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plastids are the chloroplasts and the chromoplasts. The

How Plants Survive chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll and are
Table of Contents responsible for photosynthesis. The chromoplasts are colored plastids
responsible for other color pigments, synthesis, and food storage.
Plant Cells and Tissues 1-3
Major Parts of a Plant 3-6
Plant cells also have larger vacuoles compared with other eukaryotic
Root 3-4
cells. The plant vacuole is surrounded by its membrane and stores
Stem 4 water and dissolved substances. Its primary role is to maintain the
Leaves 4-6 pressure inside of the cell wall, give shape and support to the plant
(see Figure 1 on the next page).
Plant Responses to Stimuli 6-7
Plant Hormones 6-7 There are three (3) basic types of cells in most plants. These are the
Growth Pattern of Plants 7-8 parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells.
References 8
Kind of Cell Structure Function(s)
Plants play vital roles in the environment. They have body parts that Parenchyma Cube-shaped, loosely packed, Carry out
perform major functions to help them survive. Unlike animals, plants thin-walled, and relatively most of the
do not have muscles, nerves, bones, nor brains to do work. What parts unspecified plant's
of the plants make them live, grow, and reproduce? How do plants live metabolism,
and how do they perform their important tasks? What are the roles of contain
the plants that are vital to all living organisms? chloroplasts
Plants are found almost everywhere. Plants are multicellular,
eukaryotic, and photosynthetic organisms. Plants, like animals, have
organs that are specialized in carrying out their functions. An organ is
a structure consisting of more than one (1) type of tissue. The tissue, Source: [Link]
and-animal-tissues/parenchyma-tissue/
on the other hand, is a group of similar cells doing the same kind of
job. As discussed in previous chapters, cells are the basic functional Collenchyma Elongated and irregularly Provide
unit of a living thing. shaped, with thickened cell support
Plant Cells and Tissues walls especially for
young plants
What are the parts and functions of a plant cell?
A plant is composed of eukaryotic cells. Like other eukaryotic cells,
plant cells are bound by a cell membrane, have a distinct nucleus, and
have other membrane-bound organelles. These cells are somehow
different because they have cell walls made of cellulose, a
polysaccharide.
Source: [Link]
and-animal-tissues/collenchyma-tissue/
The cell wall provides shape, supports, and protects the plant cell. It
also prevents the cell from absorbing too much water, which could
lead to swelling or bursting. Plant cells have plastids, which are
membrane-bound organelles that have their DNA. Some examples of

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Sclerenchyma Very thick cell wall which Give support

contains lignin and strength

Source: [Link]
and-animal-tissues/sclerenchyma-tissue/

Table 1. The overview of the three (3) plant cells

Almost all types of plant cells are found in plant tissues. Plants have
three (3) kinds of plant tissues: dermal tissue, ground tissue, and
vascular tissue. The dermal tissue covers and protects the plants. It
includes the single layer of cells called the epidermis and some
modified cells like guard cells, root hairs, and the cells that produce
the waxy cuticle. The cuticle helps prevent water loss, abrasions, and
infections. The dermal tissue mediates most of the interactions of
plants and their environment.
Ground tissue is the most common type of plant tissue and functions
mainly for support, storage, and photosynthesis. It makes up much of
the interior part of the plants. The ground tissue consists of all three
(3) types of plant cells.
The vascular tissue consists of complex tissues called the xylem and
phloem. The xylem [pronounced as /ZAI-luhm/, from xylon (Gk.,
"woody")] conducts water and minerals. It consists of two (2) types of
elongated cells: tracheids and vessel elements. Tracheids are long,
thin, overlapping cells that are tapered at the ends. Water passes from
one cell to another area without pits. Tracheids support and transport
Figure 1. A diagram of a plant cell and its actual view under a microscope
water and nutrients in plants. Vessel elements are generally wider, Sources: [Link]
[Link]
shorter, thin-walled, and have fewer tapered ends. Vessel elements life?id=toc-id-5
are aligned end to end with each other. Most seedless vascular plants
and gymnosperms only have tracheids in their xylem, while most The phloem [pronounced as /FLOW-em/, from phloos (Gk., "a tree's
angiosperms have both tracheids and vessel elements. The xylem bark")] transports the sap, a water-based solution containing sugars
makes up the wood of some plants. from photosynthetic leaves to the roots, stem, and fruits. The phloem
consists of sieve tube elements with support cells, such as
sclereids and fibers, and companion cells (or albuminous cells).

