1.

0 LATHE MACHINE
LATHE MACHINE-Introduction, Working Principle, Parts, Operation, Specification

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A lathe is a machine tool which is used to remove unwanted metals from the work piece to give desired
shape and size. Lathe machine is one of the most important machine tools which is used in the
metalworking industry. It is also known as ” the mother/father of the entire tool family”. It was invented
by David Wilkinson ( 05 Jan. 1771 – 03 Feb. 1852). Lathe machine is also known as “ Centre Lathe ”
because of two centres between which the job can be held and rotated.

1.2 MAIN PARTS OF LATHE MACHINE

In a lathe machine every individual part performs an important task. Some important parts of a lathe
machine are as follows: Bed, Head Stock, Main Spindle, Tail Stock, Lead Screw, Live Centre, Dead Centre,
Carriage (i. Saddle, ii. Apron, iii. Tool Post, iv. Cross slide, v. Compound Rest, vi. Compound Slide), Feed
Mechanism ( i. Belt Feed Mechanism, ii. Gear Feed Mechanism).
i. Bed

The Bed forms the base of a machine. It is mounted on the legs of the lathe machine, which are bolted to
the floor. It is made up of cast iron and its top surface is machined accurately and precisely.
ii. Head Stock

Head stock is an important part of a lathe machine, which is mounted permanently on the inner guide –
ways at the left hand side of the bed. It consists of a main spindle, a chuck fitted at spindle nose, back gear
drive and all gear drive.

iii. Main Spindle

A main spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft. The spindle rotates on two large bearings housed on the head
stock casting. The front end of the spindle is threaded, those are used for holding the chuck, face plate,
driving plate and catch plate. It is known as a spindle nose.

iv. Tail Stock

A tail stock is located on the inner guide – ways at the right side of the bed opposite to the head stock.
The body of the tail stock is bored and house the tail stock spindle. The spindle moves front and back
inside the hole. It has a taper hole to receive the dead centre of tools such as drill or reamer. Its body
made up of cast iron.

v. Lead Screw

It is used to transmit power to carriage through gear and clutch arrangement in the carriage apron.

vi. Live Centre

A Live Centre is mounting on bearings and rotates with the work. Live centres are using to hold or support
a work-piece.

vii. Dead Centre

A dead centre may be used to support the work piece at either the fixed or rotating end of the machine.
Dead centres are typically fully hardened to prevent damage to the important mating surfaces of the taper
and to preserve the 60° angle of the nose.

viii. Carriage

A carriage is located between the head stock and tail stock on the lathe bed guide – ways. It can be moved
along the bed either towards or away from the head stock. It has several parts to support, move and
control the cutting tool.
ix. Feed Mechanism

There are several mechanisms to make the carriage and cross slide move automatically to change the
direction of their movement.

Some important feed mechanisms are as follows:

• Belt Feed Mechanism: Belt feed mechanism is widely use in oldest lathe machines. In this, a cone
stepped pulley is used for providing the different types of speed. To change the speed, a lever is
used for sliding the belt at one pulley to another. Belt feed mechanism has a disadvantage of the
belt slipping in pulley changing process.

• Gear Feed Mechanism: In the gear feed mechanism, the power is transmitted from spindle to feed
rod or lead screw by power gear train.
 Gear 1 is situated at the back side of the spindle and the tumbler bracket consists of the
gears 2, 3, 4 and 5. A lever operates the bracket. This bracket is pivoted about the axis of
the stud gear.

1.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE LATHE MACHINE

It operates on the principle of a rotating work piece and a fixed cutting tool. The cutting tool is feed into
the work piece which rotates about its own axis causing the workpiece to form the desired shape.

The machine tool that‘s used to remove unwanted metals from the work piece to give the desired shape
and size so called ” Lathe machine “. The main function of Lathe machine is to remove excess material in
the form of chips by rotating the work piece against a stationary cutting tool.

This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against
cutting tool which will remove metal from the work. To cut the material properly the tool should be harder
than the material of the work piece, should be rigidly held on the machine and should be fed or progress
in a definite way relative to the work.

1.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE MACHINE

A lathe is a machine tool which use to removes unwanted materials from a work piece in the form of chips
with the help of a tool that travels across the work piece and can be fed deep in work.
When the tool is moved parallel to the work-piece then the cylindrical surface is formed.

Face plate or Chuck are used for holding the work.

Face plate or Chuck are mounted on the machine spindle.

The cutting tool is held with the help of Tool post.

