Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

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Decarbonizing the ceramics industry: A systematic and critical review of

policy options, developments and sociotechnical systems
Dylan D. Furszyfer Del Rio a, b, *, Benjamin K. Sovacool a, c, **, Aoife M. Foley d, e, Steve Griffiths f,
Morgan Bazilian g, Jinsoo Kim h, David Rooney b
a
Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University of Sussex Business School, UK
b
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK
c
Center for Energy Technologies, Department of Business Development and Technology, Aarhus University, Denmark
d
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AH, UK
e
Civil, Structural, and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Ireland
f
Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
g
Colorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA
h
Department of Earth Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ceramics are considered one of the greatest and earliest most useful successes of humankind. However, ceramics
Climate change can be highly damaging to natural and social systems during their lifecycle, from material extraction to waste
Climate mitigation handling. For example, each year in the EU, the manufacture of ceramics (e.g., refractories, wall and floor tiles
Ceramics
and bricks and roof tile) emit 19 Mt CO2, while globally, bricks manufacturing is responsible for 2.7% of carbon
Industrial decarbonization
Net-zero
emissions annually. This critical and systematic review seeks to identify alternatives to mitigate the climate
Energy policy effects of ceramics products and processes to make their lifecycle more sustainable. This article reviews 324
Ceramics manufacturing studies to answer the following questions: what are the main determinants of energy and carbon emissions
Ceramic processes emerging from the ceramics industry? What benefits will this industry amass from adopting more low-carbon
Sustainability transitions processes in manufacturing their products, and what barriers will need to be tackled? We employ a socio­
Innovation technical approach to answer these questions, identify barriers to decarbonise the ceramics industry, and present
promising avenues for future research. In doing so, we show that environmental and energy challenges associ­
ated with the ceramics industry are not just limited to the manufacturing stage but also relate to the extraction of
raw materials, waste disposal, and landfilling.

1. Introduction ceramics plays an important role in terms of economic activity, artistic

value, and cultural heritage, with their products often linked to regional
Ceramics are considered one of the greatest and earliest most useful and historical environments in which they were and are produced [3].
successes of humankind. In part because they represent how humans The term “ceramics” comes from the Greek “keramos” word meaning
learned to control fire and manipulate clay [1]. Ceramics were among ‘burned earth’ and is used to describe materials of the pottery industry
the first objects to be manufactured, and owing to their various appli­ [4]. Ceramics are defined as non-metallic inorganic solids [5]. However,
cations, their importance in material culture has remained over in a more precise sense, ceramics are a solid obtained by firing inorganic
millennia and persists today [2]. Across the globe, the production of powders [6]. Some key characteristics of the ceramic products include

Abbreviations: BAT, Best available technology; BEIS, Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy; CCS, Carbon capture and storage; CAGR, Compound
annual growth rate; CO2, Carbon dioxide; CO2e, Carbon dioxide equivalent; DECC, Department of Energy and Climate Change; EU, European Union; IEA, Inter­
national Energy Agency; HAP, Hazardous air pollutant; HPHE, Heat pipe heat exchanger; MtCO2, Metric tons of carbon dioxide; O3, Tropospheric ozone; PM,
Particulate matter; SPS, Spark plasma sintering; TOE, Tonne of oil equivalent; TOC, Total organic compounds; VOC, Volatile organic compounds; WHR, Waste heat
recovery; WTE, Waste to Energy.
* Corresponding author. Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University of Sussex Business School, UK.
** Corresponding author. Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University of Sussex Business School, UK.
E-mail addresses: [Link]-del-rio@[Link] (D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio), [Link]@[Link] (B.K. Sovacool).

[Link]
Received 14 July 2021; Received in revised form 6 December 2021; Accepted 3 January 2022
Available online 2 February 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

long service life, low density, strong electromagnetic response, corrosion 1 What alternatives exist to abate the climate effects of ceramics pro­
resistance, chemical inertness and nontoxicity, resistance to heat and duction and thus make the full life cycle of ceramics more
fire, high strength, and sometimes, electrical resistance or porosity sustainable?
beneficial to particular applications [7–9]. Due to these attributes, ce­ 2 What are the key determinants of energy and carbon emissions from
ramics are positioned as a superior material for various applications ceramics?
compared to metals [10]. Moreover, ceramic products require little 3 What technical innovations have been identified to make ceramics
maintenance and have high resistance to environmental conditions [1]. manufacturing low carbon?
The production of ceramics and its relation to society has a long 4 What benefits will amass from a more carbon-friendly process in
history, with the first pieces being reported around 24,000 years ago as ceramics manufacturing?
ritual items. Later, circa 6400 BC, extensive pottery manufacture 5 What barriers will need to be tackled to achieve more sustainable
became common when civilizations settled near river beds, and the process in ceramics manufacturing?
agricultural economy was developed [11]. Bricks, the oldest known
artificial building material [7]; used for centuries and still vital today in The motivation behind this work is driven due to the lack of research
the construction industry [12], are traced back to 10,000 BC [13], while attending to this pressing issue. Although our list of research surpasses
fired-clay bricks date as early as 4500 BC [8]. In India, for instance, the the 320 references, this paper is the only study, to the author’s knowl­
history of brick-making dates back as far as 5000 years [14], while the edge, that approaches the decarbonization of the ceramics industry
antique city of Ur, now in modern Iraq, was home to the first civilization through a sociotechnical lens, and also one with a systematic review
that adopted clay bricks as its main building material, 4000 years ago searching protocol. That said, this review utilizes a sociotechnical sys­
[15]. The Romans, 2000 years ago, expanded the technique of brick tem [34,35] approach that scrutinises the manufacturing processes and
making to other parts of Europe, while glazed ceramic plates decorated different ceramic uses while providing options for its decarbonization
the Egyptian pyramids in 2600 BC [5]. Porcelain, another type of (including electrification, heating and heat recovery, biofuels, waste
ceramic, was originated in China during the T’ang dynasty (618–907 recovering, and other emerging innovations).
AD); nevertheless, high-quality porcelain products were not developed The article proceeds as follows. Section 2 offers a comprehensive
until the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368 AD) [1]. Surprisingly, the first background on the process of ceramics making, its categorization, along
documented drilling for natural gas took place in China in 1013 AD, to with this industry’s market dynamics. In Section 3, we present the
drill for gas and use it in porcelain manufacturing [16]. Despite ce­ research design. Here, we discuss why we have implemented a critical
ramics’ earlier developments, the principles of their fabrication process and systematic review approach and why we studied the ceramics in­
remained somewhat the same. That is, a clay paste comprising dustry through a sociotechnical lens. Section 4 presents the energy use
fine-grained earthen materials is shaped into objects of virtually any and emissions emerging from the ceramics industry, as well as other
form [2]. environmental issues emanating from this industry. Section 5 presents
The ubiquity of ceramics has allowed them to be present in most no less than 15 approaches to decarbonise the ceramics industry and
aspects of our society as promising materials for aerospace and high- more than thirty complementary technologies and processes to improve
temperature structural applications [10,17], ballistic armours and energy efficiency during the ceramics making process. Section 6 iden­
automotive brakes [9], information storage and optical devices [18], tifies current barriers to decarbonizing the ceramics industry, while
lamp envelopes and transparent armours [19] and bone void fillers and Section 7 presents five potential avenues for future research. Section 8
coating materials for dental and orthopedic applications [20]. Ceramics concludes.
also facilitate water purification, such as industrial wastewater,
oil-water separation, and hazardous waste treatment [21,22]. Within 2. Background
the sustainability dimension, ceramics have been used as
high-temperature CO2 adsorbents [23,24], as an alternative to batteries In this section, we first present ceramics categorization and use.
for electricity storage [25], thermal energy storage in solar power plants Later, we describe the process of ceramics making. At the end of this
[26], energy harvesting applications [27], as a substitute for Nickel [28] section, our review analyses market trends and dynamics.
and as a mean to recover the thermal energy from cooling water in
power plant turbines [29].
Given the multitude of applications for ceramics, it is less surprising 2.1. Categorizing ceramics and its sectoral uses
that the global ceramics market had an estimated value of around
$229.13 billion in 2018, with projections pointing to a lucrative com­ The ceramics industry is often divided into two broad categories. The
pound annual growth rate (CAGR) 8.6% from 2019 to 2025 [30]. The first entails traditional ceramics such as refractory ceramic goods, bricks
high demand for ceramics products is attributed to the constant growth and roofing tiles, tableware and other domestic or toilet articles, heavy
in the construction industry, technological advancements in nanotech­ clay, wall and floor tiles, vitrified clay pipes, and expanded clay ag­
nology, 3D printing, and ceramics in health (i.e., oral healthcare through gregates [36]. This group represents the majority of the overall pro­
the production of dental crowns, implants, and bridges) [30,31]. This duction of the sector, the energy consumed, and the total amount of
industry also consumes large amounts of energy. For instance, in the UK trade [37]. The bricks and roof tiles and wall and floor tiles subsectors
alone, the ceramics industry demands around 4.7 TWh of delivered represent the biggest markets and the largest energy consumers from
energy per year, where gas accounts for 80–82% of the industry’s total this category. The second category, advanced ceramics, comprises bio­
energy mix [32]. In the EU, the production of refractories, wall and floor ceramics, electrical and electronic ceramics, and ceramic coatings.
tiles, and bricks and roof tile emits around 19 Mt CO2 [1], while globally, Advanced ceramics are unique because of their physical and chemical
bricks manufacturing is responsible for 2.7% of carbon emissions properties and their manufacturing process from chemically prepared
annually [33]. powders, making them more expensive than traditional ceramics [38].
This systematic review employs a “sociotechnical” lens to investigate In terms of economics, advanced ceramics represent a smaller market,
a critical issue associated with the future of ceramics: achieving signif­ reaching an estimated value of $8.49 billion in 2021 [39]. Meanwhile,
icant decarbonization or even net-zero production. This study asks five this subsector has disproportionately large carbon equivalent emissions
key questions: due to the high firing temperatures employed [32]. However, there is no
precise information on the emissions emerging from this subsector [5].
Our review builds on these different categories to differentiate eight
core sectors of the industry shown in Table 1.

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Table 1
Eight sectors of the ceramic industry. Source: authors. Compiled from [5,32,40–57].
Sector Key characteristics

Bricks and roof tiles Bricks are arguably one of the most commonly used materials in construction. Bricks have many properties, including high water vapour
permeability, mechanical resistivity, resistance to moisture fluctuations, slag corrosion and thermal shock, compressive strength and
thermal and resistive properties for different climate and weather types. The annual production of fired bricks worldwide is estimated to
be about 1.39 trillion units.
Wall and floor tiles Ceramic tiles are thin slabs made from clays and other inorganic materials. The ceramic tile industry is the largest component of the
traditional ceramic sector. In fact, in 2015 alone, a total of 12,673 million m2 of ceramic tiles were produced globally. This sector
consumes 75% of the total energy consumed by the traditional ceramics sector and represents a market of around 14 billion tiles. These
materials entail floors, furniture for bathrooms and kitchens, covering roofs, walls and showers. They are traditionally used in these
applications due to their technical characteristics and their aesthetic qualities. Some notable features of ceramic tiles from a sustainability
perspective include resistance to fire, ultraviolet radiation and water and release of volatile toxic substances or organic compounds when
exposed to high temperatures. The manufacturing process of tiles consists of five steps: the raw material and body preparation, shaping,
drying, firing and final product shipping.
Table- and ornamentalware (household This subsector entails tableware, artificial and fancy goods made of earthenware, porcelain, and fine stoneware. The most typical products
ceramics) are dishes, bowls, cups, vases, plates, and jugs.
Vitrified clay pipes Fittings and vitrified clay pipes are used for sewers and drains and tanks to contain acid. For this process, chamotte and clay are employed
as raw materials for the manufacturing process of clay pipes.
Expanded clay Expanded clay aggregates are characterized by a uniform pore structure of fine, closed cells and a densely sintered firm external skin.
These materials are often used as loose or cement-bound material for the construction industry (e.g., blocks and other prefabricated
lightweight concrete components, loose fillings, and lightweight concrete).
Sanitaryware Sanitaryware encapsulates all-ceramic goods used for sanitary purposes, including bidets, drinking fountains, washbasins, lavatory bowls,
and cisterns. These products are often made of earthenware or vitreous china (semi-porcelain). The mix of raw materials applicable in a
typical batch preparation of sanitaryware includes kaolin and clay 40–50%, quartz 20–30%, feldspar 20–30% and between 0 and 3%
calcium carbonate.
Refractory products Refractory products are ceramic materials capable of resisting temperatures above 1500 ◦ C. Several refractory products are employed for
different industrial applications, including iron, steel, glass, ceramic, lime, house heating systems, petrochemicals industries, power
plants, and incinerators. Refractory products are considered essential to high-temperature processes and can withstand all types of stresses
(thermal, chemical, mechanical) such as corrosion, creeping deformation and thermal shocks. They consist of chamotte (calcined raw
plastic clay), natural rocks (i.e. dolomite, bauxite, quartzite and magnesite), clay and synthetic materials (i.e. spinels, sintered corundum
and silicon carbide). Refractory products are divided into different categories based on the method of manufacture (sintered and fused),
method of implementation (shaped and unshaped), chemical composition (special, basic and acid), and porosity content (dense and
porous).
Abrasive ceramics These materials are employed in different mechanical processes to change, shape, finish and texture industrial and artisanal processes.
These products consist of natural ceramic, which is often mixed with other abrasive powders such as silicon carbide and quartz.
Technical ceramics Technical ceramics are not only based on clays but also synthetic raw materials. Technical ceramics are based on the following materials:
carbides, oxides, nitrides and borides of Al, Mg, Mn, Ni, Si, Ti, W, Zr and other metal ions. This may include: MgO (periclase or dead burned
magnesia), Al2O3 (alumina), TiN (titanium nitride), SiC (silicon carbide), and WB2 (tungsten boride).