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Sieve tubes contain vacuoles and other organelles, but during system, made up of the stem and leaves, is usually found above the
maturity, these organelles migrate towards the cell wall and dissolve. ground. The roots have three (3) main functions: absorb nutrients and
At maturity, sieve elements do not have nuclei and have very few water from the soil, anchor the plant, and store food. A root is a
organelles. They rely on the companion cells for most of their complex organ consisting of several types of tissues to carry out its
metabolic needs. At the end of the sieve elements are a group of pores various functions.
called plasmodesmata, which are microscopic cell wall channels that
connect them to their companion cells.

Figure 2. A diagram of both xylem and phloem

Source: [Link] Figure 3. A plant with both apical and lateral meristems demonstrating its growth
Source: [Link]

Plants continue to grow as long as they live because they have a

1. The epidermis covers the entire surface of the roots. The
tissue called meristem. This tissue contains undifferentiated cells that
epidermis may have long cylindrical projections called root hairs
continuously divide and differentiate. Apical meristems are usually
found at the tip of the roots' and buds' shoots, allowing the plants to that increase the surface area for greater absorption.
grow in length. This growth is called primary growth. 2. Beneath the epidermis is a cortex consisting of parenchymal cells
that contain plastids for the storage of starch and other organic
Lateral meristem is found around and within the vascular tissues substances.
allows plant growth in width. This growth is called secondary growth, 3. The endodermis is the innermost central layer of the cortex. It is
which occurs mostly in woody plants. Secondary growth is also
composed of tightly-packed living cells and is surrounded by the
responsible for the thickening of roots and shoots that are formed
Casparian strip, a continuous layer of suberin. Suberin is a waxy
during the primary growth (see Figure 3).
material, making it hydrophobic. The main function of the
Major Parts of the Plant endodermis is to select the materials that will enter the vascular
Plants have three (3) major organs: roots, stems, and leaves. Other cylinder and the plant body.
specialized organs, such as the flowers and fruits, help them survive 4. The vascular cylinder (or stele) of the root consists of the
and reproduce in different habitats. vascular tissues (i.e., xylem and phloem), which is surrounded by
Roots a layer (or layers) of tissue called pericycle, from which lateral
There are two (2) organ systems in plants. The root system, composed roots arise.
of only one (1) organ, usually lies below ground, while the shoot