The movement of the job is rotating about the spindle axis while the tool is fed against the revolving work.

The tool moves either parallel or inclination to the work axis.

i. CHUCK– Chuck is basically used to hold the workpiece, particularly of short length and large
diameter or of irregular shape which can’t be conveniently mounted between centres. It can
be attached to the lathe by screwing on the spindle nose. There are four different types of
chuck commonly used in the lathe machine namely:
a. Independent or four jaw chuck:
It is used for irregular shapes, rough castings of square or octagonal in such jobs, where a
hole is to be positioned off the centre. It consists of four jaws and each jaw is
independently actuated and adjusted by a key for holding the job.

b. Three jaw or universal chuck:

It consists of three jaws which move simultaneously by turning a key and the workpiece
automatically remains in the centre of the chuck opening. It is used for holding round,
hexagonal bar or other symmetric work.

c. Collet chuck
It is mostly used in the places where production work is required such as in Capstan Lathe
or automats. It is used for holding the bars of small sizes (below 63mm).

d. Magnetic chuck:
They are of permanent magnet type or electrically operated. In lathe it does not have a
widespread use.
1.5 OPERATIONS OF LATHE MACHINE

I TURNING

Turning is the operation of reducing the diameter of a work piece to produce a cone -shaped or a
cylindrical surface as shown in fig. above.

A simple single point cutting tools are use for turning operations.
Turning can be different types like:

a. Tapers and Taper Turning: A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter
of a piece of work measured along its length. In a lathe, taper turning means to produce a conical
surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical work piece.
b. Straight turning: The Straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal
from the work piece.
c. Profiling: In profiling, the cut can be varied with regard to cutting depth, feed and speed.
d. External grooving: In external turning operations machines the outer diameter of the work piece.

ii .FACING

Facing is an operation of reducing the length of a work piece to produce a flat surface square with the
axis. A regular turning tool may also be using for facing a large work piece.

Iii .DRILLING

Drilling is an operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece by the rotating cutting edge of a
cutter known as the drill.
Iv BORING

Boring is the operation of enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity to produce circular internal grooves.

Holes may be bore straight and tapered.

a. Counter Boring: Counter Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole through a certain
distance from one end instead of enlarging the whole drilled surface.
b. Taper Boring: Taper Boring is similar to the external taper turning operation and is
accomplished by rotating the work on chuck or a face plate, and feeding the tool at an
angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece.

v. REAMING

Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a hole which has been previously drilled or bored. The
tool used is called the reamer, which has multiple cutting edges.

vi. KNURLING
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a work piece. The
purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from slipping
when operated by hand.

vii. CHAMFERING

Chamfering is the operation of bevelling the extreme end of a work piece. This is done to remove the
burrs, to protect the end of the work piece from being damaged and to have a better look.

viii. FILLING

Filling is the finishing operation performed after turning. This is done in a lathe to remove burrs, sharp
corners, and feed marks on a work piece and also to bring it to the size by removing very small amount of
metal. The operation consists of passing a flat single cut file over the work piece which revolves at high
speed.

[Link]

Parting is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been machining to the desired size and shape.
This process involves rotating the work piece on a chuck or face plate at half the speed that of turning and
feeding by a narrow parting – off tool perpendicular to the axis by rotating the cross -slide screw by hand.

x. THREADING
Threading is an operation to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by feeding the
tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between centre’s or by a chuck. Threads can be produced
either on internal or external surface of a cylindrical bar.

xi. GROOVING

Grooving is the process of reducing the diameter of a work piece over a very narrow surface. It is often
done at the end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin.

Grooving operations are:

a. Square Groove, b. Round Groove, c. Bevelled Groove

xii. FORMING

Forming is the process of turning a convex, concave or of any irregular shape.

xiii. POLISHING

It is basically a surface finishing operation to improve the surface quality of the work piece. Polishing with
successively finer grades of emery cloth after filling results in very smooth, bright surface.

1.6 TYPES OF LATHE MACHINE

Lathe machines are classified according to their construction and design. Some of them are:

i. Bench lathe machine: Bench lathe is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. This is using for small
and precision work.

ii. Speed lathe machine: Speed lathe is the simplest of all types of lathe in construction and operation.
It consists of a bed , a head stock, a tail stock and a tool – post mounted on an adjustable slide. The spindle
speed is about 4000 rpm. They named because of very High Speed of head stock spindle.

iii. Engine lathe or centre lathe machine: The term ” engine ” is associated with the lathe which is early
driven by steam engines. An engine lathe is also known as a reproductive machine because of its
production capabilities. Engine lathes are excellent tools, which aid in the creation of many modern tools.

