: H.K., Lear, C.H., Shackleton, N.J., Tripati, A.K., Wade,
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M., Ogg, G., B.S., 2006a. The heartbeat of the Oligocene climate
(Coordinators), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. system. Science 314: 1894–1898.
Elsevier Publ., pp. 1083–1127. Pälike, H., Frazier, J., Zachos, J.C., 2006b. Extended
Backman, J., Raffi, I., Rio, D., Fornaciari, E., Pälike, H., orbitally forced palaeoclimatic records from the
2012. Biozonation and biochronology of Miocene equatorial Atlantic Ceara Rise. Quaternary Science
through Pleistocene calcareous nannofossils from Reviews 25: 3138–3149.
low and middle latitudes. Newsletters on Stratigraphy Scotese, C.R., 2014. Atlas of Neogene Paleogeographic Maps
45: 221–244. (Mollweide Projection), Maps 1-7, PALEOMAP Atlas for
Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Swisher III, C.C., Aubry, M.-P., ArcGIS, Volume 1, the Cenozoic, PALEOMAP Project,
1995. A revised Cenozoic geochronology and Evanston, IL. [Link]
chronostratigraphy. In: Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Atlas_of_Neogene_Paleogeographic_Maps.
Aubry, M.-P., Hardenbol, J. (Eds.), Geochronology, Shackleton, N.J., Hall, M.A., Raffi, I., Tauxe, L., Zachos,
Time Scales, and Global Stratigraphic Correlation, J.C., 2000. Astronomical calibration age for the
SEPM Special Publication 54, pp. 129–212. Oligocene-Miocene boundary. Geology 28: 447–450.
Boulila, S., Galbrun, B., Miller, K.G., Pekar, S.F., Browning,
J.V., Laskar, J., Wright, J.D., 2011. On the origin of
Cenozoic and Mesozoic “third-order” eustatic Websites (selected)
sequences. Earth-Science Reviews 109: 94–112. Subcommission on Neogene Stratigraphy (International
Cande, S.C., Kent, D.V., 1992. A new geomagnetic polarity Commission on Stratigraphy [ICS])—[Link]
time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. [Link]/—excellent details of GSSPs, including Portable
Journal of Geophysical Research 97: 13917–13951. Document Formats (PDFs) (although, as of Mar 2016,
Cande, S.C., Kent, D.V., 1995. Revised calibration of the the site had not been enhanced since late 2013).
geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Palaeos: The Neogene—[Link]
Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical [Link]—A well-presented suite of diverse
Research 100: 6093–6095. topics for a general science audience that was
Hardenbol, J., Thierry, J., Farley, M.B., Jacquin, Th., de originally compiled by M. Alan Kazlev in 1998–2002.
Graciansky, P.-C., Vail, P.R., (with numerous Includes the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs that
­contributors), 1998. Mesozoic and Cenozoic now constitute the Quaternary Period.
 16
QUATERNARY
21000 Years Quaternary
Greenland
Ural Siberia
Mts.
Europe North
Turkey China
North
America Iran South
Tibet
Arabia China
India
Gulf of Indochina
Africa
Mexico

South
America
South
Africa
Madagascar Australia

Antarctica CR Scotese, PALEOMAP Project

Late Pleistocene (Last Glacial Maximum; ca. 21 ka) paleogeographic reconstruction (Sea level−120 m)
from Scotese (2014).

Basal definition and The Pleistocene will have four stages, of

international subdivisions which the lower two (Gelasian and Calabrian)
are formally defined by Global Boundary Stra-
The Quaternary is characterized by glacial– totype Sections and Points (GSSPs). The Holo-
interglacial cycles and by the evolution, migra- cene Epoch begins with the termination of the
tion, and increasing dominance of hominids. In Younger Dryas cold episode at ca. 11.7 ka and
2009, the International Union of Geological Sci- has three potential stages (Walker et al., 2012).
ences (IUGS) ratified the Quaternary Period to The Anthropocene has been proposed as an
begin with the first major episode of continental additional unit of epoch or stage status that is
glaciation near the base of the Gelasian Stage, characterized by the major role of humans in
dated as ca. 2.6 Ma. Prior to this formalization geologic, climatic, and evolutionary processes
of the Quaternary and required redefinition of on Earth.
its Pleistocene Series, the Gelasian had been the The 2015 status of the Quaternary series
uppermost stage in the Pliocene Series. and stages are compiled in a special volume of
A Concise Geologic Time Scale. [Link]
Copyright © 2016 James G. Ogg, Gabi M. Ogg, and Felix M. Gradstein. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 211
212  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

Quaternary International (Head et al., 2015), et al., 2012) (Fig. 16.2). This level is within the
especially the summary by Head and Gibbard upper part of the normal-polarity Olduvai
(2015a). The evolution of this Quaternary Chron C2n. This Calabrian Stage was rede-
time scale is detailed in Pillans and Gibbard fined by IUGS in 2011 to be the second stage
(2012). of the Pleistocene Series (Cita et al., 2012).
Third Stage of Pleistocene (unnamed;
“Ionian” is a regional marine stage name used
Pleistocene in the Mediterranean region, e.g., Cita et al.,
Gelasian: The base of the Quaternary Sys- 2006, and “Chiban” is a potential name if the
tem and Pleistocene Series was assigned to GSSP is in Japan): There is a major change
the previously ratified GSSP of Gelasian Stage in the oscillations of the Earth’s climate and
in Sicily that is just above “warm” Marine glacial systems between ca. 1.4 and 0.4 Ma as
oxygen-Isotope Stage (MIS) 103 and is 1 m mirrored in the δ18O values of benthic fora-
above the base of reversed-polarity Chron C2r minifera (reviewed by Head and Gibbard,
(Gauss–Matuyama polarity boundary) (Rio 2015b) (Fig. 16.2). The Early Pleistocene is
et al., 1998; Gibbard et al., 2010). This level characterized by frequent (41-kyr) and rela-
is slightly younger than the 2.6–2.7 Ma (MIS tively low-amplitude climate cycles respond-
104 and 110) onsets of the first major influx ing primarily to regular oscillations in Earth’s
of ice-rafted debris into midlatitudes of the tilt (obliquity). In contrast, the Middle and
North Atlantic, deposition of glacial till into Late Pleistocene is characterized by quasi-
midcontinent North America, and the major 100-kyr sawtooth climatic cycles. Within each
glacial-caused global sea-level sequence of these 100-kyr cycles, the cooling and glaci-
boundary and lowstand “Ge1” (e.g., Haug ation progressively increases to a maximum,
et al., 2005; reviews in Head et al., 2008 and then suddenly warms into a brief interglacial.
Ogg and Pillans, 2008). However, the Gelas- Within this transition, the Calabrian–Middle
ian GSSP with its near coincidence with the Pleistocene boundary” will have the base of
onset of the Matuyama Chron (Chron C2r) normal-polarity Brunhes Chron C1n as the
enabled an unambiguous and precise global primary marker for precise global correlation.
marker between continental and oceanic The middle of this polarity transition has an
deposits. Therefore, the Quaternary System age of 773 ka (Singer, 2014). Even though the
was defined by the ICS/IUGS at this estab- main land–sea correlation criteria and its dat-
lished Gelasian GSSP (Figs. 16.1 and 16.6). This ing have been decided, it has been a challenge
level has a recommended age from astronomi- to select a physical GSSP location that has
cal calibration of 2.588 Ma (Rio et al., 1998); both preserved the polarity reversal and has
but other estimates are 2.58 Ma based on its other secondary biological and geochemi-
relative position within that precession cycle cal markers (reviewed in Head and Gibbard,
(Gibbard and Head, 2009) or 2.60 Ma based 2015a). There are two candidate sections in
on revised 40Ar/39Ar dating of the underly- Italy and one in Japan. The two candidates in
ing Gauss–Matuyama polarity boundary as southern Italy are well correlated with cycle
2.61 Ma (Singer, 2014). stratigraphy. However, the Valle di Manche
Calabrian (2nd stage): The base of the Cal- section (Capraro et al., 2015), which has mag-
abrian Stage at its GSSP at the Vrica section netostratigraphy, spans only a narrow strati-
in Calabria of southern Italy is also at the top graphic interval compared to the expanded
of a sapropel (MPRS 176) that corresponds Montalbano Jonico section (Marino et al.,
to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 65/64 transi- 2015), which does not preserve magneto-
tion with an astronomical age of 1.80 Ma (Cita stratigraphy. The Chiba section near Tokyo in
 %DVHRIWKH*HODVLDQ6WDJHRIWKH3OHLVWRFHQH6HULHVRIWKH4XDWHUQDU\6\VWHP
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Figure 16.1 GSSP for base of the Quaternary (base of Pleistocene Series, base of Gelasian Stage) at Monte San
Nicola, Sicily, Italy. The GSSP level at the base of the marly layer overlying organic-rich “Mediterranean Precession-
Related Sapropel” (MPRS) 250 is just above the base of the Matuyama reversed-polarity magnetic chron (Chron C2r).
(Graphics modified from Rio et al., 1998; and from Pillans and Gibbard, 2012.)
214  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