2.2. The process of ceramics making Table 2

Stages of the manufacturing process for traditional ceramics. Source: authors.
The process of manufacturing ceramic products is largely uniform Compiled from [5,50,58–60].
[32,58]. In general, raw materials are cast and mixed, extruded, or Stage Process
pressed into shape. During the manufacturing process, water is regularly
Raw materials Ceramics preparation takes place as dry or wet milling. In
employed for thorough mixing and shaping. The water used in this preparation wet milling, the most popular preparation method of raw
process is evaporated in dryers. Later, the products are either manually materials, thermal energy consumption occurs in three
placed in the kiln (particularly for periodically operated kilns) or placed stages: spray drying, drying, and firing, accounting for
in carriages where materials are transferred through continuously more than 50% of overall thermal energy consumption.
Forming (shaping) of Forming methods are divided into three large groups (i)
operated kilns [5]. Table 2, displays the ceramics manufacturing stages,
the piece forming by isostatic or uniaxial semi-dry pressing of a
while Fig. 1 illustrates this process. granulate material with low moisture content. (ii) plastic
The first stage of production consists of a mixture of powdered base forming by extrusion, wheel throwing, and plastic
material, binders and stabilizers. The mixture is “turned” into shapes pressing. (iii) forming by pressure casting of suspensions or
and then fired (sintered) in kilns at temperatures ranging from 800 ◦ C to air slip casting.
Drying The water is removed to proceed with the glazing and/or
2500 ◦ C (see Tables 3 and 4 for specific temperature requirements firing stages. The most popular drying method in the
including technical ceramics materials) for days or even weeks [61]. ceramics industry is convection. In this process, heated air
Some variations will depend on the type of ceramic. For instance, a is circulated around the ceramics, and sometimes the heat
multiple-stage firing process is often used for wall and floor tiles, sani­ can be recovered from the kiln’s cooling zone.
Glazing This stage is only carried out for glazed products.
taryware, household ceramics, and technical ceramics.
Heating Depending on the raw material composition, unfired
products are heated from ambient temperature to 800 ◦ C.
2.3. The ceramics market During this stage, outgassing of the ceramic body takes
place to avoid bubbles, pinholing, bloating, glaze porosity,
and colour differences at higher temperatures.
The most important ceramic subsector is the wall and floor tiles (See Firing The firing stage typically varies between 850 ◦ C and
Figs. 2 and 3). Worldwide, ceramic tile production was approximately 1350 ◦ C, depending on the main physio-chemical
13,500 million square metres [59], with China leading the market with transformations. During this stage, ceramic materials
reduce their porosity.
over 45.7% of the world’s total. In China alone, the annual production of
Cooling This process starts when the heat input ends. During this
ceramic tiles has exceeded 10 billion m2 [63]. The other key players are stage, product temperature is reduced from peak to near
South America and the European Union (EU), producing 11% and 9%, ambient temperature.
respectively [64]. In Europe, the ceramics industry employs 338,000 Sorting and packaging Before packaging, products are closely inspected to
people, produces about 1304 million m2 of tiles, encompasses around separate them according to trade categories, detect defects
and/or discard the products.
2000 companies, and contributed to a business turnover of 30 billion

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Table 4
Sintering temperatures for technical ceramic materials. Source: authors,
compiled from [5].
Technical ceramic material Sintering temperature

Aluminium oxide Between 1600 and 1800 ◦ C

Alumina porcelain Approximately 1250 ◦ C
Cordierite Between 1250 and 1350 ◦ C
Quartz porcelain Approximately 1300 ◦ C
Recrystallised silicon carbide Between 2300 and 2500 ◦ C
Silicon nitride Approximately 1700 ◦ C
Sintered silicon carbide Approximately 1900 ◦ C
Steatite Approximately 1300 ◦ C

Bricks are another key material within the ceramic industry, with a
demand historically rising [44]. China is the world’s lead manufacturer,
producing approximately 1 trillion bricks; South Asia is the
second-largest brick manufacturing region, making around 310 billion
bricks annually [67]. India plays a vital role in the bricks sector too, with
more than 100,000 brick kilns, it is capable of manufacturing 240 billion
bricks yearly, generating an annual turnover of more than US$ 3 billion
in 2016 [68]. Bricks manufacturing in India is likely to increase, with
research forecasting that by 2050, the country will manufacture 2.3
trillion bricks per year [69]. Pakistan is the third-largest brick producer,
manufacturing around 59 billion bricks with approximately 12,000
brick kilns [70].
The sanitaryware sector has an important economic role as well. The
global market of this sector is estimated to reach $59.17 billion by 2022,
with a CAGR of around 7.8% during the period entailing 2018–2022
[71]. Again, the world’s largest manufacturer is China, with approxi­
mately 30% of the total global production. Within the EU, more than 2.6
million sanitaryware pieces were produced, and these registered a
turnover of € 296 million in 2017 [53]. Regarding ceramics tableware,
Fig. 1. Stages of the manufacturing process of traditional ceramics. China dominates the market with an export value of around $375
Source [50]. million or 21% of the world export value [72]. Meanwhile, the EU-15 is
the most important manufacturer of refractories, with a total production
of 4.6 million tonnes, corresponding to €3300 million and employing
Table 3 over 18,000 people [5].
Specific required temperatures for the ceramics sectors. Source: authors.
Compiled from [5,62]. 3. Research design and conceptual approach
Sector Temperature requirements

Bricks and roof tiles Bricks and roof tiles are heated at temperatures varying
To investigate the decarbonization of ceramics, we utilized a sys­
between 800 and 1300 ◦ C. tematic searching protocol with a critical review approach and the
Vitrified clay pipes Temperatures range from 1150 to 1250 ◦ C, while the firing guiding conceptual view of sociotechnical systems [34,35].
time lasts between 30 and 80 h.
Refractory products These materials are fired at temperatures ranging between
1250 and 1850 ◦ C. 3.1. Critical and systematic review approach
Expanded clay These materials are subjected to a firing process of
aggregates temperatures ranging between 1100 and 1300 ◦ C.
We classify our review as systematic and critical because a “critical
Floor and wall tiles The temperature required for floor and wall tiles varies
between 1050 and 1300 ◦ C. review” seeks to demonstrate that a research team has broadly scoured
Sanitaryware Normally the required temperatures for vitreous china the literature and critically assessed its quality [73]. It goes beyond just
ranges between 1200 and 1210 ◦ C and is about 1220 ◦ C for reviewing the literature to interpreting it and making evaluative state­
fireclay. ments on the possible research gaps and quality of evidence [35]. To do
so, it presents, analyses, and synthesizes a variety of material from
various sources. A critical review offers the possibility to “take stock”
and assess value across multiple bodies of evidence associated with a
euros in 2018 [55,65]. Spain and Italy are the biggest ceramic tile particular topic or research question. It offers both a “launch pad” for
producers, representing about 70% of the EU’s total production [59]. In conceptual novelty and an empirical testing ground to judge the strength
South America, the most prominent manufacturer is Brazil, where the of evidence.
ceramic industry represents circa 1.0% of the GDP with about 5000 Assuming that a weakness of critical reviews is that they do not al­
active companies [66]. ways prove the systematic nature of more rigorous approaches to

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Fig. 2. Production value of the ceramics industry in the EU. Source: authors. Compiled from [55].

Fig. 3. Ceramic industry production in the European Union (in billion Euros). Source: authors. Compiled from [55].

reviewing, we also made our review “systematic” [74,75]. Specifically, 3.2. Searching protocol and analytical parameters
this technique provides the following benefits.
To guide our critical and systematic review, we used three distinct
• It avoids opportunistic evidence, classes of search terms, as shown in Fig. 4. We executed each permu­
• A focused investigation, tation of these search terms across 12 separate databases or repositories,
• Allows replicability through documented study inclusion, resulting in 2592 search strings. We decided to employ this approach
• It discriminates between sound and unsound studies, therefore, since we did not want to leave space to miss any important articles. In
assessment of methodological quality and, turn, we decided to systematically search in what we considered the
• It increases transparency, which decreases subjectivity and bias in most important databases to include all relevant studies. Entering these
results. searches with these strings allowed us to capture the most pertinent
state-of-the-art research related to our topic. In this space, we also
Furthermore, systematic reviews minimize unintentional bias acknowledge that although we did not include Web of Science and
(excessive self-citations or those of friends and colleagues, e.g., “citation Scopus as part of our databases, we encourage researchers to include
clubs”) and encourage diversity. For these reasons, a number of studies them in future research since these are also prominent databases with
have called for greater use of systematic reviews in the domains of quality-controlled journals.
environment and energy, climate change and energy social science Table 5 presents our results. While our general searches delivered
[76–78]. more than 2.7 million possibly relevant documents, this number drop­
ped to a final sample of 673 pertinent studies. After screening them for

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Fig. 4. Summary of critical and systematic review search terms and parameters. Source: authors.

Table 5
Summary of critical and systematic review search results and final documents. Source: authors.
Database Main topical area of database Initial search Deemed relevant after Deemed relevant Number of Total
results screening titles, after scanning full duplications
keywords and abstracts study

ScienceDirect General science, energy studies, geography, business 40,266 281 178 – 178
studies
JSTOR Social science 7483 14 8 0 8
Project Muse Social science 4872 21 3 0 3
Hein Online Law and legal studies 20,471 32 9 0 9
PubMed Medicine and life sciences 15 7 7 3 4
SpringerLink General science, business and area studies 30,161 44 28 1 27
Taylor & Francis General science 3662 28 20 1 19
Online
Wiley Blackwell General science, area studies 7553 31 16 0 16
(Wiley Online
Library)
Sage Journals General science, area studies 986 17 8 0 8
National Academies General science 1,090,798 12 4 0 4
Publications (nap.
edu)
Targeted internet White papers, reports, grey literature (e.g., International 1,572,771 98 69 18 51
searches Energy Agency, International Renewable Energy Agency,
World Bank, UN agencies, and the online OECD library)
Google scholar General science 225, 448 88 74 34 40
Total 2,779,038 673 424 57 367

relevance (they had to address the topic of climate change mitigation this approach includes not only the instruments used to manufacture
and/or decarbonization), originality (we adjusted the results to elimi­ ceramics and how products are shipped to stores, but also entails issues
nate duplicates), and recency (documents had to be published from pertaining to local regulations and ceramics waste. Fig. 5 organizes the
2000 onward), this number fell to 367 studies. We reference most of ceramics industry sociotechnical system to include resource extraction,
these studies throughout the review. policy frameworks, the intersection of social organizations, capabilities
of local infrastructure systems, legislation, progress on science and
technological developments, environmental impact and markets. The
3.3. The analytical frame of sociotechnical systems
sociotechnical system for ceramics therefore incorporates dimensions
such as, but not limited to, the construction industry, social wellbeing,
To help guide and structure our results from this body of 367 doc­
health and medicine, energy efficiency and innovation.
uments, we employed the conceptual approach or analytical frame of
Though not all documents in our model employed this frame of a
sociotechnical systems [79,80]. As Fig. 5 displays, this conceptual
sociotechnical system, we use it throughout the following sections to
approach considers the ceramics industry as far more than just a
structure our results and conclusions.
collection of physical products or objects such as bricks, tiles or white­
wares. Rather, this approach views the entire set of social and technical
systems involved in making, distributing, and using ceramics. Therefore,

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Fig. 5. Framing ceramics as a sociotechnical system. Source: authors.

4. Energy use, carbon emissions and environmental concerns 4.1. Estimations of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
associated with ceramics
All ceramic sectors are considered energy-intensive because the en­
This section focuses on the emissions and energy use profiles for ergy consumed in producing them represents about 30% of the total
ceramics, as well as other environmental concerns related to water, raw production cost [38,60,81]. The IEA estimates that, worldwide, emis­
materials, and waste. Fig. 6 and Table 6 attempt to summarise these key sions emerging from the ceramic industry surpass 400 Mt CO2/year from
concerns. calcination of carbonates and energy end-use [82]. In the EU, the wall
and floor tiles, bricks and roof tiles, and refractories sectors emit a total
of 19 Mt CO2 [1]. Of these emissions, 66% are due to fuel combustion,

Fig. 6. Extracts of key information from the ceramics industry. Source: authors.