Advantages

It is using for mass production of products.

It is using for manufacturing cylindrical shapes like steels and plastics.

Disadvantages

It is very difficult to program in machine language.

iv. Tool room lathe machine: Tool room lathe is similar to an engine lathe. This lathe is mainly using for
precision work on tools, Dies, Gauges and in making work where accuracy is necessary. It is used for
making precision components in the tool room.

v. Capstan and Turret Lathe machine

a. Capstan Lathe

They having features of the basic lathe and have short slide tail stock. A Capstan machine is a
processing machine uses for making the same parts again and again.
 Advantages

The production rate is high.

Disadvantages

The heavier work-piece cannot machine by capstan lathe.

b. Turret Lathe

The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe. It is used for repetitive production of duplicate
parts. In a turret lathe, a longitudinally feed able, hexagon turret replaces the tail stock.

Advantages

Turret lathe is using to machine the long and heavy workpieces.

They having hexagonal tool post or head.
There is no need of changing the tool.

Disadvantages

They have manual indexes.

vi. Special purpose lathe machine

Special Purpose lathe are using for special purposes and for jobs which cannot be accommodated or
conveniently machined on a standard lathe.

vii. Automatic lathe machine

In the automatic lathe, the various operations are automating like the change of the work piece.

The working cycle is fully automatic that is repeated to produce duplicate parts without participation of
operator.

Advantages

During machine operation operator is free to operate another machine.

More economy in floor space.

Disadvantages

Lots of consideration are taking on fixing the setup.

1.6 LATHE MACHINE FORMULA FOR CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT

1. Cutting Speed

The cutting speed (v) of a tool is the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool from the

work piece. In a lathe, it is the peripherical speed of the work past the cutting tool expressed in

meters per minute.

Ii Feed

The feeds of the cutting tool in lathe work are the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the
work. Feed is expressed in millimeters per revolution.

Increased feed reduces cutting time. But increased feed greatly reduces the tool life. The feed depends
on factors such as size, shape, strength and method of holding the component, the tool shape and its
setting as regards overhang, the rigidity of the machine, depth of cut, power available, etc. rougher feeds
are applied for roughing and finer feeds for finishing cuts.

Iii Depth of cut

The depth of cut (t) is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of the work piece. In a lathe machine, the depth of cut is shown as follows:

d1 - diameter of the work piece surface before machining.

d2 - diameter of the machined surface. Another factor remaining fixed, the depth of cut changes inversely
as the cutting speed.

For general purpose, the ratio of the depth of cut to the feed varies from 10:1
2.0 MILLING MACHINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

What is a Milling Machine?

A milling machine uses cutters to rotate around the workpiece to remove materials to reach a desired
shape. Its expert precision makes it popular for use in industries and factories to make products of all
variations of sizes and shapes.

These machines can cut, drill and bore into a material in the process of milling, as its name suggests. Its
purpose is to remove excess material in chips powered by a high-speed rotation.

2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LATHES & MILLING MACHINES

So, from just the definition of each of these popular machines, it can be confusing which to choose. After
all, they both work towards the end result of removing material to shape a workpiece. But while the result
may be similar, there are five distinct differences between lathes and milling machines.

The main difference between a lathe and a milling machine is the technique. With a lathe, the workpiece
spins while the blade stays still. Whereas with a milling machine, the blade rotates and the workpiece
stays still. There are still other distinctive differences as seen below:

i. How They Work

In a nutshell, lathe and milling machines work in a way that is fundamentally opposite from each other.
For example, a lathe machine utilises a cutting tool that remains completely stationary throughout the
whole process. Instead, the workpiece is rotated around the cutting tool to shape the material and remove
excess. It features a tool holder that keeps the cutting tool in place with tightened security that ensures it
cannot move. The chuck holds the workpiece on the headstock to rotate it continuously.
This is completely different from a milling machine which works by the cutting tool rotating at high speed
via a spindle or arbour. Without this rotation, the cutting tool has no movement around the workpiece
held on the machine's table. The table movement feeds the workpiece towards the cutter, enabling the
desired shape to be formed.

ii. What They’re Used For

The lathe and milling machines can be used for various purposes and operations. For example, a lathe is
typically used for;

• Turning
• Thread Cutting
• Facing
• Knurling
• Boring
• Counterboring
• Cutting
• Drilling
• Reaming
• Spot Facing
• Sanding
• Chamfering

Whereas a milling machine is used for;

• Facing
• Side milling
• Plain milling
• Sawmilling
• Threading
• Milling keyways, Grooves, and slots
• Helical milling
• Straddle milling
• Form milling
• Gang milling

iii. Different Variations

When it comes to machine types, both lathes and milling machines are available in a number of different
variations. These have been broken down into two definitive lists. For machine types that are available in
a CNC option, which stands for computer numerically controlled, it means they use computer automation
to achieve the same accurate results every time.