Quaternary Time Scale

benthic 18O carb.
Epoch

AGE Age/Stage Polarity Geomagnetic (per-mille PDB) Hominid Species

(Ma) Chron excursions 5 4.5 4 3.5 3
Holo. Hilina Pali cooler warmer
Mono Lake 2
Laschamp
Late 4
Pleistocene
0.1
0.13
Post-Blake
Blake
5e
6

Homo erectus
Iceland Basin

Homo sapiens
0.2
Pringle Falls
8
0.3
Laguna del 10
Brunhes

Homo neanderthalensis
Sello (?)
C1n

0.4
12
Middle
Pleistocene
0.5
West Eifel 5 14
Big Lost
West Eifel 4
0.6
16

Homo heidelbergensis
West Eifel 2

Stage 17
Pleistocene

0.7
West Eifel 1 18
0.77

0.8 M-B Precursor 20

Paranthropus robustus
22
Homo antecessor

0.9 Kamikatsura
Santa Rosa
24
26
1 28
Jara-
millo Intra-Jaramillo 30
32
Matuyama

1.1
Punaruu 34
Calabrian
C1r

1.2 Cobb 36
Paranthropus boisei

Mtn.
Bjorn 38
Meseta del
1.3 Lago Buenos 40
Aires 42
Homo ergaster

44
1.4
46
48
Gardar
1.5 50

Figure 16.2 (Continued)

 Quaternary Time Scale
benthic 18O carb.

Epoch
AGE Polarity Geomagnetic (per-mille PDB)
Age/Stage Chron excursions Hominid Species
(Ma) 5 4.5 4 3.5 3
Meseta del cooler warmer
Lago Buenos
Aires 42

Homo ergaster
44
1.4
46
48
Gardar
50
Calabrian C1r 52
Gilsa 54
1.6
56
58
60
62
1.8
1.8 64
66
Olduvai
C2n
Pleistocene

68
Matuyama

Homo erectus

Paranthropus robustus
70
72
Pre-Olduvai
2
74

Paranthropus aethiopicus
76
Huckleberry
Ridge 78
80
Feni
82
2.2 Gelasian Réunion 84
?? 86
C2r

88

Paranthropus boisei
Australopithecus africanus
90
92
2.4 94
Homo habilis

Halawa
96
98
100
Australopithecus garhi
Homo rudolfensis

2.58 102
2.6
103
104
Pliocene

106
Gauss

Piacenzian Marine
C2An

Isotope
Stages

Figure 16.2 Pleistocene stages, marine isotope stages, and geomagnetic polarity chrons. Oxygen-isotope curve is
the benthic foraminifer δ18O stack of Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) with selected labeling of Marine Isotope Stages (MIS).
MIS with even numbers are cold intervals. Geomagnetic chrons and nomenclature of excursions are from Singer
(2014). The approximate ranges of major hominid species are modified from Catt and Maslin (2012). See Fig. 15.3 in the
Neogene chapter for selected marine microfossil zones and datums. PDB, PeeDee Belemnite 13C and 18O standard.
216  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

Japan (Kazaoka et al., 2015) does not appear Holocene Epoch. The GSSP of the Holocene
to have either of these drawbacks. was assigned to the level in Greenland ice
Fourth Stage of Pleistocene (unnamed; cores that records the beginning of this tem-
“Tarantian/Tarentian” is the regional Italian perature rise as indicated by an abrupt decline
marine stage, and “Eemian” is the regional in deuterium-excess values and other geo-
nonmarine interglacial stage name used in chemical and physical parameters (Fig. 16.4).
northern Europe): The beginning of the warm The banding from annual snow accumulation
Last Interglacial interval (marine oxygen- enables dating of the base of the Holocene
isotope substage 5e) at ca. 130 ka will be the as 11,700  ±  99 years before AD 2000; which is
placement of the “Middle/Upper” Pleistocene close to an uncalibrated 14C age of 10,000 years
boundary (Figs. 16.2 and 16.3). The IUGS had BP. This GSSP placement within an ice core
rejected a proposed GSSP level in a drillcore was ratified by IUGS in 2008.
documenting the beginning of the regional Middle: Standardized subdivisions of the
“Eemian” stage in pollen-rich freshwater Holocene are important for geomorphology
facies near Amsterdam (Litt and Gibbard, 2008) and geological hazard maps and for archeology
because it was not in a marine outcrop and and climatic history publications. The Holo-
other concerns about correlations (sum- cene Epoch has three proposed stages, which
marized in Head and Gibbard, 2015a). The are separated by the widely recorded major cli-
Fronte section of marine facies near Taranto matic excursions at 8.2 and 4.2 ka preserved in
(or Tarentum in ancient Roman) in southern ice and lake cores, cave speleothems, and arid
Italy records the global deglaciation as the facies (Walker et al., 2012; Head and Gibbard,
onset of a maximum flooding zone (Negri 2015a). The Lower–Middle Holocene stage
et al., 2015). Unfortunately, the facies of the boundary at the 8.2 ka cooling event is docu-
transition interval does not preserve the mented in Greenland ice cores by a pronounced
oxygen-isotope record of the base of MIS excursion toward lighter δ18O (Figs. 16.3 and
5e. Other possible GSSP placements for the 16.5); therefore, a GSSP might be placed in one
onset of this interglacial could be within of these cored intervals. The increased aridifi-
Antarctic ice cores that record the sharp rise cation associated with cooler North Atlantic
in atmospheric methane or within speleo- waters at 8.2 ka may have triggered the spread
thems from Asia (Head and Gibbard, 2015a). of early farmers and the Mesolithic–Neolithic
This fourth stage of the Pleistocene spans the transition in the Near East and Mediterranean
Last Interglacial and the progressive cooling Europe (Walker et al., 2012).
through the maximum of the Last Glacial Early: A widespread cultural disturbance
(Fig. 16.3). at ca. 4.2 ka from southern Asia through North
Africa appears to have been caused by a major
arid episode. The collapsing civilizations
Holocene include the pyramid-building Old Kingdom of
Early: The termination of the Last Gla- Egypt, the Akkadian empire of Mesopotamia,
cial was a multistep process, during which and the Harappan culture of the Indus valley
a warming trend was interrupted by a brief (Fig. 16.5). Aridity is recorded by geologic and
Younger Dryas cold episode, which was origi- cave speleothem deposits from North Amer-
nally named after the anomalous abundance ica to India (Walker et al., 2012). In contrast, it
of pollen in Europe from the Dryas octopetala seems that Europe became wetter, and China
flower that grows in cold climates. The Younger experienced severe flooding. A GSSP might
Dryas ended in a very rapid warming, which be potentially placed within the speleothem
is used as the definition for the base of the record in the Mawmluh Cave of northeastern
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Chapter 16 QUATERNARY  217
EODFN 'RPH)XMLPHGLXPUHVROXWLRQ \HOORZ >-XO\LQVRODWLRQDW 1VFDOHOLPLWVDUHWR:P @ EOXH *,63KLJKUHVROXWLRQ (SRFK
,FHFRUHUHFRUGVDUHIURPSDOHRFOLPDWRORJ\GDWDDQGJUDSKLFVDW12$$¶V1DWLRQDO&OLPDWH'DWD&HQWHU ZZZQFGFQRDDJRYSDOHRSDOHRKWPO