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Table 6 material. In most cases, manufacturers rely on fossil fuels to evaporate

Extracts of key information of the ceramics industry regarding emissions and the water [90]. For instance, the energy end-use for dry grinding is
energy use. Source: authors. approximately 60 kWh, accounting for up to 20% of the total thermal
Sector Emissions Energy use energy end-use during the manufacturing process of dry clay types [5].
Ceramics (from an Worldwide: 400 Mt CO2/ The world’s annual energy end-
Therefore, this process is complex and expensive and demands strict
overall year use for firing ceramics through control of process variables to guarantee the quality of the final product
perspective) European Union: 19 Mt natural gas is estimated at 182 [91]. Although drying systems have evolved with the deployment of
CO2/year TWh. novel technologies, energy end-use at this stage certainly remains high
Wall and floor Manufacturing one fire tile Ceramic floor tiles require
[92].
tiles emits 265 kg CO2/t between 940 and 1670 kWh per
ton of product. The energy intensity of the ceramics industry is well illustrated in its
Manufacturing one kg of the energy end-use and carbon footprint. Manrique et al. indicate that clay
final product of ceramic floor and ceramic floor tiles require 940 kWh per ton, while ceramics for
and wall tile requires electrical use require between 5000 and 5830 kWh per ton and bricks
approximately 1.5 kWh.
Bricks and roof The production of one Bricks and roof tiles consume,
and roof tiles consume, on average, 380 and 1250 kWh per ton of
tiles brick releases on average, 380 and 1250 kWh product [64]. Quinteiro and team indicated that the carbon footprint of
approximately 0.4 kg of per ton of product an earthenware ceramic piece weighing 0.417 kg was 1.22 kg CO2e, and
CO2 Every brick of 3 kg weight 90% of the total GHG emissions resulted from energy end-use [93].
consumes between 110 and 700
Most studies do not take a holistic approach that covers all of the
g of coal
ceramics industry or its applications. Instead, many studies in the
literature focus on a narrower range of either the tiles sector or the bricks
sector.
For example, wall and floor tiles are among the most popular mate­
while electricity and process emissions represent 18% and 16% of total rials in building construction applications. However, these materials
emissions, respectively [1]. cause damaging environmental impacts through their lifecycles due to
Emissions from the ceramics industry depend on two factors, the the high consumption of resources, including energy and water, and the
chemical transformation from raw materials employed during the issues associated with noise and waste [3]. CO2 emissions from ceramic
manufacturing process and fossil fuels used [58]. Direct process CO2 tiles are divided into two categories, combustion and process emissions.
emissions can also emerge from the combustion of the organic matter The first relates to the emissions resulting from the exothermic com­
present in the raw materials or organic admixtures in the manufacturing bustion reaction between the fuel and the oxidizer. The latter is asso­
process [50]. There are also indirect CO2 emissions, which stem from ciated with the emissions emerging from the decomposition of the
electricity and raw material preparations [58]. In addition to CO2 carbonates present in the raw materials in the firing stage [85]. During
emissions, chlorine, fluorine, sulphur, and nitrogen oxides emissions are the tiles manufacturing process, thermal energy is required during three
released in the manufacturing processes. However, emissions from the phases: drying the freshly formed tile bodies, tile firing, and ceramic
ceramic industry have been mitigated in the past years. For instance, slurries [94]. Fig. 7, below, breaks down thermal energy end-use in the
fluorine emissions have been reduced by more than 80% in the last manufacturing process.
decades [83]. Similarly, in industrialized countries, thermal and CO2 Producing ceramic tiles require large quantities of natural gas. The
emissions have decreased due to the use of natural gas and by adopting emissions associated with natural gas consumption are estimated at 265
novel technologies (e.g., cogeneration systems, single firing, and roller kg of CO2 per tonne [47]. These emissions represent around 90% of all
kilns) [84]. CO2 emissions during the tile manufacturing process. In contrast, the
Overall, the ceramics industry is natural gas-intensive, with an en­ emissions from the decomposition in the firing of the magnesium car­
ergy mix accounting of 85–92% gas and 8–15% electricity [1,85]. The bonates and/or calcium in tile bodies are estimated at about 10% [88].
intensive use of gas is well illustrated in Turkey, where this industry Other studies have indicated that it will require 1670 kWh of energy to
accounted for over 12% of the total natural gas consumption in the produce one tonne of ceramic tiles. The same research suggests that €1.5
manufacturing sector [37]. Brazil is yet another relevant example. billion are spent each year in Italy only for natural gas requirements in
There, in 2014, the ceramics industry represented around 5.8% of all the ceramic sector [96]. Similarly, Ros-Dosdá et al. estimate that around
energy consumed in the Brazilian industrial sector, which accounts for 30–40 kWh of energy and 21–23 kg of raw materials are consumed for
5.7 Mt, with most of is the energy produced from renewable sources and
natural gas [66]. Gas is fundamentally used to reach high-firing tem­
peratures ranging between 800 ◦ C and 1850 ◦ C. However, refractory and
technical ceramics manufacturers employ electric arcs for higher firing
temperatures to reach 2750 ◦ C [86]. During the manufacturing process,
the main energy end-use is for the drying, firing and cooling stages. The
firing stage accounts for about 75% of the total energy cost [47] and
more than 50% of all required energy during the manufacturing process
[38]. One study indicates that the world’s annual energy end-use for
firing ceramics through the use of natural gas is estimated at 182 TWh
[87], with the firing process generating around 265 kg CO2/t of fired tile
[88]. Another study suggests that more than 80% of GHG emissions
occur in the firing and drying stages [89]. Fig. 7. Breakdown of thermal energy end-use for the ceramic tile
During the manufacturing process of ceramics, plants demand sig­ manufacturing process. Source [95].
nificant amounts of heat for drying and to remove the water from the

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

one square meter of ceramic tile production [97]. Other studies have well as damage to agriculture, land cover, vegetation and biodiversity
revealed that to get one kg of the final product of ceramic floor and wall [119,120].
tile, approximately 1.58 kWh of energy is needed. This, in turn, corre­ An important factor influencing energy end-use in brick production
sponds to about 1.90 kWh of primary energy [49]. On a similar vein, is the kiln type, of which there are two: intermittent and continuous. The
Confindustria Ceramica states that the Italian refractory materials and first is fired in batches. In this process, the fire is allowed to die out, and
ceramic tile sectors are characterized by a yearly consumption of it is acceptable to let the bricks cool after the firing process. In contin­
methane gas equal to 1.5 billion m3 to meet an electricity demand of uous kilns, the fire is continuously burning, and bricks are heated, fired,
1800 GWh/y [98]. In China, the annual amount of energy end-use and and cooled at the same time in different parts of the kiln. Due to their
raw materials caused by ceramic tiles manufacturing were estimated to heat recovery characteristics, continuous kilns are more energy-efficient
be over 1.5 billion GJ and 0.2 billion tons, respectively. Meanwhile, the [121]. Others indicate that to improve the efficiency during the
carbon emissions in China emerging from this sector were estimated at brick-manufacturing process is necessary to improve fuel feeding prac­
0.15 billion tons [99]. tices, provide periodic maintenance of the kiln walls, reduce leakages,
Other studies have explored the lifecycle assessment of ceramic tiles. deliver proper fuel preparation, enhance supervision of the firing
The researchers, in this case, considered all stages, from mining raw operation, adequate drying of the bricks as well as reducing the mass of
materials and transport to tiles management as construction and de­ each unit by increasing its perforations [122].
molition waste at the end of their lifecycle. Their results indicate larger Although natural clay—a key material for producing bricks—is
environmental impacts emerge from the tile manufacturing process, abundant in many countries, an increasing and continued demand for
followed by clay atomisation and product transportation and distribu­ clay bricks are triggering its shortage in many parts of the world. In
tion [100,101]. An explanation for this may be found in a thermody­ India, for instance, 300 Mt of fertile soil are consumed per day for brick
namic analysis that demonstrates that kiln efficiency is low because only manufacturing purposes [123]. In addition, brick manufacturing is
5–20% of the energy input is used to fire the tiles. The rest is lost through having other environmental impacts such as affecting organic soils for
the cooling stacks (30–35%), flue gas stacks (20–25%), the kiln walls agricultural purposes and demanding large volumes of water
and vault (10–15%), and through the fired tiles (5–10%) [95,102]. [124–127]. For instance, brick earth represented about 5.2% of total
Similarly, Ferrer et al. show that single-deck roller kilns worldwide minerals extracted in 2014–15 in India [128]. This situation has led
showed low energy performance where over 61% of the total energy some countries, like China, to limit the use of clay for brick
input in the kiln was lost through the gas exhaust stacks [59]. manufacturing purposes and instead, they encourage the substitution of
Similarly, conventional bricks are often produced from non-renewable clay with industrial waste products such as fly ash for bricks production
or cementing materials at high firing temperatures [103]. Bricks are an [129].
important source of GHG emissions and air pollution globally [104]. There are associated health costs as well since this sector has high
Worldwide, 1.5 trillion or 3,750,000,000 m3 bricks are produced every death rates. For instance, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, bricks production has
year by 300,000 formal brick kilns [105]. From these, close to 1.3 tril­ led to around 2200 to 4000 premature deaths and 0.2 to 0.5 million
lion bricks (or 87%) are manufactured in developing countries [106]. asthma attacks per year [130]. Health impacts from brick-making
China manufactures around 700–800 billion bricks per year, while chiefly originate from breathing in smoke and hours of physically
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Vietnam manufacture over 260 billion demanding work outdoors, in tandem with extreme weather causing
bricks per year, catering to approximately 75% of the global demand for heatstroke and other illnesses such as respiratory infections and pneu­
fired bricks [107]. In Bangladesh alone, 22.7 billion bricks are produced monia [131,132]. Other health-related issues are associated with the
per year. The majority are made with coal and firewood heated kilns, posture that kiln workers adopt for prolonged periods, which commonly
which emit 9.8 Mt of GHG emissions annually [108]. In Asia alone, lead to severe musculoskeletal problems [133]. Issues with brick
research estimated that the brick industry consumes more than 110 Mt manufacturing are not limited to health but expand to social issues.
of coal per year [109]. In this context, one study calculates that the Labourers from the most vulnerable populations often work in egregious
radiative forcing generated by the black carbon and GHG emitted by and exploitative conditions, considered by some as modern-day slavery
brick kilns in South Asia is equivalent to the radiative forcing of the with child labour frequently documented [133–137].
whole U.S. passenger car fleet [110].
The manufacturing process entails firing the bricks to achieve 4.2. Water use in the ceramics industry
strength. This process consumes about 24 Mt of coal a year [111],
contributing to 20% of the world’s black carbon emissions, making it Water is a key material in ceramic manufacturing; however, the
one of the most polluting materials on Earth [112]. It is worth noting amount used varies among sectors and processes [58]. On average,
that energy end-use varies among different kilns. However, research water consumption per square metre of manufactured tiles is about 20 L
indicates that between 11 and 70 tons of coal are needed to fire 100,000 [85], where milling consumes approximately 60% of the water
bricks. In other words, every brick of 3 kg weight consumes between 110 employed [94]. However, it requires more water to manufacture a roof
and 700 g of coal [113]. Such differences extend to the embodied energy tile since one unit requires 10.496 L, consisting of 10.48 L blue water
of bricks varying from 611 kWh per tonne to 1641 kWh per tonne [114]. and 0.016 L greywater [138]. Process wastewater is generated primarily
For instance, in the UK, manufacturing bricks emit, on average, 234 kg when clay materials are suspended and flushed out in running water
CO2e/tonne with a typical energy end-use reported at 706 kWh/ton of during the production process. Process wastewater mostly contains
brick [115]. In contrast, on average, the production of one brick requires inorganic materials, mineral components (insoluble particulate matter),
around 2.0 kWh of energy and releases approximately 0.4 kg of CO2 small quantities of numerous organic materials and heavy metals [5].
[116,117]. Contaminants are not limited to CO2 only but also include, The water containing salts and inorganic solid suspension particles is not
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxide (NO), total organic compounds only contaminated, but it is also not easily treatable for reuse since salt
(TOC) (including ethane, methane, fluorides, volatile organic com­ concentrations increase after every cycle [139]. In turn, water degrades
pounds [VOCs], particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), progressively after each production cycle. Fig. 8, displays the water
sulphur dioxide (SO2), metals, tropospheric ozone (O3), as well as haz­ assessment for a traditional sanitaryware factory.
ardous air pollutants (HAPs) [104,118]. Such contaminants are linked to
countless cases of severe health problems in humans and animals, as

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Fig. 8. Water assessment for a typical sanitaryware factory. Source [139].

4.3. Extraction of raw materials Particularly sodic feldspar (mostly from Turkey) and high plasticity
clays (mostly from Ukraine). The authors warn that alleviating the
Other issues emerge from the extraction of raw materials. For supply risk is urgently needed since reserves for sodic feldspars and
instance, Lithium’s physical and chemical properties turned it into a key highly plastic ball clay are limited with no viable economic alternatives
material for the manufacturing industries (e.g., ceramics, metallurgy [145]. Regarding feldspathic raw materials, more than 575 Mt have
and lubricants) and renewable energy technologies [140,141]. From been globally mined since 1971, largely to produce ceramic and glass
these applications, lithium-ion batteries account for the primary global materials. Currently, the production of feldspathic materials is close to
end-use, followed by ceramics. However, before 2015, as Fig. 9 illus­ 29 Mt per year [146]. Dondi warns that regardless feldspars are the main
trates, ceramics and glass were the primary industries utilising Lithium constituents of the Earth’s crust, the increasing demand ought to raise
ore [142]. This situation has led to an increment in Lithium prices and concerns given the market flux of the ceramic industry [146].
estimated shortages [143]. Ziemann and colleagues suggest recycling Cobalt is another material whose availability has been affected by
lithium-containing products (e.g., ceramics, aluminium products, and the ceramics industry. Particularly in China, with research indicating
alloy) to mitigate this situation. For instance, they claim that ceramics that cobalt demand will surpass its overall domestic reserve base by
can be crushed and refined as a packed bed in road construction [144]. 2022 [147]. Others have focused on how refractory production is vastly
However, others reject this idea since they state that Lithium used in dependant on high-quality raw materials. Researchers have identified
ceramic glazing is not recoverable, as the glazing often wears out over that many of these resources are becoming increasingly scarce, with
time, and broken ceramics are not disposed of in a way that enables prices rising and only a small fraction of them recycled in refractories
cost-effective Lithium recovery [141]. [54,148]. This situation has led Hertwich et al. to argue that the avail­
Other studies highlight how the intense ceramics production of Spain ability of some construction materials (e.g., bricks and tiles) are at risk in
and Italy has led to severe repercussions on demand for raw materials. some regions even when accounting for secondary materials [149].
How this situation will be handled in the future remains daunting.
Particularly, for the case of lithium, since the demand for this material
will continue to increase due to its many applications, especially for
mobile phone batteries and electric vehicle batteries [143]. In addition,
others warn about resource nationalism and monopolistic behaviors
since Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile control more than 40% of the world’s
resources [150,151]. Therefore, it would be problematic for countries
like the USA and China to highly depend on these countries for political
reasons [143]. In these circumstances, Tabelin et al. suggest three means
to remediate this issue. First, they call to assess further the potential of
unconventional lithium resources such as desalination brines,
geothermal brines, seawater, and solid waste streams from coal and salt
mines. Second, they suggest exploring efficient emerging purification
technologies such as layered ion-exchange membranes, double hy­
droxides, Li-ion sieves, solvent extraction, selective
Fig. 9. Global lithium consumption from 2010 to 2019. Source [142]. electrochemical-based and precipitation methods capable of extracting
Li+ in solutions even at high salinity and low concentrations. Third, they
suggest recovering lithium from alternative recycling techniques [142].

