Lesson 1: Genetics
Genetics:
The study of genes, heredity, and variation of inherited characteristics.
Heredity:
Passing of traits from parents to offspring.
Variation/Genetic Variation:
Differences in gene sequences between individuals of a species.
Examples of Genetic Variation:
Humans:
Skin color, hair color, dimples, freckles, blood type.
Plants:
Modified leaves of carnivorous plants, flower shapes mimicking insects.
Animals:
Albinism, cheetah stripes, flying snakes, playing dead, mimicry.
GENES AND ALLELES
Gene:
Unit of heredity made up of DNA, determines some characteristics.
Allele:
Variant form of a gene, located at the same position (locus) on a chromosome.
- Humans are diploid (two alleles per gene, one from each parent).
- Alleles can be dominant or recessive.
GENOTYPE VS. PHENOTYPE
Genotype:
An organism's genetic makeup (e.g., BB- Homozygous Dominant, Bb - Heterozygous,
bb - Homozygous Recessive).
Phenotype:
Observable physical traits of an organism.
MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Gregor Mendel:
"Father of Genetics," discovered fundamental laws of inheritance with pea plants.
LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Law of Segregation:
Alleles separate during gamete formation, with sex cells containing only one allele.
(Demonstrated by monohybrid crosses)
Law of Independent Assortment:
Genes for different traits sort independently, so inheritance of one trait doesn't affect
another. (Demonstrated by dihybrid crosses, involves recombination during meiosis)
Law of Dominance:
In a heterozygote, the dominant allele determines the phenotype.
PUNNETT SQUARE
A tool to represent segregation and predict offspring genotypes/phenotypes.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Inheritance patterns that deviate from Mendelian principles
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Codominance:
Both alleles are expressed in a heterozygote.
Incomplete Dominance:
Dominant allele doesn't completely mask the recessive allele.
Multiple Alleles:
More than two alleles exist for a single gene.
Polygenic Inheritance:
Multiple genes influence a single trait.
Sex-Linked Inheritance:
Chromosomes
- Humans have 23 chromosome pairs:
22 pairs are autosomes (non-sex chromosomes) with similar genes in both males and
females.
- 1 pair is sex chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males).
X Chromosome:
- Carries many genes unrelated to sex determination.
- Traits controlled by these genes show sex-linked inheritance.
- Males inherit one X chromosome from their mother.
Y Chromosome:
- Determines maleness.
- Contains fewer genes compared to the X chromosome.
- Y-linked inheritance is less common due to fewer genes.
TYPES OF SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
X-linked inheritance:
- Traits are controlled by genes on the X chromosome.
- Can be dominant or recessive.
- Males, with only one X chromosome, are more likely to show the trait (especially for
recessive disorders).
- Examples: Red-green color blindness, Hemophilia A.
Y-linked inheritance:
- Traits are controlled by genes on the Y chromosome.
- Passed from father to son only.
- Less common due to fewer genes on the Y chromosome.
- Examples (debated): Sweaty palms, hairy earlobes.
Lesson 1.2: Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering
The process of artificially modifying an organism's DNA to change its characteristics.
Also called genetic modification (GM) or recombinant DNA technology (rDNA)
technology. Results in Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
History of Genetic Engineering
Pre-1960s:
Discovery of the double helix structure of DNA by Watson and Crick (1953).
1960s:
Discovery of DNA ligase (1967) and restriction enzymes (1968) which enabled DNA
manipulation.
1970s:
First recombinant DNA cloning (1972).
Gene splicing experiments.
DNA mapping.
1980s:
First transgenic animal (1981).
Production of synthetic insulin (1982).
First recombinant vaccine (hepatitis B) approved (1986).
Introduction of Bt corn (1988).
1990s:
First genetically modified tomato brought to market (1994).
Cloning of Dolly the sheep (1996).
2000s:
Human genome mapping completed.
First gene-targeted drug therapy approved.
Development of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
2010s:
First GMO salmon approved for sale in Canada (2015).
First attempt at human embryo editing using CRISPR (2015).
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- The hereditary material containing the instructions for building and maintaining an
organism.
- Made up of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
- There are four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and
guanine (G).
Classical Breeding vs. Genetic Engineering
Classical breeding:
Mating organisms with desirable traits to create offspring with those traits.
Used for creating new breeds of animals and varieties of plants.
Results in non-GMOs.
Genetic Engineering:
Using molecular techniques to directly modify an organism's DNA.
Can involve introducing new genes, enhancing existing genes, or suppressing genes.
Techniques include cloning, gene splicing, and DNA recombination.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Technology
The process of joining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new DNA
molecule.
Uses vectors (usually plasmids) to carry the desired genes into a host cell.
Steps of Recombinant DNA Technology:
- Cutting DNA with restriction enzymes.
- Selecting a suitable vector.
- Ligation (joining) of the desired gene with the vector.
- Transferring the recombinant DNA into a host cell.
- Selecting and growing cells containing the recombinant DNA.
- Sequencing the gene to understand the protein it codes for.
Cloning:
Creating a genetically identical copy of an organism.
Clones can be individuals, cells, or genes.