Figure 16.3 Late Pleistocene through Holocene ice core temperature trends and selected events. Temperature curves are smoothed degree-change
trends from the interpretation of ice-core records as archived at NOAA’s National Climate Data Center, rather than absolute temperatures. The high-
resolution ice-core record from the past 20,000 years of Greenland has been adjusted to smoothly overlap and continue the medium-resolution record
from Antarctica to the present. The Holocene Epoch begins at the rapid warming recorded in Greenland ice cores at 11,700 calendar years ago; the
proposed Early–Middle and Middle–Late Holocene stage boundaries are cooling excursions recorded in those ice-core records at 8200 and 4200 years
ago. Until the past ca. 4000 years, the averaged trends in global temperature also mirror most of the main oscillations in solar radiation received during
summer months in the high latitudes of the North Hemisphere; but then the predicted cooling from decreasing summer radiation has been partly offset
by rising atmospheric greenhouse gases.
218  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

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Figure 16.4 GSSP for base of the Holocene in the NorthGRIP ice core, central Greenland. The GSSP level at
1492.45 m depth corresponds to the end of the Younger Dryas cold spell. Visual stratigraphy of the NGRIP core
between 1491.6 and 1493.25 m depth obtained using a digital line scanner. In this photograph, the image is “reversed”
so that clear ice shows up black, and cloudy ice (which contains impurities such as micrometer-sized dust particles)
shows up white. The visual stratigraphy is essentially a seasonal signal and reveals annual banding in the ice. The
position of the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary at 1492.45 m is shown in the enlarged lower image. (Modified from
Walker et al., 2009; and Pillans and Gibbard, 2012.)
 Chapter 16 QUATERNARY  219

India, where the broad 4.2 ka event consists especially the massive testing in the 1950s, is
of two abrupt excursions at 4.3 and 4.1 ka a distinctive event of anomalous carbon-14
(Walker et al., 2012). ratios; but this AD1945 level occurs after some
of the main human-produced stratigraphic
“Anthropocene” deposits in much of the world.
The Working Group on Anthropocene (Sub-
Humans have become the most numer- commission on Quaternary Stratigraphy) is
ous large animal on Earth. They are now a working to resolve several questions: Should
major agent in modifying the land surface, in the geologic and stratigraphic significance of
replacing natural ecosystems with extensive human impacts be a distinct stratigraphic unit,
agriculture and other “invasive species,” and or is such a unit unnecessary (e.g., critiques by
in significantly altering atmospheric com- Walker et al., 2015; Klein, 2015; and others)?
position and climatic trends. The impacts of Should the Anthropocene have the status of a
humans have accelerated since the Industrial geologic epoch/series or of a stage within the
Revolution of the 1800s. The informal term Holocene Epoch? Can it be given a standard-
“Anthropocene” for this extensive influence on ized definition, or should it be an informal term
the Earth system was introduced by Crutzen applied to all human-influenced deposits?
and Stoermer (2000) and suggested as a geo- These and other questions are actively debated
logic unit by Crutzen (2002). The stratigraphic (e.g., volume edited by Waters et al., 2014).
and geological-mapping importance includes Regardless whether it is formalized, the con-
the direct humanmade deposits ranging from cept of the Anthropocene has both fascinated
pyramids to massive urban reworking of the and enlightened the general public about our
landscape and the indirect impacts on sedi- massive impacts on our Earth system.
ment production (e.g., Zalasiewicz et al., 2011,
2012), as well as erosion in the form of exca-
vation for mining or exploitation of resources.
Therefore, many stratigraphers have pro-
Selected main stratigraphic
posed to formalize the Anthropocene concept scales and events
as a stratigraphic unit with epoch/series rank
that is distinct from the Holocene Epoch (e.g., (1) Regional terrestrial stages
Walters et al., 2016). The major climatic oscillations and glacial
The deposition of significant humanmade advances and retreats are recorded in stacked
stratigraphic deposits and other impacts of successions of glaciogenic sediments, includ-
humans is not synchronous across the globe. ing diamictites, interbedded soil, and wind-
This diachroneity presents the main challenge blown loess layers, and other Quaternary
to designating a standardized base to the terrestrial and shallow coastal deposits.
Anthropocene concept in the geologic record These have been correlated through magne-
(e.g., Zalasiewicz et al., 2015). The initial pro- tostratigraphy, stable and radiogenic isoto-
posal assigned the beginning of the Anthro- pic stratigraphy, and other dating methods
pocene to the unnatural rise of atmospheric (reviewed with correlation charts in Pillans
carbon-dioxide levels during the early Indus- and Gibbard, 2012). The Subcommission on
trial Revolution (Crutzen, 2002); however, Quaternary Stratigraphy produce a series of
this is a gradual change that cannot be easily detailed Quaternary charts showing the sta-
recognized or assigned within stratigraphic tus of the correlation of these regional divi-
sections. The global marker of radioactive iso- sions and other stratigraphic events (http://
topes from the atomic bomb usage in 1945, [Link]/).
220  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

Holocene Time Scale

Greenland NGRIP Cultural Medi-
AGE Age/Stage 18O (per-mille PDB)
Europe Egypt Mesopotamia China
(ka) -39 -38 -37 -36 -35 -34 Stages terranean
Industrial Age Independ. States Republic
cooler warmer
Renaissance Ottoman Yuan, Ming,
Ice Qing Dynasties
Islamic Islamic rule
Rafting Sui, Tang,
1 Events AD Medieval Song
Byzantine
1.4 ka Dynasties
Dark Ages Byzantine Period Sasanian rule
Roman Period Roman
2 Late Roman Parthian rule Qin (Chin),
Han Dynasties
Holocene Celtic
Ptolemaic Hellenistic rule
Etruscian Persian rule
Late Period
2.8 ka Iron Age Iron Age
Third inter- Shang,
mediate Period Early Iron Age
3 Assyrian / Zhou
New Kingdom Late Babylonian Dynasties
Bronze Age Bronze Age period

Middle Kingdom Mid. Bronze Age

4
4.2 4.2 ka
Beaker Akkadian Longshan
Bronze Age Old Kindom
(pyramids)
Early Sumerian
Bronze Age Late Neolithic
5 Baden Early Dynastic

Protoliterate
(Uruk)
Protodynastic
5.9 ka Chalcolithic (Naqadan Dawenkou
6 Chalcolithic Neolithic
Middle (Copper Culture)
(Copper Age) (Impressed
Age)
Holocene Ware pottery) Late
Chalcolithic
(Ubaid)
7 Peilingang,
Yangshao,
Neolithic Neolithic Bashendi Early Hongshan,
pastorism Chalcolithic Daxi,
Neolithic (Halafian) Majiabang
8 8.2 ka (pre-pottery)
8.2 Samarra/Hassuna
Mesolithic-
Neolithic Pre-Pottery
transition Early Neolithic
Neolithic B (Dapenkeng)
9 (animal
domestication)
9.4 ka
Masara
Mesolithic Mesolithic
(Epipaleolithic) Pre-Pottery
10
Early Neolithic A
Holocene 10.3 ka
(early farming)
Mesolithic

11 11.1 ka Natufian Ordosian

(cereal
collecting)
11.78
Qadan
Gravettian
12 Younger Culture
Late Dryas Late
Epipaleolithic
Pleistocene Paleolithic
(Kebaran,etc.)
 Chapter 16 QUATERNARY  221

Figure 16.5 Holocene. Proposed stages, North Hemisphere climatic changes recorded in Greenland ice cores
t

(Seierstad et al., 2014), and selected intervals in regional human civilizations. The Holocene Epoch begins at the
rapid warming recorded in Greenland ice cores at 11,700  ±  99 years ago (relative to AD2000; or “b2k”); the proposed
Early–Middle stage boundary is the cooling excursion recorded in those ice-core records at 8200 years ago, and
Middle–Late boundary at 4200 years ago (Walker et al., 2012). Greenland NGRIP ice-core curve is the 20-years
average δ18O from Seierstad et al. (2014). [Note: A colder climate in Greenland is associated with a greater “snow-
out” of moisture before the storms reach the center of its ice cap (from where the ice cap was drill cored). Oxygen-18
is progressively removed during snowfall; therefore, the remaining moisture reaching central Greenland is more
depleted in Oxygen-18 (more negative in value).] Ice-rafting events in North Atlantic are from Bond et al. (1997).
Human civilization intervals in Eurasia (other than China) are generalized and modified from compilations by Sherratt
(1991), who advises that “Archeologists use a variety of terms to label the periods and areas which have been
important in the past, in a way which is often confusing – both to themselves and to the layman.” [These columns
and additional composites of global archeology intervals with documentation are available as a “Human Culture”
datapack for the TSCreator visualization system at [Link].]