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

4.4. Ceramics waste and recycling production costs [1]. For several decades, the industry has strived to
improve its efficiency. For instance, since 1990, the European Ceramic
Ceramic waste can be categorized into two groups, non-hazardous Tile Industry has adopted novel technologies and implemented
and hazardous waste [50]. Typically, around 30% of the materials energy-saving actions to mitigate CO2 emissions and reduce energy
used in the ceramic industry are dumped in landfills [152]. For instance, end-use [51]. The approaches implemented at ceramic facilities are
porcelain tiles generate large quantities of waste that require special improving energy management, fuel switching, raw materials formula­
landfill treatment, generating substantial environmental and financial tions for more efficient firing, and process optimization [94]. We discuss
costs [153]. these options throughout this section.
In the EU, 20% of used refractories are recycled for refractory pur­
poses, 27% are reused in non-refractory applications, 35% are dissolved
during use, and the remaining 18% are considered unusable waste [1]. It 5.1. Options for extraction of raw materials and alternatives to replace
may be surprising that large amounts of ceramic waste go into landfills ceramics
when they possess rich mineralogical variability [154]. Moreover, ce­
ramics are cost-effective sources of Si and Al compounds, and both can As discussed in the following sections, most measures to reduce en­
be used as inexpensive raw materials for synthesizing high-value cata­ ergy use and emissions in the ceramic industry are related to the drying
lysts for biodiesel production [155,156]. and firing processes. However, another sustainable pathway is raw
Ceramic waste is generated not only through manufacturing but also materials optimization. This approach delivers energy savings through
by the construction sector. Regarding the latter, significant amounts of two means: new materials and waste recovery. Regarding the first,
ceramic waste are generated yearly from demolition practices. Often, ceramic fibres and low thermal mass materials have reduced energy end-
ceramics are disposed of in landfills, leading to severe environmental use by using novel ceramic formulas that require less heat during the
issues due to the occupation of large spaces of land and dust pollution firing process. Such an approach has led to up to 20% in energy savings.
[157]. Ceramic waste from the construction sector comes from dis­ Meanwhile, material or waste recovery enables energy savings during
carded roof tiles and bricks, stonewares, tiles and vaults. Ibrahim and the raw material preparation stage [62,159].
Maslehuddin estimate that around 50% of demolition and construction For instance, Mendoza et al. identified that granite slabs could almost
waste are ceramics [158]. replace feldspar and sand inputs and substitute for a percentage of clay
mineral requirements. They conclude that granite slabs could lead to
5. Options for decarbonizing the ceramics industry large energy and water savings in ceramic production with similar or
superior technical properties to traditional products [160]. Schabbach
Continuing with our sociotechnical approach, this section describes et al. noted that using large amounts of post-treated bottom ash could be
19 different technological innovations and managerial practices that tailored to fully replace feldspar and quartz sand, leading to a number of
could help to decarbonise the ceramics industry, with an overview dis­ environmental benefits. These benefits include minimising the storage
played in Fig. 10. Later, in Subsection 5.5, we present 32 emerging of bottom ash and reducing natural resources consumption, avoiding the
technologies that can help transition the ceramic industry towards a pre-washing process, and reducing the temperature for firing ceramics
low-carbon future. [161]. Lao and colleagues explored the effects of feldspar and sintering
As already summarized in detail in Section 4, energy costs are a temperature on the in-situ synthesis of SiC whiskers. Their results
major concern for the ceramics industry, representing around 30% of revealed that cleanliness and safety related to the in-situ method delivers
energy savings between 1240 and 1300 kWh when producing one ton of

Fig. 10. Sociotechnical options for decarbonizing the ceramics system. Source: authors.

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

SiC-containing vitreous ceramics [162]. Others have noted that the Similarly, Rambaldi et al. has recently shown that combining scrap
utilisation of boron wastes for ceramics production operates as a fluxing packaging glass in the production of ceramic tiles reduces the firing
agent that does not increase the thermal expansion coefficient of temperatures by 200 ◦ C while maintaining high technical performances
ceramic products. Therefore, using this material can expedite the vitri­ [181]. The inclusion of glass in the manufacturing of ceramic tiles was
fication process, produce ceramics at lower temperatures, reduce envi­ also explored by the Indonesian National Council on Climate Change.
ronmental impacts, and promote a zero-waste economy by reducing raw The report concludes that the utilisation of WG reduces the energy
material costs [163]. Also, by using boron derivative waste, Koroglu and associated with raw material preparation and acquisition while
Ayas synthesized monticellite based ceramic powder at 800 ◦ C for 4h providing large energy efficiency benefits in the manufacturing process
reducing energy end-use during the heat-treatment stage [20]. [182].
Kim and team explored the use of LCD waste glass as a feldspar Other researchers have documented that applying ceramic powder
substitute for porcelain sanitaryware. Their results show that LCD waste waste saves raw materials and reduces the temperatures in the pro­
glass (WG) allows the sanitaryware sector to save raw materials while duction of wall and floor tiles. The researchers showed that utilising this
achieving energy savings [164]. Similarly, through an innovative waste lowers the energy required during the firing process by 100 ◦ C
approach, Liu and Li combined LCD WG with calcium fluoride and [179]. To reduce energy end-use and mitigate pollutant emissions
wastewater to manufacture glass-ceramics. Their results indicate that emerging from ceramic tile production, sugarcane bagasse ash can be
this mixture could operate as a replacement for quartz sand [165]. employed for ceramic floor tile production [183]. The same outcome is
Others have used WG as a ceramic flux to decrease the temperature achieved by using furnace slag [184]. Reusing brick and roof tile wastes
during ceramic firing. The study reports that WG reduced by 100 ◦ C the is another alternative to produce eco-friendly porcelain stoneware tiles.
firing temperature for producing porcelain, cut the time of sanitaryware The application of these materials helps reduce landfilling, saves raw
firing, and expedited the densification process [166]. Bohn et al. showed materials, and mitigates the negative environmental impacts related to
that ceramic paver manufactured with WG contributes to eliminating GHGs emitted by machines used in the mining industry [52].
WG and results in a more energy-efficient ceramic firing process due to
the fluxing enhancement of waste glass [167]. Andreola et al. reported 5.1.2. Alternative materials and options for more sustainable bricks
that scrap glass reduces the kiln temperature from 1250◦ to 1000 ◦ C for Typically, bricks are manufactured using non-renewable resources,
ceramics manufacturing [168]. WG has also been used as a substitute for including soil, which is fired at high temperatures. Since the construc­
feldspar fluxes to produce glass-ceramic stoneware. The studies report tion of buildings continues to increase [185], the demand for bricks has
that WG utilisation reduces firing temperatures and provides more augmented, causing a significant use of raw materials [186]. Due to the
energy-efficient manufacturing processes [169,170]. scarce availability of suitable soil, there is a pressing need for alternative
Others have investigated the use of fly ash as a low-cost material for materials to manufacture bricks through an energy-efficient process
ceramics production. The studies have revealed that fly ash can be [187]. Therefore, finding sustainable options for brick production is an
incorporated into ceramics pastes with little treatment. Furthermore, effective solution to help overcome the scarcity of natural resources and
the use of fly ash as a partial clay replacement reduces the consumption reduce the degradation of forests and crops while helping to manage
of natural resources [171,172]. Kizinievič et al. studied the application waste and mitigate emissions [188]. The production of more sustainable
of centrifugation waste of mineral wool melt in ceramic products. Their bricks also leads to social benefits due to reductions in PM2.5 emissions.
study revealed that this approach lowers drying and firing shrinkage and For instance, the conversion to cleaner brick kiln technologies in Greater
increases compressive strength and water absorption. They conclude Dhaka could save between 800 and 1200 lives each year [189].
that centrifugation waste of mineral wool can be employed to produce One material that has been amply explored to develop more sus­
various ceramic products [173]. Sludge can also be used as a replace­ tainable bricks is WG. Kazmi and team indicate that incorporating up to
ment for clay to manufacture high-quality ceramic products [174]. 25% of WG sludge increased by 2% the brick’s bulk density while
Another innovative approach was explored by Handoko et al. when they decreasing porosity. The study concludes that bricks made with this
employed Automotive Shredder Residue to manufacture titanium-based material can be used in masonry construction while addressing landfill
ceramics. Their study shows that this material leads to environmental issues associated with WG [190]. Phonphuak et al. documented that
benefits related to landfills reduction, and manufacturers can be less bricks with 10% WG in their mixture could be fired at 900 ◦ C [191].
dependent on conventional raw materials [175]. Similarly, Demir showed that incorporating 10% WG reduced the firing
Others have documented that the ceramic industry is well suited for temperature to 950 ◦ C and increased the brick’s strength [192]. Another
using organic waste [176,177]. For instance, Delaqua et al. explored the study notes that replacing clay with 25% WG reduced the firing tem­
application of Salvinia auriculata Aublet microphyte biomass in red perature to 850 ◦ C, and bricks showed a 37% improvement in
ceramics. Their study indicates that biomass presents a suitable compressive strength [193]. Others have reported that incorporating
composition to be used in ceramic materials. Using this approach can WG to produce bricks improves structural and durability properties
lead to energy savings of up to 5% in the manufacturing process [154]. while reducing manufacturing costs and saving raw materials [194,
Finally, Simon and colleagues explored the effects of inerting zinc ions 195].
from a pine sawdust biomass containing heavy metals in applications in Others have explored the application of marble waste in the pro­
burnt ceramic matrices. Their study indicates that this mix results in an duction of burnt clay bricks. The utilisation of this material saves natural
appropriate ceramic material used in construction [178]. clay resources and mitigates environmental concerns related to waste
and GHG emissions, paving the way towards more sustainable con­
5.1.1. Alternative materials and options for more sustainable tiles struction practices. For instance, Migliore et al. show that bricks incor­
The main raw materials for the ceramic tile sector are feldspar, porating 50% waste from marble quarries reduce up to 50% of GHG
quartz and clay. However, the flexibility of the tile manufacturing pro­ emissions compared to a 100% virgin brick (2.6 and 5.2 kg CO₂ eq./t,
cess allows for several types of wastes to be incorporated in the pro­ respectively) [196]. Others have noted that bricks mixed with waste
duction of ceramic wall and floor tiles [179]. For instance, LIFE marble sludge have improved their thermal conductivity [197]. Munir
CLAYGLASS documented that manufacturing ceramic tiles using recy­ and team concluded that up to 15% of waste marble sludge results in the
cled glass (e.g. from end-of-use vehicles and electrical waste from manufacture of more energy efficient burnt clay bricks. Therefore, of­
electronic equipment) as a flux material delivers environmental bene­ fering environmental and health alternatives related to landfilling
fits. The study demonstrated that by adding 10% of glass into the [188]. Another study shows that incorporating ceramic sludge into brick
mixture, the firing temperatures reduced by about 100 ◦ C, production manufacturing improves clay bricks’ durability, thermal performance,
costs fell by 3–7.5%, and CO2 emissions decreased by 13–19% [180]. and strength [186]. Dos Reis explored the introduction of sludge