Lathe Machine Variations:

• CNC Lathe
• Vertical Lathe
 • Horizontal Lathe
• Speed lathe/Wood Lathe
• Engine lathe
• Capstan and Turret lathe
• Wheel Lathe
• Bench Type Jewelers Lathe
• Automatic Lathe
• Crankshaft Lathe
• Tool-Room Lathe

Milling Machine Variations:

• CNC Milling Machine

• Manufacturing or Bed-Type Milling Machine
• Horizontal Milling Machine
• Vertical Milling Machine
• Knee-Type Milling Machine
• Planner-Type Milling Machine
• Ram-Type Milling Machine

iv. Cutting Tools

Another key difference between lathe and milling machines is their cutting tools. Firstly, a lathe machine
uses an insert cutter as the primary cutting tool. The tip of which can be removed and changed and is the
key to cutting and shaping materials. In comparison, an insert tool is not a common feature of a milling
machine. Instead, it uses an end mill which is useful as it can be operated at different speeds to achieve
results as desired.

v. What They’re Best For

Finally, the difference between lathe and milling machines that you most likely want to know is what
they’re best for. As each machine works in different ways and with other systems, it is clear that the results
achieved by each will be different, so each is best used for various purposes. For cylindrical shapes and
cutting, you should choose a lathe machine. These machines allow you to get more precise cuts as it is the
workpieces that are moved around the cutting tool to shape the desired result. You should opt for a
milling machine for projects requiring straight cuts and drilled holes. These are capable of a wide range of
functions, including off-centre drilling and angled cuts not possible with a lathe.

2.3 WHAT ARE MILLING CUTTERS?

Milling cutters are crucial components of milling machines, serving as the cutting tools used to remove
excess material from the workpiece. Each milling machine incorporates a specific cutter for precise
machining operations. Milling cutters are rotary tools used to shape and remove material from workpieces
during machining processes. Milling cutters are essential in various industries, such as manufacturing,
metalworking, and woodworking. Each type of milling cutter is designed to serve specific purposes and
achieve precise results. These tools play a crucial role in shaping, grooving, slotting, and contouring
workpieces with accuracy and efficiency, from simple end mills to complex form cutters.

Types of Milling Cutting Tools

The various types of milling cutters are:

• Plain Milling Cutters

• Face Milling Cutter
• Side milling cutter
• Angle Milling Cutters
• 'T' Slot Milling Cutter
• Form Relieving Cutter
• Gang Milling Cutter
• Peripheral Milling cutter
• Straddle Milling cutter
• Cylindrical Milling cutter
• Hollow milling cutter
• Dovetail cutter
• Formed Milling Cutter
• End Mill Cutter
• Metal Slitting Saw
• Fly Cutter
• Inserted Tooth Milling Cutter
• Woodruff Key Slot Milling Cutter
• Tap and Reamer Cutter
• Solid Cutter
• Tipped Solid Cutter
• Thread mill Cutter
• Ball cutter
• Hobbing cutter

2.4 WHAT IS INDEXING IN MILLING MACHINE?

Indexing in a milling machine is mainly used to cut gear teeth accurately and equal spacing of the teeth of
the gear. It is also used for milling gears, splines, squares, cutting of flutes in reamers, drills and milling
cutters, racks, grinders, etc.

It is an operation to divide the circumference of a workpiece into equally spaced divisions. This operation
is performed on the milling machine by means of an indexing attachment called an indexing head or
dividing head. But nowadays CNC type milling machine is most widely used in the industry because this
type of milling machine is fully automatic.
 • Linear Indexing
To divide equal division of flat surface is called linear indexing. Linear indexing is done on
horizontal milling machines such as milling racks, steel rule graduations, [Link] indexing is
done by 2 methods:
By movement of a graduated collar of milling machine
By using a dividing head on a milling machine.