relatives arrived in Eurasia and Homo neander-

(2) Biostratigraphy (marine; thalensis were their descendants. Homo sapi-
terrestrial) ens had one or more migration episodes out of
The extensive micropaleontology studies Africa at ca. 50 ka (Fig. 16.3), which profoundly
of Cenozoic deposits drilled from the ocean impacted the ecosystems of all the continents.
basins, continental shelves, and interior basins
have enabled the compilation of very detailed (3) Magnetostratigraphy, stable-
intercalibrated datums and zones for calcare- isotope stratigraphy, and selected
ous, siliceous, and organic-walled microfossils
that are correlated to orbital–climate cycles events
and magnetic polarity chrons. A selection of The Quaternary magnetic polarity pattern
the main marine reference scales are sum- has a dual system of nomenclature (Fig. 16.3).
marized in Fig. 15.3 in the Neogene chapter. The “C” chron terminology is associated
However, despite the major global climatic with the Cenozoic marine magnetic anomaly
changes, the Quaternary has very few reliable nomenclature; but the main polarity epi-
microfossil datums for correlation of its stage sodes are also named after important work-
boundaries or within those stages. ers in magnetic science (e.g., Gilbert, Gauss,
Terrestrial deposits record the evolution Matuyama, Brunhes) and the shorter polarity
and migratory exchanges of mammals across events after geographic locations (Olduvai,
the distributed continents through the Qua- Jaramillo, etc.). Superimposed on the polar-
ternary. Of these mammals, the development, ity chrons are many excursions of the mag-
inter-regional migrations, and impacts of dif- netic field during which the intensity of the
ferent hominid species have received particu- main dipole field either nearly vanished or
lar attention (e.g., review in Catt and Maslin, the Earth’s geomagnetic field briefly inverted
2012; among many others) (Fig. 16.2). The (reviewed in Singer, 2014). When these geo-
earliest record of migrations of hominids from magnetic excursions can be unambiguously
their main habitat in African savannas is the identified, they potentially enable high-reso-
ca. 1.8 Ma occurrence of Homo erectus at the lution global correlation horizons.
Dmanisi site in the Caucasus of Georgia fol- The main method for high-resolution
lowed by its arrival in southeastern Asia. At ca. correlations in oceanic and continental ice-
800 to 600 ka, the Homo heidelbergensis and its cap strata is the changes of oxygen-isotope
222  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

ratios in seawater or ice composition. Revised ages compared to GTS2012

Marine isotope stages (MIS) are based on
GTS2012 had used the estimated ages
oscillations in the δ18O in carbonate shells of
for stage boundaries according to the values
benthic foraminifera. Even-numbered peaks
published in the original GSSP documents.
(elevated δ18O values) are cold or glacial
The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigra-
intervals (Fig. 16.2). Frequent brief warm-
phy has fine-tuned some of the ages for these
ing events (Dansgaard–Oeschger events)
stage boundaries, and those revised values are
are superimposed on the last glacial cycle
used here to main consistency.
according to Greenland ice cores; and some
Quaternary (Gelasian) base (2.58 Ma vs.
of these warming events immediately follow
2.59 Ma in GTS2012): The base of the
horizons of ice-rafted debris in the North
Quaternary is at the base of the marly
Atlantic sediments (Heinrich Events) caused
later overlying sapropel MPRS 250.
by anomalous release of icebergs. Ice-rafting
“astrochronological age of sapropel MPRS
events also occur within the warm Holocene
250 (mid-point), corresponding to pre-
interglacial interval in the North Atlantic,
cessional cycle 250 from the present, is
but these are interpreted as cooling excur-
2.588 Ma (Lourens et al., 1996), which can
sions (Bond et al., 1997) (Fig. 16.5).
be assumed as the age of the boundary” (Rio
The eruption of the Toba volcano in Suma-
et al., 1998). However, Gibbard and Head
tra at 74 ka, the largest volcanic episode in
(2009) note that the GSSP is a partial-pre-
the Quaternary, deposited thick volcanic ash
cession-cycle above that sapropel, there-
throughout southeast Asia and caused a brief,
fore recommend a rounded astronomical
but major, cooling of global climate with
age of 2.58 Ma for the Quaternary GSSP.
probably severe impacts on regional homi-
This 2.58 Ma is used on charts by ICS, and is
nids (e.g., Storey et al., 2012). At ca. 40 ka,
adopted here to avoid confusion in scales.
the eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite
However, the Matuyama/Gauss reversal
centered at near Naples, Italy, the largest vol-
boundary, which is 1 m lower or ca. “20 kyr
canic episode in Europe in the past 200 kyr,
older” according to Rio et al. (1998) in the
deposited ashfalls from northern Africa to the
GSSP section, is independently calibrated
Russian Plain and may have been one factor
to oxygen-isotope records in ocean drilling
in the decline of the Homo neanderthalensis
cores and bracketed by recalibrated high-
population (e.g., Fitzsimmons et al., 2013;
precision radioisotopic dating in other sec-
Black et al., 2015).
tions that both indicate an age of 2.61 Ma
(Singer, 2014). Until this discrepancy is
Numerical age model resolved, the recommended age of 2.58 Ma
of Head and Pillans (2015), which is used
The GSSP levels for Pleistocene stages were on the current Quaternary charts of the
selected to correspond to a particular Milanko- Subcommission and of INQUA, is adopted
vitch cycle; therefore, the uncertainty in their here for consistency.
assigned ages according to astronomical calcu- Calabrian base (1.80 Ma vs. 1.806 Ma in
lations is generally less than one-half precession GTS2012): The base of the Calabrian Stage
cycle or less than 10,000 years. The Holocene at its GSSP at Vrica section in Calabria of
GSSP and its potential stages are calibrated to southern Italy is also at the base of a clay-
detailed paleoclimate records from ice cores of stone that overlies a sapropel (MPRS 176),
Greenland and from cored lake sediments with that has an astronomical-calibrated age of
uncertainties less than 100 years. 1.806 Ma at its midpoint (Cita et al., 2012).
 Chapter 16 QUATERNARY  223

GSSPs of the Quaternary Stages, with location and primary correlation criteria

Stage GSSP Location Latitude, Boundary Level Correlation Reference

Longitude Events
Anthropocene Major human impact
Series informal term awaiting possible formal definition on Earth’s surface

Upper Mawmluh Cave, 4.2 ka climate event

Holocene NE India

Middle NorthGRIP ice core, 8.2 ka climate event

Holocene central Greenland
End of the Younger Journal of
Lower Dryas cold spell,
NorthGRIP ice core, 75.10°N 1492.45m depth in which is reflected in a Quaternary
Holocene central Greenland 42.32°W Borehole NGRIP2 Science 24/1,
shift in deuterium 2009
excess values
Base of warm marine
isotope stage 5e,
Upper Taranto, Italy
Pleistocene before final glacial
episode of
Pleistocene
Chiba,, Japan; Brunhes-Matuyama
Middle Montalbano Jonico, magnetic reversal
Pleistocene Valle di Manche, Italy (base of Chron 1n)
base of the marine Top of Oldovai Episodes 8/2
Calabrian Vrica, Italy 39°02'18.61"N claystone overlying Subchron is about 1985
17°08'05.79"E the sapropelic marker 8 m above GSSP Episodes 35/3,
Bed 'e' 2012
corresponds to
Gauss/Matuyama
base of marly layer magnetic epoch Episodes 21/2,
boundary;
Gelasian Monte San Nicola, 37°08'48.8"N overlying sapropel precessional cycle 1998
Sicily, Italy 14°12'12.6"E* MPRS 250 with an Episodes 33/3,
age of 2.588 Ma 250 from the present, 2010
Marine Isotope Stage
103, with an age of
~2.58 Ma

* according to Google Earth

Figure 16.6 Ratified GSSPs and potential primary markers under consideration for defining the Quaternary stages
(status as of early 2016). (Details of each GSSP are available at [Link] [Link]
[Link]/Stratigraphy/gssp/, and in the Episodes publications.)