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

resulting from construction and demolition waste into the preparation of effects such as decreased mechanical strength may occur [211].
fired bricks. Their results show that up to 70% of construction and de­ Pérez-Villarejo demonstrated that pore-forming agents, olive wood,
molition waste produced fired bricks with enhanced mechanical and olive pruning and olive leaves could be added without pre-treatment to
physical properties [103]. Weng and colleagues documented that improve porosity and reduce production costs in ceramic bricks. This
incorporating 20% sludge (from an industrial wastewater treatment technique minimises clay use and enhances the value of waste since this
plant) into the mixture to manufacture bricks not only improves their product is currently disposed of in landfills [176]. Kizinievič et al.
strength but decreases the firing temperatures [198]. Similarly, Limami revealed that introducing 5–10% of oat husk or barley husk and
and colleagues used wastewater sludge as a material additive to produce middling into brick moulding leads to more sustainable manufacturing
unfired lightweight earth bricks. Their results indicate over 30% gains in processes [212]. A similar result is obtained by applying bio-fuel
thermal properties while still reducing the energy demand during the by-product sugarcane bagasse ash as the main material for the produc­
manufacturing process [199]. tion of bricks [213]. Kang et al. in a similar vein, documented that the
The paper industry is a major contributor to global waste generation. use of slate tailings as a raw material for synthesis bricks through geo­
However, waste from the paper industry could contribute to the pro­ polymerization results in a thicker internal structure and higher
duction of more sustainable bricks. For instance, Kizinievič et al. re­ compressive strength of the geopolymer brick products [214]. Other
ported that paper sludge additive reduces brick’s thermal conductivity studies have noted that adding biosolids to the brick mix results in water
and density. Nevertheless, they also warn that it impairs brick me­ and energy savings, mitigation of GHG emissions from stockpiles, and a
chanical properties [200]. Other studies have reported that paper sludge significant reduction in the use of virgin soils [215,216]. Finally, Velasco
can be introduced in bricks production as natural additives, such as documented that applying 11% of kindling from vine shoot reduces the
lightweight aggregates [200,201]. Another approach is taken by thermal conductivity of fired clay bricks up to 62%. The authors argue
Mohajerani et al. They explored the effects of introducing cigarette butts that this method leads to energy and fuel savings and represents an
into fired clay bricks. Their results indicate that introducing 5% by option to pave the way towards a low-to-zero-carbon future since it is a
weight of cigarette butts leads to energy savings of up to 5% and could biofuel [217].
save 58% of energy during the firing process. Moreover, incorporating Innovative research also points to the production of more sustainable
1% cigarette butts into bricks manufacturing could recycle 48 Mt of bricks with the incorporation of new materials. For instance, Encos has
cigarette butts each year [202]. manufactured the so-called ‘carbon-negative bricks.’ Their approach
Another material that effectively enhances the properties of burnt consists of recuperating vegetable-oil-based binders and aggregates.
clay bricks is fly ash. For instance, research indicates that fly ash in­ Encos claim that this technique consumes no water and carbon and
creases water absorption and porosity and makes bricks stronger and generates zero waste [218]. Meanwhile, others include bacteria to grow
more durable [128,135,203]. Others have documented that fly ash bio-concrete bricks in a process comparable to coral formation [219].
could operate as a partial or complete replacement of quartz sand in Similarly, the University of Colorado, Boulder, uses bacteria to absorb
building bricks [204]. In a similar vein, Chou et al. report that using up CO2 and create calcium carbonate that can be used to produce bricks
to 50% of fly ash produced superior bricks in terms of physical consis­ that can self-repair their own cracks and drastically mitigate GHG
tency, compressive strength, insulation capability, and colour to those emissions [220]. Construction companies are also developing eco-­
produced commercially [205]. In fact, it is estimated that in India, plastic bricks that perform better than concrete walls when used in
around 20 billion ft3 (0.566 billion m3) of topsoil could be saved each emergency rooms [221]. Researchers from Washington University
year if all 140,000 red brick kilns in the country started using fly ash converted red bricks into energy storage units named ‘supercapacitor’
[206]. Teoh et al. investigated using waste engine oil and coal-fired ash through nanofibers that penetrate inside bricks. Therefore, the polymer
in the production of roofing tiles. Their results indicate that this coating serves as an ion sponge, storing and conducting electricity
approach produces tiles at 0.4178 kgCO2/kg and 35.2 kWh/kg, [222]. Finally, thermally efficient bricks been three-dimensionally
respectively. That is lower with respect to the traditional roofing tiles printed from upcycled waste plastic delivered up to 10 times better
[207]. insulation compared to clay bricks [223].
Taha et al. revealed that recuperating residual coal from coal mine
waste rocks enhanced the quality of fired bricks. This residue increases 5.1.3. Sustainable options to replace ceramics in the construction and
bricks flexural strength while reducing the open porosity and water buildings sectors
absorption. Their results show that integrating this material reduced Alternatives for more sustainable ceramics are not limited to new
GHG emissions by around 70% in the production of fired bricks [208]. materials and waste recovery. Options expand to more sustainable ma­
Javed and colleagues explored another innovative method by incorpo­ terials as substitutes in the construction industry. For instance, Frenette
rating lime-bentonite clay composite to manufacture bricks. The team and colleagues compared building materials such as fibreglass, bricks,
reduced the cooling load and carbon footprint value by 31.91% and extruded polystyrene with similar insulation levels. Their results
compared to traditional burnt brick elements [209]. Goel and Kalamd­ documented that wood-based buildings represent the most sustainable
had employed water hyacinth as an additive to produce fired bricks. The option [224]. Other studies corroborate this point and show that
application of this material leads to reductions in bulk density, firing wood-based buildings generally have fewer lifecycle emissions than
temperatures and therefore mitigates GHG emissions [210]. concrete or brick buildings [225–227]. Yu et al. compared a typical
Since the energy end-use required for firing a brick ranges between brick–concrete building with a bamboo-structure building. Their find­
0.694 and 4.13 kWh depending on the kiln and firing method used ings show that the latter requires less energy and emits less CO2 emis­
[202], others have attempted to reduce energy end-use by incorporating sions while delivering the same functional requirements [228]. Finally,
organic wastes in the manufacturing process. For instance, Barbieri Nicoletti and colleagues demonstrated that ceramic tiles performed
investigated introducing agricultural biomass wastes including cherry worse in environmental terms than marble tiles due to the raw materials
seeds, grapes, and sawdust as a pore-forming agent and sugar cane ash as utilized for glaze manufacturing [229].
silica precursor in bricks. The team concluded that these residues should Rosselló-Batle et al. [230], compared terrazzo1 to stoneware, por­
be incorporated in percentages of no more than 5% to decrease weight celain stoneware, granite and linoleum. They found that porcelain
and shrinkage and increase porosity in bricks. Otherwise, negative stoneware and stoneware possessed 65% greater embodied energy

1
Terrazzo is a material made of marble chippings, granite and glass mixed
through a cement binder [324].

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Fig. 11. Embodied energy and CO2 emission values per square metre of useable surface for the floorings assessed. Source: [230].

values. In contrast, both granite and linoleum had embodied energy retrofitting existing kilns [1]. The same study argues that syngas
values that were 79% and 92% lower, respectively, as Fig. 11 displays. resulting from either biomass or organic waste holds the potential to
However, ceramic tiles represent a more sustainable option when substitute natural gas and mitigate emissions and reduce costs, espe­
compared to synthetic carpets, parquet, and natural stone. The authors cially in the brick and roof tile sectors. Similarly, Chan et al. note that
argue that although ceramic tiles are energy-intensive materials, their biomethane could be a source to substitute heat. They argue that
long-life and low maintenance requirements make them a more implementing this approach could cut emissions to a net-zero since
environmental-friendly option. Therefore, their results accentuate the biomethane’s lifecycle would absorb the CO2 emissions released during
importance of analysing the entire lifecycle of materials [231]. the production process [62]. Garres and team analysed innovative
technologies in energy-intensive industries and efficiency gains in
existing processes and concluded that the highest potential to deploy
5.2. Sustainable options for ceramics manufacturing
biomass is in the cement and ceramic production industries. Neverthe­
less, they warn that existing optimization of manufacturing processes
Since most measures to reduce emissions in the ceramic industry are
are not enough to reach the 2050 emissions targets and that market
related to the drying and firing processes. Below, we present a number of
readiness is not expected before 2030 [234]. Others report that biomass
critical technologies and indicate how each could contribute to the
is a more suitable option than electrification due to the
decarbonization of the ceramics industry.
high-temperatures required in ceramic production. They argue that
electrical heating cannot reach these temperatures, but gas flames can.
5.2.1. Electrification
Therefore, the possibility to use gas or biomethane from thermochemical
Fossil fuels dominate the energy use in the ceramics industry and
gasification of solid biomass should be further considered when
according to the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strat­
manufacturing ceramics [235,236].
egy (BEIS), migrating to a low-carbon electricity system is a key option
for the industry’s decarbonization [32]. Indeed, Madeddu et al. suggest
5.2.3. Heating and heat recovery
that in the EU, 78% of the energy demand is electrifiable with tech­
For Manrique et al. the best technology to fire ceramic is a tunnel-
nologies currently available, and 99% electrification can be accom­
kiln-with-wagons and a roller-tunnel-kiln with heat recovery technol­
plished with the technologies that are currently under development
ogy incorporated [64]. This same vision is supported by Ibáñez-Flores
[232]. In this sense, research indicates that electrifying kilns or using
et al., which revealed that incorporating a system with heat recovery
low-carbon electricity could be an alternative to mitigate fuel emissions.
from flue gas could lead to cost savings for the ceramic tiles industry of
Especially for large kilns producing roof tiles, bricks and wall and floor
up to 30% [237]. Others support this claim and document that novel
tiles [1]. However, others warn that this still represents a “huge chal­
technologies with extensive use of heat recovered from the kiln can
lenge.” Therefore, they suggest that the impact of using electric heating
consume up to 60% less fuel energy per brick than typical units. The
for firing ceramic products of large ceramic plants needs to be further
process includes the following steps: 1) preheating bricks in the phases
investigated [233].
of firing, 2) heat recovery to the dryer, and 3) preheating burner com­
bustion air (instead of using ambient temperature air) [32]. Popov also
5.2.2. Biofuels
utilized this approach and increased the production system’s energy
The European Ceramic Industry Association indicates that the most
efficiency by 46–52% [238]. Finally, Mezquita et al. using a theoretical
effective means to mitigate fuel emissions for high-temperature firing is
methodology, quantified savings from the energy recovery of the cooling
to substitute natural gas with syngas or biogas from waste or biomass by

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

gases in the exhaust chamber to be over 17% [239]. Therefore, they argue that this technique should be a complementary
Waste heat recovery (WHR) was another relevant technique that our technology only and should still be combined with traditional or electric
review identified since this technique reduces GHG emissions and en­ heating [58]. Given that research indicates that the technology readi­
ergy costs while improving process energy efficiency [240]. Hussam ness level for microwave heating is 3 [251], we argue that further de­
et al. argue that WHR can deliver up to 100% of possible energy savings velopments need to occur before its larger diffusion.
during the drying process. Their research documented a yearly energy
production of over 115 MWh [47]. Agrafiotis et al. indicate that the 5.2.4. Hydrogen
recovery of waste heat from the cooling zones of a tunnel can be Developing low-carbon hydrogen is important to the transition to­
employed to preheat the combustion air in the kiln. Working from this wards a low-carbon future [252]. In fact, low-carbon hydrogen can
angle, they reported energy savings of 28%, with investments recovered potentially substitute natural gas for certain industrial high-temperature
in two years [49]. For the sanitaryware sector, another study showed ‘direct firing’ services [253,254]. For some, hydrogen even represents a
that 33% of the energy produced could be saved by recovering the waste cheaper and more sustainable heating fuel option compared to natural
heat from the kiln [139]. Oliveira and team report 78% of thermal en­ gas [255,256]. Relevant initiatives to use hydrogen in the ceramics in­
ergy savings and 36% savings in electric energy using a WHR approach dustry are already being developed by Iberdrola and Porcelanosa. Spe­
[81]. cifically, they are working on low or zero-carbon hydrogen from
Delpech et al. explored the performance and applications of a heat electricity and water electrolysis (i.e., green hydrogen) project to eval­
pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) to recover waste heat. They conclude that uate and develop novel solutions such as high-efficiency heat pumps in
this approach can recover over 863 MWh/year of thermal energy from dryers and using green hydrogen to achieve the high temperatures
the ceramic kiln. This means that about 110,600 m3 of natural gas can required in atomisers and hybrid ovens [257]. While such a project is
be saved every year while mitigating nearly 164 tons of CO2. [241]. promising, it is important to note that hydrogen has very different
Another study, also using HPHE and recovering waste heat from the properties from natural gas and hence requires specialized burners for
cooling zone, achieved reducing natural gas consumption from a drier heating applications. Furthermore, onsite storage of hydrogen, which
by 4–5% [96]. Delpech et al. employed a HPHE system to recover waste has very low volumetric energy density, can be a challenge. On the same
heat from ceramic kilns. The system recovered the heat from the kiln and vein, although some hydrogen applications are TRL 9 or above, it de­
transported it to a water flow situated in the condenser. The results pends on the sector, the type of application, the type of fuel cell, etc. to
suggest that WHR recovery could be of up to 4 kW [38]. Jouhara et al. successfully deploy this technology [258]. For these and other reasons, it
revealed that the HPHE installed in the plant recovered 876 MWh per is unclear whether hydrogen will become widely adopted for heating
year with a return on investments estimated in 16 months and economic application in the ceramics and other industries.
savings evaluated at £30,000 per year [47].
Moreover, Peris et al. report that an organic Rankin cycle (ORC) is an 5.2.5. Cogeneration
efficient approach to recovering heat. Their results show that the The drying systems in ceramic plants often utilize the combined heat
recovered thermal power from the clean exhaust gas fluctuated from and power production of technologies like gas turbines in a process
128.19 kW to 179.87 kW. Meanwhile, the maximum electrical power known as cogeneration [259]. Such systems are useful due to the
production varied from 21 kW to 18.51 kW, with the utmost efficiency of simultaneous demand of heat and electric power required during the
the ORC system, reported at 12.47%. In total, this approach could save ceramic manufacturing process [240,260]. In this way, energy efficiency
about 237 MWh of primary energy and mitigate around 31 tonnes of is improved, emissions are mitigated, and manufacturers minimize fuel
CO2 emissions per year [242]. Similarly, another study indicates that an consumption while receiving economic benefits [261]. For instance, the
ORC for heat recovery could lead to energy savings of up to 2% [237]. use of cogeneration systems in the ceramic tile sector was explored by
A final technology discussed in terms of heating is microwaves. Caglayan and Caliskan. Their results revealed that cogeneration systems
Employing microwaves has two main advantages. First, only the object achieved 10–50% energy savings during the drying stage [260].
is heated instead of the surrounding air; therefore, the chamber remains Gabaldon et al. showed that plants with cogeneration units installed
cool, and the energy to heat the drying chamber is saved [5,47]. The increased their energy efficiency during the spray-dried powder stage by
second advantage is that using microwaves for welding and joining ce­ 85 and 90% [51]. Yoru et al. conducted energy and exergy analyses on a
ramics has demonstrated to be less time-consuming than traditional 13 MW capacity ceramic plant cogeneration unit with two heat ex­
heating technologies [38,229,243,244], with research indicating that changers and three gas turbines. Their study showed that the energy and
this approach can expedite the drying process up to eight times [49]. exergy efficiencies of the cogeneration system were estimated at 82.3%
Others have noted that this process not only reduces processing times and 34.7%, respectively [262]. Finally, a project conducted by the EU
but also improves the product’s uniformity, purity, microstructure and has reported that innovative kiln designs with integrated cogeneration
quality while lowering emissions of harmful gases to the atmosphere capabilities can mitigate emissions of ceramic plants by up to 20%
[245–247]. In addition, this technique delivers significant reductions in [263].
energy end-use, which can be as high as 99% [248]. Other studies have
reported that fuels savings range from 7 to 30 times [249] while others 5.3. Ceramic products in lifestyles and preferences
have documented reductions in energy end-use of 40% [250] and 50%
[62] for what is normally an energy-intensive process. Ceramics contributes to daily residential energy savings. For
In our review, we found a tension regarding the maturity of this instance, insulating blocks and ventilated facades guarantee thermal
technology. On one hand, Madeddu et al. suggest that microwave stability in buildings. The latter can improve the building’s energy ef­
heating is already a mature technology with sufficient capacities for ficiency by 40% [1]. The same study claims that substituting 1% of
industrial applications to suffice energy demand for space heating, cavity walls and clay blocks with clay facades could mitigate 100 Mt of
drying, cooling and steam generation [232]. On the other hand, Marsidi CO2 by 2050 [1]. The energy efficiency of ceramic products implies low
and Besier suggest that microwave heating requires a higher tempera­ thermal conductivity. This feature allows ceramics to maintain heat
ture than room temperature when exposed to a microwave field. inside the buildings [264]. For instance, bricks’ high thermal mass can