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Stem
In vascular plants, the stems hold the plant upright so that they can
get the sunlight and the air they need. Stems hold the other organs
such as the leaves, flowers, and fruits. Stems also carry water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves and carry the food produced by
the leaves to the other parts of the plant. Inside the stems run the
vascular bundles. Each bundle contains the xylem in the inside part,
phloem on the outside, and meristem tissue between the two.
In monocot plants like grasses, the vascular bundles are scattered in
the stem, while in dicots like tomato plants, the vascular bundles are
arranged in a ring inside the stem. Similar to the roots, the ground
tissues of the stem consist mainly of parenchymal tissues modified for
storage. Stems also have apical meristems located at the tips of the
shoots. The stems of the plants have nodes where leaves and other
plant structures grow. A bud at the tip of the stem is called a terminal
bud while the buds at the nodes are called lateral buds (see Figure 5
at the next page).
Figure 4. A simplified cross-section of a plant's root and its components
Source: [Link]
Leaves
Apical meristems are found at the tip of the root and are responsible Plant leaves vary in size and shape. Pine trees have needle-shaped
for primary growth. The growth in length of the root is more leaves, while gumamela (Hibiscus) plants have broader, flattened
concentrated at the tip. The root tip is divided into three (3) regions (or leaves with jagged edges. Most leaves have the following external
areas in some reference materials): region of cell division, region parts: petiole, blade (or the lamina), midrib (or primary vein), and
of elongation, and region of maturation. The root tip is protected by lateral veins.
a root cap, which secretes mucilage, a substance that protects the The petiole attaches the leaf to the stem of the plant. Some plants,
cell from damage from growing through the soil. such as grasses, have no distinct petiole. The lamina (or blade) is
where photosynthesis is concentrated. Most of the photosynthetic
The region of cell division is composed of meristematic cells that are cells are located in this area. It is further divided into base, margin,
actively dividing. This region is responsible for producing new cells and apex. The veins of the leaf contain the xylem and phloem, where
that make the root grow in length. After cell division, the cells elongate the water and food pass through.
in the region of elongation. In the region of maturation, cells undergo
specialization and become the three (3) primary meristems (i.e., No matter what shapes and sizes the leaves have, they are important
protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium) that will become structures of the plant. Leaves are the primary food-making organ of
the three (3) main tissue systems (i.e., epidermis, cortex, xylem, and the plant. They capture energy from sunlight and use it to convert
phloem) in the plant. The protoderm becomes the epidermis, the molecules into food. This food provides energy to the plant to grow,
ground meristem becomes the cortex, and the procambium becomes produce flowers and fruits, and carry all other essential metabolic
the xylem and phloem. processes. The structure of the leaf is specially organized to optimize
food production while reducing water loss.

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Figure 6. The main parts of a leaf

Source: [Link]

To minimize water loss, the epidermis of the leaf is covered with a

waxy cuticle made of cutin. Guard cells located at the lower epidermis
are modified epidermal cells. Guard cells contain chloroplast and
control the opening and closing of the stomata. About 90 percent of
water loss in plants is through the stomata. When guard cells absorb
water by osmosis and become turgid, they tend to curve, causing the
stoma to open up. When the guard cells lose water and become
flaccid, the stoma closes (see Figure 7 at the next page).
Mesophyll tissue makes up most of the interior part of a leaf. This is
where photosynthesis occurs. In most plants, the mesophyll is divided
into two (2) layers: the palisade layer and the spongy layer.
The upper palisade layer is composed of tightly packed elongated
cells, about one to two cells thick. Its cells contain more chloroplasts
than the spongy layer. The spongy layer is loosely packed to allow the
diffusion of gases into and out of the cells during respiration and
photosynthesis. The vascular bundles or veins are located in the
mesophyll layer. The veins contain the xylem, phloem, and a sheath
of ground tissue made of lignin that gives the strength and rigidity of
the leaf. The pattern of the leaf veins is called venation. In dicots,
venation usually occurs in a scattered manner or like an
interconnecting network (reticulated venation). In monocots, venation
occurs in a parallel pattern (parallel venation) (see Figure 5).

Figure 5 Comparing a monocot from a dicot based on its structures

Source: [Link]

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leaves and fruits. They also influence the lateral and apical growth and
the longevity of the plant. Some hormones have multiple effects on the
plant. Some work in synergy with other hormones, while others have
opposing effects.

Gibberellin
Auxin
Cytokinin
Ethylene
ABA

Figure 8. The different plant hormones and their functions during a plant's life cycle
Figure 7. The stomata's organelles and their appearance based on the amount of water present in the leaf Source: [Link]
Source: [Link] [Link]