Therefore, after adjusting for the offset of which is the primary correlation marker for
the GSSP within that precession cycle, Cita the stage boundary (e.g., Singer et al., 2014).
et al. (2012) recommend a rounded age of
1.80 Ma, which is adopted here.
“Middle Pleistocene” base (773 ka vs. 781 ka Acknowledgments
in GTS2012): There is enhanced cycle- The compilation of this Quaternary summary relied
stratigraphy and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the extensively on discussions with Phil Gibbard, Martin
Matuyama–Brunhes polarity reversal, Head, Brad Pillans, Brad Singer, and Jan Zalasiewicz (in
224  Chapter 16 QUATERNARY

alphabetical order), and upon their detailed publications. Fitzsimmons, K.E., Hambach, U., Veres, D., Iovita, R.,
Phil Gibbard and Ann Jennison provided valuable recom- 2013. The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption: new data
mendations and edits on an early draft. on volcanic ash dispersal and its potential impact on
human evolution. PLoS ONE 8: e65839. http://
[Link]/10.1371/[Link].0065839 13 pp.
Gibbard, P.L., Head, M.J., 2009. IUGS ratification of the
Selected publications Quaternary System/Period and the Pleistocene Series/
Epoch with a base at 2.58 Ma. Quaternaire 20:
and websites 411–412.
Gibbard, P.L., Head, M.J., Walker, M., Alloway, B., Beu,
Cited publications A.G., Coltorti, M., Hall, V.M., Liu, J., Knudsen, K.-L.,
Only select publications were cited in this review with Van Kolfschoten, T., Litt, T., Marks, L., McManus, J.,
an emphasis on aspects of post-2011 updates. Partridge, T.C., Piotrowski, J.A., Pillans, B., Rousseau,
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A.D., Poirer, C., Galuszka, A., Cearreta, A., Edgeworth,
Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (ICS)—
M., Ellis, E.C., Ellis, M., Jeandel, C., Leinfelder, R.,
[Link] and
McNeill, J.R., Richter, [Link]., Steffen, W., Syvitski, J.,
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(10 pp).
International Union for Quaternary Research
Zalasiewicz, J., Williams, M., Fortey, R., Smith, A., Barry,
(INQUA)—[Link]—Subcommissions with
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reports/newsletters on paleoclimate, marine and
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terrestrial processes, humans and biosphere, and
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Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C.N., Williams, M., Barnosky, A.D.,
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Fairchild, I.J., Grinevald, J., Haff, P.K., Hajdas, I.,
About Archeology—[Link]
Leinfelder, R., McNeill, J., Odada, E.O., Poirer, C.,
Thousands of articles covering anthropology, ancient
Richter, D., Steffen, W., Summerhayes, C., Syvitski,
civilizations, art history, climate change, and other
J.P.M., Vidas, D., Wagerich, M., Wing, S.L., Wolfe, A.P.,
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 CMYK Color Code according to the Commission for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW), Paris, France

APPENDIX
Holocene

Ordovician (100/0/60/0) Silurian (30/0/25/0) Devonian (20/40/75/0)

(0/5/10/0)
(0/5/5/0) Tithonian (15/0/0/0) Upper Famennian (5/5/20/0) Ediacaran (0/15/55/0)
Neo-
Quaternary

Upper (5/10/35/0)
Upper (0/5/15/0) (30/0/0/0) Kimmeridgian (20/0/0/0) Frasnian (5/5/30/0) proterozoic Cryogenian (0/20/60/0)
(0/0/50/0)

(0/30/70/0)

Proterozoic (0/80/35/0)
“Ionian” (0/5/20/0) Oxfordian (25/0/0/0) Givetian (5/10/45/0) Tonian (0/25/65/0)

Jurassic (80/0/5/0)
Pleistocene Middle
(0/5/30/0) Calabrian (0/5/25/0) Callovian (25/0/5/0) (5/20/55/0) Eifelian (5/15/50/0) Stenian (0/15/35/0)
Meso-
Gelasian (0/5/35/0) Bathonian (30/0/5/0) Emsian (10/15/50/0) proterozoic Ectasian (0/20/40/0)
Middle
(50/0/5/0) Lower (0/30/55/0)
Piacenzian (0/0/25/0) Bajocian (35/0/5/0) Pragian (10/20/55/0) Calymmian (0/25/45/0)

M e s o z o i c (60/0/10/0)
Pliocene (10/30/65/0)
Neogene (0/10/90/0)

P r e c a m b r i a n (0/75/30/0)
(0/0/40/0) Zanclean (0/0/30/0) Aalenian (40/0/5/0) Lochkovian (10/25/60/0) Statherian (0/55/10/0)
Messinian (0/0/55/0) Toarcian (40/5/0/0) Pridoli (10/0/10/0) Paleo- Orosirian (0/60/15/0)
(10/0/10/0)
proterozoic
C e n o z o i c (5/0/90/0)

Tortonian (0/0/60/0) Pliensbachian (50/5/0/0) Ludlow Ludfordian (15/0/10/0) (0/75/30/0) Rhyacian (0/65/20/0)
Lower
Miocene Serravallian (0/0/65/0) (75/5/0/0) Sinemurian (60/5/0/0) (25/0/15/0) Gorstian (20/0/10/0) Siderian (0/70/25/0)
(0/0/100/0)
Langhian (0/0/70/0) Hettangian (70/5/0/0) Wenlock Homerian (20/0/15/0)
Neoarchean
(30/0/20/0) (0/40/5/0) (0/35/5/0)
Burdigalian (0/0/75/0) Rhaetian (10/25/0/0) Sheinwoodian (25/0/20/0)

Archean (0/100/0/0)
Triassic (50/80/0/0)
Upper

P h a n e r o z o i c (40/0/5/0)
P a l e o z o i c (40/10/40/0)
Aquitanian (0/0/80/0) Norian (15/30/0/0) Telychian (25/0/15/0)
(25/40/0/0) Mesoarchean (0/50/5/0)
Llandovery
P h a n e r o z o i c (40/0/5/0)
P h a n e r o z o i c (40/0/5/0)

Oligocene Chattian (0/10/30/0) Carnian (20/35/0/0) Aeronian (30/0/20/0) (0/60/5/0)

(40/0/25/0)
Paleogene (0/40/60/0)

(0/25/45/0)
Rupelian (0/15/35/0) Middle Ladinian (20/45/0/0) Rhuddanian (35/0/25/0) Paleoarchean (0/60/0/0)
Priabonian (0/20/30/0) (30/55/0/0) Anisian (25/50/0/0) Hirnantian (35/0/30/0) (0/75/0/0)

Bartonian (0/25/35/0) Olenekian (30/65/0/0) Upper

Eocene Lower (50/0/40/0) Katian (40/0/35/0) Eoarchean
(0/30/50/0) (40/75/0/0) (10/100/0/0) (5/90/0/0)
Lutetian (0/30/40/0) Induan (35/70/0/0) Sandbian (45/0/40/0)
Ypresian (0/35/45/0) Lopingian Changhsingian (0/25/20/0) Middle Darriwilian (55/0/35/0)
(0/35/30/0) (70/0/50/0) Hadean (30/100/0/0)
Permian (5/75/75/0)

Thanetian (0/25/50/0) Wuchiapingian (0/30/25/0) Dapingian (60/0/40/0)

Paleocene
(0/35/55/0) Selandian (0/25/55/0) Capitanian (0/40/35/0) Lower Floian (75/0/45/0)
The CMYK color code is an additive
Danian (0/30/55/0) Guadalupian Wordian (0/45/40/0) (90/0/60/0)
(0/55/50/0) model with percentages of Cyan,
Tremadocian (80/0/50/0)
Magenta, Yellow and Black. For
P a l e o z o i c (40/10/40/0)

Maastrichtian (5/0/45/0) Roadian (0/50/45/0) Stage 10 (10/0/20/0)

example: the CMYK color for Devonian
Furongian Jiangshanian (15/0/25/0)

