World Geography

CHAPTER - 1
The Earth and its Geological Time Scale
Important Points :
 Origin and evolution of the earth
 Early theories
 Modern Theories
 Formation of Solar system
 Evolution of the Earth
 Motions of the Earth
 Indian Standard Time
 Geological Time Scale
 Interior of Earth
 Continental Drift Theory
 Plate Tectonic Theory
 Rocks
 Volcano
Origin and evolution of the earth surface. As the passing star moved away, the
On a fine bright night looking up at the sky feels material separated away from the solar surface
to be studded with stars, these stars are not and continued to revolve around the sun and
scattered regularly in space; they occur in clusters, slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans
better described as galaxies or nebulas. Each such and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this
galaxy contains as many as 100 million stars. theory.
Earth‘s own galaxy, the Milky Way, is believed to Although, these theories made their debut in
contain around 100,000 million stars. early times and even got acceptance at large but
later got faded as scientists got more interested in
Early theories:–
knowing the origin of the universe than the origin
Nebular Hypothesis: One of the first arguments
of the earth.
for origin of earth was put forward by Emmanual
Kant, which later was revised by mathematician Modern Theories
Laplace in 1796. It considered that the planets Origin of the universe:–
were formed out of cloud of material associated
Big bang theory: It is also called expanding
with a youthful Sun, which was slowly rotating.
universe hypothesis. Edwin Hubble, in 1920,
The theory got real recognition after Otto
provided evidence that the universe is expanding.
Schmidt in Russian and Carl Weizascar in
As time passes, galaxies move further and further
Germany in 1950, revised it, though, differing in
apart. Scientists believe that though the space
details. They considered that the sun was
between the galaxies is increasing, observations
surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly
do not support the expansion of galaxies.
hydrogen and helium along with dust. The friction
i. The Big Bang Theory considers the following
and collision of particles led to formation of a
stages in the development of the universe.
disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed
In the beginning, all matter forming the
through the process of accretion.
universe existed in one place in the form of a
Binary theory: In 1900, Chamberlain and ―tiny ball‖ (singular atom) with an
Moulton considered that a wandering star unimaginably small volume, infinite
approached the Sun. As a result a cigar shaped temperature and infinite density.
extension of material was separated from the solar
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ii. At the Big Bang the ―tiny ball‖ exploded after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has
violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is slowed down. Within first three minutes from
now generally accepted that the event of big the Big Bang event, the first atom began to
bang took place 13.7 billion years before the form.
present. The expansion continues even to the iii. Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang,
present day. As it grew, some energy was temperature dropped to 4,500K (Kelvin) and
converted into matter. There was particularly gave rise to atomic matter. The universe
rapid expansion within fractions of a second became transparent.

The Star formation: The Planet formation: The following are

The distribution of matter and energy was considered to be the stages in the development of
planets :
not even in the early universe. These initial
density differences gave rise to differences in i. The stars are localized lumps of gas within a
gravitational forces and it caused the matter to get nebula. The gravitational force within the
drawn together, denser the material higher lumps leads to the formation of a core to the
possibility to attract more mass. These formed the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and
bases for development of galaxies. A Galaxy dust develops around the gas core.
contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread ii. In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting
condensed and the matter around the core
over vast distances that are measured in thousands
develops into small rounded objects. These
of light years. The diameters of individual
small-rounded objects by the process of
galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light years. A cohesion develop into what is called
galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming
gas in the form of a very large cloud called by collision, and gravitational attraction
nebula. Eventually, growing nebula develops causes the material to stick together.
localized clumps of gas. These clumps continue to Planetesimals are a large number of smaller
grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise bodies.
to formation of stars. The formation of stars is iii. In the final stage, these large number of
believed to have taken place some 5-6 billion small planetesimals accrete to form a fewer
years ago. large bodies in the form of planets.
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Formation of Solar system Alternatively, the first four are called Terrestrial,
meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock
Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The and metals, and have relatively high densities. The
nebula, from which our Solar system is supposed rest four are called Jovian or Gas Giant planets.
to have been formed, started its collapse and core Jovian means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much
formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and larger than the terrestrial planets and have thick
the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen. All
ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the the planets were formed in the same period
sometime about 4.6 billion years ago. Till recently
star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller
(August 2006), Pluto was also considered a planet.
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge However, in a meeting of the International
quantity of dust-grains and gases. Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that
Out of the eight planets, mercury, Venus, Pluto like other celestial objects (2003
earth and mars are called as the inner planets as UB313)discovered in recent past may be called
they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids ‗dwarf planet‘.
the other four planets are called the outer planets.

The Moon formation: into the earth sometime shortly after the earth was
The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into
Like the origin of the earth, there have been space. This portion of blasted material then
attempts to explain how the moon was formed. In continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed
1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, into the present moon about 4.44 billion years
the earth and the moon formed a single rapidly ago.
rotating body. The whole mass became a dumb- The Shape of the Earth:
bell-shaped body and eventually it broke. It was From the years of accumulated knowledge,
also suggested that the material forming the moon experience and observations in different parts of
was separated from what we have at present the
the world, it is known that the earth is round. Its
depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean.
However, the present scientists do not accept spherical shape is an established fact, proved and
either of the explanations. It is now generally accepted by all. It has an equatorial circumference
believed that the formation of moon, as a satellite is more than polar circumference by 130 km. This
of the earth, is an outcome of ‗giant impact‘ or shows that the earth is not a perfect sphere; it little
what is described as ―the big splat‖. A body of the flattened at both the ends and this shape is named
size of one to three times that of mars collided
Geoid (Earth-shaped).
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Evolution of the Earth: iii. Photosynthesis: Sometime around 3,800

The earth has a layered structure. From the million years ago, life began to evolve.
outermost end of the atmosphere to the center of However, around 2,500-3,000 million years
the earth, the material that exists is not uniform. before the present, the process of
The atmospheric matter has the least density. photosynthesis got evolved. Life was
From the surface to deeper depths, the earth‘s confined to the oceans for a long time.
interior has different zones and each of these Oceans began to have the contribution of
contains material with different characteristics. oxygen through the process of
Lithosphere: photosynthesis. Eventually, oceans were
The earth was mostly in a volatile state saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million
during its primordial stage. Due to gradual years ago, oxygen began to flood the
increase in density the temperature inside has atmosphere.
increased. As a result the material inside started
getting separated depending on their densities. Motions of the Earth
This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink The Earth is a planet of the solar system. It is not
towards the center of the earth and the lighter ones
static but has two types of motions:—
to move towards the surface. With passage of time
it cooled further and solidified and condensed into 1. Rotational Motion
a smaller size. This later led to the development of 2. Revolution or Orbital Motion
the outer surface in the form of a crust. During the Rotation: The Earth ceaselessly rotates on its
formation of the moon, due to the giant impact, axis, from west to east like a top. This motion is
the earth was further heated up. It is through the called Rotation of the Earth. Rotation of the Earth
process of differentiation that the earth forming is responsible for the cycle of day and night on it.
material got separated into different layers.
Therefore, this motion is also called 'Daily
Starting from the surface to the central parts, we
have layers like the crust, mantle, outer core and Motion'.
inner core. From the crust to the core, the density Sidereal Day: The duration between the passage
of the material increases. of particular star over a meridian twice is called a
Atmosphere: There are 3 stages in the evolution sidereal day. It duration is about 23 hours and 56
of the present atmosphere: minutes.
i. Loss of primordial atmosphere: The initial
Solar Day: Solar day is found when the duration
atmosphere which had large amount of
Hydrogen and Helium, got stripped off as a of earth's revolution around the sun is calculated
result of the solar winds. in terms of days, while taking the Sun as
ii. Degassing: During the cooling of the earth, stationary. Duration of a solar day is exactly 24
gases and water vapor were released from hours.
the interior of the earth. This started the Revolution:While rotating on its axis, the earth
evolution of present atmosphere. The early also goes around the sun in an elliptical path and
atmosphere largely contained water vapor,
completes one round in 365 days and 6 hours. The
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia
and very little of free oxygen. As the earth elliptical path traced by the earth is called its orbit.
cooled, the water vapor released started This motion of earth is called revolution or the
getting condensed. The carbon dioxide in the annual movement.
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and Perihelion: When the earth is at the minimum
the temperature further decreased causing distance from the sun, while in orbit, this position
more condensation and more rains. The is known as perihelion. The earth attains this
rainwater falling onto the surface got
position on 3rd January.
collected in the depressions to give rise to
oceans. The earth‘s oceans were formed Aphelion: When the earth is at the maximum
within 500 million years from the formation distance from the sun, while in orbit, this position
of the earth. is known as aphelion. The earth is at this position
on 4th July.
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Change of Seasons: The earth moves not only on

its axis but also in its orbit around the sun.
Therefore, the earth changes its position
continuously with respect to the sun. There are
four major positions of the earth, while it revolves
around the sun, and these positions bring different
seasons on the earth.
A. Revolution of the earth and the seasons -
Position on 21st June: In this position the
Length of Days and Nights:If the earth would
sun shines perpendicularly over the Tropic
not have been titled on its axis, the days and
of Cancer. This position is called the
nights would have been of same duration, always.
Summer Solstice. In fact, from 21st March,
Moreover, if the earth would not have been
the sun starts shifting towards the north,
revolving around the sun, one of the hemispheres
gradually. it is the time of summer season in
would have long days and short nights, whereas
the northern hemisphere, while in the
the other one would have short days and long
southern hemisphere, it is winter season. The
nights. But, it is the fact that the length of days
day in the northern hemisphere is longest on
and nights vary seasonally on the earth surface,
21st June. From 21st Jun to 23 September
except in the equatorial region. Days and nights in
the sun starts retreating towards the equator
the equatorial region are of equal duration,
and hence the heat of summer gradually
because one half of the region always receives
decreases.
solar light.
B. Position on 22nd December: - In this
From 21 March to 23 September, the
position the sun shines perpendicularly over
northern hemisphere receives light from the sun
the Tropic of Capricorn. This position is
for more than 12 hours. Therefore, days are longer
called Winter Solstice. During this period
and nights are shorter in the northern hemisphere.
days are long and nights are short in the
Moreover, as we move towards the north, the
southern hemisphere. The sun starts shifting
duration of day increase and on the North Pole we
towards south gradually from 23rd
have a long day of six-month duration. From 23
September. This position marks the summers
September to 21 March, the situation gets
in the southern hemisphere and winters in
reversed and the southern hemisphere receives
the northern hemisphere.
light of the sun more and as we move towards the
C. Position on 21st March and 23rd
South Pole the duration of day increases. Now, the
September: - In these two positions the Sun
South Pole has a day of six months. In this way
shines directly overhead the Equator.
there is day for six months and night for six
Therefore, half part of all latitudes receives
months on both the poles.
the sun-light at these times. Hence,
Tilted Earth: A Reason for seasons everywhere, the duration of day and night is
equal. Seasons are also similar in both the
hemispheres. These two positions are
referred to as Equinoxes, 21st March is
called Spring or Vernal Equinox whereas
23rd September is called Autumn Equinox.
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Revolution of Earth and Seasons:

A simplified diagram showing the movement of refracted light from the sun whilst it is still below
the sun between the tropics: the horizon. Since the sun rises and sets in a
Dawn and Twilight vertical path at the equator the period during
The brief period between sunrise and full day light which refracted light is received is short. But is
is called dawn, and that between sunset and temperate latitudes, the sun rises and sets in an
complete darkness is termed twilight. This is oblique path and the period of refracted light is
caused by the fact that during the periods of dawn longer. It is much longer still at the poles, so that
and twilight the earth receives diffused of the winter darkness is really only twilight most of
the time.
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Dawn and Twilight: (a) at the equator, (b) in temperate latitude

At the equator the sun rises and sets almost vertically so the time it takes to pass through the
twilight zone (A,B) will be shorter than for temperate latitudes where the sun rises and sets
obliquely. Here the time taken is longer (C,D)
BASIS FOR
SOLAR ECLIPSE LUNAR ECLIPSE
COMPARISON

Meaning Solar eclipse is the one in which sun Lunar eclipse refers to the eclipse in
is blocked by the moon. which moon appears dim, as it passes
into earth’s shadow.

Position Moon lies between sun and earth Earth lies between sun and moon

Frequency Once in every eighteen months. Twice a year

Occurrence Occurs during day Occurs during night

Phase New moon Full moon

Duration 5-7 minutes An hour

Appears in some places only. Appears in many places.

Altitudes: It can be defined as the angular southern hemisphere the same latitude is called
distance measured at the centre of the Earth the Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/20 S). 66 1/20
respect to any point on the meridian. latitude in the northern hemisphere is called the
These are depicted in degrees, minutes and Sub-Arctic Circle (66 1/20 N) whereas 66 1/20
seconds. Equator is called the 00 latitude. There latitude in the southern hemisphere is called Sub-
are several latitudes on both sides (north and Antarctic Circle (66 1/20 S). The latitudinal
south) of the equator up to the poles. These are distance of 10 is about 111 km. The perimeter of
imaginary circles, drawn on the surface of the latitudes goes on decreasing from equator to the
earth, at an interval of 10 on both the hemispheres poles due to Geoid shape of the earth. Latitudes
making the total number of latitudes to 181. 23 ½ are concentric circles. They are also known as
latitude on the Northern hemisphere is called the parallels.
Tropic of Cancer (23 1/20 N) whereas in the
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Some Important Latitudes:

Longitudes:Angular distance of any place from hours in the time in east and west of the 1800
the Prime Meridian, on its east or west, is called longitude.
longitude. It is also measured in degrees, minutes
and seconds. The Prime Meridian is at 00 and is
known as the Greenwich Line as it passes through
Greenwich, in London. There are 180 longitudes
on both the sides (east and west) of the Prime
Meridian, therefore there are 360 longitudes in
total. The distance between two adjacent
longitudes is about 111.32 Km, which is less
towards the poles and more at the equator. This is
because longitudes taper towards the poles. Part of
the Earth on the eastern side of the Prime
Meridian is called Eastern hemisphere and that on
the western side of it is called western
hemisphere. Since, the Earth is Geoid in shape so International Date Line:It is an imaginary line
it rotates by 3600 in 24 hours. Therefore, the earth drawn at the 1800 longitude, avoiding the
takes 4 minutes to move by 10 of longitude. continuous land parts. It is bent at 750N latitude
Since the Sun rises in the east and the towards east to avoid division of Siberia and to
Earth moves from west to east, time on the eastern separate Siberia and Alaska. Again it is bent over
hemisphere is ahead of the Greenwich and that on the barring Strait towards west. To maintain the
the western hemisphere is behind it. This is the continuity of land in islands of Fiji and New
reason behind differences in local times at Zealand, the International Date Line bends
different places on the Earth. For every 150 of towards east in the southern Pacific Ocean. There
longitudes there is difference of one hour in time. is a difference of 24 hours or one day in east and
In this way the time on the 1800E longitude is 12 west of it. Therefore, one day is either gained or
hours ahead of the Greenwich and that on the lost while crossing this line. While crossing it
1800W longitude is 12 hours behind the time at from east to west one day is gained and while
Greenwich. Hence, there is a difference of 24 going from west to east one day is lost.
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International Date Line

Local Time: The time at a particular place on the Standard Metrication of India. The time at this
Earth, as calculated by the position of the Sun, is longitude is the Standard time of India, called
termed as the Local Time of that place. Local Indian Standard Time (IST).
Mid-Day Time of a place is that time when the
Sun shines overhead at the place. In India there is
a difference of 2 hours in the time of the eastern
most (Arunachal Pradesh) and the western most
(Dwarka in Gujarat) parts.
Standard Time:This is the imaginary line passing
through mid the standard Meridian in the middle
of the country. Standard Time of the country is
followed all over the country to avoid the
inconvenience caused by the difference in local
times of different place in that country. For
Example, 82 ½ 0E longitude, passing through
Naini, near Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), is the

Indian Standard Time

Some helpful facts to calculate the Standard
Time of a Place : To the left of the 00 longitude
(the Prime Meridian) are the Western longitudes
and to its right are eastern longitudes, whereas to
the left of the 1800 longitude (the International
Date Line) are the eastern longitudes and to its
right are the western longitudes.  When we move towards the left of any
longitude the time gets reduced by 4
minutes for every 10 of longitude.
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 We gain one day (24 hours) while ago) and continues to the present day. Modern
crossing the International Date Line from geologic time scales additionally often include
its right and losing one day while the Hadean Eon, which is an informal interval that
crossing it from its left. extends from about 4.6 billion years ago
(corresponding to Earth‘s initial formation) to 4.0
 If we reverse the direction of the Earth's
billion years ago. Geologic time is, in effect, that
rotation the whole of the above process
segment of Earth history that is represented by
will get reversed. and recorded in the planet‘s rock strata.
While travelling by a ship or an aero The geologic time scale is the ―calendar‖ for
plane the time taken by the journey is added to events in Earth history. It subdivides all time into
or subtracted from the local time of the place. named units of abstract time called in descending
To calculate the time when the journey will be order of duration eons, eras, periods, epochs, and
ages. The enumeration of those geologic time
completed, the time of journey is added to the
units is based on stratigraphy, which is the
local time of the destination place whereas to
correlation and classification of rock strata.
calculate the time when the journey was
The fossil forms that occur in the rocks provide
commenced, the time of journey is subtracted
the chief means of establishing a geologic time
from the local time of the originating place.
scale. One of the most widely used standard charts
Geological Time Scale showing the relationships between the various
intervals of geologic time is the International
Geologic time is the extensive interval
Chronostratigraphic Chart, which is maintained by
of time occupied by the geologic history of Earth.
the International Commission on Stratigraphy
Formal geologic time begins at the start of
(ICS).
the Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years
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Interior of Earth
Sources of Study of Interior of earth The gravitation force (g) is not the same at
The earth‘s radius is 6,370 km, reaching the different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near
center of the earth and making observations or the poles and less at the equator. This is because
collect samples of the materials is almost of the distance from the center at the equator
impossible. Under such conditions, most of our being greater than that at the poles.
knowledge about the interior of the earth is largely The gravity values also differ according to
based on analogies and inferences. the mass of material. The uneven distribution of
Direct Sources:The readily available solid mass of material within the earth influences this
earth material is surface rock we get from mining value. The reading of the gravity at different
areas. The scientists are also working on two places is influenced by many other factors. These
major projects such as ―Deep Ocean Drilling readings differ from the expected values. Such a
Project‖ and ―Integrated Ocean Drilling difference is called gravity anomaly. Gravity
Project‖. These drilling projects have provided anomalies give us information about the
large volume of information through the analysis distribution of mass of the material in the crust of
of materials collected at different depths. the earth. Magnetic surveys also provide
Volcanic eruption forms another source of information about the distribution of magnetic
obtaining direct information. As and when the materials in the crustal portion, and thus, provide
magma comes out to the surface of the earth information about the distribution of materials in
during volcanic eruption it becomes available for this part.
laboratory analysis. Seismic/Earthquake Waves: The study of
Indirect Sources:Analysis of properties of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the
rocks and magma indirectly provides information layered interior.
about the interior. Scientists have estimated the
values of temperature, pressure and the density of
materials at different depths.
Meteor is another source of information
about the interior of the earth. Meteors are solid
bodies developed out of materials same as, or
similar to, earth. So, by analogy meteors provide
valuable information about the earth‘s interior.
The other indirect sources include
gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity.
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Seismic waves are mechanical waves which

require medium for propagation. Their behaviour
changes with changes of medium.
An earthquake in simple words is shaking of
the earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to
release of energy, which generates waves that
travel in all directions. The energy waves
travelling in different directions reach the surface. Love waves:
Earthquake waves are basically of two  This kind of surface waves causes horizontal
types- body waves and surface waves. Body shifting of the earth during an earthquake.
waves are generated due to the release of energy  They have much slower than body waves
at the focus and move in all directions travelling but are faster than Rayleigh.
through the body of the earth. They interact with  They exist only in the presence of semi-
the surface rocks and generate new set of waves infinite medium overlain by an upper finite
called surface waves. These waves move along thickness.
the surface. The velocity of waves changes as they  Confined to the surface of the crust, Love
travel through materials with different densities. waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
Denser the material, higher is the velocity. Rayleigh waves:
Body waves are basically of two types-  These waves follow an elliptical motion.
primary P and secondary S waves.  A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just
S- waves can travel into only Solid and Gas like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
medium. The P-waves are similar to sound  Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and
waves. down and side-to-side in the same direction
P can travel in all 3 mediums. The speed is that the wave is moving.
 Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake
highest in S>L>G. P-waves move faster and are
is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be
the first to arrive at the surface. S-waves arrive at
much larger than the other waves.
the surface with some time lag. This characteristic
Propagation of earthquake waves:
of the S-waves has helped scientists to understand
Different types of earthquake waves travel in
the structure of the interior of the earth.
different manners. As they move or propagate,
P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of
they cause vibration in the body of the rocks
the wave. This exerts pressure on the material in
through which they pass. P-waves vibrate parallel
the direction of the propagation. As a result, it to the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure
creates density differences in the material leading on the material in the direction of the propagation.
to stretching and squeezing of the material. Other As a result, it creates density differences in the
waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
propagation. material. Other three waves vibrate perpendicular
The direction of vibrations of S-waves is to the direction of propagation. The direction of
perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave
plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create
material medium through which they pass. troughs and crests in the material through which
Surface waves are considered to be the most they pass. Surface waves are considered to be the
damaging waves. most damaging waves.
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Shadow Zone
Earthquake waves are recorded in seismographs located at far off locations. However, there are certain
areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone, where the waves are not recorded, is called the
‗shadow zone‘. The study reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether different shadow
zone. Given figure shows the shadow zones of P and S-waves.
Pattern of S-waves

S-wave Propagation
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S-wave Propagation: It was observed that Ocean—and along the rift valleys of East
seismographs, located within 105° from the Africa.
epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P and S-
Measuring earthquakes
waves. But, beyond 145° from epicenter, they
 Seismometers are the instruments which are
record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-
used to measure the motion of the ground,
waves. Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from
which including those of seismic waves
epicenter is identified as the shadow zone of P-
generated by earthquakes, volcanic
waves. However, the entire zone beyond 105°
eruptions, and other seismic sources.
does not receive S-waves. Thus shadow zone of S-
 A Seismograph is also another term used to
wave is much larger than that of the P-waves. The
mean seismometer though it is more
shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around
applicable to the older instruments.
the earth between 105° and 145° away from the
 The recorded graphical output from a
epicenter whereas that of S-wave is a continuous
seismometer/seismograph is called as
zone.
a seismogram. (Note: Do not
Distribution of Earthquakes confuse seismograph with seismogram.
 Earth‘s major earthquakes occur mainly in Seismograph is an instrument
belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic while seismogram is the recorded output)
plates.  There are two main scales used in the
 The most important earthquake belt is seismometers: Mercalli Scale and Richter
the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many Scale.
populated coastal regions around the Pacific Mercalli Scale:
Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, The scale represents the intensity of
New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands, earthquake by analyzing the after effects like how
Alaska, and the western coasts of North and many people felt it, how much destruction
South America. occurred etc. The range of intensity is from 1-12.
 The seismic activity is by no means uniform
throughout the belt, and there are many Richter scale:
branches at various points. The scale represents the magnitude of the
 Because at many places the Circum-Pacific earthquake. The magnitude is expressed in
Belt is associated with volcanic activity, it absolute numbers from 1-10. Each whole number
has been popularly dubbed the ―Pacific Ring increase in Richter scale represents a ten times
of Fire.‖ increase in power of an earthquake.
 The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about Types of earthquakes:
68 per cent of all earthquakes.  The most common ones are the tectonic
 A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt earthquakes. These are generated due to
(Himalayas and Alps). The energy released sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
in earthquakes from this belt is about 15 per  A special class of tectonic earthquake is
cent of the world total. sometimes recognized as volcanic
 The mid-world mountain belt (Alpine Belt) earthquake. However, these are confined to
extends parallel to the equator from Mexico areas of active volcanoes.
across the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean  In the areas of intense mining activity,
Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges to the sometimes the roofs of underground mines
Caspian, Himalayan Mountains and the collapse causing minor tremors. These are
adjoining lands. called collapse earthquakes.
 There also are striking connected belts of  Ground shaking may also occur due to the
seismic activity, mainly along oceanic explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
ridges—including those in the Arctic Ocean, Such tremors are called explosion
the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian earthquakes.
 World Geography
15

 The earthquakes that occur in the areas of The mantle: Below the crust of the earth is
large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir a thick layer called mantle. This layer extends
induced earthquakes. upto a depth of 2900 km. The mantle consists
predominantly of solid olivine rocks made up of
The Interior Structure of Earth: Just like an
silicates of magnesium and iron and displaying
onion, the earth is made up of several concentric
plastic properties. Its average density is 56.8. This
layers with one inside another. The important
layer is separated from the crust by Mohorovicic
zones include:—
discontinuity. The outer and the inner mantle are
The crust: The outer layer of the earth is separated by another discontinuity named Repetti
known as the crust. It comprises about 0.5% of the discontinuity.
earth‘s body. Its thickness ranges from 5 to 30 km. The core: Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies
It is as thick as 70 km in Himalayan region. the core of the earth. It is named as barysphere
The crust is thicker beneath the continents and also NIFE (Nickel and Ferrous). Average
than beneath the oceans. It is made up of two thickness is 4671 km. Average density is 17.2. By
layers: upper lighter layer made up of granitic volume it constitutes 17% of the earth‘s body. The
rocks, it makes up the continents (density=2.7 temperature of the core is about 200°C. The core
g/cc) called the SIAL (Silica + Aluminum) and a is believed to be a reason for the earth‘s
lower denser layer made up of basaltic rocks magnetism. It is separated from the mantle by
forming the ocean floor (density=3.0 g/cc) called Gutenburg- Wiechert Discontinuity.
SIMA (Silica + Magnesium). The average density Lithosphere & Aesthenosphere: Beneath
of the earth‘s surface is less than 3 gm/c.c. The the upper mantle there is a soft layer in which the
upper layer of the crust is mainly composed of mantle rock is at the temperature close to the
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks, acidic melting point. It sets in at an average depth of
in nature. The lower layer of the crust contains about 80 km which is well below the base of the
basaltic and ultra-basic rocks. continental crust. This layer is called as
Conrad discontinuity separates the outer ‗Aesthenosphere‘ and the rigid layer above it is
and the inner crusts. called as ‗lithosphere‘. The aesthenosphere
extends to a depth of about 400 km.
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16

Composition and properties of different layers of the earth

S.N. Name of the Chemical Average Density Physical Properties
Layer Composition Thickness (g/cm3)
(Km)
1 Crust SiAl 6-45 2.2-2.9 Solid part of lithosphere;
partly molten under the
continents.
2 Inner part of Outer silicate 45-100 The solid crust and upper
Lithosphere layer, Basaltic mantle.
3 Asthenosphere 50 to 400 It transmits both S & P
waves but with reduced
velocities
4 Upper Mantle Sima (Peridotite 100 to 1700 3.1 to 4.75 Slightly solid and slightly
(mainly under iron magnesium plastic material close to
Oceans) rich silicate rock) melting point
5 Lower Mantle Wholly SiMa 1700 to 2900 4.75 to 5.6 Transition zone of mixed
(Olivine- metals and silicate.
Ultrabasic rocks
6 Outer core NiFe 2900 to 4980 9.9 - 12.3 Liquid or in a plastic state.
Fe, Ni and S mixture.
7 Inner Core Barysphere 4980 to 6400 13.5 Iron and nickel. Solid and
(heavy metallic rigid due to tremendous
rocks) overlying pressure.
Temperature: In upper 100 km the increase Composition of the Interior of the Earth
in temperature is estimated at the rate of 12°C per Earth as a Whole Earth‘s Crust
km descend. In the next 300 km, the increase is of Iron (Fe) - highest Oxygen (O2) – highest
2°C per km and below that the rate of increase is Oxygen (O2) Silicon (Si)
1°C per km. In the core the temperature is about Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al)
2000°C. But at the same time there is a huge Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe)
pressure of overlying layers of the earth‘s interior. Sulphur (S) Calcium (Ca)
So even under extremely high temperature towards Nickel (Ni) Magnesium (Mg)
the central part of the earth the liquid nature of the Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na)
earth core has acquired the properties of a solid and Aluminum (Al) - lowest Potassium (K) - lowest
is probably in a plastic state.

Continental Drift Theory

The continents as we see today made the horizontal displacement before the present
earlier geographers and philosophers to come up continents were formed.
with a theory saying‘ ―once all the continent were According to this theory, about 200 million
together and later got separated followed by the years ago, the entire landmass formed one super
drifting of the continents over the crust of the continent, called Pangea surrounded by a mega
earth‖. Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch map maker, ocean called Panthalassa, meaning all water.
who first proposed such a possibility as early as According to Wegener, after the breaking of the
1596. Antonio Pellegrini drew a map showing super continent Pangea, the movement of the
three continents together. However, it was Alfred continents took place in two directions- one
Wagner, a German meteorologist who put forth towards the equator due to centrifugal force of the
this theory with evidences. earth which gave rise to fold mountains like the
The theory of continental drift, expounded Himalayas, the alps, etc. and another towards west
by Alfred Wegener in 1912, holds that portions due to tidal force of sun and the moon which gave
of the original continent which comprised the rise to Andes and Rockies.
entire landmass of the world underwent a series of
 World Geography
17

He made the following evidences –

1. Matching Coastlines zig-saw fit: A glance at
the world map shows that S. America particularly
Brazil can be fitted into the Gulf of Guinea of
Africa. A map produced using computer
programming to find the best fir of the Atlantic
margin was presented by Bullard in 1964. It was
proved to be quite perfect. The match was tried at
1000 fathom line instead of the present shoreline.

3. Fossils: When identical species of plants and

animals adapted to living on land or in fresh water
are found on either side of the marine barriers, a
problem arises regarding accounting for such
distribution. The observations that Lemurs occur
in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to
consider a contiguous landmass ―Lemuria‖ linking
these three landmasses. Mesosaurus was a small
reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The
2. Similarity of Age of the rocks:Rocks of the skeletons of these are found only in two localities
same age and type and displaying the same : the Southern Cape province of South Africa and
formations is found in south-east Brazil and South Iraver formations of Brazil. The two localities
Africa. The earliest marine deposite along the presently are 4800 km apart with an ocean in
coastline of South America and Africa are of the between them.
Jurassic age. This suggests the ocean did not exist
prior to that time.