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

decrease and delay temperature changes within a building. In turn, CO2eq per year [273]. In a similar vein, another study states that cool
minimising the risk of overheating in the day and slows the temperature ceramic-based tiles can assure a high-quality roof cooling performance
down during the night [265]. Another study reported that bricks not by putting together good architectural quality and thermal-energy effi­
only are a promising material to employ for passive building ciency [274].
energy-savings, but also are a mean of storing heat while providing
acoustic insulation [266]. Not only can bricks help manage temperature, 5.4. Ceramics waste and recycling in the construction industry
but they can also represent a more sustainable option compared to other
materials. For instance, Utama et al. revealed that the embodied energy Due to the high temperatures they undergo during the firing process,
of clay bricks is half of that of concrete blocks [267]. and as an inert material, most ceramics can be recycled and/or reused by
Coloured tiles are yet another material that leads to more energy- the ceramic and other industries [275]. For instance, some of the waste
efficient buildings. Antonaia et al. show that coloured tiles with high emerging from the manufacturing process can be recycled back into the
solar reflectance on the roof slab mitigate urban heat and decrease kiln. In contrast, waste that cannot be recycled internally is sent for
building energy requirements for cooling. Their study revealed that the external recycling (e.g. construction industry) or is disposed of in
application of this material reduced the primary energy demand by 39% landfills [61]. To comply with Directive 2008/98/EC to avoid waste
during the summer [268]. Coloured ceramic tiles are also widely used in generation and reliance on virgin materials from overseas [200], the EU
Brazil not only to reduce the amount of energy absorbed by buildings but created an internal market to preserve natural stocks of virgin and
also to lower the demand for air conditioning during the warmer months important materials such as feldspar, clay and limestones and reduce
[269]. Similarly, Gonçalves et al. show that ceramic tiles help reflect imports of bauxite, zircon and magnesia from overseas [1].
infrared radiation, thus improving the building’s energy efficiency and
reducing CO2 emissions [270]. Pisello and Cotana documented that cool 5.4.1. Ceramic wastes and lightweight aggregates
clay tiles can deliver huge energy savings in reducing summer over­ Others have explored the potential options for clay waste. For
heating by optimising thermal comfort. The team concludes that cool instance, Ayati and colleagues suggest using clay waste as a raw material
clay tiles represent a cost-effective solution for passive retrofit in Med­ for lightweight aggregates [276]. On a similar vein, Boarder et al. have
iterranean countries [271]. Pisello et al. also demonstrate that cool clay produced lightweight aggregates from London clay generated by
tiles represent an efficient solution to improving historic buildings’ en­ Crossrail at a pilot plant scale. The same team estimates that 2.8 Mt of
ergy performance. In their study, the application of novel cool tiles and lightweight aggregates could have been made from Crossrail excavated
installing a more efficient energy plant led to energy savings of 69% for clay. The research concludes that this approach could have manufac­
cooling and 64% for heating with a payback period of five years [272]. tured more than 9.0 million cubic metres of low-carbon lightweight
Another study by Pisello and Cotana showed that cool clay tiles are able structural concrete [277]. Fig. 12 displays the manufacturing process for
to save between 11 and 13% of electricity for cooling in an Italian producing lightweight aggregates from clay. Note that in the figure, the
village. Such energy savings translate to the mitigation of 772 tonnes of two main stages are sintering and formation.

Fig. 12. The manufacturing process for producing lightweight aggregates (LWA) from clay. Source [278].

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

5.4.2. Ceramic wastes and mortars concrete using these wastes presents better mechanical performance
The use of ceramic waste in mortars is another mean of extracting when compared to other demolition wastes (e.g., mortar and grout
value from waste. For instance, Higashiyama et al. note that ceramic attached) [291]. Suzuki et al. employed about 40% ceramic waste as
waste materials can partially substitute river sands. The study finds that coarse aggregate to manufacture high-performance concrete. Their
ceramic wastes enhance the workability of fresh mortars because of the study presents a substantial reduction in autogenous shrinkage [292].
quantities of water absorbed during the synthesis process [279]. In the Others have focused on the effects of 100% fine aggregates and sani­
same way, fine particles of ceramic waste as an aggregate can improve taryware on the fire resistance of concrete. The study notes that ceramic
concrete and mortar’s durability and strength. The results showed aggregate concrete brings environmental advantages and delivers better
extraordinary improvements in mortars’ long-term durability and per­ residual strength after exposure to fire [293]. Research also shows that
formance when exposed to sulphate and chloride attacks [280]. Samadi concrete mixes comprising coarse recycled ceramic aggregate have
and colleagues investigated the durability and strength properties of a better resistance to abrasion and better long-term concrete durability
sustainable mortar mixture employing ceramic waste particles. The re­ than control concrete [294]. Medina and colleagues investigated the
sults indicate that introducing this waste in the mortar’s mixture can freeze-thaw resistance of concrete containing 20% and 25% coarse
reduce fuel consumption, save energy, reduce electricity consumption ceramic aggregates obtained from the sanitaryware industry. The team
and mitigate CO2 emissions [152]. Similarly, Farinha and team conclude reveals that the scaling rate of the crack development was lower in the
that using up to 20% fine sanitaryware ceramic aggregate to manufac­ recycled concrete than in the standard concrete [295]. Silva and Pereira
ture mortar mixes delivers higher mechanical properties and lowers [296] and Cachim [297] report on the preparation of recycled concrete
water permeability [281]. employing waste brick aggregates. Their results show that although the
mixture slightly reduces elastic modulus and compressive strength, the
5.4.3. Ceramic wastes and cement final product is still acceptable for various construction applications.
The applications of ceramics in the construction industry are wide Similarly, others have documented that the use of crushed brick as a
and varied. For instance, Pitarch and colleagues argue that ceramics can concrete aggregate reduces large amounts of construction and demoli­
be employed to partially replace Portland cement since it is resistant to tion waste in tandem with lowering the demand for natural resources
physical, chemical and biological degradation; it is also durable and [298–300].
hard. The team identified that ceramic tiles, red clay bricks, and sanitary This section has shown that ceramic waste can mitigate environ­
waste could partially replace Portland cement. Similarly, Jacoby noted mental impacts caused by high energy use, GHG emissions, and landfill
that porcelain polishing residues improve Portland cement composition deposits produced by the construction and demolition industry. The fact
leading to technical, economic and environmental advantages [153]. that ceramic waste is locally available helps reduce resource extraction
Roy et al. indicate that calcined kaolinitic clays can be employed as a and reduce the environmental impacts of transporting materials long
partial substitute of Portland cement during the formulation of blended distances. Therefore, we argue that the application of materials incor­
cement. Others have noted that replacing Portland cement with 30% porating such wastes must be considered in construction applications.
London clay calcined at 900 ◦ C had no negative effects on long-term or
workability on the cement’s composition. The same team argues that
5.5. Emerging technologies and processes for mitigating the environmental
these temperatures can already be achieved using low-carbon biofuels.
impacts of the ceramic industry
Therefore, utilising this approach can significantly reduce carbon
emissions associated with the production of Portland cement [282].
As discussed, reductions in energy end-use in the ceramics industry
The effects of ceramics waste in cement have also been explored by
have been achieved through improving the kiln’s design, more efficient
Wong et al. who reports that a low proportion of ceramic particles (20%)
firing techniques, process optimization and other approaches. Table 7
can augment the mechanical strength of cement-based materials [283].
presents 32 emerging technologies that mitigate emissions from the
The effects of calcined clay in cement have also been widely investigated
ceramic industry production processes.
in terms of emissions reductions [284,285], increasing cement’s
The literature also indicates that for the economy segments that are
compressive and flexural strength [286], and durability [287].
not easily electrified, CCS could be another technology to help mitigate
Others have investigated the use of ceramics waste for the produc­
emissions [305] as Fig. 13 illustrates. However, our evidence suggests
tion of alkali-activated cement. For example, one study documented that
that this approach could be erroneous. We argue that individual ceramic
the alkali-activation of an aluminosilicate waste obtained from porce­
sites are not considered big enough to justify having dedicated CCS
lain stoneware and red clay bricks cured at 65 ◦ C for seven days acquired
infrastructure. More, if we consider the high costs that emanate from
compressive strengths exceeding 20 MPa. Therefore, these wastes can be
transportation, development and operation of storage sites that CCS
used to manufacture alkali-activated cement [288]. Fořt et al. explored
entails. Like the glass industry [306], ceramic manufacturers are often
environmental and functional aspects of alkaline activation of brick
located in isolated or rural areas, so carbon capture emissions systems do
powders. Their results show that this mix delivers up to 45% savings in
not seem like a feasible investment option. Another study supports the
energy end-use and mitigates 72% GHG emissions compared to Portland
notion that carbon capture technologies may not be appropriate for
cement paste [289]. Similarly, Bektas and colleagues show that brick
commercial application in the ceramic industry [58].
aggregates not only reduced alkali-silica reaction in concrete mixtures
but also prevented durability loss [290].
6. Barriers and risks facing the decarbonization of the ceramics
industry
5.4.4. Ceramic wastes and concrete
Our review also identified a number of studies indicating how
Although we have noted many options for the decarbonization of the
ceramic waste can be used in concrete production. For instance, Nepo­
ceramics industry, decarbonization is not a given. Instead, some barriers
muceno et al. evaluate the mechanical performance of concrete pro­
prevent their achievement and we review these in the following sec­
duced with recycled ceramic coarse aggregates. Their results reveal that
tions, along with risks. By barriers, we meant any factor impeding

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Table 7
32 emerging technologies for making ceramic manufacturing more sustainable. Source: Authors compiled from [5,49,50,62,72,83,249,301–304].
Level of sociotechnical system Technology Benefits Energy and/or emissions reductions

Ceramics manufacturing Vacuum drying This technique implements reduced atmospheric pressure to NA
decrease the energy end-use needed for the drying process.
Microwave-assisted drying and By using microwave heating, energy is delivered more This technique delivers significant reductions
firing efficiently to dry and fire products. Therefore, reducing in energy end-use, which can be as high as
energy end-use for the drying process (For a more detailed 99%
explanation, see section 5.2.3)
Hybrid Kiln Instead of employing a desulpherised kiln and dryer, exhaust This technology can deliver up to 65% in
gases are supplemented through a gas-driven heat pump to energy savings
enhance thermal energy. This approach enables
manufacturers to select either electric heating employing
CHP as an option and/or primary fuel.
Reduction of water content in Most of the energy consumed in the dryers is used to NA
the shaped product evaporate the water contained in the ceramic products.
Therefore, reducing water content will require less water to
vaporise and less energy to dry formed products during the
drying stage.
Heat pipe heat exchanger Heat pipe heat exchanger applied to a ceramic kiln Energy savings could reach up to 65%
employing exhaust gases to preheat water delivered energy
recovery rates of about 15%.
Preheat water added for Applying hot water instead of cold during the forming stage This technique can lead to emission
forming heavy clays reduces the drying heating requirements. reductions of about 3%.
Controlled dehumidification The water that is condensed within the chamber releases heat The energy savings this technique delivers
that is supplied in the drying process. This system is entirely can be as high as 80%
closed, and therefore, highly energy-efficient.
Controlled drying air In this approach, the inlet and outlet air temperatures remain This technology can lead to energy savings of
recirculation steady, while the drying agent recirculation coefficient 25%
augments. This results not only in reducing the share of new
air, but also optimises the air flow.
Heat recovery facilities in Heat recovery enables the drying air to be replaced with This technology can mitigate emissions
dryers hotter gases from other manufacturing processes. Such gases between 57 and 73% and energy savings
can come from cogeneration engines or the kiln. ranging between 60 and 80%.
Cold sintering This process produces dense ceramic materials below 200 ◦ C, NA
therefore reducing the energy intensity. This technique uses
a transitory, often liquid, phase to enable mass transfer to
make denser ceramics employing uniaxial pressure. This
transitory phase often evaporates in the cold sintering
process, delivering densification by solution precipitation.
‘Hybridedroger voor keramiek’ What differentiates this technique from regular drying Heating requirement decreases from 4 to 10
(hybrid dryer) (drying chambers or tunnel dryers) is that two drying phases GJ/t to about 3 GJ/t. Delivering energy
are applied in two drying chambers instead of only one. First, efficiency improvements of around 25%
aerothermal drying is implemented using significant
quantities of air. This is followed by semi-steam drying,
which dries the product with air, high temperature and
humidity.
Optimization of the Improving ventilation techniques to control main parameters This technique can deliver energy savings of
recirculation of drying air such as temperature, humidity, and flow rate increases the 25%.
efficiency of the hot-air dryer.
Pulsed hot air Periodically interrupting the airflow permits the use of By using a pulse firing system, the ceramics
higher drying air temperatures. This technique gives enough industry can achieve savings of up to 30%
time for the moisture to move from the centroid to the compared with other traditional systems.
surface. Compared with a classic roller dryer, pulsed hot air
is 40 min faster.
High-efficiency burners New high efficient burners allow preheating the combustion This technology can generate energy savings
air with exhaust gases (e.g., self-recuperative and of up to 15% regarding hot air recycling
regenerative burners). These burners can substitute old ones solutions.
in ceramic tunnel and/or roller kilns to reduce fuel
consumption. This technique leads to firing efficiency
improvement of about 10%; fuel savings ranging from 25 to
30% in self-recuperative burners and around 50–60% in
regenerative burners.
Airless drying The main advantage of this technique is that the steam This technology leads to savings in thermal
delivers higher specific heat and thermal conductivity energy of 20–50% and significant reductions
relative to air. This allows improving heat transfer while in the drying time.
reducing the risk of explosion by avoiding secondary
contamination.
Integral thermal process This technique optimises the firing process of tiles, and it NA
involves supplying the exact amount of heat during each
firing stage. The improved control leads to significant
reductions in the firing time compared to fast roller kilns.
Fast-firing Applying fast-fire cycles instead of utilising conventional This technique leads to reducing CO2
kilns leads to reductions in the firing temperature of up to emissions by 25%.
50 ◦ C.
Inertizing This method applies to tiles production. After the pressing Applying this process leads to energy savings
stage, there is no drying, instead, a fast stage of drying–firing of up to 40%.
(continued on next page)