Cambrian (50/20/65/0)
Campanian (10/0/50/0) Kungurian (10/45/40/0)
(30/0/40/0) (20/40/75/0) is a mixture of 20% Cyan,
40% Magenta, 75% Yellow and 0%
Cretaceous (50/0/75/0)

Upper Santonian (15/0/55/0) Cisuralian Artinskian (10/50/45/0) Paibian (20/0/30/0)

M e s o z o i c (60/0/10/0)

(35/0/75/0) Black. The CMYK values are the primary

Coniacian (20/0/60/0) (5/65/60/0) Sakmarian (10/55/50/0) Guzhangian (20/5/30/0) reference system for designating the
Turonian (25/0/65/0) Asselian (10/60/55/0)
Series 3 official colors for these geological units.
(35/5/45/0) Drumian (25/5/35/0)
Cenomanian (30/0/70/0) Gzhelian (20/10/15/0) Stage 5 (30/5/40/0)
Mississippian Pennsylvanian
Carboniferous (60/15/30/0)

Upper
(60/25/55/0) (40/10/20/0)

Albian (20/0/40/0) (25/10/20/0) Kasimovian (25/10/15/0) Stage 4 (30/10/40/0)

Series 2
Aptian (25/0/45/0) Middle Moscovian (30/10/20/0) (40/10/50/0) Stage 3 (35/10/45/0)
(35/10/20/0)
Barremian 30/0/50/0) Lower Bashkirian (40/10/20/0) Stage 2 (35/15/45/0)
Lower (45/10/20/0) Terreneuvian
(45/0/70/0) Upper (45/15/55/0)
Hauterivian (35/0/55/0) (30/15/55/0)
Serpukhovian (25/15/55/0) Fortunian (40/15/50/0)
Valanginian (40/0/60/0) Middle Visean (35/15/55/0)
(40/15/55/0) Color composition by J.M. Pellé (BRGM, France)
Berriasian (45/0/65/0) Lower Tournaisian (45/15/55/0)
(50/15/55/0) This chart was designed by Gabi Ogg
227
 228  APPENDIX
RGB Color Code according to the Commission for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW), Paris, France
Holocene

Ordovician0/146/112 Silurian 179/225/182 Devonian 203/140/55

254/242/236 Tithonian 217/241/247 Famennian 242/237/197 Ediacaran 254/217/106
254/242/224 Upper Neo-
Upper
249/249/127

Upper 241/225/157 Frasnian

Quaternary

255/242/211 Kimmeridgian 204/236/244 242/237/173 proterozoic Cryogenian 254/204/92

Proterozoic 247/53/99
179/227/238 254/179/66

Jurassic 52/178/201
Pleistocene "Ionian" 255/242/199 Oxfordian 191/231/241 Middle Givetian 241/225/133 Tonian 254/191/78
255/242/174 Calabrian 255/242/186 Callovian 191/231/229 241/200/104 Eifelian Stenian 254/217/154
241/213/118
Meso-

103/197/202
Gelasian 255/237/179 Bathonian 179/226/227 Emsian 229/208/117 proterozoic Ectasian 253/204/138

247/67/112
Middle
Piacenzian 255/255/191 128/207/216 Bajocian Lower 253/180/98 Calymmian 253/192/122
Pliocene 166/221/224 Pragian 229/196/104
Paleogene 253/154/82 Neogene 255/230/25

229/172/77
255/255/153 Zanclean 255/255/179 Aalenian 154/217/221 Lochkovian 229/183/90 Statherian 248/117/167
C e n o z o i c 242/249/29

Messinian 255/255/115 Toarcian 153/206/227 Pridoli 230/245/225 Paleo- Orosirian 247/104/152

230/245/225
proterozoic
Tortonian 255/255/102 Lower
Pliensbachian 128/197/221 Ludlow Ludfordian 217/240/223 247/67/112 Rhyacian 247/91/137

Precambrian
Miocene 66/174/208 Sinemurian 103/188/216 191/230/207 Gorstian

Mesozoic
Serravallian 255/255/89 204/236/221 Siderian 247/79/124

154/217/221
255/255/0

153/192/141
Langhian 255/255/77 Hettangian 78/179/211
Wenlock Homerian 204/235/209 Neoarchean
250/167/200

Archean 240/4/127
154/217/221

154/217/221
Burdigalian 255/255/65 Rhaetian 227/185/219 179/225/194 Sheinwoodian 191/230/195 249/155/193
Aquitanian 255/255/51 Triassic 129/43/146 Upper Norian 214/170/211 Telychian 191/230/207
189/140/195 Mesoarchean 248/129/181
Llandovery 247/104/169
Oligocene Chattian 254/230/170 Carnian 201/155/203 Aeronian 179/225/194
153/215/179
253/192/122 Rupelian 254/217/154
Middle Ladinian 201/131/191 Rhuddanian 166/220/181 Paleoarchean 246/104/178

Phanerozoic
Priabonian 253/205/161 177/104/177 Anisian 188/117/183 Hirnantian 166/219/171 244/68/159

Paleozoic
Phanerozoic

Upper
Phanerozoic

Eocene Bartonian 253/192/145 Olenekian 176/81/165 Katian 153/214/159

Lower 127/202/147 Eoarchean 230/29/140
253/180/108 Lutetian 252/180/130 152/57/153 Induan 218/3/127
164/70/159 Sandbian 140/208/148
Ypresian 252/167/115
Lopingian Changhsingian 252/192/178 Middle Darriwilian 116/198/156
Thanetian 253/191/111 251/167/148 Wuchiapingian 252/180/162 77/180/126 Dapingian Hadean 174/2/126
102/192/146
Permian 240/64/40

Paleocene
253/167/95 Selandian 254/191/101 Capitanian 251/154/133 Lower Floian 65/176/135
The RGB color code is an additive model
153/192/141

Danian 253/180/98 Guadalupian Wordian 251/141/118 26/157/111 Tremadocian of Red, Green and Blue. Each is indicated
51/169/126
251/116/92 on a scale from 0 (no pigment) to 255
Maastrichtian 242/250/140 Roadian 251/128/105 Stage 10 230/245/201 (saturation of this pigment). “Devonian
Furongian Jiangshanian (203/140/205)” indicates a mixture of 203
M e s o z o i c 103/197/202

Campanian 230/244/127 Kungurian 227/135/118 217/240/187 Red, 140 Green and 205 Blue.
179/224/149

Cambrian 127/160/86
The conversion from the reference
Cretaceous 127/198/78

Upper Santonian 217/239/116 Artinskian 227/123/104 Paibian 204/235/174

Cisuralian CMYK values to the RGB codes utilizes
166/216/74 Coniacian 204/233/104 239/88/69 Sakmarian 227/111/92 Guzhangian 204/223/170 Adobe® Illustrator® CS3’s color function of
“Emulate Adobe® Illustrator® 6.0” (menu
Turonian Series 3 Edit / Color Settings / Settings).
Paleozoic

191/227/93 Asselian 227/99/80 Drumian 191/217/157

166/207/134 ATTENTION: For color conversions using a
Cenomanian 179/222/83 Gzhelian
Carboniferous 103/165/153

204/212/199 Stage 5 179/212/146 program other than Adobe® Illustrator®, it is

Mississippian Pennsylvanian

Upper
103/143/102 153/194/181

191/208/186 necessary to conserve the reference CMYK,

Albian 204/234/151 Kasimovian 191/208/197 Series 2 Stage 4 179/202/142 even if the resulting RGB values are slightly
Middle Moscovian 179/203/185 153/192/120 Stage 3 different.
Aptian 191/228/138 166/199/183 166/197/131
Barremian 179/223/127 Lower
Lower 140/190/180 Bashkirian 153/194/181 Terreneuvian Stage 2 166/186/128
140/205/87 Hauterivian 166/217/117 Upper 140/176/108 Fortunian
179/190/108 Serpukhovian 191/194/107 153/181/117
Valanginian 153/211/106 Middle Visean 166/185/108
153/180/108 Color composition by J.M. Pellé (BRGM, France)
Berriasian 140/205/96
Lower This chart was designed by Gabi Ogg
128/171/108 Tournaisian 140/176/108
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

James G. Ogg (Professor at Purdue University, Felix M. Gradstein (Professor at Geology