Africa

Cynogathus Lystrosaurus
In
di
a

South
America
Australia

Antarctica

Mesasaurus
Mesasaurus
 World Geography
18

1. Placer Deposite: The occurance of rich Sea floor spreading:

placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast The hypothesis about the sea floor spreading
and the absolute absence of source rock in was proposed by Harry Hess in 1961. Based on
the region is an amazing fact. The gold the studies that were carried out in post war era
bearing veins are in brazil and it is obvious provided a detailed picture of ocean relief and
that the gold deposits of the Ghana are indicated the existence of mountain ranges,
derived from the Brazil plateau when the trenches and volcanoes under the oceans. The
two continents lay side by side. evidences that formed as a basis for Hess were as
2. Tillite: It is the sedimentary rock formed out follows:
i. It was realized that all along the mid-oceanic
of deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana
ridges, volcanic eruptions are common and
system of sediments from India is known to
they bring huge amounts of lava to the
have its counter parts in six different
surface in this area.
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere. At
ii. The rocks equidistant on either sides of the
the base the system has thick tillite
crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable
indicating extensive and prolonged
similarities in terms of period of formation,
glaciation. Counter parts of this succession chemical compositions and magnetic
are found in Africa, Falkland Island, properties. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia ridges have normal polarity and are the
besides India. Overall resemblance of the youngest. The age of the rocks increases as
Gondwana type sediments clearly one move away from the crest.
demonstrates that these landmasses had iii. The ocean crust rocks are much younger
remarkably similar histories. The glacial than the continental rocks. The age of rocks
tillite provides unambiguous evidence of in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than
palaeoclimates and also of drifting of 200 million years old. Some of the
continents. continental rock formations are as old as
3,200 million years.
iv. The sediments on the ocean floor are
unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
expecting, if the ocean floors were as old as
the continent, to have a complete sequence
of sediments for a period of much longer
duration. However, nowhere was the
sediment column found to be older than 200
million years.
v. The deep trenches have deep-seated
earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
After the drifts some water bodies developed oceanic ridge areas; the quake foci have
between them. Geological evidences prove that S. shallow depths.
America and Africa were probably joined together
Postulates of Hess‘s theory:
till the upper Triassic.
1. Constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic
Wegener suggested that the movement ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust
responsible for the drifting of the continents was on either side. Thus, it spreads.
caused by polar fleeing force and tidal force. 2. The oceanic crusts pushed from either side
get consumed at the continental margin.
 World Geography
19

Plate Tectonic Theory:

This theory is a work of many scientists The oceanic and continental crust makes up
from different discipline. It came out in 1967 as the lithosphere (Thin outer shell of the
McKenzie, Parker and Morgan independently earth).Below the lithosphere lays the
collected the available ideas based on 2 scientific asthenosphere, a layer of molten rock, that is
evidences:— melted and flows (like putty) under
[Link] to the theory, the lithosphere
1. Sea-floor spreading is broken into plates that ride (or float) on the
2. Palaeo-magnetism asthenosphere (like blocks of wood floating on
water). Most plates are composed of both
The most latest and accepted theory continental and oceanic [Link] plates move
toward each other others are moving apart, and
According to this theory, Earth's outer shell
some are simply sliding past one another. This
is divided into several plates that glide over the
constant movement is what has created our earth‘s
mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The
major surface- Mountain Ranges and Deep-ocean
plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared
Trenches.
to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called
the lithosphere. Within the asthenosphere are convection
cells, slowly turning over hot, plastic rock. The
Developed from the 1950s through the
convection cells bring heat from the earth's
1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version
interior out to the surface, but slowly. Movement
of continental drift, a theory first proposed by
is about 10 centimeters a year. When the
scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't
convection cells reach the base of the lithosphere
have an explanation for how continents could they release heat to the surface at the divergent
move around the planet. plate boundary to escape to space. The cooled
plastic rock then turns sideways and moves
The earth consists of two types of crust. –
parallel to the earth's surface before descending
Oceanic Crust (Material on the ocean floor) and
back into the earth at sub-duction zones to become
Continental Crust (Crust that makes up land reheated. It is this turning over of the convection
masses). cells the drives the plate movements.
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20

The plates are divided on the basis of their Some important minor plates are listed
movement and size in Major and Minor. The below:
major plates are as follows:
i. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate i. Cocos plate: Between Central America and
ii. North American (with western Atlantic floor Pacific plate
separated from the South American plate ii. Nazca plate: Between South America and
along the Caribbean islands) plate Pacific plate
iii. South American (with western Atlantic floor iii. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian
separated from the North American plate landmass
along the Caribbean islands) plate iv. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and
iv. Pacific plate Pacific plate
v. India-Australia-New Zeland plate v. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and
vi. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate Indian plate (North of the New Guinea)
vi. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia

All these plates are in constant motion both in relation to each other and with regard to the
earth‘s motion. Some movements are responsible for the volcanic activities, seismic and other plate
disturbances on the margins of the plates.
Types of movements of plates:—
A. Convergence: When the oceanic lithosphere moves towards the continental lithosphere, due to
its thickness the continental Crust is unable to go down and it is the oceanic crust which is
involved in subduction. The down went plate of the oceanic crust melts and produces magma.
This magma rises slowly and emerges as intrusive igneous rock in the form of volcanic
mountains on the continental crust. Thus origin of volcanic mountains like Andes takes place.
 World Geography
21

When the two oceanic lithospheres lie on both side of subduction, then either of the two plates
may subduct. The subducted part melts and the magma rises above the oceanic surface and volcanic
islands are formed in arc form like Aleutian island, Kuril Island, Ryuku Island, etc.

When the continental lithosphere lies on both sides of subduction, the sediments get scrapped
off the descending plate margin. In the next stage the two continents collide, squeezing the sediment
mass and throwing it into complicated fold and high alpine ranges like Himalayas and Alps are
formed.
 World Geography
22

B. Divergence/continental rupturing: It is mountains are formed. Next a long narrow

also termed as ―ocean floor spreading‖. valley called ―rift valley‖ appears. The
Deep beneath the continental plate a widening crack in its center is
column of heated mantle rock begins to continuously filled in with magma rising
rise and reach the plate above, causing the from the mantle below. The magma
plate to fracture, which is called solidifies to form new crust and also a new
―continental rupture‖. At first block oceanic crust and lithosphere.

C. Parallel movements of plates: Types of Rocks

Parallel plates, as they slide past each The earth‘s crust is composed of rocks. A
other along a common boundary, do not create a rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
new crust or destroy the old one but they Rock may be hard or soft and in varied colors.
produce ―transform faults‖ which are fractures For example, granite is hard, sandstone is soft.
in rock formation. Fractures imply displacement Rocks do not have definite composition of
of rocks. As the plates continue to move, the mineral constituents. The crustal rocks are
locked rocks snap. They shift violently back to classified on the basis of mode of formation,
equilibrium like a bent - stick breaking. This physical and chemical properties, location etc.
violent shift causes earthquakes. On the basis of mode of formation the rocks are
Example:San Andreas fault in California, USA. divided into three categories: (i) igneous rocks
(ii) sedimentary rocks (iii) metamorphic rocks.
1. Igneous rocks:Igneous rocks are formed
out of magma and lava from the interior of
the earth, and hence also known as
primary rocks. The igneous rocks are
formed when magma cools and solidifies.
The process of cooling and solidification
can happen in the earth‘s crust or on the
Rocks surface of the earth.
 Rocks are an aggregate of one or more Igneous rocks are characterized on
minerals held together by chemical bonds. the basis of texture. If molten material is
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common cooled slowly at great depths, mineral
minerals found in rocks. grains may be very large. Sudden cooling
(at the surface) results in small and smooth
 The scientific study of rocks is
grains. Intermediate conditions of cooling
called petrology.
would result in intermediate sizes of grains
 Based on the mode of formation three
making up igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro,
major groups of rocks are defined: igneous,
pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff
sedimentary, and metamorphic. are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
 World Geography
23

They are normally crystalline in (ii) organically formed - e.g. chalk,

structure, when they contain high limestone, coal etc. (iii) chemically formed
proportion of silica they are called to be – e.g. chert, halite, potash etc.
acidic. Acid igneous rocks such as granite These rocks are formed due to
are less dense and are lighter in color than aggregation and compaction of sediments.
basic rocks. The basic rocks contain high They cover 75 percent of surface area of
proportion of oxides of iron, aluminum or the globe. However they form only 5
magnesium. percent of the volume of earth‘s crust.
Igneous rocks are roughly hard rocks These rocks contain fossils of plants and
and water percolates with great difficulty. animals. They contain several layers or
They do not have strata and are less strata but these are seldom crystalline
affected by chemical weathering. They rocks. They are seldom found in original
don‘t contain fossils. The number of joints and horizontal manner. Most sedimentary
increases upwards. They are mostly rocks are porous and permeable.
associated with volcanic activity. The formation of sedimentary rocks takes
A. Intrusive igneous rocks- they are place in three stages:—
cooled and solidified below the  Transportation: after weathering and
surface of the earth. They are further erosion the fragments of parental rocks are
divided into plutonic and hypabyssal transported by the agents of erosion like
igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks cool stream, wind, air, etc.
deep beneath the earth e.g. Granite.  Deposition: transported materials are
Hypabyssal rocks cool just beneath deposited in sea, lakes, etc. The particles
the earth surface e.g. Batholith, are deposited in parallel layers and their
laccolith, phacolith, lapolith, sills, process of layer formation is called
dykes, etc. ―stratification‖.
B. Extrusive igneous rocks are formed  Consolidation: when the number of layer
due to cooling and solidification of is large, the weight of upper layer begins
hot and molten lava at the earth‘s to affect the lower layers and the further
surface e.g. Basalt, Gabbro, obsidian. compression solidifies the sediments into
2. Sedimentary rocks: The word rocks.
‗sedimentary‘ is derived from the Latin Examples of Sedimentary rocks:
word sedimentum, which means settling. Sandstones. Conglomerates, clay rock, shale,
Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and loess, gypsum, salt rock, Limestone, dolomites,
metamorphic) of the earth‘s surface are coal, peats, etc.
exposed to denudational agents, and are 3. Metamorphic rocks:The word
broken up into various sizes of fragments. metamorphic means ‗change of form‘.
Such fragments are transported by These rocks are formed under the action of
different exogenous agencies and pressure, volume and temperature (PVT)
deposited. These deposits through changes. Metamorphism occurs when
compaction turn into rocks. This process is rocks are forced down to earth‘s interior
called lithification. Depending upon the by tectonic processes or when molten
mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are magma rising through the crust comes in
classified into three major groups: contact with the crustal rocks or the
(i) mechanically formed - e.g. sandstone, underlying rocks are subjected to great
conglomerate, shale, loess etc. amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
 World Geography
24

Metamorphism is a process by which temperature and pressure changes. Gneiss,

already consolidated rocks undergo granite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc.
recrystallization and reorganization of are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
materials within original rocks.
In the process of metamorphism in The rock type influence the
some rocks grains or minerals get arranged characteristic features and landform, softer
in layers or lines. Such an arrangement of rocks like clay and shale are worn down
minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is much faster than harder rocks like
called foliation or lineation. graninte.
Sometimes minerals or materials of Within West Malaysia the resistant
different groups are arranged into granites form the high ground of the main
alternating thin to thick layers appearing in raing and the eastern range. The highest
light and dark shades. Such a structure in peak of Malaysia Gunong Tahan is made
metamorphic rocks is called banding and of even more resistant quartzite. Shale,
rocks displaying banding are called banded schist and sandstone being less resistant,
rocks. form the much lower, rounded hills.
Metamorphic rocks undergo Recent river sediments form flat plains.
complete alteration in the appearance of The limestone, resistant because of their
pre-existing rocks due to change in permeability, form prominent steep-sided
mineral composition and texture through hills.

Rock Cycle
Rocks do not remain in their original form for another plate in zones of plate convergence).
long but may undergo transformation. Rock The same can melt down due to increase in
cycle is a continuous process through which old temperature in the interior and turn into molten
rocks are transformed into new ones. Igneous magma, the original source for igneous rocks.
rocks are primary rocks and other rocks The forces which affect the earth‘s
(sedimentary and metamorphic) form from these movement are involved in the creation,
primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed destruction, recreation and maintenance of
into metamorphic rocks. The fragments derived various types of relief features of varying
out of igneous and metamorphic rocks transform magnitudes. On the basis of origin these forces
into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are divided into:
themselves can turn into fragments and the (i) endogenetic forces and
fragments can be a source for formation of other (ii) exogenetic forces. While endogenetic
sedimentary rocks. The crustal rocks (igneous, forces create relief features on the earth‘s
metamorphic and sedimentary) once formed surface, the exogenetic forces through
may be carried down into the mantle (interior of their erosional and depositional activities
the earth) through subduction process (parts or destroy them and help in the plantation
whole of crustal plates going down under process.
 World Geography
25

Volcano
A volcano is an opening in the earth‘s crust through which gases, molten rocks materials (lava), ash,
steam etc. are emitted outward in the course of an eruption. Such vents or openings occur in those
parts of the earth‘s crust where the rock strata are relatively weak. Volcanic activity is an example
of endogenic process.

 Volcanoes are formed due to eruptions of lava and ash.

 The appearance of volcanoes is mostly cone-shaped mountains or hills.
 Magma on reaching the Earth's surface is referred to as lava. On cooling down on lava, it
results in the formation of rock.
 Volcanic eruptions mostly occur at destructive and constructive borders, but not at
conservative boundaries.
 There are a few volcanoes that occur inside water, along the seabed or ocean floor.
 World Geography
26

Types of Volcanoes

When a land-form, a mountain, where molten rocks erupt through the surface of the planet is called
volcanoes. Volcanoes which occur in mountains open downwards to a pool of molten rocks below the
surface of the earth. Building of pressure on the Earth crust causes eruption to occur. It can also cause
lateral blasts, hot ash and lava flow, mud-slides, and more.
Further volcanoes are categorized into three categories :
 Active: Volcano which erupted recently and have chances of further eruption are known to be
active one.
 Dormant: Volcano which has not erupted for a long time but in future there is possibility of
eruption are called dormant one.
 Extinct: Volcano which erupted thousands of years ago and there's no possibility of an eruption is
called extinct.
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27

Shield Volcanoes Flood Basalt Provinces

 These kinds of volcanoes are the largest of  Flood Basalt Province volcanoes discharge
other volcanoes that are presently active fluid lava that easily travels long distances.
on the surface of the Earth.
 Many regions across the globe are covered
 These kinds of volcanoes are made up of by thick basalt lava flows.
basalt.
 They will become explosive in case water Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
goes inside the vent. Else these volcanoes  These kinds of volcanoes mostly erupt in
are being characterized by low explosivity. the oceanic areas.
 The lava that moves upside down does so  There exists a system of mid-ocean ridges
in a fountain form and emanates the cone that stretches to more than 70000
at the vent‘s top before developing into a kilometres across the ocean basins.
cinder cone.  The central region of this ridge registers
the maximum eruptions regularly.
Composite Volcanoes
 Shape: Cone shaped with moderately steep Different Types of Volcanic Eruption: Based
sides and sometimes have small craters in on various factors like chemistry of magma,
their summits. temperature, viscosity, volume, presence of
groundwater, and water and gas content volcanic
 Volcanologists call these ―strato-‖ or
eruption are of various types. They are:
composite volcanoes because they consist
of layers of solid lava flows mixed with  Hydrothermal eruption: Eruption which
layers of sand- or gravel-like volcanic rock does not include ash and not magma. They
called cinders or volcanic ash. are caused because of heat in the
hydrothermal system.
 They are characterized by the eruption of a
cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.  Phreatic eruption: It is a kind of eruption
which is caused when the magma interacts
 These volcanoes often result in explosive
with the water. Such eruptions magma and
eruptions.
ash are not present.
 Along with lava, large quantities of
 Phreatomagmatic eruption: It is a kind of
pyroclastic materials and ashes find their
eruption which takes place when there is the
way to the ground.
interaction between the newly formed
 This material accumulates in the vicinity
magma and water.
of the vent openings and leading to the
 Strombolian and Hawaiian eruption:
formation of layers, and this makes the
Hawaiian type of eruption has fire fountains
mount appears as composite volcanoes.
in them whereas the Strombolian eruption
Caldera has explosions due to lava fragments in
 Calderas are considered as the most them.
explosive volcanoes that exist on this  Vulcanian eruption: Such eruptions last
planet. only for a short duration and can reach up to
 These volcanoes are mostly explosive. a height of 20 km.
 On eruption, they are likely to collapse on  Subplinian and Phinian eruptions: Sub
themselves instead of creating a structure. Plinian eruptions reach up to 20 km height
 The collapsed depressions are known as whereas eruptions which reach up to 20-35
calderas. km height are called as Phinian eruption.
 World Geography
28

Volcanic Mountains These materials fell around the vent in

These mountains are made of volcanoes successive layers, building up a characteristic
(made of material ejected from fissures in the volcanic cone.
earth‘s crust) These mountains are often called
The material includes: as mountains of accumulation.
 Molten lava Example:
 Volcanic bombs  Mt. Fuji (Japan)
 Cinders  Mt. Merapi (Sumatra)
 Ashes  Mt. Mayon (Philippines)
 Dust and liquid mud  Mt. Agung (Bali)
 Mt. Cotopaxi (Ecuador)


Important Questions
1. Which of the following planets is 5. Match the following:
known as 'Morning Star'? A. Largest Planet 1. Mercury
(a) Mercury (b) Venus B. Brightest Planet 2. Jupiter
(c) Mars (d) Jupiter C. Densest Planet 3. Earth
2. Which planet of the solar system spins D. Smallest Planet 4. Venus
on its axis at the fastest rate? (a) A-2 B-3 C-4 D-1
(a) Mercury (b) Earth (b) A-2 B-4 C-3 D-1
(c) Jupiter (d) Saturn (c) A-3 B-4 C-1 D-2
3. Which of the following is the largest of (d) A-3 B-4 C-2 D-1
6. Lunar Sea refers to:
the inner planets?
(a) a small sea on the moon
(a) Venus (b) Mercury
(b) a sea on earth which experiences high
(c) Mars (d) Earth
tides due to gravitational attraction of
4. Which of the following is the brightest the moon
planet? (c) a dark plain on the moon
(a) Mercury (b) Venus (d) a light water body illuminated by the
(c) Mars (d) Jupiter moon-light
 World Geography
29

7. The same side of the moon always faces 12. One degree of the circumference of the
the Earth because: earth measures (approx.):
(a) Moon and the Earth have gravitational (a) 100 km (b) 111 km
force (c) 151 km (d) 175 km
(b) Moon cannot change its position 13. Days and nights are caused by:
(c) The period of rotation of the Moon on 1. Rotation of the earth on its axis
its axis and period of revolution 2. Revolution of the earth around the sun
around' the Earthis almost the same 3. Inclination of the earth's axis
(d) The period of rotation of the Moon is (a) Only 1 is correct
not equal to the period of rotation of
(b) 1 and 2 are correct
the Earth
(c) 2 and 3 are correct
8. The distance of the nearest star besides
(d) All are correct
the sun from the earth is :
(a) 4.9 x 1111m (b) 95 x1015 m 14. Which of the following are true
(c) 4.3 light years (d) 4.2 light years regarding the crust of the earth?
9. Comets are celestial bodies moving 1. It is the outer thin layer with a total
about the solar system in thickness of about 100 km
(a) Elliptical or hyperbolic orbits, usually 2. It forms around 0.5 percent of the
accompanied by a shining tail earth's volume
(b) Elliptical orbits usually accompanied 3. The outer covering of the crust is of
by a long shining tail sedimentary material
(c) Hyperbolic orbit always accompanied 4. The lower layer of the crust consists
by a shining head of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks
(d) Hyperbolic orbit without projecting (a) I and II (b) I, II and III
any tail or head (c) I, II and IV (d) I, II, III and IV
10. Consider the following statements: 15. Which one of the following is present in
1. The albedo of an object determines its the largest amount in terms of percent
visual brightness when viewed with by mass in the earth's crust?
reflectedlight. (a) Silicon (b) Oxygen
2. The albedo of Mercury is much (c) Carbon (d) Calcium
greater than the albedo of the Earth.
16. The sun is never overhead at any time
Which of the statements given above
in:
is/are correct?
1. North Temperate Zone
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. South Temperate Zone
11. What is the difference between 3. North Frigid Zone
asteroids and comets? 4. Torrid Zone
1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, (a) III only (b) I, II and III
while comets are formed of frozen (c) II and III (d) I, II, III and IV
gases held together by rocky and 17. Consider the following statements:
metallic material. 1. Earth is the fourth largest planet of the
2. Asteroids are found mostly between solar system
the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while 2. Earth's circumference is about 45000
comets are found mostly between km
Venus and Mercury. 3. Earth's polar diameter is about 43 km
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing shorter than its equatorial diameter
tail, while asteroids do not. 4. Earth has a total surface area of 510
Which of the statements given above million [Link]
is/are correct? Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
 World Geography
30

18. The revelations of a satellite 21. If the earth's axis had not been
photograph of the earth are as follows: inclined:
1. The Southern hemisphere bulges 1. Temperature distribution would have
slightly more than the Northern been uniform
hemisphere 2. Days and nights would not have
2. It is slightly pear shaped ellipsoid of occurred
rotation 3. Seasons would not· have occurred
3. The polar axis of the earth is slightly 4. Poles would not have continuous day
shorter than the equatorial axis (a) I, III and IV (b) II and IV
4. The equatorial circumference is about (c) III and IV (d) II, III and IV
40,000km
22. Which of the following is true
Which of the above statements are
regarding the Prime meridian?
correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4 1. It passes through the center of a
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 certain country
19. Why does Russia have many local time 2. It passes through the center of the
differences? Globe
(a) Because it keeps trade relations with 3. It passes through the observatory at
many countries of the world Greenwich, near London.
(b) Because it experiences a wide range (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
of climatic conditions (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
(c) Because of its long east-west stretches 23. Petroleum is generally found in:
(d) Because it is divided into a number of (a) Igneous intrusions into sedimentary
states on political grounds strata
20. Which of the following is/are true of (b) Old fold mountains
world time zones? (c) Alluvial deposits of the river valleys
1. The world is divided into thirty time (d) Folded marine sedimentary rocks
zones 24. The soil material is mainly derived
2. All time zones of the world are
from:
described in term of the number of
(a) Metamorphic rocks
hour‘s differencebetween the standard
meridian of that zone and the (b) Sedimentary rocks
Greenwich Meridian (c) Igneous rocks
3. All countries have more than one time (d) Biological action
zone 25. The 'ring of fire‘:
4. The time for all places east of 1. is associated with earthquakes
Greenwich is designated slow, and 2. is associated with volcanoes
time for all places leftof Greenwich is 3. Goes round the Pacific Ocean
designated fast 4. is associated with forest fires
(a) I, II, III and IV (b) II and IV (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) I, III and IV (d) II only (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c)
8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c)
15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (c)
22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (a)
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Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Rotation
2. Sidereal Day
3. Perihelion
4. Mesozoic
5. Paleozoic
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. Holocene
2. Cambrian period
3. Silurian period
4. Solar eclipse
5. Seismic waves
6. Deep ocean assessment and reporting of tsunami
7. Love waves
8. Shadow Zone
9. Seismometers
10. Quartz
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. What is volcano? Explain different types of volcano?
2. Distribution of Earthquake & Volcano in world?
 World Geography
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CHAPTER - 2
Major Landforms
Important Points :
 Endogenetic forces
 Mass Movements
 Mountains
 Plateau
 Plains
 Desert
Endogenetic forces
Term endogenic refers to internal processes and phenomena that occur beneath the Earth's surface.
These forces are divided into sudden forces and diastrophic forces.

A. Sudden forces: Events like earthquake and 1. Vertical movement: They include emergence
volcanic eruption occur suddenly and the and subsidence of land masses. Emergence
resultant forces work very quickly. They are may occur due to upliftment of the whole
continent or part there of or upliftment of
constructive forces as they create cones, coastal land of the continents. Submergence
lakes, plateaus, lava plains etc. may occur when the land near the sea coast
B. Diastrophic forces: All processes that subsides below sea level.
move, elevate or build up portions of the 2. Horizontal movement: These forces work
earth‘s crust come under diastrophism. They into two ways :—
include:  In opposite direction - This includes
tensional or divergent forces which create
(i) Orogenic processes involving mountain faults, rupture, fracture, cracks etc.
building through severe folding and  Towards each other - This includes
affecting long and narrow belts of the compressional or convergent forces which
earth‘s crust; create folding, warping etc.
(ii) Epeirogenic processes involving uplift
or warping of large parts of the earth‘s Folding: It is the process whereby the rock
strata are bent into a series of arches (anticlines)
crust; and toughs (syncline) as a result of horizontal
(iii) Earthquakes involving local relatively earth movements which cause compression within
minor movements; the crust. The anticlines of the folds generally
(iv) Plate tectonics involving horizontal form the mountains and the adjacent synclines
movements of crustal plates. They form the valleys. Most of the mountain ranges of
include both vertical and horizontal the world consist of Fold Mountains e.g. the Alps,
the Andes, the Rockies and the Himalayas.
movements:—
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Geometry of Folds - Folds are described by Types of Folds:Not all folds are equal on
their form and orientation. The sides of a fold are both sides of the axis of the fold. Those with limbs
called limbs. The limbs intersect at the tightest of relatively equal length are termed symmetrical,
part of the fold, called the hinge. A line and those with highly unequal limbs are
connecting all points on the hinge is called the asymmetrical. Asymmetrical folds generally have
fold axis. In the diagrams above, the fold axes are an axis at an angle to the original unfolded surface
horizontal, but if the fold axis is not horizontal the they formed on. Other kinds of folds are:—
fold is called a plunging fold and the angle that 1. Anticlines - Up folds:When the upper part
the fold axis makes with a horizontal line is called
of the fold is eroded away, the oldest rocks
the plunge of the fold. An imaginary plane, that
includes the fold axis and divides the fold as are in the center of the fold, and the
symmetrically as possible, is called the axial plane youngest rocks are on each side. Also, the
of the fold. rocks dip (or slope) away from the central
axis of the fold.