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Table 7 (continued )
Level of sociotechnical system Technology Benefits Energy and/or emissions reductions

to a maximum temperature of about 900 ◦ C is employed

instead. This process lasts between 10 and 15 min depending
on the thickness of the tile.
Hot air recycling as combustion The hot air from the cooling zone of a kiln could be utilized as This technique deliver fuels savings ranging
air in the kiln preheated combustion air in the combustion chamber. This from 15 to 30%.
technique triggers a reaction where the thermal shock
produced by high-temperature airflow reduces the mixture
of hot air and air at ambient temperature. Fuels savings range
from 15 to 30%.
Optimization of the kiln charge Optimising the firing surface area in roller kilns and the NA
working charge in tunnel kilns improves the kiln’s efficiency.
This practice leads to lowering the energy end-use per unit of
the processed product since less energy is required to raise
the kiln’s car temperature.
Extended tunnel kilns Extending the tunnel kiln by 30–50% allow bricks to dry Applying this approach can lead to energy
without employing cool air. Thus, making the tunnel kiln savings of up to 30%
more energy efficient. This approach also enables that the
drying process is decoupled from the firing kiln, leading to
significant energy savings.
Kiln cars and furniture with low The use of low thermal mass in kiln cars helps in reducing the This technique leads to fuel savings of up to
thermal mass thermal energy requirement for the heating of supporting 70%.
refractories. This technique reduces running costs, repairs,
and maintenance.
Vertical Shift Brick Kiln With this technique, green bricks are loaded on the top NA
platform and move slowly towards the central firing zone.
This allows the fresh air coming from below to cool the fired
bricks prior to unloading. The kiln operates as a counter-
current heat exchanger, with heat transfer occurring
between the upward moving air (continuous flow) and
downward moving bricks (intermittent movement). Because
of its fairly short firing period of about 24 h, the green brick
ought to be suitable to resist fast heating and cooling to
deliver high quality bricks.
Replacing conventional Hot Replacing Hot Face Kyanite refractories with a density of This measure can lead to energy savings of
Face Kyanite refractories with 1100 kg/m3 with Ultralite™ can reduce the weight and heat 36,865 m3 N G./year and reductions of CO2 of
Ultralite ones absorption of the kiln car furniture. 77 tCO2eq/year.
Optimization of combustion Installing an O2 sensor at the furnace exhaust for combustion Energy saving can reach up to 19,782 m3 NG
efficiency air provides continuous feedback of percentages of O2. yearly and could mitigate 41.344 CO2
Having this information can help regulate combustion emissions each year.
airflow to maintain an ideal combustion condition
automatically.
Pressure Casting (plasterless) This technique supplies casting benches with casting slips NA
under pressure. The resin or mould-plastic is employed as a
filter instead of waiting for the water to be absorbed. The
water in the casting slip is removed through the plastic/resin
mould porosity, reducing the casting time. With this
approach, energy savings are guaranteed due to the
elimination of mould drying before reuse.
Options for extractions of raw Optimization of raw materials Locally provided raw materials mitigate emissions from long- This approach could lead to up to 20% of
materials and alternatives to distance transportation. Ceramic fibres and low thermal energy savings
replace ceramics mass materials use new formulas that require less heating
during the firing process,. Utilising broken ware lead to
energy savings and contribute to resource efficiency.
Incorporating new materials to New material compositions, for example, incorporating pore- This approach leads to up to 20% in energy
improve the ceramics’ design forming agents (such as carbon nanotubes) and through the savings
incorporation of residues to produce thermal energy can lead
to energy savings in the drying stage and improve material
porosity leading to water savings.
Using low carbonate clay for In this approach, clay could be employed for the production This approach can mitigate emissions by up
yellow bricks in heavy clay of yellow bricks. The manufacturing process implementing to 10%.
subsector low carbonate clay with colourant mitigates this emission.
Recycling sludge from other Utilising such material in the manufacturing of ceramics can This formula can lead to energy savings of up
industries lead not only save raw materials but, in other cases, can also to 20%
lead to reducing firing temperatures and therefore mitigate
GHG emissions. For instance, adding 10%wt of paper sludge
results in economic savings of 3% and lowers firing
temperature to 750 ◦ C.
Ceramics waste and recycling Reuse of waste from operations Broken pieces of ceramics or waste emerging from grinding See Section 5 for specific numbers regarding
in the construction industry and the decorating and glazing operations could be added as energy savings and abatement of emissions
a raw material in the subsequent batches. Implementing this
approach reduces landfills occupation, mitigate emissions
and save resources.
Ceramics waste Instead of being disposed of in landfills, avoid waste Section 5.4 for specific information regarding
generation and reliance on virgin materials from overseas, energy savings and abatement of emissions
ceramics waste can be employed in diverse materials for the
construction industry as we have highlighted in Section 5.4

19
D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Fig. 13. Roadmap to decarbonise the ceramics industry. Source: authors, compiled from Ref. [1]. Note: CHP = combined heat and power. CCS = carbon capture
and storage.

technology adoption, and by risks, we mean any negative outcome to to produce an appropriate kiln design for widespread application [58].
adoption. Geographical location and the fact that many manufacturing sites are
widely dispersed also influence technologies’ deployment [83]. For
instance, near-term hydrogen areas adoption is most likely to occur in
6.1. Manufacturing, managerial and infrastructural concerns
industrial clusters where hydrogen production, distribution, and use are
economically feasible [256]. In addition, these locations often have a
The ceramic industry has high levels of process emissions that
rather limited installed grid capacity. Therefore, problems around
sometimes cannot be completely abated regardless of the utilisation of
infrastructure capacity when employing electrification options such as
mitigation techniques such as energy and resource efficiency and elec­
electric drying and firing or assisted microwave for drying and firing
trification [307]. As presented, manufacturing ceramics entails high
may occur [1,58]. In these circumstances, we argue that for local and/or
heating requirements, currently provided with fossil fuels that cannot be
small ceramic producers, when the commercial technology is developed
easily replaced with existing technologies. For example, in our review,
and supplied, resistance or even rejection of new technologies may occur
we found a number of studies [1,51,84] suggesting that the objectives
due to the economic, business process and technical barriers that new
for the European ceramic industry are extremely demanding and un­
technology adoption involves.
reachable with existing policies and technologies. Others have high­
Regarding hydrogen utilisation, some technical unknowns remain,
lighted that installing electric driers and kilns will not be enough to
including i) lower volumetric energy content than natural gas and a
achieve the industrial EU targets on CO2 emissions [97], which is a
flame with lower radiation heat transfer than natural gas [310]; ii) po­
common approach documented in the literature (see Section 5.2.1).
tential increase of NOx emissions; iii) safety-related considerations,
Regarding electrification, others have argued that electric kilns have not
particularly for storage; iv) costs; v) manufacturing infrastructure that
yet been implemented on a continuous and large scale (i.e., in tunnel
may be incompatible with hydrogen [254]. Our review also noted the
kilns). Thus, the viability of applying electric kilns in large-scale ceramic
potential of biofuels; however, there are some barriers to overcome for
manufacturing plants remains debatable. Others note that since this
their successful deployment in ceramics manufacturing. For instance,
industry is sensitive to fluctuating electricity prices, in tandem with
The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) suggests that
unproven large-deployment of high-temperature heat electrification
biomass cost and supply represent serious issues for the decarbonization
technologies (e.g. electric kilns), there is an uncertain investment
of this industry [58]. On top of that, Cavazzuti and colleagues indicate
environment to advance the electrification of the industry [254,308,
that a full switch to bio-based fuels is not possible without novel kilns
309]. Another study argues that a large-scale continuous electric kiln
that many industries do not have yet [311]. There are also relevant is­
would operate differently than a kiln heated by gas combustion. The
sues regarding distribution barriers and quality requirements, affecting,
study concludes that further collaboration with manufacturers is needed

20
D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

in consequence, the availability of biofuels that the ceramic industry deter investments in more energy-efficient measures [32].
would require [32].
We also raise concerns that in some cases, imported technologies (e. 6.3. Financial and economic disincentives
g. from China or the EU) are not easily adapted to local contexts. For
instance, in Bangladesh, bricks are a quarter larger in size compared to Some argue that the dominant barrier to adopting low-carbon pro­
the Chinese ones. In addition, the climate conditions in Bangladesh (i.e. cess technologies is related to the costs associated with financing tech­
more humid and much hotter) are different than in China. Finally, the nologies [64,314]. Similarly, Venmans documented that the main
physical properties of Bangladeshi clay are also different since these barrier is associated with the manufacturer’s availability of capital and
have higher moisture content and therefore they require longer drying internal budget rules [312]. We also found that unwillingness to invest
time. Thus, once Chinese technologies are directly transferred to the in energy-efficient measures with payback times above 3–5 years
Bangladeshi market, without considering these aspects or making represent another barrier [32]. DECC, in a similar vein, reports a notable
customized improvements and modifications, the efficiency in terms of absence from government financial schemes along with a lack of grants
outputs could drop significantly [67]. to incentivise the adoption of energy-efficient technologies [58]. Finally,
Our review also identified that although much research is focused on The UK Committee on Climate Change argues that until sufficient
producing ceramics from waste, the commercial activity through this financial support from the government is provided, the ceramic industry
approach remains limited. Zhang et al. note that potential barriers to the will not transition towards a zero-carbon path [254].
utilisation of waste materials include an absence of relevant standards, Another barrier is the lack of incentives and regulations to promote
little research regarding the acceptance of waste materials-based ce­ less polluting technologies for brick operators. Particularly in countries
ramics by the public and industry, and many materials that could be such as Bangladesh and Nepal, where most brick kilns are not regulated
contaminated [44]. and are beyond the reach of governmental institutions [67]. In such
countries, where FCK has a return on investment of about 80% (without
6.2. Lack of information, knowledge, and skills factoring in environmental and social costs), brick manufacturers have
little incentives to transition towards low-carbon technologies without
Our research identified that other barriers that impede the decar­ regulatory bodies to push them to do so.
bonization of the ceramics industry are not related to the technology
itself but rather with some inherent issues associated with this industry. 6.4. Regulations to mitigate emissions
For instance, Manrique et al. documented the notorious lack of tech­
nology and knowledge transfer opportunities in the ceramic industry. Since ceramics represent an energy-intensive industry, this review
Their work, which is based in Colombia, also identified that another identified a number of regulations that can contribute to its decarbon­
major barrier is related to the industry’s values [64]. This issue was ization. However, these are not always consistent and show great vari­
associated with the notion that ceramic manufacturers often give low ation across countries. For example, KPMG noted that in China “The
priority to more efficient energy practices as well as sustainability 12th Five-Year Development Plan of Guangdong Building Materials In­
awareness. dustry” and “The Transformation and Upgrading Action Program of
This review identified that the absence of information, specifically Guangdong Ceramic Tile Industry” are resolutions that encourage more
related to the lack of cost-benefit and viability analyses of efficient sustainable manufacturing practices. These approaches suggest a
technologies, impedes the investments to deploy more sustainable resource consumption-driven model and an innovation-driven model to
measures. One study suggests that companies delay cost-effective ac­ expedite the transition towards a future in low-carbon ceramics [315].
tions not because energy-related investments are perceived as less Table 8 displays a number of regulations that contribute to decarbon­
important but because the selection of these projects is often based on an ization and enhance environmental measures within the ceramics in­
expected rate of return. Such a process tends to be inaccurate and hence, dustry. The intention of this table is not to present an exhaustive list of
generates uncertainties for investments [312]. DECC, identified that the policies, but instead, it seeks to highlight how some of the most pressing
absence of technical knowledge and capacity to identify novel tech­ issues in the ceramic industry (i.e. emissions, resources and extraction of
nologies and measures to mitigate emissions represent another key materials) have now been regulated globally. This review also notes that
barrier [233]. We argue that generally, there is a recurrent lack of in­ a common challenge with regulation and policy review papers is that it
formation about more energy-efficient practices for small and medium is very difficult to undertake these based on published papers since
ceramic producers. policy and regulation are rarely thoroughly investigated.
Our research noted that another barrier is associated with the long
lifetime of technologies operating in the ceramics industry. For instance, 7. Future research
the lifespan of a kiln can be up to 40 years and accounts for significant
capital investment; therefore, it is not economically feasible to replace The final finding from this review is associated with the literature
them regularly. Given the kilns’ lifetime, there will only be one or, at gaps that need to be addressed in future research. We divide these into
most, two replacement cycles between now and 2050 and hence limited five areas, namely: ceramics sector-specific estimations including bricks
opportunities for equipment improvements [1,233]. In a similar vein, and tiles, resource extraction and human rights, user comfort and
Mazzanti and Rizzo note that the wave of green investments in this in­ preferences and ceramic alternatives, coupling to other sociotechnical
dustry took place during the late 1990s. Thus, companies are not willing systems and cross-cutting solutions, and technology substitution.
to make further investments in such a short period [313].
Another barrier is related to energy security. BEIS identified that 7.1. Ceramics sector-specific estimations including bricks and tiles
unexpected interruptions of energy supply could generate significant
damages to continuous kilns, to the point that the factory could shut We first note a generalized lack of research concerning advanced and
down for months and augment their production costs per unit. In tan­ emerging energy-efficient technologies for the ceramics industry,
dem, BEIS notes that increasing and volatile gas and electricity prices including work that differentiates emissions by different types (direct vs.

