Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials

Magnetic Torque(𝑻) and Moment (m)

• We have seen the force on a • The magnetic dipole moment

current loop in B, let’s is the product of the
determine the torque. current and area of the
• Torque, T is the mechanical loop; its direction normal
moment of force; and it is to the loop.
the vector product of the
force F and the moment arm
r.
• Its unit is Newton-
meters(N.m)
• For a rectangular loop of
length 𝑙 and width 𝑤 placed
in a uniform B:
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 1
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetic Torque(𝑻) and Moment (m)

• A bar magnet or a small

filamentary current loop is
usually referred as:
Magnetic dipole
• For r>>a, the magnetic
vector potential at P is:

• And, the magnetic field

density B:

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 2

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetic Torque(𝑻) and Moment (m)

• A bar magnet and a small

filamentary current loop are
equivalent if they produce
• Magnetic flux lines
the same torque in B

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 3

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetic Torque(𝑻) and Moment (m)

Example 4:
• Given: triangular loop (Fig)
• Required: Magnetic moment

• Solution:

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 4

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetic Torque(𝑻) and Moment (m)

Example 5:
• Given: Small current loop
L1 , 𝐦 = 5𝐚𝐳 A/m2 @ origin,
L2 , 𝐦 = 𝟑𝐚𝐲 A/m2 @ (4, -3, 10)

• Required: Torque on 𝐿2

• Solution: magnetic dipole…

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 5

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• Remember: what polarization

is in electrostatics.
• A given material is composed
of atoms.
• Each atom has electrons
orbiting about a central
positive nucleus.
• The electrons also rotate
(or spin) about their axes.
• As a result, internal
magnetic field is produced.
(FIG)
• The equivalent current loop
has: 𝐼𝑏 bound curr.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 6
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• At steady state, the sum of

m’s is zero due to random • For N atoms in a given
orientation. volume:
• In an external B field, the
m’s of the electrons align
themselves with B and its
net is not zero.
• Similar with Polarization in
ES, let’s define
Magnetization or magnetic
polarization (amperes/meter)
as the magnetic dipole
moments per unit volume.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 7
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

Due to magnetization,
• For N atoms in a given
• The bound (magnetization) volume:
volume current density (in
𝐴/𝑚2 ) is:

• Similarly, the bound

(magnetization) surface
current density (in A/m) is:

• 𝑱𝒃 and 𝑲𝒃 are similar

definition with 𝜌𝑝𝑣 and 𝜌𝑝𝑠

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 8

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• In a material medium 𝐌 ≠ 0:
Example 1:
Given:
• region z = [0 2] slab, 𝜇𝑟 =
• Where, 𝜒𝑚 is dimensionless 2.5
magnetic susceptibility (how
much the material is Required:
sensitive to B) • 𝐉, 𝐉𝐛 , 𝐌 𝐊 b on 𝑧 = 0

• The quantity, 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 is the Solution: Magnetization

permeability of the material
(Henrys/meter). 𝜇𝑟 relative
permeability.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 9
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• Magnetic materials can be • Magnetic (ferromagnetic): if

classified as nonmagnetic its 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1 (very large
(𝜒𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑟 = 1), magnetic positive 𝜒𝑚 ),
otherwise. E.g. air, free
space…
Nonmagnetic material can be:
• Diamagnetic: if its 𝜇𝑟 ≤ 1
(very small negative 𝜒𝑚 ),
• Paramagnetic: if its 𝜇𝑟 ≥ 1
(very small positive 𝜒𝑚 ),

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 10

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• Diamagnetism occurs when

the internal B fields
completely cancel out each
• Nonmagnetic materials are other. The material (e.g.
always linear, while lead, copper, silicon,
magnetic materials are diamond…) is weakly
nonlinear except above affected by a magnet.
Curie temperature.
• 𝜒𝑚 is in the order of
− 10−5 , superconductors at
𝑇 𝑜 near to zero, 𝜒𝑚 =-1,
𝜇𝑟 = 0, 𝑩 = 0: perfect
diamagnetism.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 11
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• Paramagnetism: occurs when the Ferromagnetic materials have:

internal B do not cancel • Being magnetized by B field
completely, and it is 𝑇 𝑜
dependent. • Retain a considerable
magnetization when B removed.
• The materials (e.g. air,
platinum, tungsten, potassium…) • They lose their magnetization
𝜒𝑚 is in the order of +10−5 𝑡𝑜 + above Curie 𝑇 𝑜 (iron 770
10−3 770 𝑜 𝐶 )
• Ferromagnetism: when the atoms • Nonlinear; 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑯 does not
have relatively large permanent hold as 𝜇𝑟 depends on B
m. the materials (e.g. iron, • Used for screening/shielding
cobalt, nickel, and their to protect sensitive
alloys) very useful. electrical devices. E.g.
compass.

17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 12

 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• The relationship between B • Note: the relationship

and H depends on previous between 𝑩 and 𝑯 nonlinear;
magnetization. Represented 𝜇 is given by B/H.
by B-H curve.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 13
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• The initial magnetization

curve due to the increase of
H as a result of increase in
current.
• When H reduced to zero, B
becomes 𝐵𝑟 , referred as
permanent flux density.
• When H becomes 𝐻𝑐 (known as
coercive field intensity),
and when it is small, the
material are said to be
magnetically hard. • Note: the relationship
between 𝑩 and 𝑯 nonlinear;
• The closed loop is called 𝜇 is given by B/H.
Hysteresis loop.
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 14
 Chapter 6: Magnetic Forces and Materials
Magnetization in materials

• The shape of the hysteresis

loop varies from material to
material.
• E.g. some ferrites, with
rectangular hysteresis loop
are used as digital memory.
• The area of the hysteresis
loop gives the energy loss
(hysteresis loss) per unit
volume during one cycle of
periodic magnetization.
• Note: the relationship
• Materials with tall but between 𝑩 and 𝑯 nonlinear;
narrow hysteresis loops used 𝜇 is given by B/H.
for electrical motors,
generators, transformers…
17/1/2022 Taken from Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N. O. Sadiku 15