2. Synclines - Down folds: When the upper

part of the fold is eroded away, the youngest Columns of faulting bring four distinguishable
rocks are in the center of the fold, and the landforms as:—
oldest rocks are on each side. Also, the rocks 1. Rift valley: it is the result of the subsidence of
dip toward the central axis of the fold. the central column. When the central column of
the two fault-lines subsides, the rift valley is
Faulting: It is the process by which the made. "Damodar valley" is such an example.
tensional earth movements under the effect 2. Ramp valley: when both side columns are
of considerable pressure create a fracture in raised and the central column is standstill, then the
the earth's crust. made landform is ramp valley. "Brahmaputra"
Faulting gives rise to relief features river passes through a ramp valley.
like block mountains (horsts), rift valleys, 3. Block Mountain: this is the result of the
etc. A rift valley is a long, relatively narrow
depression formed by the sinking of a block subsidence of side column. The central column
of land between two more or less parallel gets steep rim along the fault scarps and the raised
faults. Examples: East African rift valley, landform is Block Mountain.
Narmada and Tapti valleys.
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34

4. "Satpura hills" of India is such an example. expansion and pressure release. These processes
5. Horst: Horst is a similar landform but is are small and slow but can cause great damage to
supposed to be due to upward force from beneath the rocks because of continued fatigue the rocks
suffer due to repetition of contraction and
the central column. Side-columns are standstill.
expansion.
"Harz Mountain" of Germany is an example. This mechanical disintegration takes place in
Exogenetic forces: Exogenic forces refer to different ways.
external processes and phenomena that occur on 1. Frost Action: Frost weathering occurs due
or above the Earth's surface. Comet and meteoroid to growth of ice within pores and cracks of
impacts, the tidal force of the moon and sun's rocks during repeated cycles of freezing and
radiations are all exogenic. Weathering effects and melting. This process is most effective at
erosion are also exogenic processes. They also high elevations in mid-latitudes where
affect the planation processes. These are also freezing and melting is often repeated.
called denudational or destructive forces. The Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging
erosional process is affected by running water, daily. In this process, the rate of freezing is
ground water, glaciers, sea waves etc. These important. Rapid freezing of water causes its
processes form erosional and depositional land sudden expansion and high pressure. The
forms. resulting expansion affects joints, cracks and
Weathering: Weathering is the process of small inters granular fractures to become
disintegration and decomposition of rocks while wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
erosion is the process of removal, transportation 2. Thermal Expansion and
and deposition of the weathered particles. These Contraction:Various minerals in rocks
processes together are known as ―Denudation.‖ possess their own limits of expansion and
Weathering is defined as mechanical contraction. With rise in temperature, every
disintegration and chemical decomposition of mineral expands and pushes against its
rocks through the actions of various elements of neighbour and as temperature falls, a
weather and climate. Weathering process brings corresponding contraction takes place.
mechanical disintegration and chemical decaying Because of diurnal changes in the
of rocks. Weather conditions are the most decisive temperatures, this internal movement among
phenomenon hence the name weathering. the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
However the type and rate of weathering are also rocks takes place regularly. This process is
influenced by rock structure, topography and most effective in dry climates and high
vegetation. Weathering is a static process. It is elevations where diurnal temperature
also the process of soil genesis. changes are drastic. Though these
It is of three types:— movements are very small they make the
A. Mechanical Weathering: When a region rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
undergoes mechanical weathering, rocks are The surface layers of the rocks tend to
broken into small pieces. Physical or expand more than the rock at depth and this
mechanical weathering processes depend on leads to the formation of stress within the
some applied forces. The applied forces rock resulting in heaving and fracturing
could be:— parallel to the surface. Due to differential
1. Gravitational forces such as overburden heating, the resulting expansion and
pressure, load and shearing stress. contraction of surface layers and their
2. Expansion forces due to temperature subsequent exfoliation from the surface
changes, crystal growth or animal results in smooth rounded surfaces of rocks.
activity In rocks like granites, smooth surfaced and
3. Water pressures controlled by wetting rounded small to big boulders called tors
and drying cycles. form due to such exfoliation. In the area of
Many of these forces are applied both at the hot deserts, the diurnal range of temperature
surface and within different earth materials brings the expansion and contraction of
leading to rock fracture. Most of the physical surface rocks, leading to their disintegration
weathering processes are caused by thermal into smaller pieces.
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3. Unloading and Expansion: This is the B. Chemical Weathering: It changes the basic
expansion by unloading process. Unloading properties of the rock. Principal processes of
occurs when large igneous bodies are chemical weathering are:—
exposed through the erosional removal of 1. Solution: Here the rocks are completely
overlying rock and the reduction in the dissolved. This process involves removal of
pressure. On being exposed to the surface solids in solution and depends upon
they expand slightly in volume. This leads to solubility of a mineral in water or weak
the peeling of thick shells like an onion‘s acids.
layers from the parent rock. On coming in contact with water many
4. Spalling: When there is a sudden shower in solids disintegrate and mix up as suspension
the hot desert area, the highly heated rocks in water. Soluble rock forming minerals like
when struck by sudden drizzle develop nitrates, sulphates and potassium etc. are
numerous cracks. affected by this process. So, these minerals
5. Cavernous Weathering: It occurs are easily leached out without leaving any
generally in hot arid region and also in the residue in rainy climates and accumulate in
rocks of coastal area. dry regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate
6. Salt Weathering: Salts in rocks expand due and calcium magnesium bicarbonate present
to thermal action, hydration and in limestones are soluble in water containing
crystallization. Many salts like calcium, carbonic acid (formed with the addition of
sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium carbon dioxide in water), and are carried
have a tendency to expand. Expansion of away in water as solution. Carbon dioxide
these salts depends on temperature and their produced by decaying organic matter along
thermal properties. High temperature ranges with soil water greatly aids in this reaction.
between 30°C and 50°C of surface Common salt (sodium chloride) is also a
temperatures in deserts favour such salt rock forming mineral and is susceptible to
expansion. this process of solution.
Salt crystals in near-surface pores 2. Oxidation and Reduction: In weathering,
cause splitting of individual grains within oxidation means a combination of a mineral
rocks, which eventually fall off. This process with oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides.
of falling off of individual grains may result Oxidation occurs where there is ready access
in granular disintegration or granular to the atmosphere and oxygenated waters.
foliation. Salt crystallization is most The minerals most commonly involved in
effective of all salt-weathering processes. In this process are iron, manganese, sulphur
areas with alternating wetting and drying etc. Though it is a universal phenomenon but
conditions salt crystal growth is favored and it is more apparent in rocks containing iron.
the neighboring grains are pushed aside. In the process of oxidation rock
Sodium chloride and gypsum crystals in breakdown occurs due to the disturbance
desert areas heave up overlying layers of caused by addition of oxygen. Red color of
materials and with the result polygonal iron upon oxidation turns to brown or
cracks develop all over the heaved surface. yellow. When oxidized minerals are placed
With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down in an environment where oxygen is absent,
most readily, followed by limestone, reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc. usually below the water table, in areas of
7. Sheeting: The development of cracks and stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
fractures, parallel to the ground surface, color of iron upon reduction turns to
caused by removal of superincumbent load. greenish or bluish grey.
8. Cambering process: Due to expansion 3. Hydration: Hydration is the chemical
caused by unloading of super-incombitant addition of water. Most of the rock-forming
load and consequent release of confining minerals absorb water. Minerals take up
pressure. water and expand. This not only increases
9. Flaking: Different heating of outer and their volume but also produces chemical
lower shells of a rock mass causes flaking. changes resulting in the formation of new
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minerals which are softer and more Effects and significance of Weathering –
voluminous. E.g. this process converts 1. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of
hematite into limonite. Calcium sulphate shells from over rocks or bedrock results in
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is smooth and rounded surfaces. Exfoliation
more unstable than calcium sulphate. This can occur due to expansion and contraction
process is reversible and long, continued induced by temperature changes. Exfoliation
repetition of this process causes fatigue in domes and tors result due to unloading and
the rocks and may lead to their thermal expansion respectively.
disintegration. Many clay minerals swell and 2. Responsible for breaking down the rocks
contract during wetting and drying and a into smaller fragments and preparing the
repetition of this process results in cracking way for formation of not only landforms but
of overlying materials. Salts in pore spaces also the soil.
undergo rapid and repeated hydration and 3. Responsible for erosion and mass
help in rock fracturing. The volume changes movement, soil erosion is insignificant
in minerals due to hydration will also help in without weathering.
physical weathering through exfoliation and 4. Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in
granular disintegration. the enrichment and concentrations of certain
4. Carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminum,
of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals copper etc., which are of great importance
and is a common process helping the for the national economy.
breaking down of feldspars and carbonate Enrichment
minerals. Carbon dioxide from the When rocks undergo weathering, some
atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, materials are removed through chemical or
to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak physical leaching by groundwater and thereby
acid. Calcium carbonates and magnesium the concentration of remaining (valuable)
carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid materials increases. Without such a weathering
and are removed in a solution without taking place, the concentration of the same
leaving any residue resulting in cave valuable material may not be sufficient and
formation. economically viable to exploit process and
5. Hydrolysis: The mineral of the rocks and refine. This is what is called enrichment.
water molecules react in such a way that Erosion: Erosion is concerned with the various
new mineral compounds are formed. Silicate ways in which the mobile agencies acquire and
minerals are most affected by defrosts. remove rock debris. The acquisition of materials
6. Chelation: Chelation is a complex organic by the mobile agencies and their transport, i.e.
process by hydrocarbon molecules. corrosion and transportation are considered to be
Chelation is form of Chemical weathering the integral part of erosion. The principal
by plants. These weathering processes are erosional agents are running water, groundwater,
interrelated. Hydration, carbonation and glaciers, wind and coastal waves. Each of the
oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the agents does erosion by distinctive processes and
weathering process. gives rise to distinctive landforms. There are five
common aspects of erosion by the above
C. Biological Weathering: This type of mentioned agents.
weathering is performed by the tree roots, 1. The acquisition of rocks fragments.
animals and human beings. As the plant 2. Wearing away of rocks fragments.
roots grow, they wedge the rocks apart and 3. The breaking down of the rock particles by
cause the widening of joints and other mutual wear while in transit.
fractures. Micro animals like earthworms, 4. Transportation of the acquired rock debris.
ants, termites and other burrowing animals 5. Ultimately the deposition in the low lying
move materials to or near the surface where areas.
they are more closely subjected to chemical
weathering.
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Mass Movements
The air, water or ice does not carry debris with them from place to place but on the other hand the
debris may carry with it air, water or ice. The movements of mass may range from slow to rapid,
affecting shallow to deep columns of materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall.

Causes for Mass Movements: ground and long continued rain respectively,
1. Removal of support from below to materials occur frequently. When the upper portions
above through natural or artificial means. get saturated and when the lower parts are
2. Increase in gradient and height of slopes
3. Overloading through addition of materials impervious to water percolation, flowing
naturally or by artificial filling. occurs in the upper areas.
4. Overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation  Talus cones: Steep rocks walls of gorges
and lubrication of slope materials. and high mountains shed countless rock
5. Removal of material or load from over the particles under the attack of physical
original slope surfaces. weathering processes.
6. Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or
machinery.  Earth Flows: In humid climate region, if
7. Excessive natural seepage. slope are steep, masses of water-saturated
8. Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, soil due to over burden or weak bedrock
reservoirs and rivers leading to slow may side down slope during a period of few
outflow of water from under the slopes or hours.
river banks.  Mud flow: Rapid flowage of mud stream
9. Indiscriminate removal of natural
vegetation. down a canyon floor and spreading out on
Mass movements can be categorized into two plain at the foot of a mountain range is
major classes: called as mud flow. Mudflows occur
i. Slow movement frequently on the slopes of erupting or
ii. Rapid movement recently erupted volcanoes. Volcanic ash,
 Creep: Movement of materials is extremely dust and other fragments turn into mud due
slow and imperceptible except through to heavy rains and flow down as tongues or
extended observation. Materials involved
can be soil or rock debris. Depending upon streams of mud causing great destruction to
the type of material involved, several types human habitations. Ex. Mudflows occur
of creep viz., soil creep, talus creep, rock frequently on the slopes of erupting or
creep, rock-glacier creep etc. recently erupted volcanoes. Volcanic ash,
 Solifluction: Involves slow downslope dust and other fragments turn into mud due
flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris to heavy rains and flow down as tongues or
saturated or lubricated with water. This streams of mud causing great destruction to
process is quite common in moist temperate human habitations.
areas where surface melting of deeply frozen
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 Avalanche: there are two types of

avalanches one is debris avalanche and other
one is snow avalanche. This is much faster
than the mudflow. Ex. Debris avalanches
and landslides occur very frequently in the
Himalayas. The reasons behind this are
Himalayas are tectonically active, mostly
made up of sedimentary rocks and
unconsolidated and semi-consolidated
deposits. The slopes are very steep.
Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris
bordering Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
the Western Ghats along the west coast are
relatively tectonically stable and are mostly
made up of very hard rocks.
 Landslide: The size and shape of the
detached mass depends on the nature of
discontinuities in the rock, the degree of
weathering and the steepness of the slope.
Depending upon the type of movement of
materials several types are identified in this
category.
 Slump: slipping of one or several units of
rock debris with a backward rotation with
respect to the slope over which the
movement takes place. Rapid rolling or  Rockslide: Sliding of individual rock
sliding of earth debris without backward
rotation of mass is known as debris slide. masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces
Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris is rockslide. Over steep slopes, rock sliding
from a vertical or overhanging face. is very fast and destructive.

Groundwater
When rain falls on the earth is distributed in various ways. Some is immediately evaporated and thus
returns to the atmosphere as water vapor. Some is absorbed by plants and only gradually returned to the
atmosphere by transpiration from the leaves of the plants. Much of it flows directly off slopes to join
streams and rivers, eventually the ocean. A considerable proportion of the water received from rain or
snow, however, percolates downwards into soil and rocks, filling up joints and pore-spaces and forming
what is known as groundwater, which plays an important role in weathering and mass movements.
Various rocks and soils differ greatly in their porosity and permeability; the amount of
groundwater present and the depth at which it lies are governed by these characteristics. Porous rocks
are those like sandstone, which have many pore-spaces between the grains. Permeable or pervious
rocks are those which allow water easily to pass through them. Clay is highly porous yet still
impermeable, on the other hand, granite which is a crystalline rock and consequently non-porous and
often pervious. Its individual crystals absorb little or no water but the rock may have numerous joints or
cracks through which the water can pass, rendering it pervious or permeable.
The water table: The permeable rock in which the water is stored is known as aquifer. The surface of
saturated area is called the water table. The depth of water table varies greatly according to relief and
the types of rocks. The water-table is far deep under the mountains but close to the surface in valleys
and flat low lying areas where it may cause waterlogging and swampy conditions. The depth of the
water-table also varies greatly with seasons. When plenty of rain available to augment groundwater
supplies the water table may rise, but in dry periods, no new supplies are available, and the water-table
is lowered as ground-water is lost through seepages and springs.
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Springs and wells:

1. Springs: it is an outlet at which the water stored in ground comes near the surface and gets put
through this. The water may seep gradually or as a fountain.
2. Wells: springs are natural emergence points of ground water, but man can make use of stored
water below ground by sinking wells.

Mountains
A mountain is defined as ‗a natural elevation of subsequent subsidence. The conversion of
the earth surface rising more or less abruptly geosynclines into folded mountains requires
from the surrounding level and attaining an geologically long time with definite phases of
altitude which, relative to the adjacent elevation, mountain building process:—
is impressive or notable‘.
 Orogenesis: After horizontal compression
Classification of Mountains has completed its task, vertical uplift
starts. This is the real stage of mountain
Fold Mountains: These mountains have
building.
originated due to convergent boundaries of both
 Glyptogenesis: In this phase the
(O-C and C-C) compressive forces of plates and
characteristic land forms are sculptured by
have been thrown up to form fold mountains e.g.
erosion.
Himalayas, Andes, Alps, Rockies etc. These are
the youngest mountains on earth and are true Characteristics of fold mountains:—
mountains. The folds consist of two inclined  They are extensive mountain chain
parts called limbs, the upfold is called anticline  They have great heights
and the downward portion is called syncline.  They are formed along unstable parts of
All young folded mountains have the earth
originated from geosynclines. Geosynclines are  They are the sedimentary deposits of
long narrow and shallow water depressions marine origin (C-C)
characterized by sedimentation and the
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1. Block Mountains: They are originated by examples of this type are Popocatepetl of
tensile forces leading to formation of rift Mexico, Mount Rainier of Washington, Lessen
valleys. They are also called horst mountains Peak of California, the Vesuvius of Italy, the
e.g. black forest, Vosges, Vindhya, Satpura, Fujiyama in Japan, and the Aconcagua in Chile
Sierra Nevada etc. When the crust cracks due to etc.
tension or compression faulting takes place. A 4. Circum Erosional or Relict Mountain:
section of the landform may subside or rise These Mountains have been subjected to
above the surrounding level giving rise to Rift weathering and erosion for a long time and
valley or Graben (depressed part) and Block lowered down. They represent the old stage of
Mountains or Horst (uplifted part). The Block mountain life cycle. E.g. Vindhyachal ranges,
Mountains have a steep slope towards the rift Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern and Western Ghats,
valley but the slope on the other side is long and Nilgiris, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal.
gentle.
Stages of Mountains Building: The life
2. Dome Mountains: They are originated by history of mountains can be divided into youth,
magmatic intrusion and up warping of crustal maturity and old stage. Following are the
surface e.g. lava domes, Batholith domes etc. characteristics of mountains in different stages:-
3. Mountain of Accumulation: They are A. The Youth Mountains :—
originated by accumulation of volcanic material  The rivers are youthful and the valleys
e.g. cinder cones, composite cones etc. These are deep and their flow is fast.
are formed by the emission and deposition of
 Landslide and volcanic activities are
lava and so they are also called volcanic
common.
mountains. The slope of the mountains becomes
 The mountains are high.
steep and the height increases due to the
development of the cones of various types like  The slopes are steep and the piedmont is
Cinder cones, Composite Cones, Acid lava bare.
cones, Basic lava cones, etc. Some of the  The sky line is irregular.
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B. The Maturity of Mountains :— to the lower valleys. This helps in the

 The rivers are mature and many water- formation of fertile plains. The great
gaps exist in the area. alluvial plain of northern India has been
 The height of the mountains is not much. formed by the rivers Ganga, Sutlej and the
 The peaks are rounded, generally Brahmaputra.
covered by thick vegetation. (e) Natural Political Frontiers
 Landslides are uncommon and no The mountain ranges do act as natural
earthquakes are experienced. political frontiers between countries and
 Slopes are not steep. Pebbles and rock protect them from invasions to some
fragments are accumulated in the extent. The Himalaya has formed a
piedmont area. political frontier between India and China.
(f) Effect on Climate
C. The Old-Age of Mountains :— Mountainous areas have lower
 The rivers have attained old age. temperatures. They serve as climatic
 Monadnocks are found denuded and are divide between two adjoining regions. The
a common sight. Himalaya for example forms a barrier to
 The mountains are low. Peneplain the movement of cold winds from Central
condition seems imminent. Asia towards the Indian subcontinent.
 The area is broad, low and leveled which They also force the South West Monsoons
has wavy hills at some places. to ascend and cause rainfall on their
THE ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF southern slopes.
MOUNTAINS :– (g) Tourist Centers
Mountains are useful to us in the following The pleasant climate and the beautiful
ways : scenery of the mountains have led to their
(a) Storehouse of Resources development as centers of tourist
Mountains are the storehouse of natural attraction. The tourist and hotel industries
resources. Large resources of minerals are get an additional encouragement in such
found in mountains. The Appalachian regions. Shimla, Nainital, Mussorie and
range in the United States is well-known Srinagar are some of the important hill
for coal and limestone deposits. We get stations of India which attract tourists all
timber, lac, medicinal herbs and wood for over the world.
making pulp from the forests of the Major Mountains of Asia
mountains. Tea and coffee plantations and
some fruits orchards have been developed  Himalaya-Karakoram-Hindu Kush: It is
on mountain and hill slopes. located in South Central Asia. The highest
(b) Generation of Hydro-electricity peak of this mountain range is Mount
Hydro-electricity is generated from the Everest (8848 m).
waters of perennial rivers in the mountain  Tienshan: This mountain range is located
regions. The mountainous countries like in South Central Asia.
Japan, Italy and Switzerland, which suffer  Altai mountain range: This is a large
from the shortage of coal have developed mountain range in Central Asia that passes
hydro-electricity. through the region where Russia, China,
(c) Abundant Sources Kazakhstan and Mongolia meet.
of Water Perennial rivers rising in the The word Altai in Turkish language
snow fed or heavily rain fed mountains are means mountain of gold which is made up
the important source of water. They help of two words al dhsona) and Tai mountain.
in promoting the irrigation and provide Its highest peak is Gora Velukha.
water for many other uses.  Western Ghat Mountains: It is the
(d) Formation of Fertile second longest mountain range in India. Its
Plains The rivers that originate in the high extension extends from the mouth of the
mountain region bring silt alongwith water Tapti to the head of Kanyakumari. Its
highest peak is Anaimudi (2695 m).
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 Zagros Mountainsrange: This is the Dinaric Alps and Pindus :-

largest range of Iran. It starts in  The southernmost part of the O Alps
northwestern Iran and runs 1500 km in the range, which is located on the eastern edge
western and southeast direction of the of the Adriatic Sea. And on its western
southern plateau and ends at the Strait of side, lime-predominant formations are
Hormuz. This range, extending in the found.
western and south-western part of the Vosges and Black Mountain Forest :-
Iranian plateau, was geographically  These are both block mountains, through
formed by the collision of the Eurasian and which the Rhine River originates. Most of
Arabian plates. Its highest peak is the Block Mountains fall in France. The
Zardkooh. Danube River originates near the Black
Forest.
Major Mountains of Europe
Apennine :-
Alps Mountain ranges:  The southern extended part of the O Alps
 These are present in the south of the which extends in the middle of [Link]
continent. located in a Mediterranean climate Due to
 Alpine countries France, Switzerland, this, there has been more development of
Monaco, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, fruit and wine industries in its surrounding
Germany, and Slovenia regions.
 These are young fold mountains.  Mount Vesuvius-Volcanic Mountain
 Mount Blanc is the highest peak on the located in Naples, Italy.
border of Italy and France.  Mount Etna- A volcanic mountain located
Cantabrian Mountains - in the northern part of the island of Sicily,
 An ancient mountain located in the Italy.
northern part of Spain, where iron ore is Major Mountains of Africa
found in abundance. The Ebro River and
Atlas Mountains-
the Doro River originate from here. Due to
 It is widespread in the northern and north
the oceanic influence in this region, a
western part of Africa. It is widespread
climate similar to that of Western Europe
mainly in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco;
is found.
this range includes the Middle Atlas in the
Wales Mountains -
north-western part, the Anti-Atlas in the
 It covers almost the whole of Wales and is
south-west and the Middle Atlas in the
part of the highlands of Wales, Scotland.
north-east, the Anti-Atlas in the south-west
The rocks here belong to the Achaean,
and the north-east. To the south of the Tell
Carboniferous and Silurian periods.
Atlas and Tell Atlas is the Sahara Atlas.
Pyrenees Mountains -
 The Pyrenees are situated between the  Drakensberg is an ancient folded
Eurosiberian and the Mediterranean mountain located in South Africa. The
biogeographic regions of Europe. The Aurangze river originates from here.
mountain range extends in a west-east Various types of minerals are found in it
direction from the Atlantic Ocean to the like- uranium, gold.
Mediterranean Sea, covering 500 km2. Muchinga -
 The Spanish Pyrenees which form a part  A mountain located in the north-eastern
of the Spanish provinces of Barcelona, part of Zambia, which extends to Lake
Girona, Gipuzkoa, Huesca, Lleida, and Nyasa and the Great Rift Valley.
Navarra.
Mitumba -
 The French Pyrenees which form a part
of the French departments of Ariége,  A mountain located in the eastern
Aude, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées, boundary of Zaire, which is parallel to
Pyrénées-Orientales and Pyrénées- Lake Tanganyika in the north-south
Atlantiques. direction.
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43

Mountains of the Continent of North Selkirk Mountains-

America  It is located to the west of the main Rocky
Brooks Range- Range which is Canada and New Zealand.
 These mountain ranges are situated in is detailed in.
northern Alaska. The Yukon River flows  The Colombia River originates from near
from its southern part and the Mackenzie this mountain.
River flows from its eastern part. Vaisanka mountain -
 The highest peak of this range is  The broad mountain range that separates
Chamberlain (2749 m-). Being influenced the Colorado Plateau and the Great Basin
by the tundra climate, the peaks are in the western part of the
covered with snow for most of the year.  This is an example of a block mountain. It
Alaska Category- is a dry climatic zone.
 It is located on the northwestern edge of Cascade Range-
North America. Its highest peak is Mount  It is located in the western part of the
McKinley. To the north is the Cuscow Colombia Plateau.
Range and Brooks Range and to the south  There are many volcanic mountains in this
lies the Gulf of Alaska. Taiga type of range - Rainier, Hood, St. Helen etc.
climate is found here.  Many crater lakes have been formed due to
Mackenzie Mountains- the formation of a volcanic chain.
 A mountain range located in the Sierra Nevada-
northwestern parts of Canada, in the  No. It is a mountain range located in the
eastern part of which the Mackenzie River western part of the Dead Valley.
flows, which separates it from the Franklin  It was constructed in the Tertiary period.
Mountains.  Highest Peak - Mount Tehtani (4418 m-)
 This mountain extends in the north-south
direction and it is the divider of the Yukon Appalachian Mountains-
Plateau and the flow area of the Mackenzie  A huge mountain range located in the
River. eastern part of North America. and is
widespread in the eastern parts of Canada.
Cast Range-
 The 2400 km-long ranges range from
 It is spread along the coast from Alaska to Newfoundland Island to Alabama.
California.
 Its highest peak is Mount Mitchell (2037
 Canada and Canada located in the m-) located in the state of North Carolina.
continent of North America. It is extended
in the far west. Aderindek Mountains-
 The highest peak of the Kri Coast Range is  The arm of the Appalachian [Link]
Mount Logan (6050 m-). is located in New York.
 Angular trees are found on its slopes.
Rocky Mountain-
 In the northwest direction of North Mountains of the Continent of South
America, from the Bering Strait to the America
Panama Canal, there is a wide mountain  The Andes range extends from north to
range of about 7000 km. south in the continent of South America.
 The Coasted Goldridge and Selkirk This range was formed by the collision of
Mountains are located in Canada and the the South America Plate and the Pacific
Sierra Nevada Mountains in the United Ocean Plate.
States.  It is the longest new mountain range in the
world and the second highest in the world.
 Situated in the eastern part of Mexico, the
 Aconcagua (6961), located on the border
Sierra Marde is an extension of the Rocky of Chile and Argentina, is the highest peak
Mountain range. of this range.
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44

Mountains of Australia  Musgrave Range: - Mountainous region

 Great Dividing Range: - In the eastern rich in lead and zinc located in southern
part of Australia, the mountain range Australia = wide economic importance.
located parallel to the north to south coast,  Mount Isa: - Resource rich mountain
the highest peak - Ma - Kosciuszko. range in Queensland, Australia.
 Darling Range: - Mountain range located  Southern Alps: - Mountain range located
in the western part of Australia. in the South Island of New Zealand.
 Macdonald Range: - Mountain range  Major Mountains of Antarctica
located in Central Australia region, source  Trans-Antarctica Mountains: - Erebas,
of many small rivers. an active volcano in the ancient folded
 Gray Range: - Mountain range located in mountain located in Antarctica, is located
eastern Australia. here. Mount Vinson Massif is the highest
 Blue Mountains: - Extension of the peak here.
Dividing Range, a mountain range located  Vinson Massif Mountain- It divides the
in South Eastern Australia. Antarctic continent into two equal parts.
 Reynolds Range: - Mountain range
located in central Australia.

Plateau
 A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that  The plateaus which are bordering the
rises sharply above the surrounding area mountain ranges (generally Fold
on at least one side. Plateaus occur on Mountains) or are partly or fully enclosed
every continent and take up a third of the within them are the intermontane plateaus.
Earths land.  The word ‗intermontane‘ means ‗between
 They are also called as high plains or mountains‘.
tablelands.  Intermontane plateaus are the highest in
 The plateaus cover about 18% of the the world.
earth‘s land surface.  They have nearly horizontal rock layers
which are raised to very heights by vertical
movements of the earth.
Classification of Plateaus- Examples: The Plateau of Tibet is an
On the basis of their geographical location example of the intermontane plateau which is
and structure of rocks, the plateaus can be surrounded by the Fold Mountains like the
classified as: Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Kunlun and the
1. Intermontane Plateaus Tien Shah.
2. Piedmont plateaus 2. Piedmont Plateaus
3. Continental plateaus Piedmont, in geology, landform created
4. Volcanic plateaus at the foot of a mountain or mountains by
5. Dissected plateaus debris deposited by shifting streams. Such an
alluvial region in a humid climate is known as a
1. Intermontane Plateaus piedmont for the Piedmont district of Italy; in
arid climates such a feature is called a bajada.
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45

Examples: The Malwa Plateau is an  Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are

example of piedmont plateau. produced by massive pyroclastic flows and
3. Continental Plateaus they are underlain by pyroclastic rocks.
 They are formed either by an extensive 5. Dissected Plateaus
continental upliftment or by the spread of  A dissected plateau is a plateau area that
horizontal basic lava (less viscous) sheets has been severely eroded so that the relief
completely covering the original is sharp. Such an area may appear as
topography. mountainous.
 This kind of plateaus shows an abrupt
elevation in contrast to the nearby lowland
or sea (i.e. more steepness on sides).