Indiana, United States, and visiting professor Museum, Oslo University, Norway, and vis-
at China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, iting professor at University of Rio Grande
China) served as Secretary General of the do Sul, Sao Leopoldo, Brazil, the University
International Commission on Stratigraphy of Nebraska, United States, and the Univer-
(ICS) (2000–2008) and coordinated the ICS sity of Portsmouth, United Kingdom) was
stratigraphy information service (2008–2012). Chair of the International Commission on
His Mesozoic S ­ tratigraphy Lab group works Stratigraphy from 2000 to 2008. Under his
on aspects of climate cycles, magnetic polar- tenure, major progress was made with the
ity correlations, and integration of strati- formal definition of chronostratigraphic units
graphic information. Their TimeScale Creator from Precambrian through Quaternary. For
array of visualization tools for extensive data- his fundamental work with regard to the geo-
bases in global and regional Earth history logic timescale and stratigraphy, micropale-
([Link]) was used to generate ontology, and geochronology in general, the
many of the diagrams in this book. European Geosciences Union awarded him
in 2010 the Jean Baptiste Lamarck Medal. He
Gabi M. Ogg applied micropaleontology to teaches applied biostratigraphy and paleoen-
Jurassic–Cretaceous correlations before con- vironment courses and is the current Chair of
centrating on public outreach in geosciences. the Geologic TimeScale Foundation (http://
In addition to co-authoring the Concise Geo- [Link]).
logic TimeScale (GTS2008) book, she was a
coordinator of GTS2012 and produced most
of its extensive array of graphics. She is the
webmaster for the Geologic TimeScale Foun-
dation ([Link]
edu) and for the TimeScale Creator visualiza-
tion and database suites ([Link]),
and has produced numerous posters and
time scale cards for public audiences.

Felix Gradstein (left) and James Ogg (right) on Isle of

Portland, Dorset, England.

229
INDEX

‘Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.’

A Bashkirian, 103f, 105f–106f numerical age model, 107–110

Aalenian, 152f, 155f, 159–160, Bathonian, 154, 161 stable-isotope stratigraphy
163 Benthic Foraminifers, 101, 104, and selected events, 107
Aeronian Stage, 72–74 121, 213f, 221–222 Carnian, 133f, 135f, 137, 138f,
Age 2, 42f, 48f–49f Berriasian, 161–163, 167–169, 139, 142f–143f, 143, 145,
Age 3, 42f, 48f–49f 168f–169f, 180 146f
Age 4, 42f, 48f–49f Burdigalian, 205 Cenomanian, 167f, 171f, 176,
Age 5, 42f, 48f–49f 179
Age 10, 42f, 48f–49f C Cenozoic, 5, 187, 188f–190f, 189,
Agnostoids, 42f, 45–47, 46f Calabrian, 212 196–197, 221
Albian, 176 Calcareous nannofossils, 169, Cerebrosphaera buickii, 34
Amazonian Period, 16–17 176, 178–180, 182, 193, Changhsingian, 127
Ammonites, 141f, 144, 154–156, 194f–196f, 204f, 205, Chattian, 193
160, 176–180 208f–209f Chitinozoans, 59, 62f–64f,
Ammonoids, 87–94, 104, Calcareous nannoplankton, 192f 77f–79f
105f–106f, 123f–125f, Callovian, 154 Chronostratigraphy, 4, 99
133–137, 157f–159f, Calpionellid microfossils, 178 Cisuralian, 117, 118f, 122
172f–175f Calymmian, 22t, 24f Conchostracans, 140f–143f
Ancyrodella rotundiloba Cambrian, 42f, 46f, 48f–49f, 52f Coniacian, 6t, 176, 182
pristina, 87 basal definition, 41–47 Constrained optimization
Anisian, 134–137 biostratigraphy and major methods (CONOP), 65
Anthropocene, 219 trends, 47 Copernican Period, 12
Aptian, 159, 168f–169f, 176, magnetostratigraphy, 47–51 Cretaceous, 161–163, 168f–170f,
178–179 numerical age model, 51–53 172f–175f, 181f
Aquitanian, 203, 204f stable-isotope stratigraphy, basal definition, 167–177
Archaeocyathid Extinction 47–51 biostratigraphy, 178
Carbon-isotope status of international international subdivisions,
Excursion (AECE), 50 subdivisions, 41–47 167–177
Archaeocyathids, 43–45, 47, Cambrian Arthropod Radiation magnetic stratigraphy, 178
48f–49f isotope Excursion numerical age model, 179–182
Archean, 19f, 23 (CARE), 50 stable-isotope stratigraphy
Artinskian, 117 Campanian, 177 and selected events,
Asselian, 118f, 127, 129 Capitanian, 116f, 121–122 178–179
Carbon 12/13, 4 Cryogenian, 4, 6t, 20f, 22t, 26,
B Carboniferous, 100f, 102f, 29–36, 29f, 31f, 33f, 35f
Bajocian, 160 105f–106f, 110f Cryogenian–Ediacaran Period,
Banded iron formations (BIF), 23 basal definition, 99–104 33f
Barremian, 169–176 biostratigraphy, 104 basal definitions, 29–32
Bartonian, 189, 197 international subdivisions, biostratigraphy and major
Basal Cambrian Carbon-isotope 99–104 trends, 34–36, 35f
Excursion (BACE), 50 magnetostratigraphy, 107 magnetostratigraphy, 32–34

231
232  INDEX

Cryogenian–Ediacaran Period Epoch/Series 3, 42f, 45, 47, Hirnantian, 59–65, 67, 71

(Continued ) 48f–49f, 50–51 Holocene, 216–219
numerical age model, 36 Eratosthenian Period, 12 Homerian, 78f–79f, 82f
stable-isotope stratigraphy, Hominids, 211, 219–222
32–34 F Hupetina antiqua, 43–45
status of international Famennian, 94–95
subdivisions, 29–32 Floian, 65, 66f I
Cyclostratigraphy, 67, 95, 127, Foraminifers, 104, 121, 171f, 177, Illawarra series, 121
160–161, 177, 179–180 193, 205 Induan, 6t, 127–128, 134
Cyclothems, 101–104, 105f–106f, Fortunian, 41–43, 44f, 51 Inoceramid, 176, 178
107, 109, 127 Fourth Stage of Pleistocene, 216 Ionian, 212–216
Cyrtograptus centrifugus Frasnian, 85f, 90f, 95 Iridium, 190f
Zone, 74 Fritzaspis generalis, 43–45
Furongian series, 45–47 J
D Fusilinids Jiangshanian, 45
Danian, 189, 190f, 197 Jurassic, 152f–153f, 157f–159f,
Dapingian, 58f, 59, 61f G 162f
Darriwilian Stage, 59 Gaskiers, 30–32 basal definition, 151–156
Devonian, 91f–93f, 96f Gelasian, 212 biostratigraphy, 156–159
basal definition, 85–87 Geochemistry, 1–2, 21, 26, 43, 65, international subdivisions,
biostratigraphy, 87–94 108f, 140f, 177, 208f–209f 151–156
international subdivisions, Geologic Time Scale 2020, 5 magnetostratigraphy, 159
85–87 Geomagnetic polarity numerical age model, 160–163
magnetostratigraphy, 94 chronozones, 4 stable-isotope stratigraphy
numerical age model, 95 Givetian, 85f, 95 and selected events,
stable-isotope stratigraphy Glaciation, 4, 20f, 21, 22t, 30–32, 159–160
and selected events, 59–65, 95, 101, 203, 211
94–95 Global Boundary Stratotype K
Dinosaurs, 159 Sections and Points Kasimovian, 6t, 99f, 101–104,
Drumian, 45 (GSSPs), 2, 20f, 31f, 42f, 109
Drumian Isotope-Carbon 45, 52f, 58f, 60f, 71, 73f, Katian, 2, 59, 65
Excursion (DICE), 50 75f, 77f, 88f–90f, 100f, Kimmeridgian, 152f, 156
Dryas, 216 118f, 120f, 136f, 138f, 153f, Kungurian, 117, 127
155f, 171f, 190f–191f, 206f,
E 213f L
Early Eocene, 187f Gorstian, 74, 76f, 81 Ladinian, 137, 144, 146f
Early Imbrian Epoch, 12 Graptolites, 59 Land Mammal Ages of North
Earth’s Moon, 12, 13f–15f GSSP. See Global Boundary America (NALMA),
Ectasian, 22t Stratotype Sections and 194f–196f, 208f–209f
Ediacaran, 20f, 21, 22t, 29–36, Points (GSSPs) Langhian, 205
29f, 31f, 33f, 35f, 41–43, 50 Guadalupian Series, 119f Large igneous provinces (LIPs),
Eifelian, 89f, 94 Guzhangian, 45 26
Emsian, 87 Gzhelian, 104 Late Imbrian Epoch, 12
End-Cryogenian, 29f Late Ordovician, 59, 62f
Eoarchean, 23 H Late Pleistocene, 211f
Eocene, 187, 187f–189f, 189, Hadean, 21–23 Late Triassic, 142f–143f
191f, 196–197 Hauterivian, 169 Lejopyge laevigata, 45
Epoch/Series 2, 6t, 42f, 43–45, Hesperian Period, 17 Llandovery, 71, 73f, 80–81
47, 48f–49f, 50–51 Hettangian, 6t, 151, 153f, 160 Lochkovian, 87, 88f
 INDEX  233