Plant Responses to Stimuli • Auxin enhances apical growth, the formation of buds, and the
What are the different plant hormones? initiation of root growth. They stimulate stem elongation and
What are their functions in plants? growth by softening the cell walls. They promote the production of
Like other organisms, plants can detect and respond to different other hormones and work with cytokinins in controlling the growth
stimuli in their environment. Plants respond to stimuli (sing. stimulus) of the stem, roots, fruits, and, in some cases, convert stems into
in different ways. One (1) is by adjusting its growth depending on the flowers. A synthetic auxin, when sprayed onto tomato plants,
stimulus they encounter. Tropism is the growth of a plant away from induces fruit production without pollination. This leads to the
a stimulus (negative) or toward a stimulus (positive). There are several production of seedless tomatoes.
types of tropisms. Two (2) of the most important tropisms are the • Cytokinin refers to a group of hormones that stimulate cytokinesis
responses to gravity (geotropism or gravitropism) and light and cell division. They are responsible for the shoot formation and
(phototropism). Another type of tropism is thigmotropism, which is delayed senescence (i.e., aging) by inhibiting protein breakdown.
the response of some plants to touch like that of the response of the Cytokinins are produced in the roots and then travel upward in the
makahiya plant (Mimosa pudica) when touched. plant.
Plant Hormones • Abscisic acid (or ABA) acts as an inhibitory hormone that affects
Plant responses are mainly attributed to the hormones that help bud and seed dormancy. It accumulates in the seed of the fruit
coordinate their growth and development. These hormones are signal during its maturation, which prevents the premature growth of the
chemicals produced within the plant in very small amounts but have a seed within the fruit. In temperate countries, ABA promotes seed
profound effect on the plants' body mechanism. There are various dormancy until spring comes. The effects of ABA are degraded
plant hormones with different effects on plants. These hormones within the plant or seed tissues when water is used to wash it out
shape the plant, affect the seed growth, flowering time, and growth of

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of the cells (by rain or when the ground is moist), which results in
the growth of new buds or a new plant from seed.
• Gibberellin usually works along with auxins. The main function of
this hormone is to promote elongation of the stem and the growth
of the leaf. Gibberellin is important in seed germination, affecting
the enzyme production which mobilizes food production used for
the new plant cells. Gibberellin also induces bolting, the rapid
growth of a floral stalk in some plants. Plants like broccoli usually
grow close to the ground, but during their reproductive stage, a tall
shoot grows on which the flower and the fruit develop. This
mechanism ensures pollination and seed dispersal.
• Ethylene is a hormone in gas form. It promotes the ripening of the
fruits. It is also produced by plants in large quantities to counter
stress, such as drought, flooding, injury, and infection. Ethylene
affects the stem diameter and height when plants are subjected to
stressors such as wind, causing thicker, sturdier tree stems and
branches.
Figure 9. The adzuki plant (or red munggo, Vigna angularis) is an annual plant
Source: [Link]
Growth Pattern of Plants or-enjoyed-as-dried-bean-or-as-a-crunchy-nutritious-sprout
Why do some plants in the garden die and have to be replaced every
year? Why do trees in the forest last for many years?
Plants are grouped into three according to how long it takes them to
produce flowers and how long they live. These three (3) groups of
plants are the annuals, biennials, and perennials.
Annuals (or annual plants) grow from seed, bear flower, produce
seeds, and die all in the course of one (1) growing season. Examples
are marigold, sunflower, corn, and rice. Most annuals have
herbaceous (i.e., soft, nonwoody) stems. The word "annual" comes
from the Latin word annus, meaning "year" (see Figure 9).
Plants that complete their life cycle in two (2) years are called biennials
(from the Latin prefix bi-, "two"). Biennial plants sprout, grow roots,
stems, and leaves during their first growing season. Then, they enter
the dormancy period during the cold season or winter. During spring
or the second growing season, new stems and leaves grow, and they Figure 10. The onion plant (Allium cepa) is a biennial plant
Source: [Link]
produce flowers and seeds. Once the flowers produce seeds, the
plants die. Examples of biennial plants are carrots, celery, onion, and Other plants live more than two (2) growing seasons. Others may live
cabbage (see Figure 10). for many years. These plants are called perennials (from the Latin
prefix per-, "through") Most perennials are woody. The long life of

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perennials allows them to accumulate several layers of woody xylem

in their stems. Examples are trees like mango, acacia, pine, and narra.
However, some are herbaceous like tomato vines, mayana, oregano,
and some grasses.

Figure 11. The grape tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a perennial plant grown in the country and is usually
treated as an annual plant
Source: [Link]

Reference:
Sia, S. R. D., & Cortez, L. A. S. (2016). Science in today's world for
senior high school: Earth & life science. Quezon City: Rex Printing
Company.

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