 Dissected plateaus are distinguishable

from orogenic mountain belts by the lack
of folding, metamorphism, extensive
faulting, or magmatic activity that
accompanies orogeny (mountain building).
The economic significance of Plateaus
 The Continental Plateaus are also known
A storehouse of minerals: Most of the
as Plateaus of Accumulation.
 Examples: Plateau of Maharashtra is an minerals in the world are found in plateaus. The
example of the continental plateau. extraction of minerals in plateaus is relatively
4. Volcanic Plateaus easier on plateaus than mountains. The major
 A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced portions of industrial raw materials are obtained
by volcanic activity. There are two main from plateaus. We get gold from the plateau of
types: lava plateaus and pyroclastic Western Australia; copper, diamond and gold
plateaus. from the plateaus of Africa; and coal, iron,
 Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid manganese and mica from the Chottanagpur
basaltic lava during numerous successive Plateau in India.
eruptions through numerous vents without Generation of hydel-power: The edges of
violent explosions. plateaus form waterfalls which provide ideal
sites for generating hydel power.
Cool climate: The higher parts of the
plateaus even in tropical and sub-tropical
regions have a cool climate.
Animal rearing and agriculture:
plateaus have large grassland areas suitable for
animal rearing especially sheep, goat, and cattle.
The lava plateaus when compared to other
plateaus are richer in minerals and hence used
for agriculture as the soil is very fertile.
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Major plateaus of Asia Ras Dajan (4620 m). It is the source of the
 Pamir Plateau: - It is also called the roof Blueneal River.
of the world. It is part of the Tibetan  Katanga Plateau- Plateau located in the
Plateau, the highest plateau in the world. south part of Zaire of Africa continent,
Major ranges like Kyunlun, Sulaiman, here large deposits of copper, diamond and
Hindukush etc. emerge from the knot of cobalt have been found. Additionally zinc
Pamir. and phosphate are the main ones. Being a
 Plateau of Anatolia: - This plateau is also Mediterranean climate region, tropical rain
known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey is forests are found here.
located on this plateau. It is an  Jose Plateau- Wave-shaped highland
intermountain plateau situated between the located in the northern part of Nigeria,
Torres and Pontic mountain ranges. The which is about 1500 meters high in the
Tigris-Euphratus River passes through this central part. Tin is found in abundance
plateau. here.
 Plateau of Mongolia: - It is a highland  Plateau of South Africa- It is spread in
situated in the region of China and the southern part of South Africa, which is
Mongolia. It is a plateau located in the a) desert plateau; this plateau is divided
northern part of the Jungarian Basin, into two subdivisions named Great Karoo
Tarim Basin and Tiensan Mountains. and Little Karoo. The Val and the Orange
River drain from here.
Major Plateaus of Europe  Madagascar Plateau – The central part of
 The plateau of Maseta, on the continent of the island of Madagascar is known as the
Europe, is located in Spain. Madagascar Plateau, the average height of
 The Meseta Plateau or Meseta Central is a this plateau ranges from 1000 to 1500 m.
plateau located in the interior of the  Wada Plateau - This plateau, located in
Iberian Peninsula of Southern Europe, in Chad, is famous for getting uranium in the
the country of Spain. Madrid, the capital of world.
Spain, is located in the central part of this Plateau of the Continent of North America
plateau. This plateau is a land area with an
area of about 2,20,000 square kilometers Colombia-Snake Plateau-
and an average altitude of more than 2100  No. In the western part of the plateau
meters. situated between the Snake River and the
Salmon River.
Major Plateaus of Europe  This is located in the states of Oregon,
 The plateau of Maseta, on the continent of Washington and Idaho.
Europe, is located in Spain.  It is a basalt plateau due to volcanic
 The Meseta Plateau or Meseta Central is a activity.
plateau located in the interior of the  In this plateau, the Grand Coolie Dam is
Iberian Peninsula of Southern Europe, in built on the Columbia River.
the country of Spain. Madrid, the capital of Colorado Plateau-
Spain, is located in the central part of this  The intermountain plateau which lies to
plateau. This plateau is a land area with an the south of the Great Basin. The Colorado
area of about 2,20,000 square kilometers River flows through it. Which world
and an average altitude of more than 2100 famous) forms the 1.5 km-deep Grand
meters. Canyon ravine.
 It has semi-desert and dry climate.
Major Plateaus of Africa
Mexican plateau-
 Ethiopian Highlands - Most of this  This plateau is situated between the
plateau, spread in the north-eastern part of western Siaramadre and eastern
the continent of Africa, is in Ethiopia and Siaramadre mountain ranges. To its east is
some parts in Egypt and Somalia. The a lava plateau. It is also called volcanic
highest peak of the Ethiopian Highlands is plateau.
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Ozork Plateau- Plateau of chiapas

 The domed plateau which is very rich in  Plateau located on the coast of the Pacific
terms of mineral resources. Ocean in southern Mexico.
 Mainly lead and zinc are found here. Great Basin Plateau-
 In the central part of the low altitude  It is located in the south of the Colombia
plateau structure, through which the Plateau, between the Colorado and
Mississippi River flows east. Colombia rivers.
 This central plain is an example of a Plateau ofthe Continent Of South America
continental plateau in the central plane.
Piedmont Plateau-  Plateau of Brazil - The shape of this
 It lies between the Appalachian Mountains plateau located in the central east part of
and the Coastal Plain. Many fast flowing South America is triangular. It is one of
rivers flow from here to the east. There has the widest plateaus in the world with an
been a lot of development of hydropower area of more than 500 sq km. This plateau
here. is very important from the point of view of
Canadian Shield- mineral resources.
 Formation of extensive and Pre-Cambrian  Bolivia Plateau - This plateau is spread in
rocks in the central and eastern part of the Andes ranges of Bolivia. Its average
Canada where many metallic minerals are height is 3110 m.
found.  Patagonia Plateau - Patagonia Plateau is
located in the southern state of Argentina
(a) Labrador Plateau- Located in the in South America continent.
north eastern part of Canada, it is the
area between Hudson Bay and the Plateau of the Continent Of Australia
Atlantic Ocean. Iron ore and nickel Major Plateaus - Arnhem Plateau, Atherton
are available in abundance here. Tablelands, Australian Shield, Dorrigo Plateau,
(b) Laurasian - Part of the Canadian Inasleigh Uplands, Mawson Plateau, Mount
Shield and the plateau located in the Curbine Tablelands, Narrow Neck Plateau,
eastern part of Canada where many Northern Tablelands, Shipley Plateau, Western
types of minerals are found. High Plateau, and Voronora Plateau.
quality iron ore is obtained from this
Plains -
plateau area.
 Plains are the most important landforms
Alleghani Plateau- found on the earth surface.
 The plateau, located in the northwest of  A plain is nothing but a low-lying
the Appalachian Mountains, flows through relatively flat land surface with very gentle
the Ohio and its tributaries. slope and minimum local relief.
Edward Plateau-  About 55% of the earth‘s land surface is
 To the south of the plateau located in the occupied by plains.
border region of Mexico, from here the  Most of the plain have been formed by
Riogrande River drains. deposition of sediments brought down by
Yukan Plateau- rivers.
 In the northwest part of North America,  Besides rivers, some plains have also been
there is an intermountain plateau located formed by the action of the wind, moving
between the Brooks Range and the Alaska ice and tectonic activities.
Range. The Yukon River flows through its
middle. Classification of Plains -
Greenland plateau-  On the basis of their mode of formation,
plains can be classified as:
 It is structurally an extension of the
1. Structural plain
Greenland Laurasian Shield. It was formed
2. Erosional plains
in the Pre-Cambrian period and is a vast
3. Depositional plains
plateau covered with snow.
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Structural Plains -  The growth of industries: The rich

 These plains are mainly formed by the agricultural resources, especially of
upliftment of a part of the sea floor or alluvial plains, have helped in the growth
continental shelf. of agro-based industries. Since the plains
are thickly populated, plenty of labour is
available for the intense cultivation and for
supplying the workforce for the industries.
 Expansion of means of
transportation: The flat surface of plains
favours the building of roads, airports and
laying down railway lines.
 Centres of civilizations: Plains are centres
of many civilizations.
 Setting up of cities and towns: Easy
means of transportation on land and the
growth of agriculture and industries in
plains have resulted in the setting up and
 They are located on the borders of almost
expansion of cities and towns. The most
all the major continents.
developed trade centres and ports of the
 The structural plains may also be formed
world are found in the plains only and as
by the subsidence of areas.
much as 80% of the world‘s population
Erosional Plains (Peneplains) lives here.
 Erosional plains are formed by the
continuous and longtime erosion of
uplands. Main Plains of Asia
 The surface of such plains is hardly
smooth and hence, they are also called  Manchuria Plain- Alluvial plain located
as Peneplains, which means almost plain.
in the north-eastern frontier of China,
Depositional Plains - which is formed by the Amur and its
 These plains are formed by the tributaries. In summer, the temperature of
depositional activity of various this region = 20 to 25 ° C and in winter it
geomorphic agents. goes up to minus 15 ° C or 20 ° C.
 When plains are formed by the river Soybean and wheat are mainly cultivated
deposits, they are called as riverine or in this area.
alluvial plains.  Plains of Yangtzexiang - Plains located in
 The depositions of sediments in a lake give the northern part of the Yunnan Plateau of
rise to a Lacustrine Plain or Lake China, located in central China, formed by
Plains. The Valley of Kashmir is an
the Yangtzekiang and its tributaries. It is
example of lacustrine plain.
called Redbasin. It is the most densely
 When plains are formed by glacial
populated region of China and is known as
deposits, they are called as Glacial or
the rice bowl of China, due to the fact that
Drift Plains.
it is famous for rice cultivation.
 When the wind is the major agent of
deposition, those plains are called as Loess  Mekong Plain- It is located in South East
Plains. Asia. It is spread in Thailand, Cambodia,
Vietnam and Laos. Rice and banana are
The economic significance of Plains - mainly cultivated in this plain.
 Fertile soil: The plains generally have  Irrawaddy Plain- It is spread in the
deep and fertile soil. As they have a flat
southern part of Myanmar. In the eastern
surface, the means of irrigation can
part of this plain is the Piguyoma and in
be easily developed. That is why plains are
the western part is the Arakan Yoma.
called as the ‗Food baskets of the world‘.
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 Mesopotamian plain - This plain, located  The main river of this plain is the
in the middle-eastern part of Iran, is also Mississippi and its tributary is the
called the plain of Tigris-Eurat. In the Missouri. The Mississippi River originates
eastern part of this plain lies the Tigris and from Lake Itasca.
in the western part lies the Euphrates Main plains of the continent of South
River. Traditionally it is a date palm America
producing area. But the receipt of mineral
oil has led to an increase in other  The Western Coastal Plain and the Central
economic activities. Plain are located in the continent of South
 Siqiang Plain -Located in the South-East America.
part of China. Western Coastal Plain-
 The summer temperature of this plain is 30  In the western part of the continent of
°C and winter temperature remains up to South America, along the coast of the
16 °C. The main crop of this plain is rice. Pacific Ocean, there is a narrow coastal
area in the form of lowland = wide. Its
 Turan Plain - The plain located in South
width is less in the northern part and more
East Asia, which is situated between the
in the southern part. The Atacama Desert
Amudarya and the Syr Darya. This plain
is located in this part.
extends into Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and
Turkmenistan. In this area, the cultivation Intermediate ground-
of sugar beet, cotton is mainly done.  The Amazon River flows in the central
plains, which is the world's largest river by
 Saidam Basin- Basin located in the
volume of water and the world's second
western part of China which is a major
largest river in length.
mineral producing area. It is a high area
whose average height is more than 3000  Apart from the Amazon, the Plata and
meters. Orinco rivers also flow. This plain is a
fertile plain due to its formation from the
 Kwanto Plain: This is the largest and
deposits of rivers.
most important plain of Japan, located on
the eastern coast of the island of Honshu.  These can be divided into two parts-
In this plain are the industrial cities of (i) Tropical grasslands: Extensive
Japan such as Tokyo and Yakohama. between 100 and 250 latitudes.
Examples of these are as follows:-
 Nobi Plains - Plains located on the
Savannah- in East Africa., Lanos- in
southeast coast of Honshu island of Japan
Venezuela., Campos- in Brazil,
in which the industrial city of Nagoya is
Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay.,
located.
Cerrado- in Brazil, Selvas- in Amazon
 Ishikari Plain - The plain located on the
basin.
island of Hokkaido, Japan, where the
(ii) Temperate grasslands: Found in
climate is not very important due to the
intermediate parts of latitudes from
harsh and anomalous climate.
300 to 450. Examples of these are as
Main plains of the continent of North
follows:- Prairie – in North America.,
America
Pampas – in Argentina, Steppes – in
 The Intermediate Great Plains is plains
Eurasia – Central Asia., Weld – in
deposited by rivers to the east of the
South Africa., Downs – in Australia,
Rocky Mountains and to the west of the
Pustaj – in Hungary, Canterbury – in
Appalachian Mountains.
New Zealand.
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Desert
 Deserts are the regions of scanty rainfall  Thar Desert (India)
(less than 25 cm or 10 inch of rainfall)  Libyan Desert (Africa)
 May be hot like Saharan Desert; Coastal  Mojave Desert (N-America)
dry deserts like Atacama & Temperate or  Kalahari Desert (Africa)
the mid latitude deserts viz. Gobi.  Iranian Desert
 Hot desert climates are typically found  Arabian Deserts
under the subtropical ridge.  Hot desert drylands, like the Atacama of
Chile, the Namib of southern Africa, and
Deserts Climate:- the western Australian desert, are the result
 Unbroken sunshine for the whole year + of cold oceanic currents that divert rain-
stable descending air + high pressure aloft laden air away from coastlines.
 These areas are located between 15 – 30  Among the mid-latitudes deserts, many are
degrees south & north latitude, under the found on plateau & are at considerable
subtropical latitudes called the horse distance from the sea – Cold Deserts –
latitudes.  Gobi Desert
 Major hot deserts of the world include  Turkestan Desert
 Sahara Desert (Africa)  Patagonian Desert.
Hot Desert Cold Desert
It has a sandy soil. It has sand, ice or snow covered land.
It is red or orange in colour. It generally appears gray.
Precipitation levels are generally lower than cold They tend to have higher precipitation levels than
deserts. hot deserts.
Evaporation is higher than precipitation in hot Precipitation is higher than evaporation in cold
deserts. deserts.
Commonly found animals include fennec foxes, Commonly found animals include foxes,
dung beetles, bactrian camels, sidewinder jackrabbits, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, badger
snakes, Mexican coyotes etc. etc.
Vegetation is very rare and mostly includes Vegetation is scattered with needle like leaves.
ground-hugging shrubs and short woody trees.
Major Desert of World
Major Desert of Asia the Mongol Empire and important stops along
Rub‘ al Khali – Saudi Arabia the Silk Road. The Gobi is also known for its
Known as the Empty Quarter in English, the extreme temperatures from as high as 1220
Rub‘ al Khali is the largest sand desert in the Fahrenheit (500 C) in the summer and extremely
world that covers 225,000 square miles (583,000 low temperatures in the winter. The area is also
square kilometers) throughout portions of Saudi rich in fossils, including dinosaur eggs, and
Arabia, Oman, Yemen and the United Arab animals like Bactrian camels, Siberian ibex, and
Emirates. The name ‗Empty Quarter‘ is Gobi brown bears.
appropriate given its harsh environment, which Kara-kum Desert
does not allow much of anything to thrive there. Karakum Desert, also spelled Kara-Kum,
However, that does not take away from its Turkmen Garagum or Gara Gum (―Black
beauty. Sand‖), Russian Karakumy, great sandy region
Gobi Desert – China/Mongolia in Central Asia. It occupies about 70 percent of
The Gobi Desert is a beast of a desert spread the area of Turkmenistan. Another,
across parts of southern Mongolia and smaller desert in Kazakhstan near the Aral
northwestern China. It is famous for its role in Sea is called the Aral Karakum.
 World Geography
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Taklamakan Desert – Central Asia Namib Desert – Africa

The second-largest shifting-sand desert in the Stretching for 1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers),
world, China‘s Taklamakan Desert covers an the Namib Desert happens to be one of the
area of 130,000 square miles (337,000 square oldest on the planet – at least 55 million years. It
kilometers). The desert is an incredibly harsh is situated along the Atlantic coast of Africa in
environment with lows going well below zero the countries of Namibia, Angola, and South
degrees in the winter, and water sources are Africa. Although a desert, the land is inhabited
almost nonexistent, making the area almost by an impressive array of flora and fauna,
devoid of flora and fauna. Even those on the including ‗desert‘ elephants that can go days
Silk Road tried to avoid the area by traveling on without water.
the fringes of the desert.  Libyan Desert: -Vast arid land of north-
Dasht-e Kavir – Iran east of Africa in Libya.
 Serir: Stony desert of Libya is covered
Situated in the middle of the Iranian plateau, the with boulders, angular pebbles and gravels
Dasht-e Kavir, also known at the Great Salt which have been produced
Desert, features salt marshes (kavirs), of course,  Arabian Desert: -Arid region of North-
and mud. Featuring a landscape of salt mounds,
East Egypt.
which were created when the underground salt
 Nubian Desert: -It is an extension of
layers forced their way through the mud and
Sahara which occupies a third of the
rocks to the top, the land is dangerous as the
Sudan‘s territory in the north.
mud is difficult to get out of if you were to fall
 Kalahari Desert: -Semi desert region of
in. Because of this, the area is uninhabited
Botswana lies to the east of Namib Desert.
except for the mountainous areas.
 Home of one of the Africa‘s oldest races,
Thar Desert – India/Pakistan the Kalahari Bushmen.
Also known as the Great Indian Desert, the Thar
Major Desert of North America
Desert is located in northwestern India and part
of eastern Pakistan. The most populated desert Mojave Desert – Nevada/California
on the planet, the Thar Desert is home to 83 The Mojave Desert covers portions of
people per square kilometer. The landscape is southeastern California and southern Nevada,
identifiable by large shifting sand dunes, which along with small sections of northwestern
cover most of the desert, along with alluvial Arizona and southwestern Utah. This desert is
plains and salt lakes that appear during monsoon identifiable by the protected Joshua trees and is
season. The biodiversity is impressive with considered a ‗high desert.‘ However, the
more than 140 species of birds, 23 species of incredible Death Valley, which is within the
lizards, 25 snake species, plus the chinkara, or Mojave, is actually 282 feet (86 meters) below
Indian gazelle, to name but a few. sea level. The Mojave is also home to the
stunning Valley of Fire State Park plus many
Major Desert of Africa
towns and museums, making it a very popular
Sahara Desert – Africa tourist destination.
Covering most of Northern Africa – 3.6 million
Sonoran Desert – USA/Mexico
square miles – the Sahara Desert is the third
Spread over portions of Arizona, California,
largest desert on the planet and the largest hot
and Mexico, the Sonoran Desert is a beautiful
desert. While many people often think of the
landscape brimming with endemic fauna and
gorgeous sand dunes that are found in the
flora, including the Saguaro and Organ Pipe
Sahara, they only comprise a small portion. The
cacti. The area is also rich in culture with many
landscape is primarily made of rocky Hamada,
Native American tribes calling the area home,
or barren land with rocky plateaus. You‘ll also
plus cities such Phoenix and Tucson. Attractions
find small patches of grassland (albeit sparse),
include many national parks, such as the Joshua
shrubs of the desert variety, mountains, and salt
Tree National Park, and wildlife refuges such as
flats. The Sahara is also home to an impressive
the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge, which
array of flora and fauna, including several
protects desert bighorn sheep.
species of foxes.
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Chihuahuan Desert – New Mexico Patagonian Desert – the largest desert by area
One of the largest deserts in North America – located in Argentina
spread over 175,000 square miles, or 282,000 La Guajira Desert – a desert in northern
Colombia and some of northwestern Venezuela
square kilometers – the Chihuahuan Desert has Sechura Desert – a desert located along a
some incredible flora and fauna. This includes portion of the northwestern coast of South
the Arizona rainbow cactus and gray fox. There America
Monte Desert – in Argentina, a smaller desert
are also some breathtaking sights, making this above the Patagonian desert.
desert quite diverse. One must-see is the White
Sands National Monument in New Mexico, Major Desert of Australia
which is a stunning display of white gypsum
Gibson Desert– a central Australian desert
sand dunes. Great Sandy Desert– a northwestern Australian
Major Desert of South America desert
Great Victoria Desert– the sixth-largest desert
Atacama Desert – South America in the world by area, located in south-central
Situated west of the Andes along the Pacific Australia.
coast in Peru and Chile, the Atacama Desert is Simpson Desert– a central Australian desert
Little Sandy Desert– a western Australian
known as the ‗driest place on Earth‘. Parts of the
desert
desert have never seen a drop of rain since Strzelecki Desert– a south-central Australian
records have been kept. This fact might lead you desert
to believe that this area is devoid of life, but Tanami Desert– a northern Australian desert
Western Desert– a desert located in Western
that‘s not true. More than a million people call Australia, comprising the Gibson, Great Sandy,
this desert home. Due to its location along the and Little Sandy deserts.
coast, the Atacama is cooler than most deserts Rangipo Desert– a barren light altitude desert
and is frequently covered with fog. on the North Island Volcanic Plateau in New
Zealand.



Important Questions
1. How are the caves of the world's 4. Why do Fold Mountains have enormous
greatest fold mountains formed? thickness of sedimentary rocks?
(a) Regular movement (a) Due to deposition of sediments in a
(b) Vertical movement valley for millions of years
(c) Horizontal movement (b) Due to accumulation of sediments in
(d) Compressional movement a geosyncline
2. What is the difference between a geyser (c) The plains were folded into mountains
(d) The sediments were folded into
and a hot spring?
recumbent and nappe folds
(a) Water is ejected explosively in a geyser
5. 'Caldera' is a feature associated with:
(b) Water from the geyser may be cold (a) Volcanoes (b) Earthquakes
(c) Geysers are found on volcanic mountains (c) Folding of rocks
(d) Geysers are more common in cold (d) Faulting of mountains
countries 6. The Hawaii islands are the top of
3. Alps mountains are spread over submerged:
(a) France, Switzerland, Italy, Romania (a) Block mountains
(b) France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria (b) Folded mountains
(c) France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain (c) Volcanic mountains
(d) France, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium (d) Dome mountains
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53

7. Longest mountain range in the world is: 13. Jurollo volcano, Mexico is an example
(a) Himalayas (b) Andes of ______ type ofvolcano.
(c) Karakoram (d) Ural mountains (a) Acid lava cone (b) Shield volcano
8. Which of the following are true with (c) Lava plateau (d) composite
regard to Fold Mountains? 14. The flat temperate grasslands of the
1. They often act as climatic barriers Hungarian plains areknown as _____.
2. They receive heavy rain or snow (a) Steppe (b) Prairies
which gives rise to rivers (c) Pampas (d) Pusztas
3. They are rich in minerals 15. Nights are cooler in the deserts than in
4. They pose no problem, to communi- the plains because:
cation as they contain many passes (a) Sand radiates heat more quickly than
(a) I and II (b) III and IV the earth
(c) I, II and III (d) I, III and IV (b) The sky remains clear most of the
9. Which of the following are formed due time
to collision of continental plates? (c) Sand absorbs heat more quickly than
1. The Alps the earth
2. The Himalayas (d) None of the above reasons
3. The Rockies 16. Which one of the following regions has
4. The Caucases mountains Mediterranean type of climate?
Select the correct answer using the (a) Cape Town region of South Africa
codes given below: (b) Great Plains of North America
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) North-Eastern Australia
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4 (d) Southern Algeria
10. Consider the following statements: 17. The highest annual precipitation occurs
1. Where Fold Mountains run parallel in:
and close to the coast, continental (a) Canadian Shield (b) Ganga basin
shelf is narrow orabsent (c) Siberian Plains (d) Amazon basin
2. The average depth of continental shelf 18. Why do Fold Mountains have enormous
is 100 meters thickness of sedimentary rocks?
3. Submarine canyons are mostly found (a) Due to deposition of sediments in a
in continental slope valley for millions of years
4. The submarine flat topped mountains (b) Due to accumulation of sediments in
are called guyots. a geosyncline
Which of the statements given above are (c) The plains were folded into mountains
correct? (d) The sediments were folded into
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4 recumbent and nappe folds
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 19. Which one of the following reflects back
11. Which one of the following statements more sunlight as compared to other
correctly defines the term 'Karroo' of three?
Southern Africa? (a) Sand desert (b) Paddy crop land
(a) Rift valley formed due to faulting (c) Land covered with fresh snow
(b) Dome shaped landforms caused by (d) Prairie land
earth's movements 20. The soil formed by wind dust in and
(c) Steppes from the coastal lowland on around hot deserts is called
to the high plateau (a) silty soil (b) loamy soil
(d) None of the above (c) sandy soil (d) loess soil
12. Tibet, the highest plateau in the world, 21. Which one among the following is the
is a - largest temperate desert of the world?
(a) Piedmont plateau (a) Patagonian desert
(b) Intermontane plateau (b) Taklamakan desert
(c) Continental plateau (c) Iranian desert
(d) Volcanic plateau (d) Turkmen desert
 World Geography
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22. Which of the following regions are (c) II and III (d) I, III and IV
regarded as areas of high density of 24. Consider the following statements:
population? 1. The Benguela current had its
(a) East Asia, Central and Southern influence in the formation of Kalahari
Europe, Tropical deserts Desert.
(b) Amazon and Congo Basins, South- 2. The Agulhas current has its influence
East Asia, European Russia in the formation of Thar Desert.
(c) Congo Basin and Indonesia, Central 3. The currents of Northern Indian
and Southern Europe, European Ocean change their course of flow
Russia twice a year.
(d) East Asia, Southern Asia, North Which of the statements given above
Western Europe is/are correct?
23. Which of the following is a low-density (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
area? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Equatorial forest 25. Shifting agriculture is most commonly
2. Tropical deserts practised in -
3. Eastern Asia (a) Forests (b) Deserts
4. North-eastern America (c) Plain areas (d) Grass lands
(a) I, II and IV (b) I and II

ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b)
8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (d)
15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (a)
22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (a)

Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Jomas Plateau 2. Mount Everest
3. God particle 4. Mountains
5. Plateau 6. Mount Cameron
7. Diego Garcia 8. Pamir Plateau
9. What is a dissected plateau? 10. Glacier Plains
11. The world's largest lake. 12. Era related to mountain formation
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. The Brazilian Plateau. 2. Alpine Mountains.
3. Origin of Peninsular Plateau 4. Ural mountain range.
5. Origin of Peninsular Plateau 6. Residual Mountains
7. Great Dividing Range 8. Rockies Mountain Range
9. Alluvial plain.
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. What is a plateau? Describe its types.
2. Describe the types of mountains.
3. Describe the types of plains.
4. Describe the major grasslands of the world.
 World Geography
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CHAPTER - 3
Major Rivers, Lakes & Glaciers of the World
Important Points :
 Rivers
 Major Rivers of World
 Lakes
 Major Lakes of World
 Glacier
 Major Glacier of World

Rivers
Major Rivers of Asia Irrawaddy:
 Originates in Myanmar and flows in
SyrDariya:
Myanmar.
 Originates at the Border of Afghanistan
 It flows north to South.
and Tajikistan.
 Very important transport route.
 Flows north westward.
 Drains into Andaman sea
 Passes through Afghanistan, Tajikistan,  Capital of Myanmar Naypyidawis on this
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. river.
 It drains into Aral Sea. Salween:
Amu Dariya:  Originates in Tibetan plateau in China.
 Originates in Tien shan Mountains in  It flows from North to South
Kyrgyzstan.  Flows through China, Myanmar and
 Flows north westward. Thailand.
 Flows through Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan,  It drains into Andaman sea.
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.  It has one of the largest Basins in
 It drains into Aral Sea. Southeast Asia.
Indus: Mekong:
 Originates in Tibetan plateau Near  Originates from Tibetan plateau.
Mansarovar Lake in China.  Flows from North to South
 Flows to North West and After Entering  Countries China, Myanmar, Laos,
into Pakistan it flows towards south west. Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.
 It flows through China, India and Pakistan.  Drains into South China Sea.
 It drains into Arabian Sea. Yangtze:
Ganges:  Originates from Tibetan plateau.
 It originates in the Glaciers of Himalayas  Flows from West to East.
in India  Flows in China.
 Important cities like Shanghai, Wuhan,
 Flows to south and then take a easterly
and Nanjing are on this river.
turn
 It drains into East China Sea.
 Drains into Bay of Bengal.
Yellow river:
Brahmaputra:
 It is known as Huang He.
 Originates near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.  It originates in Qinghai province of
 It is known as Yarlung Tsangpo (the western China.
purifier) in China.  It flows from West to North east.
 It flows in East direction and after entering  Its Color is yellow because of sand from
into India it flows southward. Gobi desert.
 Drains into Bay of Bengal.  It drains into Bohai Sea.
 World Geography
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Mekong: Vistula River –

 Originates from Tibetan plateau.  It flows in Poland and falls in the Baltic
 Flows from North to South Sea. It is the longest and largest river in
 Countries China, Myanmar, Laos, Poland. The capital of Poland, Warsaw
Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. and Cracow are the cities located on its
 Drains into South China Sea. coast. Due to the high growth of the textile
Jordan River: industry in the city of Poland, it is called
 Originates from mount Hermon the Manchester of Poland.
 Flows from north to south Ural River-
 Flows through rift valley.  It originates from the Ural Mountains and
 Drains into Dead Sea. falls into the Caspian Sea through Russia
and Kazakhstan. This river forms the
natural boundary of Asia and Europe.
Major Rivers of Europe Rhone River-
Rhine River-  It originates from Lake Geneva
 It flows through the states of Switzerland, (Switzerland) and flows into Switzerland
Germany, Austria, France and and France, falls into the Gulf of Leon
Netherlands. It rises from the Alps (Mediterranean Sea). On the banks of the
Mountains and falls into the North Sea. Rhone River lie the cities of Lyon and
 The city of 'Bonn' of Germany and 'Basel' Marseille. Lyon is called the Silk City of
of Switzerland are situated on the banks of France.
this river. Rotterdam and the Netherlands The Po River-
are located at its mouth.  It originates from the Alps Mountains and
The Seine River - falls into the Adriatic Sea. It is the longest
 It originates in the plateau of France and river in Italy and is called the Ganges of
falls into the English Channel. Paris is Italy. The Po River flows through the plain
located on the banks of the Seine River. At of Lombardy, which is the largest rice
the mouth of this river lies the Le-Harvey producing region in Europe. The city of
port. Milan is called Manchester of Italy and
Elbe River - Turin is called Detroit of Italy.
 This River flows through Germany, Czech Tiber River-
Republic and falls into the North Sea. At  It originates from Mount Fumaiolo and
the mouth of this river lies the city of drains into the Mediterranean Sea. On the
Hamburg. And the city of Dresden situated banks of this river lies Vatican City (the
on its banks is famous for the production smallest country in the world) and
of ceramics. Rome.(the capital of Italy)
Spree River- Danube River -
 It flows in Germany, which is a tributary  This River originates from the Black
of the Elbe; on the banks of this river the Forest of Germany and falls into the Black
Sea through Germany, Austria,
capital of Germany is located.
Romanians, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary,
Loire River- Ukraine, Croatiaand Serbia. This river
 It is the longest river in France which falls forms the border of Hungary-Slovakia,
into the Bay of Biscay-Atlantic Ocean. Croatia-Serbia and Romania-Bulgaria
The city of Nantes, located on the banks of countries.
this river, is famous for the paper industry. Dniester River -
The Volga River-  It rises from the Carpathian mountain
 It originates from the Valdai Hills, and range, flows into Ukraine and Moldova
falls into the Caspian Sea. This river is the and falls into the Black Sea. It is the most
longest river in Europe. important river of Moldova.
 World Geography
57

Dnieper River - Volta River-

 The Valdai Hills originates from Russia  Originates from Burkina Faso as White
and flows through Russia, Velarus and Volta and Black Volta which unite at Lake
Ukraine, and falls into the Black Sea. It is Volta.
the longest river in Ukraine.  Akasombo Dam has been constructed on
this river.
Thames River -
 The Volta Basin is important for the
 It flows in England and falls in the North
cultivation of cocoa.
Sea, on the banks of this river the capital Orange River-
of England is London.  It rises from the Drakensberg Mountains in
Lesotho and drains into the Atlantic
Major Rivers of Africa Ocean, forming the border between
Nile river- Namibia and South Africa.
 The longest river in the world that flows  Its main tributary is the Wall.
through East Africa. Whose length is 6695  Agurebeez Falls is located on this river in
km. South Africa.
 The main tributary of the Nile, the Blue Limpopo River--
Nile originates from Lake Tana in the  It originates from the Transvaal highlands
Ethiopian Highlands and the White Nile of South Africa.
originates from Lake Victoria.  It crosses the Tropic of Capricorn twice.
 The White Nile and Blue Nile join  It forms the border between Southern
together near Khartoum, the capital of Africa Botswana and South Africa-
Sudan, to form the Nile. Zimbabwe.
 The cities of Cairo and Alexandria are Senegal River-
settled in Egypt on the banks of the Nile,  It originates from the Futa Jalon Mountain
Egypt is said to be the gift of the Nile. in the north-western part of Guinea and
Congo / Zaire River- falls into the Atlantic Ocean.
 The second longest river in Africa, which  It forms the border between Senegal and
is formed by the union of the Lualaba and Mauritania.
Shibeli and Juba Rivers-
Luapula rivers.
 Emerging from the Ethiopian highlands, it
 This river crosses the equator twice and flows south-east and the two rivers merge
falls into the Atlantic Ocean. before falling into the Indian Ocean.
 The world's smallest species of pygmy
lives in the basin of the Congo River.
 On the banks of this river, the Congo's Major Rivers of North America
Mississippi:
capital Brazzaville and the Republic of
 Flows from North to South
Congo's capital Kinshasa are located.
 Important tributary Missouri river.
 Kasai is its main tributary which is famous  Most important river system of USA
for Diamond Reserve.  important cities: St. Pittsburg, Memphis,
Niger- St. Louis
 The main river of West Africa, which  Irrigation – Prairie region
originates from the Loma Mountains on Colorado:
the border of Sierra Leone and Guinea.  West flowing river
This river provides an aquatic route for  cutting the Colorado Plateau –Grand
carrying palm oil, it is also called Palm Oil canyon
River.  Flows through Sonoran desert, Painted
 The port city of Nigeria, Port Harcourt is Desert
located on the Niger Delta. Mali's capital  hoover dam – Lake Mead
Bamako is located on this coast.  Las Vegas located near Lake Mead.
 World Geography
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St. Lawrence: Major Rivers of South America