Lomagundi-Jatuli Excursion Neolithic, 220f–221f stable-isotope stratigraphy and

(LJE), 26 Neoproterozoic, 26 selected events, 122–125
Lopingian, 115f, 117 Noachian Period, 16 Phanerozoic, 4, 19, 20f, 51,
Lower Cretaceous, 169–176 Norian, 137 59–65, 80–81, 125, 159
Ludfordian, 80, 82f Piacenzian, 213f
Ludlow Series, 74, 76f O Planetary timescale
Lunar chronologic units, 12 Olenekian, 134 Earth’s Moon, 12, 13f–15f
Lutetian, 198f Oligocene, 192f Mars, 14–17, 16f
Ordovician Mercury, 16
M basal definition, 57–59 referent map units, 9
Maastrichtian, 177 biostratigraphy and major with selected major events, 9,
Magnetostratigraphy, 32–34, trends, 59–65, 63f–64f 10f–11f
47–51, 94, 107, 121, international subdivisions, solar system bodies, 17–18
139–143, 196, 205, 57–59 Venus, 17
221–222 numerical age model, 65–67 Pleistocene, 212–216
Marinoan, 30 stable-isotope stratigraphy Pliensbachian, 161
Mars, 14–17, 16f and selected events, 65 Pliocene, 206f
Mercury, 16 Orosirian, 22t Polygnathus costatus partitus, 87
Mesoarchean, 23 Oryctocephalus indicus, 45 Pragian, 87
Mesoproterozoic, 32 Ovatoryctocara granulata, 45 Precambrian
Mesozoic Era, 133 Oxfordian, 6t, 151f–152f, Archean, 23
Messinian, 206f 154–156, 161 chronometric subdivisions, 21
Michel Dean, 176–177 Oxygen-isotope ratios, 65 Hadean, 21–23
Middle Devonian, 89f period nomenclature, 21, 22t
Middle Jurassic, 155f P Proterozoic, 23–26, 24f–25f
Middle Miocene, 203f Paibian, 45 status of international
Middle Ordovician, 59, 61f Paleoarchean, 23 subdivisions, 19–21, 20f
Milankovitch cycles, 129 Paleocene, 187, 189, 190f Pre-Nectarian Period, 12
Mingxinsi Carbon-isotope Paleogene, 188f–190f, 194f–196f, Pre-Noachian Period, 16
Excursion (MICE), 50 198f Priabonian, 189
Miocene, 196–197, 203, 203f–204f basal definition, 187–193 Přídolí Series, 77f
Mississippian Subperiod, 108f biostratigraphy, 193 Profallotaspis, 43–45
Moscovian, 101 international subdivisions, Proterozoic, 23–26, 24f–25f
187–193 Psiloceras spelae, 151–154
N magnetostratigraphy, 196 Ptychagnostus atavus, 45
NALMA. See Land Mammal numerical age model, 196–198
Ages of North America stable-isotope stratigraphy Q
(NALMA) and selected events, 196 Quaternary, 213f, 218f,
Nectarian Period, 12 Paleoproterozoic, 26 220f–221f, 223f
Neoarchean, 23 Paleozoic, 4, 80, 156–159 basal definition, 211–219
Neogene, 204f, 208f–209f Pennsylvanian Subsystem, 103f biostratigraphy, 221
basal definition, 203–205 Permian, 116f, 123f–126f, 128f international subdivisions,
biostratigraphy, 205 basal definition, 115–117 211–219
international subdivisions, biostratigraphy, 121 magnetostratigraphy, 221–222
203–205 international subdivisions, numerical age model, 222–223
magnetostratigraphy, 205 115–117 regional terrestrial stages, 219
numerical age model, 207 magnetostratigraphy, 121 stable-isotope stratigraphy,
stable-isotope stratigraphy numerical age model, and selected events,
and selected events, 207 125–129 221–222
234  INDEX

R Solar system bodies, 17–18 magnetic stratigraphy,

Radioisotopic ages, 51, 67, 81 Stable-isotope stratigraphy, 1, 4, 139–143
Redlichiid and Olenellid 32–34, 47–51, 65, 80–81, numerical age model, 143–145
trilobites Extinction 94–95, 122–125, 143, stable-isotope stratigraphy
Carbon-isotope 159–160, 178–179, 196, and selected events, 143
Excursion (ROECE), 50 207 Triassic base, 127–128
Rhaetian, 137–139 Statherian, 22t Turonian, 176
Rhuddanian, 73f, 82f Stenian, 22t
Rhyacian, 22t Steptoean Positive Isotope- U
Roadian, 117, 119f Carbon Excursion U-Pb Isotope Dilution-
Rodinia, 26, 29f (SPICE), 50 Thermal Ionization Mass
Rupelian, 192f, 198f Stimul. sedgwickii zone, 72–74 Spectrometry (ID-TIMS),
Streptognathodus isolatus, 30
S 115–117 Upper Cretaceous, 176–177
Saetograptus leintwardinensis Strontium 86/87, 4, 80 Upper Devonian, 90f
zone, 80 Sturtian glaciation, 30 Upper Triassic, 137, 138f
Sakmarian, 117
Sandbian, 57f, 59, 62f, 66f T
V
Santonian, 176–177 Tarantian, 216
Valanginian, 169
Scalable-vector graphics (SVG), 5 Telychian, 72–74, 82f
Venus, 17
Selandian, 2, 198f Terreneuvian Series, 41–43
Vertebrates, 74–80, 78f–79f,
Serpukhovian, 101 Thanetian, 198f
91f–93f, 104, 121,
Serravallian, 207 Thermal maximum, 188f–189f,
142f–143f, 159
Sheinwoodian, 74, 75f, 81 191f
Visean, 101, 104
Shiyantou Carbon-isotope Third Stage of Pleistocene,
Excursion (SHICE), 50 212–216
Shuram excursion, 32 Tianzhushania, 34 W
Siderian, 22t, 23 Tithonian, 156 Wenlock, 71f, 75f
Silurian, 78f–79f, 82f Toarcian, 161 Wonoka excursion, 32
basal definition, 71–74 Tonian, 22t, 30, 32 Wordian, 121, 127
biostratigraphy, 74–80 Top of Cambrian carbon-isotope Wuchiapingian, 116f, 117, 120f,
international subdivisions, Excursion (TOCE), 50 127
71–74 Tortonian, 227f
magnetostratigraphy and Tournaisian, 94–95, 104 Y
selected events, 80–81 Tremadocian, 58f, 60f, 66f Ypresian, 187f, 191f, 198f
numerical age model, 81 Treptichnus, 41–43 Younger Dryas, 211, 216
stable-isotope stratigraphy, Triassic, 135f–136f, 140f, 146f
80–81 basal definition, 133–139 Z
Sinemurian, 161 biostratigraphy, 139 Zanclean, 206f
Small shelly fossils, 36, 43, 47 international subdivisions, Zhujianqing Carbon-isotope
Snowball Earth, 23–26, 30 133–139 Excursion (ZHUCE), 50