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Table 8 indirect/embodied, or Scope 1, Scope 2, and Scope 3 emissions). We

Regulations to decarbonise the ceramic industry. (Source: authors) compiled acknowledge that this may be attributed to various aspects, including
from [51,67,97,316–318]. the many subsectors existing in the ceramic industry; the differing
Regulation Impacts on the ceramics industry process conditions, particularly firing temperatures, across ceramic ap­
Directive 2004/8/EC of the European This legislative act promotes
plications; the different sizes (large or small) of ceramics manufacturing
Parliament and of the Council of cogeneration grounded on a beneficial companies; and the various applications consumers demand in ceramics.
February 11, 2004 on the promotion of heat demand in the internal energy While we observed a substantial number of studies that covered emis­
cogeneration based on a useful heat market. sions reduction of the industrial sector from a holistic perspective, only a
demand in the internal energy market
few focused solely on ceramics. This gap leads us to recommend that
Directive 2009/29/EC of the European This legislative act seeks to enhance and
Parliament and of the Council of April extend the GHG trading scheme of greater attention should be placed on technological developments for
23, 2009 amending Directive 2003/ emissions allowance from the EU. the decarbonization of the ceramics industry alone. This could be
87/EC on the establishing a scheme for complemented by tailored policy recommendations and options for
greenhouse gas emission allowance specific ceramic sectors.
trading within the Community and
amending Council.
Moreover, we noted that many of the technologies and techniques
Directive 2010/75/EU of the European This act addresses industrial emissions presented in this research are conducted at laboratory scale. Therefore,
Parliament and of the Council of (integrated pollution prevention and we call for further research to focus on demonstrating technologies at an
November 24, 2010 on the on control). industrial scale and further investigating energy and carbon-efficient
industrial emissions (integrated
ceramics manufacturing practices. We also echo the call from Zhang
pollution prevention and control)
Commission Decision of December 24, This decision presents a list of sectors et al. [44], to further research the production and utilisation of bricks
2009 determining, pursuant to and subsectors that are considered to be from waste materials. This research should cover not only economic,
Directive 2003/87/EC of the European exposed to risks of carbon leakage. technical and environmental aspects but also entail policy and public
Parliament and of the Council education, standardization, and the role of governments.
Brick Act (Bangladesh-2013) This instrument seeks to control brick
Furthermore, we noted that those studies focusing on carbon and
manufacturing and brick kiln to promote
conservation and enhance energy savings (see Section 5) are mainly centred on two ceramic sub­
environmental practices to protect sectors: bricks and wall and floor tiles. For instance, we only found a
biodiversity. This Act allows two years as handful of studies investigating emissions from the sanitaryware sector;
a time limit to transition to modern kiln
and we did not find a single document researching the environmental
technologies.
Section 52F of the Income Tax Ordinance This instrument has made mandatory for impacts of vitrified clay pipes. We acknowledge that bricks and ceramic
(Bangladesh) brick manufacturers to submit income tiles are, arguably, the most relevant subsectors from the ceramics in­
tax payment certificates not only for dustry. However, this lack of research offers avenues for future research.
renewing their licenses but also for A final issue is that few studies offer quantitative emissions reduction
obtaining environmental clearance
potential for set technologies, options, or pathways relevant to the ce­
certificates
The Bihar Minor Mineral Concession This regulation applies to bricks ramics industry. Many of the technologies discussed in Section 5 are
Rules (Bihar, state in eastern India) manufacturing. It establishes that the based on single country or single sector/application studies.
mining area should not expand beyond 5
ha, and depth of clay mining should be
7.2. Resource extraction and human rights
less than 3 m. Blasting is forbidden under
this instrument. The mining area is
required to be at a specific distance away As a second theme, we call on future research to focus on the effects
from protected and/or restricted areas of regulations on limiting the use of clay for bricks production and
such as rivers, flood embankment, related soil and resource conservation. We urgently call to investigate
forests, railway lines and others. The
miner, under this regulation is liable to
this area further since we did not find a single study addressing this
restore the land once operation is pressing issue. Similarly, we consider that future research should focus
completed. on analyzing which regions have suffered the biggest ecological impacts
The fly ash notification (India) The 1999 rule set a target of 100% fly from resource extraction for ceramics production. This type of analysis
ash reutilization by 2009 for
could be replicated for all materials used for ceramics manufacturing,
manufacturing bricks. This legislation
was later revised in 2016 and now including lithium. Researchers could evaluate the economic and envi­
requires that brick manufacturing plants ronmental conditions under which lithium mines could operate [141]
within a 100 km radius of a thermal and assess the options for substituting this element, given the potential
power plant need to reuse the fly ash for shortages in the future.
emerging from those plants. If brick
Moreover, we echo the call from Lundgren-Kownacki et al. [133] to
manufacturers are not complying with
such measures, their permits must be investigate, through a multi-dimensional analysis, means to address
cancelled. forced-labour conditions and violations of human rights of brick makers
The Transformation and Upgrading This resolution promotes cleaner from vulnerable communities. At the same time, such research should
Action Program of Guangdong production means in the ceramic tile
also cover means to reduce pollution and improve the workers’ health by
Ceramic Tile Industry (China) sector. It also seeks to help transitioning
this sector from a resource consumption- considering appropriate technical and cultural solutions.
driven model to innovation-driven Finally, we consider that more research should be conducted
model. regarding material substitutes for the ceramics industry that are envi­
Brick and Tile National Emissions Through this mechanism the ronmentally friendly. For instance, ceramics are the second-largest
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Environmental Protection Agency
consumer of lithium but only a handful of studies explore this prob­
(USA) requires that structural clay products
and brick manufacturers employ lem and even less suggest viable solutions to mitigate it.
emissions control technologies and put
into practice standards to control and 7.3. Social preferences and consumer acceptance
minimize releases of hazardous air
pollutants.
We further suggest that future research should focus on users’
comfort and aesthetic expectations for materials. Given that ceramics
are a key element in buildings, more research is needed on how these

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

materials can lead to more efficiency and energy savings while main­ 7.5. Cross-cutting solutions and technology substitution
taining visual and thermal comfort. Similarly, there is little research
addressing the intersection of consumers’ preferences and construction Most of the documents identified in this review were narrowed to
materials. Working from the premise that there are more sustainable one specific option (e.g., electrification and biofuels) for decarbonising
options to ceramics, it would be worth investigating if the materials that the ceramics industry. Nevertheless, we noted that combining technol­
are more valued by consumers are also the most sustainable options. ogy paths could deliver, in some cases, greater carbon savings. Thus, we
Complementing users’ preferences, we call for further research centring encourage the research community to investigate these techniques
on the willingness of kiln owners to adopt more energy and carbon- further. In this sense, although we found a number of studies that sug­
efficient technologies. Coupled with this, the main drivers for process gested a cross-cutting approach, these were limited to a handful. For
changes should be explored and potential triggers for behaviour change instance, Huang and colleagues noted that improving the insulation in
investigated. old kilns and integrating waste heat utilisation practices can decrease
total energy end-use by about 22% [317]. Another approach is sug­
7.4. Coupling to other sociotechnical systems gested by Zapata-Solvas et al. they have documented that insulated
graphite die for Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) enables the sintering of all
As presented in Section 3, the ceramics industry does not exist in a refractory ceramic materials in less than 1 min with heating rates
vacuum, and like other industries, is associated with other socio­ reaching over 2000 ◦ C/min and energy end-use over 100 times lower
technical systems [319]. As Fig. 14 displays, the interconnections from than SPS [320].
the ceramic industry to other sociotechnical systems are notable. They On a similar track, even though we identified a few studies
range from vital materials in urban infrastructure (e.g., drainage pipes researching the benefits of employing more efficient equipment [234,
and underground cable sheathings) to critical materials in the con­ 321–323], these were limited to focus on the technology alone, without
struction sector. Looking at the links with the sociotechnical energy further investigating how to increase potential benefits. For instance,
system, ceramics also have an important role in terms of energy end-use research could explore the economic and environmental benefits of
and their use, particularly in buildings. Ceramics even touch on socio­ using new ceramic formulas in most developed kilns. Both approaches
technical systems such as electronics, military, aerospace, health, and are currently available and arguably with a technological readiness level
automobiles. Finally, the ceramics industry touches upon national and high. Fig. 15, therefore, presents a clear insight; practical and extended
local regulations regarding resource extraction, circularity, and recy­ options to pave the way towards a low-carbon future is achievable for
cling schemes. Our review notes that these interconnections can create the ceramic industry. For instance, recycling, resource efficiency and
enthralling dependencies and result in synergies that are rarely exam­ materials substitution touches across all levels of the ceramics system.
ined. We, therefore, call to investigate these interconnections further. Stakeholders, investors, manufacturers and policymakers can picture a

Fig. 14. Compelling interconnections of ceramics to other sociotechnical systems. Source: authors.

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D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Fig. 15. Visualizing crosscutting options for the decarbonization of the ceramics system. Source: authors.

path for decarbonization based on these cross-cutting solutions as well implementing stringent soil use and resource extraction regulations.
as commercially options available (see Section 5 and Table 6). More­ Concerning the second step presented in Fig. 16 (ceramics making), our
over, these cross-cutting interventions can simultaneously influence review provides 32 technologies and processes as well as waste recovery
multiple product groups and sectors. In turn, we believe more research options that can promote more energy-efficient processes to mitigate
on cross-cutting options should be pursued. emissions from this industry. Nevertheless, we determined that there is
no consensus on a single most promising strategy and/or technology to
8. Conclusion substantially reduce product emissions based on the collected evidence.
Instead, our analysis indicates (see Section 7.5) that to reduce emissions
To investigate the decarbonization of the ceramics industry, we dramatically, the ceramics industry must implement a cross-cutting
employed a critical review with a systematic searching protocol and the approach that goes beyond energy-efficient initiatives, but it also con­
guiding conceptual lens of sociotechnical systems. Our study shows that siders measures related to recycling, resource efficiency and materials
ceramics are intrinsically associated with human development as they substitution.
are used as materials for the buildings we live in, sanitary appliances, In Fig. 16, we show the barriers to decarbonizing the ceramics in­
domestic decorative objects, and a wide range of other infrastructural, dustry. Although the main obstacles are perhaps financial and economic,
technical and cultural artefacts. Ceramics are also a key component in we also noted other hindrances. For instance, the lack of knowledge
fostering a low carbon future through applications such as energy from local manufacturers to implement low-carbon processes represents
storage and CO2 absorption. This review also showed that the ceramics a key hindrance. From the perspective of small manufacturers, another
industry does not exist in a vacuum, instead, it is closely tied to other barrier is the lack of willingness to adopt more efficient technologies (i.
industries (i.e., military, automotive and aerospace). Therefore, ce­ e., switch kilns) due to lack of incentives and/or regulations to stimulate
ramics are associated with other sociotechnical systems that create upgrading assets with long-lives. While from a user perspective, a
compelling interdependencies among industries. generalized lack of understanding of household comfort and aesthetic
Nevertheless, regardless of these benefits, ceramics can be highly preferences might operate as a barrier to developing more efficient
damaging to social and natural systems during their lifecycle. For ceramic products. Fig. 16 also summarizes the benefits of change in the
instance, in the EU, the manufacture of ceramics emits around 19 Mt ceramics sociotechnical system. The figure shows that for ceramic pro­
CO2, bricks manufacturing is responsible for 2.7% of carbon emissions ducers, financial and economic opportunities exist. Most notably, such
annually, and in Asia alone, it is estimated that the brick sector con­ benefits are translated into energy savings and more efficient
sumes more than 110 million tonnes of coal per year. In this sense, manufacturing processes. At the individual company level, more strin­
Fig. 16 displays (in white) ceramics’ environmental and social impacts, gent regulation of workers’ wellbeing and polluting technologies can
ranging from the extraction of raw materials (e.g., land, crops, and soil improve workers’ health while ensuring that human rights are
degradation and biodiversity loss) to their final disposition. preserved.
Regardless of how intricate, environmentally, and socially damaging In addition to breaking down how the ceramics sociotechnical sys­
this sociotechnical system can be, Fig. 16, presents the many possibilities tem can be enhanced, our review also suggests promising avenues for
(shown in green) that can help to reduce emissions and alleviate social future research. For instance, investigation of forced-labour conditions
and environmental impacts. Options for extracting raw material vary and violations of human rights in brick manufacturing could have pos­
from finding alternatives to ceramics and resource efficiency to itive social impacts. Moreover, we suggest that future research should

24
D.D. Furszyfer Del Rio et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 157 (2022) 112081

Fig. 16. Interventions, benefits, barriers and policies for decarbonizing the ceramics sociotechnical system (Source: Authors).

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