 Flows from south-west to North-east. Amazon River -
 Originate from Lake Ontario and drain  Originates from the Aedes Mountains in
into Atlantic Ocean. Peru and falls into the Atlantic Ocean.
 Busiest inland waterways.  The equator passes through its mouth.
Mackenzie:  It is the largest river in the world in terms
 Flows Northward. of water volume and the second longest
river in the world.
 Originate from Great Slave Lake and
 The 'Madeira' is its largest tributary.
drains into Arctic Ocean. Orinico River -
 It flows through Boreal forests of Canada.  It originates from the Andes Mountains
Hudson River: and falls into the Atlantic Ocean.
 Flows from north to south  Its main tributary is the caroni river.
 Originate in Appalachian Mountains.  It is the main river of Colombia and
 It flows through major cities like New Venezuela.
York and New Jersey. Parana River -
 provides an important waterway  It originates from the Brazilian highlands;
it empties into the Atlantic Ocean forming
Yukan River-
an estuary at Rio-de-la-Plata.
 It originates from the western slope of the  It is the second largest river in the
Rocky Range and flows west and falls into continent of South America.
the Pacific Ocean, which is the main river  Its main tributary is Paraguay.
of Alaska.  On the banks of this river is the Argentine
 Its tributaries are the Tanana, the Koykuk city of Rosario.
and the Porcupine. Paraguay River -
 Its total length is 2897 km and the towns  It flows through Brazil, Paraguay and
situated on the banks of this river are Fort Argentina.
Yukon, Tanana Holy Cross etc.  Paraguay's capital Asuncion is situated on
the banks of this river.
Riogrand River-
 Emerging from the Camby Mountains, Major Rivers of Australia
USA and flows into Mexico and falls into Murray-Darling Basin:
The Murray–Darling Basin is a river network
the Gulf of Mexico. sprawling for one million square kilometres
 This river determines the natural border of (400,000 square miles) across five Australian
America and Mexico. states (New South Wales, Victoria, and the
Australian Capital Territory, Queensland South
 It forms the Sadie Delta before falling into Australia) in the interior of south-eastern
the Gulf of Mexico. Australia. The two main rivers in this basin are
Snake River- the Murray River and the Darling River.
 It originates from the Rocky Mountains Important rivers of Australia are
Murray,Darling, Lachlan, Warrego, Yarra, etc.
and Yellowstone National Park, located in  Australia has two important rivers Murray
the USA. and Darling.
 It is the largest tributary of Colombia.  Darling river originates from Great
Dividing Range and Murray from Snowy
Fraser River- Mountain.
 It originates from the Rocky Mountains in  Temperate grassland – ‗Downs‘ are the
Canada and falls into the North Pacific feature of Murray darling Basin.
Ocean.  Most of the rivers drain into lakes. (Inland
drainage basins)
 The Vancouver port of Canada is situated  Other important rivers are Diamantina,
on the banks of this river. This is also a Gilbertand Lachlan etc.
major center for making wood products.
 World Geography
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Major Rivers of the World

River Country Characteristics
The Nile River Africa The longest river in the world originates from
Lake Victoria and drains into the Mediterranean
Sea.
The Amazon Brazil The largest drainage system in the world and is
the second largest river in the world in terms of
length.
The Yangtze China Originates from the Sino-Tibetan plateau and
falls into the East China Sea.
Mississippi-Missouri USA This river forms the Bird Foot Delta and is the
largest river system in the world.
Colorado USA The Grand Canyon is located on this river.
Rhine Europe Also known as the Coal River. Rotterdam, the
world's busiest port, is located on it.
Danube Europe It originates from the Black Forest of Germany
and falls into the Black Sea.
Saint Lawrence River Canada and USA Niagara Falls is located on this.
The Volga Russia The largest river in Russia, Europe and drains
into the Caspian Sea.
Niger Guyana, Mali, Niger, This river drains into the Gulf of Guinea.
Benin, Nigeria
Zambezi Congo Victoria Falls is located on this river.
Congo or Zaire River Africa This river crosses the equator twice.
Limpopo South Africa This river originates from the Highveld of South-
Africa and crosses the Tropic of Capricorn twice.
Mahi River India This river crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
Amur River Russia, China This river forms the border of China and Russia.
Mekong River South East Asia It is the longest river in South East Asia.
Murray Darling River Australia It originates from the Australian Alps and is the
largest river in Australia.

Lakes
A lake is defined as an area of variable size  The lives of the people, in a region, are
filled with water, localized in a basin that is greatly influenced by the presence of a
surrounded by land, apart from any other river lake in that area.
or outlet surrounded by the lake. They lie on  In some places, lakes are good sources for
land and not part of the ocean, and are usually water supply for drinking.
bigger than ponds.  Lakes help in the growth of the fishing
Advantages of lakes industry.
 The major role played by lakes and  The salt lakes yield common salt. For
reservoirs is the regulation of stream flow. example, Sambar lake
 Lakes provide water for drinking, factory,  Lakes are helpful in controlling the
irrigation and generating hydel-power. weather and moderating local climate-
 Lakes are a good refuge for an enormous Lakes cool the air in summer and warm it
variety of flora and fauna. during winter. They also enhance the
humidity.
 World Geography
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 Lakes have an aesthetic appeal and are a glacier. They are usually freshwater
helpful in recreation; tourists are attracted lakes. Example Dal Lake
due to lakes which have boating, Freshwater and Salt lakes
swimming and a good landscape around. 1. Freshwater lakes Most of the lakes in the
 Lakes are used for navigation. world are freshwater lakes. They are
usually found in low lying areas and are
Types of Lakes
fed from streams, rivers and runoff from
 Lakes are classified depending on how
the surrounding area. e.g. Great Lakes of
they formed and on the quality of the
North America, Lake Baikal in Russia,
water (freshwater or saltwater). Only in the
Lake Wular and Loktak Lake in India.
saltiest lakes there is no life. Lakes contain
2. Salt Lakes Salt Lake is an inland body of
4 times more freshwater than the rivers,
water situated in an arid or semiarid
but, if they are not continuously supplied
region, having no outlet to the sea, and
with freshwater, they can disappear
containing a high concentration of
through desiccation or accumulation of
dissolved salt. These lakes exist in regions
sediments.
of low precipitation and intense
 A lake helps in preventing flood by
evaporation. Because of intense
regulating the flow of river. During dry
evaporation, the concentration of salts
seasons, a lake helps to maintain an even
increases in the water body, turning them
flow of the river. Lakes can also be used
saline. Playas or salt lakes are a common
for generating hydel power.
feature of deserts. Example - Great Salt
Lakes are mainly classified on the basis of: Lake of Utah, USA, Dead Sea etc.
a. Nature of Inflow-outflow
b. Origin B. Classification based on origin
c. Trophic levels or mode of formation

A. Classification based on The following are the various ways in which

lakes can be formed. Each of them is placed in a
inflow-outflow
different category, though in a few cases the
Temporary and Permanent Lakes lake could have been formed by more than one
1. Temporary Lakes -These lakes may exist single factor
temporarily by filling up small depressions 1. Lakes formed by Earth Movement
of undulating grounds after a heavy a. Tectonic lakes
shower. In such lakes rate of evaporation  Due to the warping (simple deformation),
is much greater than the rate of recharge subsidence (sliding downwards), bending
through precipitation. They are usually and fracturing (splitting) of the
saline. They are subject to extreme earth‘s crust, tectonic depressions occur.
fluctuations in water level. Example - (We have studied all these terms in
Badhkal Lake, Faridabad previous posts)
2. Permanent lakes Permanent lakes carry  Such depressions give rise to lakes of
more water than could ever be evaporated. immense sizes and depths.
These are very deep. They have some
They include Caspian Sea, and the Lake
perennial source of inflow of water such as
Titicaca.
 World Geography
61

b. Rift Valley Lakes  Water collects in troughs (Valley in the

 These lakes include some of the oldest, rift) and their floors are often below sea
deepest and largest lakes around the globe. level.
 Rift valleys are deep, narrow and  It includes such lakes as Lakes
elongated. Hence the lakes formed along Tanganyika, Malawi, Rudolf, Edward,
rift valleys are also deep, narrow and very Albert, as well as the Dead Sea 1,286 feet
long. below mean sea level, the world‘s lowest
 Water is collected in these troughs lake.

2. Lakes formed by Glaciation  They are irregular in shape, and also these
a. Kettle Lakes lakes are not very large or deep.
 These are depressions in the outwash plain  Example Kettle-lakes of Orkney in
left by melting of a large mass of stagnant Scotland.
ice.
 World Geography
62

b. Rock-Hollow Lakes c. Tarn or Cirque lakes

 The advance and retreat of glaciers can  Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a
scrape depressions in the surface where mountain ridge. It has steep sided slope on
water accumulates; such lakes are common three sides, an open end on one side and a
in Scandinavia, Patagonia, Siberia and flat bottom.
Canada.  When the ice melts, the cirque may
 These are formed by ice-scouring develop into a tarn lake.
(eroding) when ice sheets scoop out (dig)  They are also called as Ribbon lakes
hollows on the surface.  Example Red tarn in the English Lake
 Such lakes of glacial origin are abundant District and Chandra Taal (Himachal
in Finland – Land of Lakes. It is said that Pradesh) in India.
there are over 35,000 glacial lakes in
Finland.

3. Lakes formed by Volcanism  In dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls

a. Crater and Caldera Lakes straight into the crater or caldera which has
 A natural hollow called a crater is formed no superficial outlet and forms a crater or
by blowing off of the top of the cone caldera lake.
during a volcanic explosion.  Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra, Krakatoa
 This may be enlarged by subsidence into a in Indonesia, Crater Lake in Oregon, USA
caldera. and Lake Toba in Sumatra etc.
 World Geography
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b. Lava-blocked Lakes under the pressure of water. The sudden

 In volcanic regions, it is common to find a release of water from these lakes like this
stream of lava that flows across a valley. can also cause floods.
 This stream of lava may occasionally b. Ox-bow lakes
become solidified and block the valley  Oxbow lake, small lake located in an
thus forming a lake basin. abandoned meander loop of a river
 This basin may get filled up due damming channel.
up of the river due to solidified lava.  It is generally formed as a river cuts
 Example The Sea of Galilee which is an through a meander neck to shorten its
inland lake was created due to blocking of course, causes the old channel to be
the Jordan valley by lava flow. rapidly blocked off, and then migrates
away from the lake.
4. Lakes formed by deposition
a. Barrier Lakes  Example Ox-bow lakes are a common
phenomenon in the floodplains of Lower
 These lakes are formed by landslides,
Mississippi, USA and Rio Grande
avalanches and such other processes.
(Mexico), Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary in
 These processes cause damming up of the
Bihar, India is one of Asia's largest oxbow
river by blocking the valleys.
lakes.
 These lakes are short lived as the large
piles of loose fragments soon give way

5. Lakes formed by Erosion  The collapse of limestone roofs of

a. Wind deflated lakes underground caves may result in the
 The winds in deserts create hollows. exposure of long, narrow lakes that were
 These may reach ground water which once underground.
seeps out forming small, shallow lakes.  The shallow bed of these lakes is usually
Excessive evaporation causes these to an insoluble layer of sediment so that
become salt lakes and playas. water is impounded, resulting in the
 Example: Great Basin of Utah, U.S.A. formation of lakes.
b. Karst Lakes  Examples: -Otjikoto Lake in Namibia,
 Karst lakes are formed in depressions, Africa.
carved out by solvent action of rainwater  Der Cenote Sagrado Lake on the Yucatan
on water-soluble rocks such as limestone, Peninsula, Mexico.
gypsum and dolomite.  Cerkinsko Jezero Lake in Slovenia.
 World Geography
64

 Limni Loannion Lake or Pamvotis Lake  They usually have clear water with
and Limni Stymphalia Lake in Greece. submerged aquatic plants.
6. Man-made lakes (Artificial lakes)
 Besides natural lakes, man has now
created artificial lakes
 Artificial lakes are created by erecting a
concrete dam across a river valley
 These dams help in creating a reservoir by
impounding river water
 Guru Gobind Sagar Lake which supports
the Bhakra Nangal Hydel Project is an
example of an artificial lake in India.
C. Classification based on trophic level
1. Eutrophic Lake
 A eutrophic lake is typically shallow with
a soft and mucky bottom. Rooted plant
growth is abundant along the shore and out
into the lake, and algal blooms are not
unusual. Water clarity is not good and the 1. Oligotrophic Lake
water often has a tea color. If deep enough  An oligotrophic lake is a lake with low
to thermally stratify, the bottom waters are primary productivity, as a result of low
devoid of oxygen. nutrient content.
 Some of Highly Eutrophicated Lake in  Algal production in these lakes is
India includes Udaisagar Lake (Rajasthan) relatively low.
and Dal Lake (Kashmir).  Often, they have very clear waters, with
high drinking water quality.

Major Lakes of Asia

7. Mesotrophic Lake
Lake Baikal - The Lake located in the southern
 Lakes with an intermediate level of
part of the Siberian region of Russia, which is
productivity are called mesotrophic lakes.
spread in the north-south length and is located in
 The nutrients level of these lakes in the northern part of Mongolia. It is the world's
medium or moderate.
deepest lake with an average depth of 1620 m.
The Lena River originates from this lake.
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Van Lake- This is the world's highest salinity Major Lakes of the Africa
lake, located in the eastern part of Turkey. On
Kariba Lake- It is a man-made lake located on
the eastern side of this lake lies the city of
the Zambezi River in Zambia where commercial
Vaughan.
fishing is done.
Balkhash- It is a salt water lake located in
Kazakhstan. Which is a hockey stick shaped Lake Malawi/Nyasa- Lake located in the fault
lake. valley which is in Malawi, Mozambique and
Aral Sea- It is spread in both Uzbekistan and Tanzania.
Kazakhstan. In this lake, the Amu Darya from Lake VictoriaVictoria:
the north and the Sir-Daria Rivers form from the  Shared among Uganda,Kenya and
south. Tanzania.
Dead Sea- Lake located on the border of Israel  It is the largest lake of Africa.
and Jordan, which is located on the West bank  It is source of White Nile.
of Jordan. It is the second highest salinity lake in  Not inside a rift valley.
the world. The coastal part of this lake is 400
meters below the sea level. The Jerusalem Tanganyika:
(Divine Terrestrial City)is located to the north-  Shared among Tanzania, Zaire and
west of the Dead Sea. Zambia.
Lake Toba- It is located on the island of  World‘s longest freshwater lake.
Sumatra in Indonesia. This is an example of a  2nd deepest lake of world after lake
crater or caldera lake. It is a fresh water lake. Baikal (Siberia)
Sea of Galilee - A lake formed in Israel due to  Lies in Great Rift Valley.
the blocking of the Jordan Valley by lava Tana Lake- Located in the Ethiopian Highlands
discharge in the Jordan River. The lake is in the northern part of Ethiopia, the Blue Nile
connected to the Dead Sea by the Jordan River.
River originates from it.
The Caspian Sea– It is the largest lake in the
world surrounded by Russia, Kazakhstan, Lake of Chad - The largest lake in the Sahara
Turkmenistan, Iran and Azerbaijan. desert located in Chad. This lake is located on
It is a salt water lake which separates Asia from the border of Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon and
Europe. The Volga River and the Ural River
Chad.
make their mouths in this lake. The area around
this lake is important from oil and natural point Lake Volta - Man-made lake located in the
of view. eastern central part of Ghana in which White
Lake Biba- Lake located on the island of Volta and Black Volta come and fall.
Honshu, Japan, on the banks of which the city of
Kyoto is located. This lake provides fresh water Major Lakes of North America
to Japan. Continent
Lopnor Lake - Situated in the north-western Lake Superior
part of China and the eastern part of the Taram The largest lake in North America is Lake
Basin, it is a salt water lake. The population Superior. The lake's name did not initially refer
density in the area around this lake is very low. to its enormous size, but was described as ―la lac
Major Lakes of Europe superior‖ by early French explorers in reference
Lake Ladoga - This is the largest lake in to the fact that it was the only lake upstream
Europe and is located in Russia. from the other Great Lakes of North America.
Lake Onega - This is the second largest lake in However, in the 1760s the British anglicized the
Europe and is located in Russia. lake's name to Lake Superior in reference to its
Lake Garda - This Lake is located in Italy. massive size. Lake Superior is the largest
Lake Balaton - This Lake is the largest lake in freshwater lake in the world and covers a total
Hungary, Central Europe. area of 82,100 square miles.
 World Geography
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Lake Huron Lago Argentino

Lake Huron is the second largest lake in North Lago Argentino is a lake in Los Glaciares
America and covers a total surface area of National Park, Argentina. It is the largest
59,590 square kilometers. Lake Huron receives
freshwater lake in the country and the fourth
its primary inlet from Lake Superior, through
the St. Mary‘s River, and discharges its waters largest lake on the continent. The lake covers an
into Lake Erie. Lake Huron is the third-largest area of 546 sq mi with an average depth of
freshwater lake in the world. It is located mostly 1,640 ft. The primary inflows are La Leona
between Lake Michigan and Lake Ontario, River and several streams of melting glaciers.
which are the third and the eighth largest lakes The Santa Cruz River is its primary outflow.
in North America, respectively.
Lake Titicaca
Lake Michigan
Lake Titicaca is the largest lake in South
Lake Michigan is the third largest lake in North
America and covers a total area of 58,000 America by surface area and volume. It covers
square kilometers, an area which is slightly an area of 3,232 sq mi and holds an average of
smaller than Lake Huron. However, Lake 214 cu mi of water. It is the world‘s "highest
Michigan is the second largest lake by volume navigable lake‖ at an altitude of 12,507 ft.
in North America, after Lake Superior. Titicaca is located within the boundaries of two
Lake Ontario countries; the western part lies in Puno Region
Lake Ontario covers an area of 18,960 square of Peru while the eastern part is located in the
kilometers, making it the eighth largest lake in Bolivian La Paz Department. The lake consists
North America. Lake Ontario is the fifth deepest
among the Great Lakes of North America and of two basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina.
has a volume of 1,640 cubic kilometers. Lake Five major rivers and more than 20 streams feed
Ontario ranks as the fourteenth largest lake in Titicaca; the Río Desaguadero is the only outlet.
the world. Despite being the smallest of the There are 41 islands on the lake most of which
Great Lakes in terms of surface area, Lake are inhabited
Ontario exceeds Lake Erie in terms of volume.
Mar Chiquita
Lake Erie
Mar Chiquita is an endorheic salt lake in central
Lake Erie covers a total area of 25,700 square
Argentina. It is the second largest lake in the
kilometers and is the fourth largest among the
continent with a surface area of between 770
Great Lakes of North America, but the sixth
and 2,320 sq mi. The size if the lake increases
largest of all lakes in North America. In terms of
threefold during the rainy season because of its
volume, Lake Erie is the smallest of the Great
shallow depth of 35 ft. It is the largest saline
Lakes, measuring 484 cubic kilometers.
lake in Argentina and South America. It primary
Major Lakes of North America inlets are the Dulce River which is a saline river
Continent and the Saladillo River. The level of salinity in
General Carrera Lake/ Lake Buenos Aires the lake ranges from 250 g/l during low water to
General Carrera is a lake shared by Chile and 40 g/l during floods.
Argentina. It is referred to as Lake Buenos Aires
Viedma Lake
in Argentina. The lake covers an area of 710 sq
Viedma is a lake located on the boundary
mi and has a depth of 1,923 ft. It is the third
between Argentina and Chile. It is an elongated
largest on the continent and the largest in Chile.
lake with a length of 50 miles and a surface area
The lake is located within the Andes mountain
of 420 sq mi. The lake‘s inlets are the melting
range. The lakes inlets are streams from melting
glacial ice of the Viedma Glacier while the
glacier while the Baker River and the Deseado
Santa Cruz River is its main outflow.
River are it primary outflows.
 World Geography
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Major Lakes of North America Lake Frome -

Continent Lake Frome is also an endorheic lake. It is found
in South Australia. Like others on this list, Lake
Lake Eyre - Frome is only filled with water after rainfall. It
Lake Eyre, officially named Kati Thanda-Lake is the southernmost salt lake in Australia.
Eyre, is a large salt water lake in South
Australia. The lake derives its name from the Lake Mackay -
first European to discover it, Edward John Eyre. Lake Mackay is a naturally occurring lake in
Lake Eyre is mostly dry, but when filled it West Australia. It is the largest lake in Western
becomes the largest lake in Australia, occupying Australia and ranks as the fourth largest in the
an area of 3668 square miles. When Lake Eyre country. The lake is named after Australian
is filled with water, and it springs to life, traveler Donald George Mackay. It is a salt lake
providing a habitat for migratory birds such as that stretches from Western Australia to
pelicans and sea plants. Lake Eyre falls under the Northern Territory. The lake covers an area
two protected areas: Elliot Price Conservation of approximately 1,349 square miles and has an
Park and Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park. elevation of close to 1,210 feet above sea level.
The South Australian government protects the Lake Mackay only fills up during the seasonal
area surrounding the lake. rain period.
Lake Carnegie - Lake Torrens -
Lake Carnegie covers 5,714 sq km and is found Lake Torrens is also a salt lake in South
in Western Australia. Lake Carnegie is Australia. In terms of low rainfall, the lake is
Australia's largest non-salt lake. Although it is dry or close to it. However, when the lake fills
one of the country's largest lakes in terms of with excessive rainfall, it measures as the
surface area, the lake only fills up from second largest lake in Australia. Lake Torrens is
excessive rainfall. When the lake is not filled an endorheic basin which means that its water
with water, it appears as a marsh. The area does not flow out to the ocean. It is found
around Lake Carnegie is a desert environment. around 350 north of South Australia's largest
city of Adelaide.
Glacier
 A glacier is a large, perennial accu- Glacier :-
mulation of crystalline ice, snow, rock,  A glacier is a large mass of ice that is
sediment, and water that originates on persistently moving under its own weight
land and moves down slope under the
over the land or as linear flows down the
influence of its own weight and gravity.
They are sensitive indicators of changing slopes of mountains in broad trough-like
climate. valleys
 Out of total water on Earth, 2.1% is in  Glaciers are formed in the areas where the
glaciers while 97.2% is in the oceans and accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation
inland seas. (melting and sublimation) over many
 Glaciers are formed in the areas where the
years, often centuries.
accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation
(melting and sublimation) over many  Glaciers move under the influence of the
years, often centuries. force of gravity.
 Glaciers move under the influence of the  The movement of glaciers is slow, unlike
force of gravity. water flow. Glaciers flow like very slow
 The movement of glaciers is slow, unlike rivers.
water flow. Glaciers flow like very slow
rivers.  Their movement could be a few
 Their movement could be a few centimeters to a few meters a day or even
centimetres to a few metres a day or even less or more.
less or more.
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Alpine Glaciers Ice Sheets

 Alpine glaciers are formed on the  Ice sheets form broad domes and usually
mountainsides and they usually move spread out in all directions.
downwards through the valleys.  When the ice sheets spread, they cover
 There are times when an alpine glacier all the areas such as valleys, plains, and
also deepens the valleys by pushing mountains with a thick blanket of ice.
away the dirt, soil, and other  The continental glaciers are the largest
materials. ice sheets and cover most of Antarctica
 These glaciers are found in high and islands of Greenland.
mountains.
Types of Glaciers :– in Alaska is one of the most famous
Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, examples of this type of glacier
thermal characteristics, and behavior. Glaciers 4. Valley Glaciers - A glacier that fills a
are mainly of four types - continental glaciers, valley is called a valley glacier. The valley
ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley glaciers. glaciers are commonly known as Alpine
1. Continental Glaciers - Continental Glacier and are found in the valleys
glaciers are continuous masses of ice that created by lofty mountains such as
are much larger than alpine glaciers. By Himalaya in India.
definition, they have areas larger than Important Glaciers of the World
50,000 km2; some examples of Continental
 Lambert Glacier, Antarctica
Glaciers are Antarctica, Iceland,
Greenland etc.  Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina
2. Ice caps - Ice caps are the covers of snow  Furtwängler Glacier, Tanzania
and ice on the mountain ranges from
which the valley or mountain glaciers  Pasterze Glacier, Grossglockner, Austria
originate. Though they can also be found  Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland
at the lower altitudes. Ice caps have an
area of less than 50,000 km2.  Fox and Franz Josef, New Zealand
3. Piedmont Glaciers - The piedmont  Canada Glacier, Antarctica
glaciers form a continuous ice sheet at the
base of mountains. The Malaspina Glacier  Margerie Glacier, Alaska

Major Glaciers of India

[Link]. Name of Glacier Area Length (km) Type
1. Rupal Kashmir 16 Transverse
2. Punam Kashmir 27 Transverse
3. Rimo Kashmir 40 Vertical or Longitudinal
4. Himarshi Kashmir - Transverse
5. Barshi Kashmir - Longitudinal
6. Minapin Karakoram - Transverse
7. Hispar Karakoram 60.8 Vertical or Longitudinal
8. Biafo Karakoram 62 Vertical or Longitudinal
9. Baltoro Karakoram 58 Vertical or Longitudinal
10. Siachen Karakoram 72 Vertical or Longitudinal
11. Batura Karakoram 58 Vertical or Longitudinal
12. Sasaini Karakoram 158.4 Transverse
13. Mohil Yaj Karakoram 28.8 Vertical or Longitudinal
14. Yaj Gill Karakoram 28.8 Vertical or Longitudinal
 World Geography
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15. Khurdopin Karakoram 41.6 Vertical or Longitudinal

16. Birji Rev Karakoram 38.4 Vertical or Longitudinal
17. Milam Kumaun 19 Longitudy
18. Kedarnath Kumaun 14 Transverse
19. Gangotri Kumaun 25 Transverse
20. Keesa Kumaun 11 Vertical or Longitudinal
21. Jemu Sikkim 25 Transverse
22. Kangchenjunga Sikkim 16 Vertical or Longitudinal




Important Questions
1. In which country will you find the river 10. Cut off loops of rivers are known as
Po? (a) Bajada (b) Meanders
(a) China (b) Italy (c) Oxbow lake (d) Levee
(c) Sri Lanka (d) Zambia 11. Scandinavia is a suitable country for
2. The river Mahaweli flows through exploiting hydroelectricity because of
(a) India (b) Bangladesh the presence of
(c) Sri Lanka (d) Pakistan (a) lakes (b) steep slopes
3 Rice in Myanmar is cultivated along the (c) great rivers (d) waterfalls
deltas of ______river. 12. The capital of the Ontario province of
(a) Salween (b) Menam Canada situated on the Lake Ontario is
(c) Mekong (d) Irrawaddy the port city of
4. River Rhine of Europe drains into (a) Montreal (b) Uruguay
(a) North Sea (b) Black Sea (c) Chile (d) Paraguay
(c) Caspian Sea (d) Adriatic Sea 13. Chicago, one of world's largest steel
5. The South African River draining into centres, is located on the southern tip of
Atlantic Ocean is the lake.
(a) Orange (b) Zambezi (a) Superior (b) Michigan
(c) Limpopo (d) Nile (c) Huron (d) Erie
6. Coastline formed by a drowned river 14. Tonle Sap is the biggest fresh water lake
mouth is a in South East Asia. It is located In
(a) Fjord (b) Dalmatian (a) Thailand (b) Kampuchea
(c) Ria (d) Haff (c) Laos (d) Vietnam
7. The largest fresh water body (volume- 15. A huge muss of ice fed by snow on a
wise) in the world is lake high mountain slowly sliding downhill
(a) Baikal (b) Titicaca before It starts melting is called
(c) Superior (d) Victoria (a) Glacier (b) Avalanche
8. The highest navigable lake in the world (c) Iceberg (d) Snow cover
is 16. Which of the following predominantly
(a) Huron (b) Titicaca acts as the agent of chemical erosion of
(c) Superior (d) Tanganyika
soil?
9. ______ is called the 'land of a thousand
(a) Glacier
lakes'.
(b) Seawave
(a) Finland (b) Holland
(c) Underground water
(c) Sweden (d) Portugal
(d) Wind
 World Geography
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17. Out of the following geomorphic (a) 1 only (b) 2 only

processes which one is associated with (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
the work of glaciers? 19. Moraine is
(a) Corrosion (b) Attrition (a) a tribe inhabiting the equatorial region
(c) Corrasion (d) Plucking (b) the debris of fragments of rock material
18. Consider the following statements: brought down with the movement of a
1. On the planet Earth, the fresh water glacier
available for use amounts to about (c) a salt water lake in Arabia
less than 1% ofthe total water found. (d) a nocturnal animal found in Amazon
2. Of the total fresh water found on the forests
planet Earth, 95% is bound up in 20. Outwash plain is a depositional feature
polar ice caps andglaciers. associated with
Which of the statements given above (a) rivers (b) wind
is/are correct? (c) glacier (d) wave

ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (c) 3 (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c)
8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b)
15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (c)

Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Largest lake in the world. 2. Lake Michigan
3. Buffer State 4. Lake Titicaca
5. Niger River 6. Suez Canal
7. Natural Embankment 8. Geysers
9. Hot Spring 10. Radier Lake
11. Sahara Desert 12. Lake Baikal
13. Lake Huron 14. Lake Winnipeg
15. Aral Sea
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. State the types of glaciers.
2. Nile River.
3. Lake Baikal.
4. Volcano Crater Lake.
5. Residual lake.
6. Irrawaddy River.
7. Give a brief description of the Nile River.
8. Give a brief classification of lakes.
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. Describe the topography formed by glaciers.
2. Describe the types of lakes with examples.
3. Mention the major lakes of Asia.
 World Geography
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CHAPTER - 4
Agriculture and Its Types
Important Points :
 Agriculture
 Types of Agriculture
 Major Crops
 Agricultural Development
 Local names of shifting cultivation around the world
 Different Types of Agriculture in the World

Agriculture
Agriculture is the most fundamental from of human activity. An area or region with similar
functional attributes is termed as agricultural system as a widen term which emphasize on the
functional attributes. An agricultural system may be a single farm or a group of interrelated farms
having similarities of agricultural attributes.
―Agriculture is defined as the purposeful tending of crops & livestock.‖ – M. Carty & Limberg
Agricultural Region
 Agricultural region may be defined as an extensive area or imaginary system of a
geographical unit covering the globe, having uniformity in agricultural works, types of
crops, production method, and factors of production, land utilization, and livelihood of
the farmers. The livelihood of farmers includes their residences and standard of living too.
The farms are distinctive from surrounding areas.
 ―Region is that place on the earth surface which has some homogenous criteria.‖ – D. E. Jong

Types of Agriculture  Means of distribution of farm produce

Agriculture is one of the most widespread  Level of mechanization
activities in the world, but it is not uniform  Farming is practised in various ways
throughout. There are a number of ways to across the world. Depending upon the
classify agriculture, and some of the major geographical conditions, demand of
criteria which can be adopted include: produce, labour and level of technology,
 Scale farming can be classified into two main
 Type of crop types. These are subsistence farming and
 Livestock combinations commercial farming.
 Intensity
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I. Subsistence Farming  Another downside to industrial farming

is the overcrowding of cattle.
Growing crops and rearing animals for the
 Intensive farming has a bad effect on
sole purpose of feeding the farmer and his
family is known as subsistence farming. It the environment.
entails the use of basic farm equipment on small 2. Primitive subsistence agriculture:
plots of land. Most subsistence farmers are Primitive subsistence agriculture includes
thought to be poor and so unable to afford better
shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
seeds and fertilizers. As a result, they farm on
ground with low soil fertility or terrain that is Primitive subsistence agriculture
difficult to work.
Advantages:
Subsistence farming is low-yielding and
does not use irrigation or electricity, both of  It is cost-effective.
which are typically unavailable to such farmers.  Organic farming.
Because practically all of the food grown is Disadvantages:
consumed by the farmer and his family, almost  It depends on the monsoon.
none is sold for a profit. Agricultural activity is  The Natural fertility of the soil.
booming in the mid-latitudes.
A. Shifting cultivation –
1. Intensive Subsistence Farming (with or  Shifting cultivation is practised in the
without Rice as a dominant crop):
thickly forested areas of Amazon basin,
Rice as dominant crop: tropical Africa, parts of Southeast Asia and
Intensive subsistence farming is conducted in Northeast India.
tropical locations with dense populations and
 These are the areas of heavy rainfall and
high rainfall. Rice is the most widely produced
crop because it can feed and employ a large quick regeneration of vegetation. A plot of
number of people in each unit area. Farmers land is cleared by felling the trees and
employ animal and manual power to carry out burning them.
farming chores, which is mostly practiced in  The ashes are then mixed with the soil and
Southeast Asia. The majority of farmers employ crops like maize, yam, potatoes and
manures to increase their farm's productivity per
cassava are grown. After the soil loses its
unit area.
fertility, the land is abandoned and the
Rice as non-dominant crop: cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting
This practice, like subsistence farming with rice
cultivation is also known as ‗slash and
as the major crop, is carried out in low-rainfall
locations. Other grain crops grown by farmers burn‘ agriculture.
include millet and wheat, in addition to rice.  In shifting agriculture the crops like
Agriculture is practiced in Central America and maize, millets, cotton, rice, etc., are
southern Africa, as well as places of northern cultivated.
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East that receive
little rain throughout the year. Advantages:
Advantages:  It is a traditional farming method where a
 In Intensive farming, the farm yield is plot of land is clean, burned, and cultured.
extremely high.  It is a very easy and fast preparation
 Management of the land becomes easier. method for land and agriculture.
 Fruits and vegetables are less expensive Disadvantages:
in intensive farming techniques.
 In Shifting Cultivation numbers of trees
Disadvantages: are cut in the forest.
 It increases the pollution level due to the
 Increases soil infertility leads to soil
use of a large number of fertilizers and
erosion.
pesticides.
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B. Nomadic Herding: 2. Mixed Farming :

 The process of keeping and grazing Mixed farming, often known as grain and
livestock on natural pastures is known as livestock farming, entails the cultivation of
nomadic herding. It's common in arid and
semi-arid areas like Saudi Arabia, northern crops as well as the keeping of livestock. It is
Africa, and northern Eurasia. The method native to the humid, mid-latitudes of the world,
is similar to pastoral farming. Sheep, except Asia. It is a type of agricultural activity
cattle, camels, goats, donkeys, and horses that originated in Europe. The development of
are among them. The activity is a type of mixed farming is closely linked to market
subsistence farming intended to provide infrastructure. It is widely used in New Zealand
food for the household. and the United Kingdom.
II. Commercial agriculture On the same piece of land, mixed farming
entails continual cropping and the growing of
 The commercial farming method aims to
perform the plantation and livestock for crops with varied maturity phases. It thrives in
selling in the commercial market. For regions with adequate rainfall or irrigation
commercial farming large number of the infrastructure.
area is required. Advantages:
 In India, this type of farming is mostly  Farmers can sustain consistent production
done in urban areas such as Maharashtra.,
in their fields.
Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, and
Gujarat.  It increases the productivity of the
farmland.
Advantages:
 Encouraging Improvement in Local  It increases the per head profitability.
Infrastructure.  It increases the productivity of the farmer.
 The production of jobs.  Decreases the dependency on external
 Reducing the prices of products and inputs and costs.
manufacturing prices. Disadvantages:
 Enhanced food security and increased  Concentrate the fertilizers to single crops
production. is very difficult.
 Lowering the Cost of Production.  Spraying pesticides to single crops is
 Earns foreign currency. difficult.
Disadvantages:  Gathering and separating crops are not
 Land shortages. possible.
 For newcomers, it is difficult. 3. Plantation Agriculture :
 Crops are biodegradable. Plantations are a type of commercial
 Environmentally unsafe. farming where single crop of tea, coffee,
sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are
1. Commercial Grain Farming :
grown. Large amount of labour and capital are
This type of farming is a response to farm
required. The produce may be processed on the
mechanization and is the major type of farming
farm itself or in nearby factories. The
in the areas with low rainfall and population.
development of a transport network is thus
These crops are prone to the vagaries of weather
essential for such farming. Major plantations are
and droughts, and monoculture of wheat is the
found in the tropical regions of the world.
general practice. Prairies, steppes, and temperate
Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in
grasslands of South America and Australia are
India and Sri Lanka are some examples.
the main areas for this type of farming.
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Advantages: Disadvantages:
 More job opportunities for the local  Plantation farming is bad for ecology.
people.  Over-harvesting and absence of crop-
 It origin an income for a country. rotation exhaust soil fertility and
 Crops are manufacture on large scale. increases soil erosion.
 Large estates are managed logically and
economically.
Major Crops
A large variety of crops are grown to meet the Maize:
requirement of the growing population. Crops Maize requires moderate temperature,
also supply raw materials for agro based rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs well-
industries. Major food crops are wheat, rice, drained fertile soils. Maize is grown in North
maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fiber America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India,
and Mexico.
crops. Important beverage crops are tea and
coffee. Cotton:
Cotton requires high temperature, light
Rice: rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and
Rice is the major food crop of the world. It bright sunshine for its growth. It grows best on
is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical black and alluvial soils. China, USA, India,
regions. Rice needs high temperature, high Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading
humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial producers of cotton. It is one of the main raw
clayey soil, which can retain water. China leads materials for the cotton textile industry.
in the production of rice followed by India, Jute:
Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. In favorable Jute was also known as the ‗Golden Fiber‘.
climatic conditions as in West Bengal and It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high
Bangladesh two to three crops are grown in a temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate.
year. This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India
and Bangladesh are the leading producers of
Wheat: jute.
Wheat requires moderate temperature and
Coffee:
rainfall during growing season and bright
Coffee requires warm and wet climate and
sunshine at the time of harvest. It thrives best in
well drained loamy soil. Hill slopes are more
well drained loamy soil. Wheat is grown suitable for growth of this crop. Brazil is the
extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, leading producer followed by Columbia and
Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown India.
in winter.
Tea:
Millets: Tea is a beverage crop grown on
They are also known as coarse grains and plantations. This requires cool climate and well
can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is distributed high rainfall throughout the year for
a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to the growth of its tender leaves. It needs well-
moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. drained loamy soils and gentle slopes. Labour in
large number is required to pick the leaves.
Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India. Other
Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best
countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.
quality tea in the world.
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Agricultural Development
 Agricultural Development refers to efforts  Agriculture has developed at different
made to increase farm production in order places in different parts of the world.
to meet the growing demand of increasing Developing countries with large
population. This can be achieved in many populations usually practise intensive
ways such as increasing the cropped area, agriculture where crops are grown on
the number of crops grown, improving small holdings mostly for subsistence.
irrigation facilities, use of fertilisers and Larger holdings are more suitable for
high yielding variety of seeds. commercial agriculture as in USA, Canada
 Mechanisation of agriculture is also and Australia. With the help of two case
another aspect of agricultural studies of farms — one from India and the
development. The ultimate aim of other from the USA, let us understand
agricultural development is to increase about agriculture in the developing and a
food security. developed country.

Local names of shifting cultivation around the world

Name of Shifting Cultivation Region
Ray Vietnam
Tavi Madagascar
Masole Congo (Zaire river Valley)
Fang Equatorial African Countries
Logan Western Africa
omile Mexico
Milpa Yucatan and Guatemala
Echalin Guadeloupe
Milya Mexico and Central America
Konuko Venezuela
Roka Brazil
Chetemini Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe
Caingin Philippines
Taungya Myanmar
Chena Sri Lanka
Ladang Java and Indonesia
Tamrai Thailand
Humah Java and Indonesia

Different Types of Agriculture inthe World

 Sericulture- Sericulture, the production of  Pisciculture-The breeding, rearing, and
raw silk by means of raising caterpillars transplantation of fish by artificial means
(larvae), particularly those of the is called pisciculture, in other words, fish
domesticated silkworm. farming. It is the principal form of
 Horticulture- The study or practice of aquaculture, while other methods may fall
growing flowers, fruit and vegetables. under mariculture.
 Viticulture- Viticulture is the broad term  Aeroponic- It is the process of growing
encompassing the cultivation, protection, plants in an air or mist environment
and harvest of grapes where the operations without the use of soil or an aggregate
are outdoors. medium.
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 Oliviculture-The growing of olive trees  Arboriculture- Under this cultivation of

(trees that produce small bitter green or trees and shrubs is done.
black fruit called olives)  Horsiculture - The commercial
 Oliviculture is the predominant feature development of the countryside for
of the landscape and economy of the pasturing or exercising horses.
area.  Floriculture- The cultivation of flowers
 Apiculture- The process of rearing bees done for economic purpose is called
for the production of honey is called floriculture.
apiculture.  Silviculture- Activities related to
 Pomology- Pomology is a branch of plantation and conservation is called
horticulture which deals with various Silviculture.
aspects of fruits starting from rising of  Vermiculture- The compost prepared by
saplings, growing them properly and earthworms is called Vermiculture.
providing various intercultural operations.
Major Crops &Top Producing Countries Of The World
Crop Producing Countries In Decreasing Order
Wheat China, India, Russia, USA
Tobacco China, Brazil, India, USA
Tea China, India, Kenya
Coffee Double Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia
Coconut Indonesia, Philippines, India
Coarse Grain USA, Russia, China
Sunflower Seeds Ukraine, Russia, Argentina
Jute India, Bangladesh, China
Rice China, India, Indonesia
Maize USA, China, Brazil
Sugarcane Brazil, India, China
Beet Russia, France, Germany, USA
Cotton Seeds: China, India, Pakistan, United States
Peanuts With Peel: China, India, United States Of America, Nigeria
Barley Russia Australia, Germany, France
Natural Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam
Soybean USA, Brazil, Argentina
Milk India America, China, Brazil
Milked/Skimmed America Germany France, Russia
Dudha/Buffalo: India, China, Egypt, Pakistan





Important Questions
1. The mode or lire or people living in 2. Shifting agriculture is most commonly
Monsoon regions is practised in
(a) commercial grainfarming (a) forests (b) deserts
(b) cattle rearing
(c) grasslands (d) plain areas
(c) intensive subsistence cultivation
(d) plantation agriculture
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3. Which one of the following activities 6. The term Mediterranean agriculture

occupies the largest area of the world? applies to a particular blend of ______
(a) Commercial plantation and activities and ______is confined to
(b) Pastoral herding regions encircling the Mediterranean
(c) Commercial grain farming basins.
(d) Subsistence agriculture (a) farming and grazing
4. Which of the following are associated (b) farming and fishing
with Saudi Arabia? [IAS 2004] (c) grazing and fishing
1. High proportion of urban population (d) fishing and mining
7. Agriculture Involving both crops and
2. Extensive agriculture pattern
livestock is known as
3. Considerable extent of land under
(a) dairy farming
pasture lands
(b) mixed farming
Select the correct answer using the
(c) dry farming
codes given below: (d) truck farming
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1and 2 8. Plantation agriculture is a specialised
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 form of agricultural practice carried out
5. Ladang refers to in
(a) Shifting cultivation (a) temperate region
(b) Plantation agriculture (b) tropics and subtropics
(c) Subsistence type of agriculture (c) urbanised region
(d) Dry farming (d) coastal region

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b)
8. (b)

Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Primitive subsistence agriculture
2. Shifting cultivation
3. Nomadic Herding
4. What is Mixed Farming
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. What are advantages of Plantation Agriculture?
2. Viticulture
3. Silviculture
4. What is Commercial Grain Farming?
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. Classify the major crops and top producing countries of the world.
2. Describe the different types of agriculture (culture).
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CHAPTER - 5
Major Industries and Industrial Regions
Important Points :
 Classification of Industries
 Major Industries
 Distribution of Mineral Resources in the World
 Major Industrial Centers of the World

The activities of human beings that generate Major Industries

income are called economic activities. Basic Industries: There are some industries that
Economic activities are mainly divided into four produce raw materials for other industries and
categories – primary, secondary, tertiary and the iron and Steel industry. Its products are used
quaternary activities. Primary activities are in manufacturing machines, which in turn, are
directly dependent on the environment. In this used to produce other types of products. The
way, hunting, food gatherings, pastoralism, major producers of steel are CIS, U.S.A., Japan,
fishing, cutting wood from forests, agriculture and China.
and mining activities are included in primary
Textile Industry: Modern, mechanized textile
sector. manufacturing was first developed in Britain.
Classification of Industries Textile manufacture using wool, cotton, silk, or
linen according to the climatic zone was
Primary Industry: It is the simplest form of practiced all over the world. Textile industries
industry which consists of the first processing of are located mainly in relation to power and labor
raw materials and then to produce industrial raw supplies. Cheap labor supplies were an
materials. Such industries include the smelting important factor in the establishment of textiles
of bauxite to make aluminum. industries in the Southern U.S.A. and in Japan.
Secondary Industry: Basically they include all Consumer goods Industries: Produce goods
reprocessing of partially manufactured goods to for final consumption e.g. edible oil, tea, coffee,
make more complex products, e.g. the use of bread biscuits, radio, television, etc.
cloth in clothing and the use of paper to make
books. They are called heavy industries e.g. Metallic Industries: Modern Industries owe
engineering, metal goods, heavy chemicals, ship their development to metallic industries. It
includes nonferrous and ferrous industries
building, locomotives and light industries. copper, aluminum, etc. are called non-ferrous
Tertiary Industry: It consists of service industries which do not have Iron content.
industries such as trade, transportation, Industries based on metals having Iron content
commerce, entertainment, personal services, are known as ferrous industries. For example
Iron and Steel industry, machine and tools,
tourism, and administration and so on.
motor cars, railways, engines, agricultural tools
Quaternary industry: This group is involved industries, etc.
in the research of science and technology and
other high level tasks. They include scientists, Chemical Industries: Chemicals are used
doctors, and lawyers. widely such as in agriculture, the metallic
industry, textiles, leather, paper, glass, ceramics,
Quinary Sector: Some consider these to be a soap, and food processing industries. Chemical
branch of the quaternary sector, which includes Industry is responsible for the development of
the highest levels of decision making in a the modern industry. Petrochemical industry
society or economy. This sector would include based on petroleum as raw material, chemical
the top executives or officials in such fields as fertilizers, paints and varnishes, plastics and
some of the medicines are the products of the
government, science, universities, nonprofit, petrochemical industry. The main
healthcare, culture, and the media. These are of petrochemicals manufacturing countries are the
consultancy nature. U.S.A. Spain, Britain, and CIS.
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Shipbuilding Industry: It is ideally situated in States is the world‘s largest locomotive

areas noted for the Iron and Steel Industry. producer. The Industry is centered in Detroit,
Japan leads in the shipbuilding Industry. Chicago, New York, etc., and is highly capital-
Automobile Industry: The best locations in intensive. The U.S.A. produces the largest
established industrial regions with a tradition of number of planes of which two-thirds are
manufacturing components. General Motors, destined for export around the world. Seattle on
Ford and Chrysler of the U.S.A., British the eastern front is the hub.
Leyland in the U.K., Volkswagen and Mercedes Forest-based industry: Paper and pulp
in Germany, Fiat of Italy, Datsun, Toyota, and industry, rayon, turpentine oil, and furniture
Mazda of Japan are the major producers. U.S.A., industry are based on the raw materials obtained
Japan, Germany, France, and other European from the forests are known as forest industries.
countries are the major car producers in the Agro-based industries: Some of the industries
World. utilize agricultural products as raw materials, for
Railway equipment and airplanes: It is example, Jute, tea, sugar, cotton, and vegetable
located either in the heavy engineering districts oil industries. The food processing industries of
close to the steel rolling mills or at local points modern-day are also agro-based industries.
of the national railway system. The United
Distribution of Mineral Resources in the World
Iron ore South America-
Asia-  The major producers are Brazil,
Venezuela, Chile and Peru.
 In China, the area north of the Yangxi
 Venezuela - El Palo, Cairo and Orínico
River , Manchuria region , Shantung
river basins.
Peninsula, Shanxi region, Hangho Basin,  Brazil-Minas Gasas region, mato grosso
Kwangtung Province etc. region.
 Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Africa-
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,  South Africa, Liberia, Algeria, Morocco,
Karnataka, Goa etc. are the major Tunisia etc. are prominent.
producers in India. Australia-
 Apart from this, Korea, Iran, Philippines,  Pilwara Deposit, Helmsley, Iron Knob,
Turkey, Japan, Malaysia are the major Middlewack Range etc. are prominent.
producing countries.
Europe- Manganese
 France, Germany, Sweden, Norway,
Austria, Russia. Asia-
 Agriculture is in Russia's main area  In China, jiangxi, Hunan, Kwangtung,
Kwangxi are the major producers.
Magnitogorsk region, Kerch peninsula,
 Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Siberia region.
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Goa are the
 There are Kiruna and Gallivre in major producers in India.
Sweden, Narmdie, Pyrenees and Lauren  Apart from this, Japan, Malaysia,
in France etc. Indonesia, Iran, Turkey are prominent in
North America- Asia.
 In the United States, the Lake Superior Europe-
region (Eastern Minnesota, Michigan,  The major producers are Spain, Italy,
Wisconsin region), Pennsylvania, Hungary, Greece, and Sweden.
Adirondack region, Appalachian region, Africa-
Utah, Nevada are prominent.  The major producers are South Africa,
 The Newfoundland, Ontario, Quebec- Gabon, Morocco, Ghana, Angola, and
Labrador basin in Canada. Zaire.
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Australia-  In Chile, the major copper producing

 Australia produces about 7 percent of the regions are chuquicamata, El Teniente,
world's manganese. El Salvador and Peru.
America- Australia-
 The major producers are Brazil, Plateau  In Australia Cobar, Mount Lyall, Mount
of Minas-Gires, Amaca Region, Bahia, Isa and Tennant are major copper
mato grossoState. producing areas.
 Apart from this, USA, Montana,
Pennsylvania, Mexico, Cuba, Chile are Coal
the major producers in America.
Asia-
Gold  In China, Shansi-Shansi region,
Szechwan Basin, Kansu region,
 In the United States of America, Manchuria, Shandong Peninsula region,
California, Colorado, Nevada, South Honan and Hope area are prominent.
Dakota are the major states.  In India Jharkhand, West Bengal,
 In Southern Africa Transvaal, Orange Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Free Zone. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh are the
 In Russia, Yakutsk region, Aldan and major regions.
Indigirka river valleys, Yugal and  Indonesia and Japan are the major
Caucasus regions are prominent. producers.
 In Canada Porcupine, Redlake, Frillan Europe-
Frolon, Yellowknife, British Columbia  The major producing areas are Russia
are the major regions. Donets Basin, Kuznetsk Basin, Ural
 In Australia kalgoorlie, coolgardie, region, Moscow-Tula region, Karaganda
Bendigo, Ballarat are the major basin etc.
producing areas.  There are huge deposits of coal around
 In China Greece, Manchuria, the Pinnine group in Britain.
Xinglongshan are the main areas.  Durham, Nottingham, Lancashire,
Cumberland are the major regions.
Copper  The major producers are Sweden,
France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany
Asia-
(Rur and Saar river basin), and Poland.
 The major producers are Indonesia,
North America-
China (Yunnan, Szechwan, and
 In the United States, the Appalachian
Changshan) Iran, Turkey, Philippines,
region, western Kentucky and the states
India (Jharkhand, Rajasthan), and
Malaysia. of Illinois, Rocky Mountain Region
Europe: Pacific Coastal region are the major
 The major producers are Poland, producers.
Portugal, Russia (Ural mountain region,  In Canada, Nova Scotia, Cape Britain
Norilsk region), Bulgaria, Sweden, and Islands, Quebec, Ontario, Sasque
Spain. Chavan, British Columbia are the major
Africa- producers.
 The major producers are Zambia, Gabon, Africa-
South Africa, Zaire, Botswana, and  In South Africa, Transvaal region and
Morocco. Natal region : Zimbabwe, Nigeria,
America- Algeria are the major producing
 In the United States of America, countries.
Arizona, Utah, Montana, Nevada, New South America-
Mexico.  The Bogón and Cauca valleys in
 Agriculture in Canada, Ontario Colombia, the Porte Alegre region in
(Sudbury), Quebec, Manitoba, Brazil, the Punta Arenas region in
Saskatchewan. Argentina and Chile are the major
producers.
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Australia- North America-

 The major producing areas are New  In the United States of America, the
South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and Appalachian region, Texas region, Gulf
Newcastle. Coast region, California region, Illinois-
Silver Indiana, Michigan region, Rocky
mountain region = etc.
Asia-  In Canada, Alberta, British Columbia,
 The major producing countries are Saskatchewan, Manitoba are the major
China, South Korea, Kazakhstan, North producers.
Korea, Turkey and Indonesia.  In the areas around the Rio-Grande river
North America- valley in Mexico.
 Major producers of Pachuca, Chihuahua, South America-
Zacatecas, Alapatos, Fresnillo, Santa-  The major producers are Venezuela,
Eulalia in Mexico Maracaibo Basin, Orinoco Basin, Apure
 In the USA, Idaho, Montana, Arizona Basin, Colombia, Magdalena Valley,
are the major silver producers. Peru, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and
 In Canada, British Columbia, Yukon, Ecuador.
Great Wear Lake, Ontario, Africa-
Newfoundland are the major producers.  The major producing countries are
South America- Libya, Algeria, Nigeria, Angola, Congo,
 The major producing countries are Peru and Gabon.
(Cerro de Pasco, Huanco, Ayacucher), Australia:
Chile(chuquicamata), Bolivia.  Petrolium is found in south-east
Africa- Queensland.
 The major countries are Congo, Middle East-
Tanzania, Namibia, and South Africa.  The major producing countries are Saudi
Australia- Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, Egypt, and
 Silver mining takes place in Broken Hill, Syria. There are huge reserves of oil in
Lake George, and Mount Christ. this area.
Petroleum  Baku (Azerbaijan) is very famous for oil.
Asia- Ras Tunra Refinery is located in Saudi
 In China, Xinjiang, Kansu, Shanghai, Arabia.
Szechwan, Shantung Hainan regions are Bauxite
the major producers. Along with this, oil Asia-
deposits have also been received in  India (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
China Sea, Yellow Sea, Gulf of Pohai, Jharkhand, Odisha and Maharashtra),
gulf of Tonkin. Turkey, China (Hunan, Qichau,
 In Indonesia, oil is extracted from Jechwan), Indonesia, Malaysia.
Sumatra, Java, Vornio and Sarawak  Serov regions, Karmsk region, Kola
regions. Peninsula are major producing regions in
 In India, oil is produced from Mumbai Russia.
High, Gujarat Coast, Assam and  Armenia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine,
Krishna-Godavari Basin and Cauvery Kazakhstan are the major producing
Basin. countries.
Europe- Europe-
 In Russia, Volga-Ural region, Baka  Greece, Hungary and France are major
region, Emba region are major producing states in europe.
producers. Africa-
 Apart from this North Sea region,  The major producers are Guinea, Ghana,
Romania, Georgia, Germany are the Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Zaire.
major producing countries.
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America- America-
 The major producers are Brazil,  In Canada, uranium is found in
Venezuela, Jamaica, Suriname, and Beaverlodge, Saskatchewan, Port
British Guiana. Radium, Bancroft, Athavasca Basin and
Australia- Blind River area.
 Weipa, the north-eastern part of New  In USA, the area between Mount Uinta
South Wales and the area near Perth are to Mount Juni, San Juan Mountains and
the major producers. Grand Junction and Grants are major
Uranium uranium producing areas in the state of
Colorado.
India- Australia-
 Jaduguda (Jharkhand) is the major  There is abundance of uranium in
producing area of uranium. Western Australia, Queensland,
Europe- Southern Australia and Northern
 Uranium is produced in Russia in the Territory. Radium Hill and Ramjangal
Southern Ural, Western and Eastern are the main mines.
Siberia regions. Africa-
 In France, the Central Massif and the  Niger, Southern Africa (Witwatersrand),
American Massif region. Republic of Congo (Katanga Province),
 Apart from this, Ukraine, Portugal, Gabon (Moana) is the major producers.
England is the major regions.

Major Industrial Centers of the World

Country Major Industry Center Industry
 Pittsburgh, The Steel Capital of  Iron-Steel
The World
 Detroit  Motor-Car
 Chicago  Meat Processing
USA
 Los Angeles (Hollywood)  Film And Aircraft
 Birmingham  Iron-Steel
 San Francisco,  Oil Refining, Shipwreck, Computer And
Silicon Valley Technology Industries
 Seattle  Lumbering, Aluminum Smelting
 Montreal  Ships And Aircraft
 Quebec  Marine Engineering And Shipbuilding
Canada  Ottawa  Paper Industry
 Hamilton  Iron-Steel & Engineering
 Toronto  Engineering & Automobiles
 Manchester  Cotton Industry
 Liverpool  Shipbuilding And Refining
UK  Bradford  Woolen Cloth
 London  Engineering And Transport
 Derbyshire  Woolen Cloth
 Paris  Aircraft And Transport
 Champagne And Bordeaux  Wine Industry
France
 Lionville  Iron-Steel
 Lawrence Area  Iron-Steel
 Dortmund  Iron-Steel And Chemicals
Germany
 Frankfurt  Engineering And Transport
Russia  Moscow And Gorky  Iron-Steel And Chemicals
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 Magnitogorsk  Iron-Steel And Oil Refining

 Leningrad, St. Petersburg  Cloth, Chemical, Paper
 Moscow-Ivanovo, Manchester  Cotton Textile Industry
Of Russia
Ukraine  Krivoyrag-Rostogi  Iron Steel & Heavy Machinery
 Rotterdam Amsterdam  Marine Engineering & Shipbuilding
Netherlands
Diamond Polish
Belgium  Antwerp  Diamond Processing
Denmark  Copenhagen  Dairy Industry
 Milan  Silk Fabric
Italy
 Turin (Detroit Of Italy)  Motorcar
Sweden  Stockholm  Shipbuilding
 Sao Paulo  Cloth Industry And Coffee Industry
Brazil
 Rio-De-Janeiro  Cloth Industry And Coffee Industry
 Buenos Aires  Shipbuilding
Argentina
 LA Plata  Aircraft, Chemicals And Iron-Steel
Chile  Valparaiso Santiago  Oil Refining, Petrochemicals, Wine
Industry
Venezuela  Maracaibo  Refining Industry
Morocco  Casablanca  Chemical Industry
Egypt  Cairo And Alexandria  Cotton Cloth
Japan  Nagoya (Japan's Detroit)  Aircraft, Cars, Machinery
 Osaka, (Manchester Of Japan)  Ship, Iron-Steel, Material
 Kobe And Kyoto  Ship, Iron-Steel, Material
 Nagasaki  Iron-Steel, Ship, Material
 Tokyo And Nagasaki  Ships, Engineering, Vast
 Yawata (Pittsburgh Of Japan)  Iron-Steel




Important Questions
1. Most of the Japanese industries are (c) It produces machines which can be
located on the: used by other industries for the
(a) Hokkaido coast (b) Honshu coast production of their finished goods
(c) Shikoko coast (d) Kyushu coast (d) None of these
2. During the early period of Industrial 4. The Appalachian highland of North
Revolution Industries were located America are economically important
primarily mainly because of :
(a) near major ports (a) ready source of timber and water
(b) on the banks of navigable rivers power
(c) near coal fields (b) natural passes facilitating easy
(d) near nodal centres movement
3. Machine tool industry produce? (c) large number of both summer and
(a) It produces tools for the repair of winter tourist centres
machines (d) rich mineral wealth forming the basis
(b) It produces machines with a high of flourishing industries
component of precision tools
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5. Which of the following industries uses 9. ____ is an example of forest based

mica? industry.
(a) Glass and Pottery industry (a) Banking (b) Baking cakes
(b) Electrical industry (c) Advertising (d) Pharmaceuticals
(c) Steel industry 10. Seafood industry is an example of ___
(d) Textile industry based industries.
6. Match the following : (a) agro (b) mining
(Cities) (Industries) (c) marine (d) forest
A. Anshan 1. Dairying
11. Industry owned by one individual is
B. Chicago 2. Woollen Textiles
C. Belfast 3. Shipbuilding _______.
D. Leeds 4. Meat packing (a) private sector industry
5. Iron and steel (b) joint sector industry
Code: (c) co-operative industry
(a) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-5 (d) public sector industry
(b) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-5 12. ___ is an example of a co-operative
(c) A-5, B-4, C-3, D-2 industry.
(d) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (a) Steel Authority of India Ltd
7. Match the following: (b) Hindustan Aeronautical Ltd
(Towns) (Chief Industries) (c) Sudha Dairy
A. Johannesburg 1. Cotton Textiles (d) Indian Army
B. Morocco 2. Glass 13. Market is one of the ____ factors for
C. Kimberley 3. Leather setting up of industries.
D. Manchester 4. Gold mining (a) Locational (b) Sizeable
5. Diamond mining (c) natural (d) systematic
Code:
14. Setting up ____ leads to development of
(a) A-4, B-2, C-5, D-3
(b) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1 towns.
(c) A-4, B-3, C-5, D-1 (a) Forests (b) buildings
(d) A-3, B-5, C-4, D-1 (c) industries (d) schools
8. Food processing is an example of ___ 15. Maruti Udyog Ltd is an example of ___
based industry. sector industry.
(a) marine (b) agro (a) Cooperative (b) private
(c) mineral (d) forest (c) joint (d) private

ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c)
8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c)
15. (c)
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Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Secondary Industry
2. Textile Industry
3. Shipbuilding Industry
4. Iron ore in North America
5. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie are famous for?
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. Major uranium producing countries in America?
2. Jaduguda
3. Wine Industry in Germany
4. Classification of Industries
5. Automobile Industry
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. Explain major industries of World?
2. Major industries center in USA.
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CHAPTER - 6
Environmental Issues: Climate Change,
Ozone Depletion, Desertification, Deforestation
Important Points :
 Climate Change
 Global Warming
 Greenhouse Effect
 Global Warming Potential
 Current Actions for Adaptation and Mitigation
 India‘s Nation Action Plan on Climate Change
 Deforestation
 Desertification
 Ozone Depletion
Climate Change Global Warming– Impacts on Earth
 Rise in Sea level.
Climate is the long-term average of a region‘s
 Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas.
weather events. The Earth‘s climate is not static.
 Melting of the ice caps.
Over the billions of years of earth‘s existence, it
 Changes in rainfall patterns.
has changed many times in response to natural
 Bleaching of Coral Reefs.
causes like sun spot, ice age glaciations, etc.
 Increased likelihood of extreme events
―Climate change‖ means a change of climate such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes,
which is attributed directly or indirectly to etc.
human activity that alters the composition of the  Melting of glaciers.
global atmosphere and which is in addition to  Widespread vanishing of animal
natural climate variability observed over populations due to habitat loss.
comparable time periods.  Spread of disease (like malaria, etc.).
Global Warming Greenhouse Effect –
Earth has warmed at an unprecedented rate over The greenhouse effect is a process caused by
the last hundred years and particularly over the greenhouse gases, which occur naturally in the
last two decades. Since 1992, each year has been atmosphere. This process plays a crucial role in
warming the Earth‘s surface, making it
one of the warmest years on record. 2016 was
habitable. However, human-generated
the hottest year on record, worldwide. An
greenhouse gas emissions upset the natural
upsurge in the amount of extreme weather balance and lead to increased warmth.
events, such as wildfires, heat waves, and strong
GREEN HOUSE GASES
tropical storms, is also attributed ―Global
warming is an average increase in the Greenhouse gases mean those gaseous
temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth‘s constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and
anthropogenic, that absorbs and re-emits
surface and in the troposphere, which can
infrared radiation.
contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
Global warming can occur from a variety of 1. Water vapor
causes, both natural and Anthropogenic Sources. Water vapor is the biggest overall
In common usage, ―global warming‖ often contributor to the greenhouse effect and humans
are not directly responsible for emitting this gas
refers to the warming that can occur as a result
in quantities sufficient to change its
of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from concentration in the atmosphere.
human activities.‖
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However, CO2 and other greenhouse gases are increased energy use by an expanding
increasing the amount of water vapor in the air economy and population.
by boosting the rate of evaporation. Unlike CO2, Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions
which can persist in the air for centuries, water  The most effective way to reduce carbon
vapor cycles through the atmosphere quickly, dioxide (CO2) emissions is to reduce fossil
evaporating from the oceans and elsewhere fuel consumption. Other strategies include
Energy Efficiency, Energy Conservation,
before coming back down as rain or snow. Since Carbon Capture and Sequestration.
the rate of evaporation rises with temperature,
the amount of water vapor in the air at any one 3. Methane
time (and the amount of warming it causes) is  Methane (CH4) is emitted by natural
strongly related to the amount of other sources such as wetlands, as well as
human activities such as leakage from
greenhouse gases in the air. natural gas systems and the raising of
2. Carbon Dioxide(CO2) livestock.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary  Natural processes in soil and chemical
greenhouse gas emitted through human reactions in the atmosphere help remove
CH4 from the atmosphere.
activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally
present in the atmosphere as part of the Source of Methane :–
Earth‘s carbon cycle. Natural sources
 Human activities are altering the carbon  Wetlands are the largest source, emitting
cycle both by adding more CO2 to the CH4 from bacteria that decompose organic
atmosphere and by reducing the natural materials in the absence of oxygen.
sinks, like deforestation, to remove CO2  Smaller sources include termites, oceans,
from the atmosphere. sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires.
 While CO2 emissions come from a variety
Anthropogenic Sources
of natural sources, human-related  Agriculture: Domestic livestock such as
emissions are responsible for the increase cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels
that has occurred in the atmosphere since produce large amounts of CH4 as part of
the industrial revolution. their normal digestive process. Also, when
The main sources of CO2 animals‘ manure is stored or managed in
i. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate lagoons or holding tanks, CH4 is produced.
Because humans raise these animals for
electricity. food, the emissions are considered human-
ii. The combustion of fossil fuels such as related. Globally, the Agriculture sector is
gasoline and diesel used for transportation. the primary source of CH4 emissions
iii. Many industrial processes emit CO2  Industry: Methane is the primary
through fossil fuel combustion. component of natural gas. Some amount of
iv. Several processes also produce CO2 CH4 is emitted to the atmosphere during
emissions through chemical reactions that the production, processing, storage,
transmission, and distribution of crude oil
do not involve combustion, for example, & natural gas.
the production and consumption of mineral  Waste from Homes and Businesses:
products such as cement, the production of Methane is generated in landfills as waste
metals such as iron and steel, and the decomposes and from the treatment of
production of chemicals, etc. wastewater.
Emissions and Trends 4. Nitrous Oxide
 Changes in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel  Nitrous oxide (N2O) is naturally present in
combustion are influenced by many the atmosphere as part of the Earth‘s
factors, including population growth, nitrogen cycle, and has a variety of natural
economic growth, changing energy prices, sources.
new technologies, changing behavior, and  However, human activities such as
seasonal temperatures. agriculture, fossil fuel combustion,
 Between 1990 and 2010, the increase in wastewater management, and industrial
CO2 emissions corresponded with processes are increasing the amount of
N2O in the atmosphere.
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Sources of Nitrous Oxide :–  There are three main categories of

Natural sources: fluorinated gases—
 Natural emissions of N2O are mainly from 1. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
bacteria breaking down nitrogen in soils 2. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and
and the oceans. 3. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Anthropogenic Sources: Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances:
 Agriculture:– Nitrous oxide is emitted  Hydro fluorocarbons are used as
when people add nitrogen to the soil refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents,
through the use of synthetic fertilizers. and fire retardants. These chemicals were
developed as a replacement for
Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydro
breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because
and urine, which contributed to 6% of N2O they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone
emissions in 2010. layer.
 Transportation:– Nitrous oxide is emitted  Unfortunately, HFCs are potent
when transportation fuels are burned. greenhouse gases with long atmospheric
 Industry:– Nitrous oxide is generated as a lifetimes and high GWPs, and they are
byproduct during the production of nitric released into the atmosphere through
acid, which is used to make synthetic leaks, servicing, and disposal of equipment
in which they are used.
commercial fertilizer, and in the
production of adipic acid, which is used to Industry:
make fibers, like nylon, and other  Per fluorocarbons are compounds
synthetic products. produced as a by-product of various
industrial processes associated with
 Removal:– Nitrous oxide is removed from
aluminum production and the
the atmosphere when it is absorbed by manufacturing of semi-conductors.
certain types of bacteria or destroyed by  Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long
ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions. atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs.
5. Fluorinated Gases  Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium
processing and semiconductor
 They are emitted through a variety of
manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for
industrial processes such as aluminum and leak detection. HFC-23 is produced as a
semiconductor manufacturing & by-product of HCFC-22 production.
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting  Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical
Substances. transmission equipment, including circuit
 Many fluorinated gases have very high breakers.
global warming potentials (GWPs) relative 6. Black Carbon
to other greenhouse gases. Fluorinated  Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or
gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, aerosol, (though not a gas) contributes to
spreading around the world after they‘re warming of the atmosphere.
emitted.  Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is
 Fluorinated gases are removed from the a form of particulate air pollutant,
atmosphere only when they are destroyed produced from incomplete combustion. It
by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere. In consists of pure carbon in several linked
general, fluorinated gases are the most forms.
potent and longest lasting type of Source of Black Carbon
 Biomass burning,
greenhouse gases emitted by human
 Cooking with solid fuels, and
activities.
 Diesel exhaust etc.
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 Black carbon warms the Earth by Sources of Brown Carbon

absorbing heat in the atmosphere and  Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood
by reducing albedo, (the ability to burning) is shown to be a major source of
reflect sunlight) when deposited on brown carbon
snow and ice.  Smoke from agricultural fires may be an
 Black carbon is the strongest absorber additional source.
of sunlight and heats the air directly.  ―Brown carbon‖ is generally referred for
In addition, it darkens snow packs and greenhouse gases and ―black carbon‖ for
glaciers through deposition and leads particles resulting from impure
to melting of ice and snow. combustion, such as soot and dust.
 Regionally, Black carbon disrupts
cloudiness and monsoon rainfall and Global Warming Potential
accelerates melting of mountain  Global warming potential describes the
glaciers such as the Hindu Kush- impact of each gas on global warming.
Himalayan glaciers.  The two most important characteristics of
a GHG in terms of climate impact are how
Life time of Black Carbon
well the gas absorbs energy, and how long
 Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for
the gas stays in the atmosphere.
only several days to weeks.  The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for
 Thus the effects of Black carbon on the a gas is a measure of the total energy that a
atmospheric warming and glacier retreat gas absorbs over a particular period of
disappear within months of reducing time (usually 100 years), compared to
emissions. carbon dioxide.
Contribution of India in World (Black  Gases with a higher GWP absorb more
Carbon) energy, per pound, than gases with a lower
 According to estimates, between 25 and 35 GWP, and thus contribute more to
warming Earth.
% of black carbon in the global
 Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) has a GWP of 1
atmosphere comes from China and India,
and serves as a baseline for other GWP
emitted from the burning of wood and cow
values.
dung in household cooking and through
 Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20
the use of coal to heat homes.
times higher than CO2 for a 100-year time
Government Measures scale. CH4 emitted today lasts for only 12
 Project Surya has been launched to reduce years in the atmosphere, on average.
black carbon in atmosphere by introducing However, on a pound-for-pound basis,
efficient stove technologies, solar cookers, CH4 absorbs more energy than CO2 ,
solar lamps and biogas plants. making its GWP higher.
7. Brown Carbon  Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 310 times
 Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale. N2
unidentified component of organic aerosol O emitted today remains in the atmosphere
which has recently come into the forefront for an average of 120 years.
of atmospheric research.  Chloro-fluoro carbons (CFCs), hydro-
 Light:- Absorbing organic matter (other fluoro-carbons (HFCs), hydro chloro-
than soot) in atmospheric aerosols of fluoro carbons (HCFCs), perfluoro carbons
(PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are
various origins, e.g., soil humics, humic-
called high-GWP gases because, for a
like substances (HULIS), tarry materials
given amount of mass, they trap
from combustion, Bioaerosols, etc.
substantially more heat than CO2.
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Global Warming Potential& Lifetime of Green House Gases

S. No. GAS GWP (100-year) LIFETIME (years)
1 Carbon di oxide 1 100
2 Methane 21 12
3 Nitrous oxide 310 120
4 Hydro fluoro carbons (HFCs) 140-11,700 1-270
5 Perfluoro carbons (PFCs) 6,500-9,200 800-50,000
6 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) 23,900 3,200
Current Actions For Adaptation And Drought Proofing
Mitigation  The current programs seek to minimize the
 Adaptation, in the context of climate adverse effects of drought on production
change, comprises the measures taken to of crops and livestock, and on productivity
minimize the adverse impacts of climate of land, water and human resources, so as
change, e.g. relocating the communities to ultimately lead to drought proofing of
living close to the sea shore, for instance, the affected areas.
to cope with the rising sea level or  They also aim to promote overall
switching to crops that can withstand economic development and improve the
higher temperatures. socio-economic conditions of the resource
 Mitigation comprises measures to reduce poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting
the emissions of greenhouse gases that the program areas.
cause climate change in the first place, e.g.
by switching to renewable sources of Water
energy such as solar energy or wind  The National Water Policy stresses that
energy, or nuclear energy instead of non-conventional methods for utilization
burning fossil fuel in thermal power of water, including interbasin transfers,
stations. artificial recharge of groundwater, and
 Current Indian government expenditure on desalination of brackish or sea water, as
adaptation to climate variability exceeds well as traditional water conservation
2.6% of the GDP, with agriculture, water practices like rainwater harvesting,
resources, health and sanitation, forests, including roof-top rainwater harvesting,
coastal-zone infrastructure and extreme should be practiced to increase the
weather events, being specific areas of utilizable water resources. Many states
concern. now have mandatory water harvesting
programs in several cities.
Agriculture
 Two risk-financing programs support Coastal Regions
adaptation to climate impacts. The Crop  In coastal regions, restrictions have been
Insurance Scheme sup-ports the insurance imposed in the area between 200m and
of farmers against climate risks and the 500m of the HTL (high tide line) while
Credit Support Mechanism facilitates the special restrictions have been imposed in
extension of credit to farmers, especially the area up to 200m to protect the sensitive
for crop failure due to climate variability. coastal ecosystems and prevent their
exploitation.
Crop Improvement
 This, simultaneously, addresses the
 The present programs address measures concerns of the coastal population and
such as development of arid-land crops their livelihood. Some specific measures
and pest management, as well as capacity taken in this regard include construction of
building of extension workers and NGOs coastal protection infrastructure and
to support better vulnerability reducing cyclone shelters, as well as plantation of
practices. coastal forests and mangroves.
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Health
India‘s Nation Action Plan on Climate
 The prime objective present of health
Change
programs is the surveillance and control of
vector borne diseases such as Malaria,  NAPCC was published in 2008 by the
Kala-azar, Japanese Encephalitis, Filaria then-Prime Minister‘s Council on Climate
and Dengue. Programs also provide for Change.
emergency medical relief in the case of  The National Action Plan hinges on the
natural calamities, and to train and develop development and use of new technologies.
human resources for these tasks.  The implementation of the Plan includes
public private partnerships and civil
Disaster Management society action.
 The National Disaster Management  The focus will be on promoting
program provides grants-in-aid to victims understanding of climate change,
of weather related disasters, and manages adaptation and mitigation, energy
disaster relief operations. It also supports efficiency and natural resource
proactive disaster prevention programs, conservation.
including dissemination of information
and training of disaster-management staff.

1. National Solar Mission  MNRE has proposed to achieve 60 GW

 The National Solar Mission is a major from large and medium scale solar
initiative to promote ecologically projects, and 40 GW through rooftop solar
sustainable growth while addressing projects.
India‘s energy security challenge.  Committed to Nationally Determined
 The program was inaugurated in 2010 with Contributions, India made a pledge that by
a target of 20GW by 2022. 2030, 40% of installed power generation
 It was later increased to 100 GW (100,000 capacity shall be based on clean sources.
MW) in 2015.
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 It was determined that 175 GW of  Ecologically restore open forests which are
renewable energy capacity will be installed being degraded – 3 million hectares.
by 2022.  Grasslands revival – 0.4 million hectares
 This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW  Wetlands revival – 0.10 million hectares
from wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5  Ecological restoration of shifting
GW from small hydro power. cultivation areas, mangroves, scrub,
ravines, cold deserts, & abandoned mining
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy
areas – 1.8 million hectares with different
Efficiency
sub-targets.
Initiatives based on increasing the energy
use efficiency were expected to yield savings of  Increase in forest cover in urban areas and
10,000 MW by 2012. its outskirts – 0.20 million hectares.
Following are the 4 initiatives of the  Increase in forest and tree cover on
Mission: marginal agricultural lands/fallows and
 Performa Achieve and Trade (PAT) – other non-forest lands which come under
Improving Efficiency in Energy Intensive agroforestry – 3 million hectares.
Sectors.  Increase forest-based livelihood income
 Energy Efficiency Financing Platform for about 3 million households in and
(EEFP) – Providing platform for capacity around these forest areas.
enhancement of stakeholders related to EE  Increase Carbon Dioxide sequestration to a
Financing. range of 50 to 60 million tons by 2020.
 Market Transformation for Energy 4. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
Efficiency (MTEE) – accelerating shift  The primary objective of the Mission is to
towards energy efficient appliances develop a sustainable model to
 Framework for Energy Efficient Economic continuously assess the health status of the
Development (FEEED) – Development of Himalayan Ecosystem, and enable policy
fiscal instruments to promote energy bodies in their policy-formulation as also
efficiency to assist States in the Indian Himalayan
3. National Mission for a Green India Region with implementation of actions
This Mission aims at enhancing ecosystem selected for sustainable development.
services such as carbon sinks. It builds on the The objective of the National Mission for
Prime Minister‘s Green India campaign for Sustainable Habitat (NMSH)-
afforestation of 6 million hectares and the  Design the buildings in such a way that
national target of increasing land area under energy demand is optimized and make
forest cover from 23% to 33%. It is to be sure that there are improvements in energy
implemented on degraded forest land through efficiency.
Joint Forest Management Committees set up  Facilitate the growth of small and medium
under State Departments of Forests. These cities – make sure there is better urban
Committees will promote direct action by planning, and convenient public transport.
communities.  Management of solid and liquid waste,
Objectives of Green India Mission special focus on the development of
 Growth in forest or tree covers to 5 million technology for generating power from
hectares and increase the quality of forest waste.
cover in another 5 million hectares of  Improve advanced warning systems to
forest or non-forest lands. There are tackle extreme weather, improve the
separate sub-targets for a variety of forests ability of habitats to adapt to climate
and their ecosystems namely, grassland, change by improving the resilience of
dense forest, wetland etc. infrastructure, community-based disaster
 Increase the quality of degrading management.
moderately dense forests – 1.5 million  Changes in the legal and regulatory
hectares. framework.
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5. National Mission for Sustaining the taken up along with cropping system. It is
Himalayan Ecosystem important for enhancing livelihood
The Plan calls for empowering local opportunities, ensuring food security and
communities especially Panchayats to play a minimizing risks from crop failure through
greater role in managing ecological resources. It supplementary production systems.
also reaffirms the following measures  Adopting Technology: NMSA seeks to
mentioned in the National Environment Policy, achieve its objectives by popularizing
2006. resource conservation technologies and
 Adopting appropriate land-use planning introducing practices that will support
and water-shed management practices for mitigation efforts in times of extreme
sustainable development of mountain climatic events or disasters like prolonged
ecosystems dry spells, floods etc. This is important
 Adopting best practices for infrastructure especially in changing climatic conditions
construction in mountain regions to avoid due to global warming.
or minimize damage to sensitive  Water resource management: Under
ecosystems and despoiling of landscapes NMSA it is strategized to focus on
 Encouraging cultivation of traditional effective management of available water
varieties of crops and horticulture by resources and enhancing water use
promoting organic farming, enabling efficiency. It will be achieved through
farmers to realize a price premium application of technologies coupled with
 Promoting sustainable tourism based on demand and supply side management
best practices and multi-stakeholder solutions.
partnerships to enable local communities  Agronomic practices: NMSA envisage
to gain better livelihoods encouragement of improved agronomic
 Taking measures to regulate tourist practices for higher farm productivity like
inflows into mountain regions to ensure improved soil treatment, increased water
that the carrying capacity of the mountain holding capacity, judicious use of
ecosystem is not breached chemicals and enhanced soil carbon
 Developing protection strategies for storage.
certain mountain scopes with unique  Creating Database: Through creation of
―incomparable values‖ database on soil resources by land use
survey, soil profile study and soil analysis
6. National Mission for Sustainable on GIS (Geographic Information System)
Agriculture (NMSA) platform NMSA seek to facilitate adoption
It is one of the eight Missions under of location and soil-specific crop
National Action Plan on Climate Change management practices &optimizefertilizer
(NAPCC). It aims at making agriculture more use.
productive, sustainable and climate resilient.
 Integrated Nutrient Management
NMSA has been formulated for enhancing Practices: For improving soil health,
agricultural productivity especially in rain fed enhancing crop productivity and
areas focusing on integrated farming, water use maintaining quality of land and water
efficiency, soil health management and resources, NMSA will focus on promoting
synergizing resource conservation. location and crop specific integrated
Different strategies for implementation of nutrient management practices.
National Mission for Sustainable  Involving professionals: NMSA will
Agriculture: involve knowledge institutions and
 Integrated farming system: Integrated professionals in developing climate change
Farming System is being promoted under adaptation and mitigation strategies for
NMSA in which activities like specific agro-climatic situations and
horticulture, livestock, fishery, promoting them through appropriate
agroforestry, and value addition are to be farming systems.
 World Geography
94

 Interventions: NMSA seeks to Objective of the National Water Mission:

disseminate and adopt rainfed technologies 1. To conserve water.
with greater reach in disadvantaged areas. 2. To minimize the wastage of the water.
It is envisaged to be done by coordination, 3. To ensure equitable distribution across the
convergence and leveraging investments country and within States through
from other schemes like MGNREGS, integrated water resources management.
National Food Security Mission, and
9. National Bio-Energy Mission
National Mission for Agricultural According to estimates, biomass from agro
Extension & Technology etc.
and agroindustrial residue can potentially
7. National Mission on Strategic generate 25,000 MW of power in India. This can
Knowledge for Climate Change be further raised with wasteland-based
To gain a better understanding of climate
integrated energy plantation and power
science, impacts and challenges, the plan
generation systems.
envisions a new Climate Science Research
Fund, improved climate modeling, and Bio Energy
increased international collaboration. ―Bioenergy is renewable energy derived from
Some of the aims of the Mission are listed biological sources, to be used for heat,
below : electricity, or vehicle fuel. Biofuels derived
 Establishment of Networks of Existing from plant materials is among the most rapidly
Institutions growing renewable energy technologies.”
 Strengthening and Building Strategic
(Human and institutional) knowledge Sources of Bio-Energy
capacities  Existing Sources-
 Science & Technology Innovations for  Leftover organic residue
climate change responses for adaptation  Leftover farm organic residue
and mitigation of climate change  Leftover forest residue
 Quantum increase in climate science  Leftover organic urban residue
research  Algal residue
 New Sources
8. National Water Mission
 Cultivation of short rotation energy crops
It is one of the eight missions launched
under the National Action Plan on Climate  Social forestry
Change (NAPCC) for combating the threats of Advantages of Bio-Energy
global warming.  Capital efficient
Under the mission, the National Water  High energy generation potential
Policy would be revisited in consultation with  Significant carbon emission reduction
States to ensure basin level management potential
strategies to deal with variability in rainfall and  Substantial employment and income
river flows due to climate change. generation potential
Goals of the National Water Mission:  Investments & benefits remain within the
1. Comprehensive water data base in public country
domain and assessment of the impact of  Sizable economic value add to GDP
climate change on water resource.  Wasteland regeneration
2. Promotion of citizen and state actions for
water conservation, augmentation and Deforestation
preservation. Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of
3. Focused attention to vulnerable areas urbanization, industrialization, mining
including over-exploited areas. operations, and use of wood for domestic and
4. Increasing water use efficiency by 20%. other purposes, have caused heavy depletion of
5. Promotion of basin level integrated water forests.
resources management.
Causes :–
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1. Development Project rainforests, forests on peat soils, or where

 The human population have increased forest fires have been suppressed for years
considerably, so with their requirements. allowing unnatural accumulation of
Development projects like the vegetation that makes the fire burn more
hydroelectric projects, large dams and intensely. The resulting loss has wide-
reservoirs, laying down of railway lines reaching consequences on biodiversity,
and roads are not only extremely climate, and the economy.
beneficial, but they are also linked with 6. Climate change
several environmental problems.  Forest loss is both a cause and an effect of
 Many of these projects require immense our changing climate. Climate change can
deforestation. damage forests, for instance by drying
2. Shifting cultivation out tropical rainforests and increasing fire
 In this practice a patch of land is cleared, damage in boreal forests. Inside forests,
vegetation is burned and the ash is mixed climate change is already harming
with the soil thus adding nutrients to the biodiversity, a threat that is likely to
soil. increase.
 This patch of land is used for raising crops How Deforestation affects?
for two to three years, and the yield is  Closed forests (based on canopy level)
modest. have being diminished due to deforestation
 Then this area is abandoned and is left to leading to increase indegraded forests.
recover its fertility, and the same practice  Forests recycle moisture from soil into
is repeated elsewhere on a fresh piece of their immediate atmosphere by
land. transpiration where it again precipitates as
 All that is required for this method of rain.
cultivation is a set of simple tools, not high  Deforestation results in an immediate
level of mechanisation. lowering of ground water level and in
3. Raw Material Requirements long-term reduction of precipitation.
 Wood is used as a raw material by various  Due to deforestation, this natural reuse
industries for making paper, plywood, cycle is broken and water is lost through
furniture, match sticks, boxes, crates, rapid run off.
packing cases, etc.
 Much of the mining activity in India is
 Industries also obtain their raw materials being carried out in forest regions. The
from plants such as drugs, scents and obvious result is deforestation andsoil
perfumes, resin, gums, waxes, turpentine, erosion.
latex and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, bees
 Underground mining has also significantly
wax.
denuded forests, as timber is used for
 This exerted tremendous pressure on forest supporting the roofs ofmine galleries.
ecosystem and their unrestricted
 A large number of abandoned mines are
exploitation for various other raw lying in bad shape and are under extensive
materials is the main cause of degradation gully erosion leading todegradation of the
of the forest ecosystem. habitat.
4. Fuel Requirements
 Deforestation affects the biota and
 The increasing demand for firewood with neighbouring ecosystems, soil erosion,
ever growing population increases greater land degradation, alteration ofground
pressure on the forests, which results in water channels, pollution and scarce.
increased intensity of deforestation.
5. Forest fires Deforestation consequences
 Each year, fires burn millions of hectares Forests play a crucial role for the water cycle
of forest worldwide. Fires are a part of and deforestation entails climatic imbalances
nature but degraded forests are particularly both at a global and local level as it influences
vulnerable. These include heavily logged the composition of the atmosphere and, as a
 World Geography
96

consequence, also has an impact on the  Major Reasons

greenhouse effect. Forests, infact, have an  Loss of soil cover, mainly due to rainfall
important role to play for air and climate. Every and surface runoff, is one of the biggest
tree produces, on average, 20-30 litres of reasons for desertification. It is responsible
oxygen per day. In particular, a virgin tropical for 98 per cent of desertification in the
forest produces about 28 tons of oxygen per country.
hectare every year, equivalent to a total of  Water erosion is observed in both hot and
15,300 million tons per year. On the contrary, cold desert areas, across various land
forest destruction caused by fires to create areas covers and with varying levels of severity.
for agriculture and cattle breeding, burns oxygen  The next big reason is wind erosion.
and releases in the atmosphere carbon dioxide
which has been stored by trees during their Desertification Causes
whole life cycle in the form of wood and 1. Overgrazing
vegetation. Deforestation is responsible for 2. Deforestation
about a fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions 3. Farming Practices
and is, indeed, one of the major causes of carbon 4. Urbanization and other types of land
release in the atmosphere. development
5. Climate Change
DESERTIFICATION 6. Stripping the land of resources
Desertification is the degradation process by 7. Natural Disasters
which a fertile land changes itself into a desert Desertification Impacts
by losing its flora and fauna; this can be caused 1. Farming becomes difficult or even
by drought, deforestation, climate change, impossible in the area
human activities or improper agriculture. 2. Flooding chances are more
Desertification is a process of degradation of the 3. Hunger – because of no farming
land. It occurs because of man-made activities 4. Poor quality of water
and climate change. Desertification takes place 5. Overpopulation
when a particular type of biome converts into a 6. Poverty as a result of the above
desert biome. Steps to Reduce Desertification
Desertification in India Given below are the steps which may help
 According to Desertification and Land in reducing Desertification:
Degradation of Selected Districts of India,  Focus on Water management. Rainwater
an atlas published by the Indian Space harvest must be done, water that can be
Research Organization‘s Space reused must not be left out as waste
Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad in  Reforestation and tree regeneration
2018, some 96.40 million ha, or about 30  Buttressing the soil through the use of sand
per cent of the country‘s total area, is fences, shelter belts, woodlots and
undergoing degradation. This means windbreaks
almost a quarter of India is under  Better and hyper-fertilization of soil
desertification. through planting
 Of India's total geographical area of  The residue from pruned trees can be used
328.72 million hectares (MHA), 4 MHA is to provide mulching for fields thus
under desertification. increasing soil water retention and
 In eight states—Rajasthan, Delhi, Goa, reducing evaporation
Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Nagaland,
Tripura and Himachal Pradesh—around 40 Control Measures
to 70 per cent of land has undergone India is a signatory to United Nations
desertification. Convention to Combat Desertification
 More to it, 26 of 29 Indian states have (UNCCD). The National Action Program for
reported an increase in the area undergoing combating desertification was prepared in 2001
desertification in the past 10 years.
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to take appropriate action in addressing the Ozone Depletion

problemsof desertification.  Ozone is a natural gas.
Some of the major programs currently  It is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of
implemented that address issues related to land three atoms of oxygen bound together in a
degradation and desertification are- non-linear fashion. The chemical symbol
 Integrated Watershed Management of ozone is O3.
Program  It is found in two different layers of the
 National Afforestation Program atmosphere.
 National Mission for Green India  Ozone in the troposphere is ―bad‖ because
 The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural it dirties the air and helps to form smog,
EmploymentGuarantee Scheme which is not good to breathe.
 Soil Conservation in the Catchment of  Ozone in the stratosphere is ―good‖
River Valley Projectand Flood Prone River because it protects life on Earth by
 National Watershed Development Project absorbing some of the sun‘s harmful Ultra
for RainfedAreas Violet (UV) rays.
 Desert Development Program  The ozone layer is very important because
 Fodder and Feed Development Scheme- the configuration of the ozone molecule
component of Grassland Development and its chemical properties are such that
including Grass Reserves, Command Area ozone efficiently absorbs ultraviolet light,
Development and Water Management thus acting like a sun-screen.
program etc. Ozone Depletion :–
UNCCD: United Nations Convention to Changeinequilibrium
Combat Desertification  The equilibrium between the formation
and destruction of ozone, has been upset
Established in 1994. by the influx of several substances into the
It is the sole legally binding international atmosphere which react with ozone and
agreement linking environment and destroy it.
development to sustainable land management.  The rate at which ozone is being destroyed
 It is the only convention stemming from is much faster than the rate at which it is
a direct recommendation of the Rio being formed.
Conference‘s Agenda 21.  It implies that there is a significant
 To help publicize the Convention, 2006 decrease in the concentration of ozone in a
particular region of the atmosphere, hence
was declared ―International Year of
the name ‗Ozone Depletion‘.
Deserts and Desertification‖.
 The best example of such an Ozone
 Focus areas: The Convention addresses Depletion is the atmosphere over the
specifically the arid, semi-arid and dry Antarctic which has only about 50 percent
sub-humid areas, known as the dry of the ozone that originally occurred there.
lands, where some of the most The actual realization of ozone-depletion
vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can came only in 1985.
be found.
Sources of Ozone Depletion :–
 Aim: Its 197 Parties aim, through
partnerships, to implement the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Convention and achieve the Sustainable  CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine,
Development Goals. The end goal is to fluorine and carbon.
protect land from over-use and drought,  They are used as refrigerants, propellants
so it can continue to provide food, water in aerosol sprays, foaming agents in plastic
and energy. manufacturing, fire extinguishing agents,
 The Ministry of Environment, Forest solvents for cleaning electronic and
and Climate Change is the nodal metallic components, for freezing foods
Ministry for this Convention. etc.
 World Geography
98

 Two-thirds of CFC is used as refrigerants Bromine containing compounds called

while one-third is used as blowing agents halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo
in foam insulation products. fluorocarbons [both used in fire extinguishers
 CFCs has a wide and varied application and methyl bromide (a widely used pesticide).
due to its properties like non- Each bromine atom destroys hundred times of
corrosiveness, non-inflammability, low more ozone molecules than what a chlorine
toxicity and chemical stability, etc. atom does.
 In fact, the residence time of CFCs in the  Role of polar stratospheric clouds in
atmosphere estimated to be between 40 ozone depletion:
and 150 years. During this period, the There are three types of stratospheric
CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, clouds. They are:
from the troposphere to the stratosphere. a. Nacreous clouds extend from 10 to 100km
The escape of CFCs in length and several kilometers in
The CFCs enter into the atmosphere by thickness. They are also called ‗mother-of-
gradual evaporation from their source. CFCs can pearl‘ clouds due to their glow with a
escape into the atmosphere from a discarded seashell like iridescence.
refrigerator. Since the CFCs are thermally stable b. The second type of clouds contains nitric
they can survive in the troposphere. But in the acid instead of pure water.
stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation. c. The third type of clouds have the same
chemical composition as nacreous clouds,
The chemical reaction but form at a slower rate, which results in
The molecules of CFCs when exposed to a larger cloud with no iridescence.
UV radiation break up, thus freeing chlorine The chlorine released by the breakdown of
atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts with an CFCs exists initially as pure chlorine or as
ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide. The chlorine monoxide but these two forms react
molecules of chlorine monoxide further further to form compounds Chlorine nitrate and
combine with an atom of oxygen. This reaction HCL that are stable.
results in the formation of an oxygen molecule The stable compounds HCL and Chlorine
(O2) and reformation of the free chlorine atom. Nitrate are reservoirs of chlorine, and therefore
The depletion of O3 is catalytic. The for chlorine to take part in reactions of any sort,
element that destroys O3 is being reformed at the it has to be freed.
end of cycle. A single chlorine atom destroys There is a correlation exist between the
thousands of ozone molecules before cycle of ozone depletion and the presence of
encountering reactive nitrogen or hydrogen polar stratospheric clouds i.e. the ice particles of
compounds that eventually return chlorine to its the cloud provided substrates for chemical
reservoirs. reactions which freed chlorine from its
Nitrogen Oxides: reservoirs. Usually the reaction between HCL
Source the sources of nitrogen oxides are and Chlorine nitrate is very slow, but this
mainly explosions of thermonuclear weapons, reaction occurs at a faster rate in the presence of
industrial emissions and agricultural fertilizers. a suitable substrate which is provided by the
The chemical reaction Nitric oxide (NO) stratospheric clouds at the poles.
catalytically destroys ozone. It results in the formation of molecular
 The escape of N2O chlorine and nitric acid. The molecular chlorine
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is released from solid formed in the above reaction can be broken
through denitrification of nitrates under down to atomic chlorine and the ozone depletion
anaerobic conditions and nitrification of reaction would continue. The polar stratospheric
ammonia under aerobic conditions. This N2 O clouds not only activate chlorine, but they also
can gradually reach the middle of the absorb reactive nitrogen. If nitrogen oxides were
stratosphere, where it is photolytically destroyed present they would combine with chlorine
to yield nitric oxide which in turn destroys monoxide to form a reservoir of chlorine nitrate.
ozone. Dimer of chlorine monoxide: Stratospheric
 Other substances: chlorine monoxide reacts with itself forming a
 World Geography
99

dimer Chlorine nitrate. This dimer is easily Effects on terrestrial plants

dissociated by sunlight, giving rise to free  Psychological and developmental
chlorine atoms which can further react to processes of plants are affected by UV-B
destroy ozone. radiation.
Arctic Ozone Depletion  Response to UV-B also varies
considerably among species and also
 The Ozone Depletion has been
cultivars of the same species.
increasingly evident over the Arctic as
well.  In agriculture, this will necessitate using
more UV-B tolerant cultivars and breeding
 The Arctic Ozone Depletion which swept
new ones.
across Britain in March 96 was the greatest
depletion of ozone ever seen in the  In forests and grasslands, this is likely to
northern hemisphere. result in changes in the composition of
species; therefore there are implications
 Scientists claim that it had been caused, in
for the biodiversity in different
past, by a dramatic cooling of the upper
ecosystems.
atmosphere in the northern latitudes over.
 Indirect changes caused by UV-B such as
 The ozone depletion over the northern
changes in plant form, biomass allocation
hemisphere has been increasing steadily
to parts of the plant, timing of
since the winter of 1992.
developmental phases and second
 Apart from the build-up of ozone depleting
metabolism may be equally or sometimes
chemicals, the main cause is the increasing
more important that the damaging effects
cold temperature in the arctic stratosphere
of UV-B.
which encourages the formulation of
PSCs. Effects on aquatic ecosystems
 Exposure to solar UV-B radiation has been
Environmental Effects Of Ozone Depletion
shown to affect both orientation
Decrease in the quantity of total-column mechanisms and motility in
ozone; tend to cause increased penetration of phytoplankton, resulting in reduced
solar UV-B radiation (290-315nm) to the earth‘s survival rates for these organisms.
surface. UV-B radiation is the most energetic
 Solar UV-B radiation has been found to
component of sunlight reaching the earth‘s
cause damage in the early developmental
surface. It has profound effects on human
stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians
health, animals, plants, micro-organisms,
and other animals. The most severe effects
materials and on air quality.
are decreased reproductive capacity and
Effects of human and animal health impaired larval development.
 Potential risks include an increase in the Effects on bio-geochemical cycles
incidence of and morbidity from eye
 Increases in solar UV radiation could
diseases, skin cancer and infectious
affect terrestrial and aquatic bio-
diseases.
geochemical cycles, thus, altering both
 UV radiation has been shown in sources and sinks of greenhouse and
experimental systems to damage the chemically important trace gases.
cornea and lens of the eye. Experiments in
 These potential changes would
animals show that UV exposure decreases
contribute to bio-sphere atmosphere
the immune response to skin cancers,
feedbacks that reinforce the atmospheric
infectious agents and other antigens and
build-up of these gases.
can lead to unresponsiveness upon
repeated challenges. Effects on air quality
 In susceptible (light-skin coloured)  Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the
populations, UV-B radiations is the key concomitant increase in UV-B radiation
risk factor for development of penetrating to the lower atmosphere result
nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC). in higher photo dissociation rates of key
 World Geography
100

trace gases that control the chemical nucleation of sulphur, of both

reactivity of the troposphere. anthropogenic and natural origin.
 This can increase both production and
Effects on materials
destruction of ozone (O3 ) and related
oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide  Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring
bio-polymers, as well as some other
(H2O2), which are known to have adverse
materials of commercial interest are
effects on human health, terrestrial plants,
adversely affected by solar UV radiation.
and outdoor materials.
 Changes in the atmospheric concentrations  The application of these materials,
of the hydroxyl radical (OH) may change particularly, plastics, in situations which
the atmospheric lifetimes of climatically demand routine exposure to sunlight is
important gases such as methane (CH4) only possible through the use of light-
and the CFC substitutes) stabilizers and / or surface treatment to
 Increased tropospheric reactivity could protect them from sunlight.
also lead to increased production of  Any increase in solar UV-B content due to
particulates such as cloud condensation partial ozone depletion will therefore
nuclei, from the oxidation and subsequent accelerate the photo graduation rates of
these materials, limiting their life outdoors.




Important Questions
1. Consider the following statements 3. Consider the following statements
regarding Global Warming situation on regarding the suggested measures to
earth: minimize global warming by reducing
I. The temperature surrounding the earth emission of green house gases especially
has been rising during the recent past, carbon dioxides:
is due to the ‗green house effect‘. I. Increased fuel efficiency of power
II. A green house is a glass chamber in plants and vehicles
which plants are grown to provide II. Development/implementation of solar
them warmth by trapping sun light. energy/non-fossil fuel alternatives
III. The phenomenon of heat build up III. Halting deforestation
inside a glass chamber from the Which of the following statement(s)
absorption of solar radiation is called is/are correct?
green house effect. (a) Only I (b) I and II
Which of the following statement(s) (c) II and III (d) All of the above
is/are correct? 4. Consider the following statements
(a) Only I (b) I and II regarding the reasons for biodiversity
(c) II and III (c) All of the above loss:
I. Introduction of foreign species
2. Which of the following is on the list of
II. Environmental degradation
Global Environmental issues? III. Loss of habitat
(a) green house effect and global warming Which of the following statement(s)
(b) biodiversity loss is/are correct?
(c) desertification (d) All of the above (a) Only I (b) I and II
(c) II and III (d) All of the above
 World Geography
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5. Consider the following statements 10. Consider the following statements

1. Burning of fossil fuel, wood and crop 1. The transport sector is largest
residues all produce lot of Oxides of contributor to GHG emissions.
nitrogen 2. Co2 concentration is higher than any
2. Sulphur dioxide is major pollutant other GHG.
released from oil refineries. Select the correct answer from the
Select the correct answer from the following codes:
following codes (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 11. Which of the following is/are salient
6. Which of the following is/are not Green features of Paris agreement?
House Gases? 1. It provides transparency frame work.
1. Nitrous oxide 2. It establishes compliance mechanism
2. Ozone in punitive way.
3. Sulphur dioxide 3. It mandates contribution of financial
Select the correct answer from the resources by developed countries on
following codes voluntary basis.
(a) Only 3 (b) Only 1 and 2 Select the correct answer from the
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 following codes:
7. At the global scale relative contributions (a) Only 1 (b) Only 1 and 2
of CO2, CH4, N2Oand CFCs towards (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
global warming are: 12. Which of the following is/are elements
(a) 50 %, 30 %, 10 % , and 10 % of Green finance?
respectively 1. Banking system.
(b) 76%, 16%, 6%, and 2% respectively 2. Bond market.
(c) 40 %, 30%, 20% and 10% 3. Institutional investment.
respectively Select the correct answer from the
(d) None of the above following codes:
8. Which of the following economic (a) Only 1 (b) Only 1 and 2
activities out of the economic sector (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
largely contributes to greenhouse gases 13. Which of the following is/are true about
at global level? India‘s INDC?
(a) Industry
1. Reduce emission intensity by 33-35%
(b) Agriculture, forestry and other land use
(c) Electricity and Heat Production of GDP of 1990 level by 2030.
(d) Transportation 2. 40% cumulative electric power
9. With reference to effect of greenhouse
gases, which of the following is/are true? installed from non fossil fuel based
1. Changes to plant growth and nutrition energy resources by 2030.
levels
2. Ozone depletion 3. To create addition carbon sink.
3. Smog pollution Select the correct answer from the
Select the correct answer from the
following codes following codes:
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 1 and 2 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 1 and 2
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
 World Geography
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14. Consider the following statements Select the correct answer from the
1. National clean energy fund (NCEF) following codes:
only research in the area of clean (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
energy. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Viability gap funding (VGF) is also
provided for Namami Gange.

ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b)

8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (b)

Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. Arctic Ozone Depletion
2. Ozone
3. UNCCD
4. Sources of Bioenergy
5. Black Carbon
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. Write down causes of desertification?
2. What is global warming?
3. Mention name of greenhouse gases?
4. National Solar Mission
5. What is Objectives of Green India Mission?
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. India‘s Nation Action Plan on Climate Change
2. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
3. What are greenhouse gases? Write down its sources?
 World Geography
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CHAPTER - 7
Current Geo-Political Problems
Important Points :
 Inter-State River Water Disputes
 India-Pakistan Disputes
 One Belt One Road (OBOR)
 International North South Trade Corridor (INSTC)

Inter-State River Water Disputes

Many rivers flow in India and rivers flow 3. Godavari River Water Dispute: -
through more than one state, due to which Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
disputes have been emerging in different states Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh
regarding the use of water of these rivers. For 4. Mahi River Water Dispute: -Gujarat,
this, the Union Cabinet has decided to constitute
a 'Permanent Tribunal' to decide all inter-state Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
water disputes. With this it has been agreed to 5. Narmada River Water Dispute: -
create a separate authority for each river water Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
dispute. Rajasthan
There is a provision to set a time limit for 6. Ravi AndBeas River Water Dispute: -
dispute redressal committees to resolve these Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
inter-state river water disputes amicably. Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi
There are many water disputes in India 7. Tungabhadra River Water Dispute: -
regarding the use of water of rivers flowing in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
different states, some of them important are as
follows- 8. Krishna River Water Dispute: -
1. Satluj-Yamuna Link Canal Dispute: - Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan Pradesh
2. Yamuna River Water Disputes: - Uttar 9. Barak River Water Dispute: -Assam and
Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur
Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and 10. Karmanash River Water Dispute: -Uttar
Delhi Pradesh and Bihar
Inter-State River Disputes Tribunals
Tribunal Date of Constitution States Involved
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal April 1969 Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-I April 1969
Karnataka
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal October 1969
Pradesh and Gujarat
Ravi and Beas Water Tribunal April 1986 Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal June 1990
and Puducherry
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal-II April 2004
Karnataka
Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal February 2010 Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal November 2010 Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra
Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal March 2018 Chhattisgarh and Odisha
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India-Pakistan Disputes
Background: Indo-Pakistan War of 1965
 Following the partition of British India, two  The Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 initiated
separate nations, India (dominated by following the culmination of skirmishes that
Hindus) and Pakistan (dominated by took place since April 1965.
Muslims) was formed.  Pakistan‘s Operation Gibraltar was launched
 Despite the establishment of diplomatic to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir
relations after their independence, the to hasten insurgency against India.
immediate violent partition, wars, terrorist  India retaliated by launching a full-scale
attacks and numerous territorial disputes military attack on West Pakistan.
overshadowed the relationship.  This war resulted in thousands of causalities
 Since independence in 1947, both countries on both sides and witnessed the largest
have fought three major wars, one engagement of armoured vehicles and the
undeclared war and have been involved in largest tank battle since World War II.
armed skirmishes and military standoffs.  The war ended after an UN-mandated
 The dispute over Kashmir is the main ceasefire was declared following diplomatic
centre-point of all these conflicts except for intervention by the USSR and the US, and
the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971, which the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent
resulted in the secession of East Pakistan Declaration.
(now Bangladesh).
Indo-Pakistan War 1971
 Several efforts were made to improve the
 Since independence, Pakistan was
bilateral ties, which were successful in de-
geopolitically divided into two major
escalating tensions to a certain extent.
regions, West Pakistan and East Pakistan,
 However, these efforts were hampered by which is dominated by Bengali people.
frequent terrorist attacks and ceasefire
 Following the launch of Pakistan‘s military
violations.
operation (Operation Searchlight), a
Wars and Conflicts between India and genocide on Bengalis in December 1971 and
Pakistan the political crisis in East Pakistan, the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48 situation went out of control in East
It was the first of the four Indo-Pakistan Pakistan.
 India intervened in favour of the rebelling
Wars fought between the two newly independent
Bengalis population.
nations-
 Indian army invaded East Pakistan from
 This war was fought between the two three sides and the Indian Navy imposed a
nations over the princely state of Jammu and naval blockade of East Pakistan, leading to
Kashmir that was under the control of the destruction of a significant portion of
Maharaja Hari Singh. Pakistan‘s naval strength.
 Fearing a revolt within the state and invasion  After the surrender of Pakistani forces, East
Pakistan became an independent nation of
from Pakistan, Maharaja Hari Singh made a
Bangladesh.
plea to India for assistance. Assistance was
Kargil Conflict
offered by the Indian government in return
 During the winter of 1998-99, the Indian
to his signing an Instrument of Accession to army vacated its posts at high peaks in
India. Kargil Sector in Kashmir as it used to do
 The war resulted in India securing two-thirds every year.
of Kashmir, including Kashmir Valley,  Pakistan Army made use of this opportunity
Jammu and Ladakh. to move across the line of control and
 Pakistan controls roughly one-third of the occupied the vacant posts.
 The Indian army discovered this in May
state, referring to it as Azad (free) Kashmir.
1999, when the snow thawed.
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 This led to intense fighting between Indian  Under the Shimla Agreement of 1972, the
and Pakistani forces. Siachen was called a barren and useless.
 Backed by the Indian Air Force, the Indian  This Agreement also did not specify the
Army regained many of the posts that boundary between India and Pakistan.
Pakistan had earlier occupied.  When India got intelligence that Pakistan
 Pakistan later withdrew from the remaining was going occupy Siachen Glacier, it
portion because of the international pressure launched Operation Meghdoot to reach the
and high causalities. glacier first.
Kartarpur Corridor  Following the success of Operation
 An agreement between India and Pakistan Meghdoot, the Indian Army obtained the
for the facilitation of pilgrims to visit area at a higher altitude and Pakistan army
Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur, getting a much lower altitude.
Pakistan, was signed on 24 October 2019 Sir Creek Dispute
in order to fulfill the long-standing  Sir Creek is a 96 km estuary in the Rann of
demand of the pilgrims to have easy and Kutch.
smooth access to the holy Gurudwara.  Rann of Kutch lies between Gujarat (India)
 The Kartarpur Sahib Corridor Agreement, and Sindh (Pakistan).
inter alia, provides for visa-free travel of  The dispute lies in the interpretation of the
Indian pilgrims as well as Overseas maritime boundary line between the two
Citizen of India (OCI) cardholders, from countries.
India to the holy Gurudwara in Pakistan on  Pakistan claims the entire Sir Creek in
a daily basis, throughout the year. accordance with a 1914 agreement that was
 On November 9, 2019, on the occasion of signed between the Government of Sindh
the 550th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak and Rulers of Kutch.
Dev ji, Prime Minister Narendra Modi  India, on the other hand, claims that the
inaugurated the corridor. boundary lies mid-channel as per a 1925
Kashmir Issue map.
This is one of the most sensitive issues
between India and Pakistan and has been a
India–Pakistan Water Dispute
major cause of the sour relations the two  Both India and Pakistan since partition
countries share. Article 370 gave Jammu and have experienced friction over various
Kashmir a special right to have its own water conflicts.
constitution, a separate flag and have their own  The countries early leaders anticipated this
rules, but in August 2019, the Article was fierce rivalry over the waters that connect
scrapped off and J&K now abides by the Indian their volatile border.
Constitution common for all. It was given the  As a result, after numerous dialogues and
status of a Union Territory and this move of the through careful negotiations, both
Indian Government was highly objected by countries signed an accord called the Indus
Pakistan due to their longing of owning Kashmir Waters Treaty in 1960, which clearly
entirely. determined how the region‘s rivers are to
be divided.
Siachen Glacier  In this treaty, control over three eastern
 Siachen Glacier is located in Northern rivers of the Beas, Ravi and Sutlej was
Ladakh in the Karakoram Range. given to India, while Pakistan got the
 It is the 5th largest glacier in Karakoram control over western rivers of the Indus,
Range and the 2nd largest glacier in the Chenab and Jhelum.
world.  The Indus Waters Treaty has been widely
 Most of the Siachen Glacier is disputed hailed as a success, having survived three
between India and Pakistan. post-independence wars between the two
 Before 1984, neither of the two countries hostile neighbours.
had any permanent presence on the glacier.
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 However, the situation for Pakistan has Advantages of OBOR for China
changed significantly from 1960s till the  It will help China in developing its
present moment, as it is now on the brink western region, ensuring safe navigation
of water scarcity. over sea and improving strategic and
 The source or flow of all of the Pakistan‘s economic relations with neighbouring
rivers pass through India first, so this and far-west countries.
naturally provides India with an upper  It will help China secure access to energy
hand in controlling the outflow of these and mineral supplies allowing China to
rivers. overcome the ―Malacca Dilemma‖
 The Indian Government has more than 40 through access to maritime facilities in
projects that are either already completed the Indian Ocean, granting it an
or in the proposal stage on the western important strategic advantage
rivers. The carrying of such activities  OBOR will strengthen China‘s presence
within the western rivers has irked in the Eurasian region and puts it in a
Pakistan. commanding position over Asia‘s
 On the other hand, India keeps dismissing heartland.
these accusations of Pakistan as baseless Possible Advantages to India
and without any scientific backing.  It will help India‘s border and outlying
 In 2005, Pakistan challenged India‘s 450 areas to develop infrastructure that it
MW Baglihar dam project on the Chenab presently lacks.
River before the World Bank, but lost the  Funds from financial institutions may be
case in the end. more easily available and support from
 In 2011, both countries went head to head China and its infrastructure construction
again at the International Court of companies may also then be readily
Arbitration (ICA) over India‘s 330 MW available.
project in Kishanganga project in Jammu  This project will help Improve
and Kashmir. connectivity with India‘s neighbours
 The latest dispute is over hydroelectric improving economic, diplomatic and
projects that India is building along the strategic relationship.
Chenab River. According to Pakistan,
these projects violate the treaty and will Issues with OBOR
impact its water supply.  Implementation of this project will take
many years to complete and also carries
One Belt One Road (OBOR) risks of failure.
 One Belt One Road (OBOR) is an  OBOR‘s financing is through loans
ambitious project that focuses on extended to member countries. Chinese
connectivity and cooperation among Loans for infrastructure projects are
multiple countries spread across the made with understanding that the
continents of Asia, Africa and Europe. developing countries award construction
OBOR spans about 78 countries. contracts to Chinese companies.
 Initially announced in the year 2013, the  China benefits from both financing and
project involves building networks of construction of infrastructure projects,
roadways, railways, maritime ports, while developing countries will bear the
power grids, oil and gas pipelines and financial risk.
associated infrastructure projects.  The Centre for Global Development in
 The project covers two parts- Washington reckons that eight belt-and-
 Silk Road Economic Belt: It is land- road countries are at risk of debt distress;
based and is expected to connect among them are Laos, Mongolia and
China with Central Asia, Eastern Pakistan.
Europe and Western Europe.  China will acquire controlling interests in
 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: It the ports if member countries fail to
is sea-based and is expected to repay the loans. This situation can prove
connect China‘s southern coast to strategically disadvantageous to member
the Mediterranean, Africa, South-
countries.
East Asia and Central Asia.
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China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) Strategic Importance:

The CPEC is the flagship project of the multi-  This sea holds tremendous strategic
billion-dollar Belt and Road Initiative importance for its location as it is the
(BRI), aimed at enhancing Beijing‘s influence connecting link between the Indian Ocean
around the world through China-funded and the Pacific Ocean (Strait of Malacca).
 According to the United Nations
infrastructure projects.
Conference on Trade And Development
 The 3,000 km-long China–Pakistan (UNCTAD) one-third of the global
Economic Corridor (CPEC) consists of shipping passes through it, carrying
highways, railways, and pipelines. trillions of trade which makes it a
 CPEC eventually aims at linking the city significant geopolitical water body.
of Gwadar in South Western Pakistan to Contesting Claims Over Islands:
China‘s North Western region  The Paracel Islands are claimed by China,
Xinjiang through a vast network of Taiwan and Vietnam.
highways and railways.  The Spratly Islands are claimed by China,
 The proposed project will be financed by Taiwan, Vietnam, Brunei and Philippines.
heavily-subsidized loans that will be  The Scarborough Shoal is claimed by
disbursed to the Government of Pakistan Philippines, China and Taiwan.
 Since 2010, China has been converting
by Chinese banks.
uninhabited islets into artificial islets to
India‘s concerns with China Pakistan Economic bring it under UNCLOS (For example,
Corridor Haven Reef, Johnson South Reef and Fiery
 CPEC passes through Pakistan-Occupied Cross Reef).
Kashmir (Gilgit-Baltistan) which is an Effects of the South China Sea Dispute:
Indian territory illicitly occupied by The South China Sea Dispute has adversely
Pakistan. affected the territories involved in the dispute
 Thus CPEC undermines India‘s strategic but along with them, other countries involved in
interests and territorial integrity. trade with them are affected. It is one of the
 More importantly, with CPEC, China will most vital trade routes and it is important to end
get access to the western Indian Ocean the dispute over the South China Sea so that
trade and economic activities of the country are
through Gwadar port.
not disrupted.
 This will help China in controlling Also, the US is playing a very important
maritime trade and would affect the role in mending the dispute because it has wide-
freedom of navigation and trade-energy ranging security commitments in East Asia and
security of India. is allied with several of the countries bordering
South China Sea Dispute the South China Sea, such as the Philippines,
Singapore, and Vietnam. So any dispute among
The regions of contention are the Spratly Island, them will directly affect the US.
the Paracel Island, maritime boundaries in the
Gulf of Tonkin and other places. Waters near International North South Trade Corridor
the Indonesian Natuna Islands are also disputed. (INSTC)
The reason why these areas are disputed and of  It is a 7,200-km-long multi-mode network
interest to the concerned nations is the of ship, rail, and road route for moving
acquisition of fishing areas around the two freight between India, Iran, Afghanistan,
archipelagos; suspected crude oil and natural gas Azerbaijan, Russia, Central Asia and
in different parts of the South China Sea; and Europe.
the control of strategically important shipping  The route primarily involves moving
lanes.
 South China Sea is connected by Taiwan freight from India, Iran, Azerbaijan and
Strait with the East China Sea and Russia via ship, rail and road.
by Luzon Strait with the Philippine Sea.  The objective of the corridor is to increase
 Bordering states & territories: the People‘s trade connectivity between major cities
Republic of China, the Republic of China such as Mumbai, Moscow, Tehran, Baku,
(Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Bandar Abbas, Astrakhan, Bandar Anzali,
Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore and Vietnam. etc.
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 Dry runs of two routes were conducted in 2014. corridor‖ would maximise the potential of
 The first was Mumbai to Baku via Bandar this collaboration.
Abbas .  Also, India wants to include Chabahar
 The second was Mumbai to Astrakhan via port to be included in the International
Bandar Abbas, Tehran and Bandar Anzali North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
India and INSTC The potential export sectors in India that benefit
 India shows interest in extending INSTC from INSTC include perishable goods (fruits
membership to countries like Afghanistan and vegetables), high-value items like ATMs,
and Uzbekistan. industrial printers, 3D printers, robotic assembly
 Establishing a land route via Kabul and accessories, etc., cross-border e-commerce, and
Tashkent to form the INSTC‘s ―Eastern sectors that are likewise.



Important Questions
1. Which of the following states not (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
include in Godavari Water Disputes? (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
(a) Maharashtra (b) Andhra Pradesh 4. Siachen Glacier Situated in
(c) Karnataka (d) Kerla (a) Karakoram range
2. Which of the following states not (b) Ladakh range
include in Narmada Water Disputes? (c) Zaskar range
(a) Maharashtra (b) Gujarat (d) Pirpanjal range
(c) Rajasthan (d) Chhattisgarh 5. Sir Creek Estuary Situated in
3. Which of the following states included (a) Rann of Kutchh
in Mahadayi Water Disputes? (b) Gulf of Kambhat
1. Goa 2. Maharashtra (c) Little Rann of Kutchh
3. Karnataka (d) Bay of Bengal

ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b)

Very Short Answer Type Questions (15 words)

1. One belt one road
2. CPEC
3. BCIM
4. South china sea
Short Answer Type Questions (50 words)
1. The International North-South Transport Corridor
2. Write the concerns of India in CPEC.
Explanatory Answer Type Questions (100 words)
1. Mention the inter-state river water dispute and its main reasons.
2. Describe India's stand in the OBOR matter.