2.5 PRINCIPLE OF MACHINING

In machining or metal cutting, relative velocity between cutting tool and workpiece is mandatory in order
to cut (shear off) excess material from workpiece to get desired shape, size, finish and tolerance. Every
machining process requires three relative motions namely cutting velocity, feed rate and depth of cut.
Such motions are imparted in several ways in various directions depending on the process and
requirement.

There exist a number of parameters to judge one’s machining process; however, all of them may not be
applicable for every case. A list of various responses that determine overall performance is enlisted below.

• Cutting force
• Specific cutting energy
• Power consumption
• Material removal rate
• Surface finish and surface integrity
• Level of burr
• Cutting temperature
• Type and colour of chip
• Tool wear
• Tool life
• Machining time

2.6 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL VS MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOL

A single-point cutting tool is defined as a tool with only one main cutting edge similarly, double-point
cutting tools have two cutting edges, and multi-point cutting tools have two or more main cutting edges.

In the machining process, A single-point cutting tool is used for cutting, shaping and boring because here
a single cutting edge removes or cuts the whole material in one pass. Whereas, in a double point cutting
tool, two cutting edges participate equally to remove material in one pass. As a result, the chip load
reduces on both cutting edges.

A multi-point cutting tool has two to hundreds of cutting edges (for example, TCT blades used as wood
cutting tools). Double or multi-point cutting tools are primarily used for drilling, milling, reaming, and
knurlings applications.
Important similarities between single point and multi-point cutting tools

• Both single-point and multi-point cutting tools are used for metal cutting and excess material
removal. Multi-point cutters are often regarded as aluminum cutting tools.
• Both are utilized in traditional machining processes. However, different machining method
requires a different type of cutting tools.
• Single point and multi-point cutters, both require sharp cutting edges. But cutting-edge numbers
are not similar.
• For both types of metal cutting tools, geometry and material of workpiece are important factors.

Difference between single point and multi-point cutting tool

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOL

These tools have only one main cutting edge. These tools have two or more main cutting edges
The cutting process stops completely if a cutting The cutting process does not stop if any single
edge gets damaged. cutting edge gets damaged.
Cutting tool contacts workpiece with only one Cutting tool contacts workpiece with one or more
edge. edges.
These tools are used to perform shaping, boring, These tools perform drilling, milling, reaming,
turning, and facing. turning & more.
Single Point cutting tools are mainly utilized with Multi-Point cutting tools are utilized with the
a lathe, planer, shaper, or slotter machine. grinding, milling, or more such heavy machinery.
Fabrication and design are simple. Fabrication and design are difficult.
For a single pass, the complete chip load is borne Here complete chip load is distributed equally in
by a single cutting edge. all cutting edges.
Provide a good surface finish with less accuracy. Provide an excellent surface finish with high
accuracy.
This tool can be made from the grinder machine. Multi-point tools can not be made from only
grinder machines.
 Tools manufacturing and designing take less Tools manufacturing and designing takes more
time time
Single point cutting tools costs low. Multi-point cutting tools cost high.
High cutting temperature. Low cutting temperature.
Single point cutting tools have a short life span. Multi-point cutting tools have a long life span.
Low material removal rate (MRR). High material removal rate (MRR).
The single-point cutting tool wear rate is quite The multi-point tool wear rate is comparatively
high. low.
Examples of single-point cutting tools are- Examples of multi-point cutting tools are-

• Boring tool • Grinding wheels

• Slotting tool • Knurling tools
• Planing tool • Milling tools
• Shaping tool • Hobs
• Fly milling • Broach
• Turning tool, etc. • Reamer, etc.

2.7 CHIP FORMATION

Good chip formation produces spiral-shaped chips and guarantees good tool life, easy chip handling and
evacuation, good surface quality and a stable, reliable, efficient cutting process. In short, a good chip must
be an easy-to-handle size and require minimal effort to generate.

Various groups of factors offer practical ways to influence chip formation, including

I. cutting tools features: Of main importance here are the rake angle and cutting-edge
angle, nose radius, and the geometry of the cutting edge and chip breaker. Larger rake
angles, lower cutting-edge angles and a larger nose radius yield longer chips
II. cutting conditions: The most practical way to influence chip formation is to modify cutting
conditions, which can be very easy and effective to change. The basic cutting condition to
adjust is chip thickness ratio or slenderness. When chip thickness ratio is too small, it
produces so-called square chips that create overly high loads on the tool nose and thus
limit tool life considerably. A too-high chip thickness ratio leads to slender ribbon-shaped
chips that are very difficult to break into short pieces.
III. materials: Material factors include workpiece hardness and tensile strength, ductility and
structural considerations. These elements cannot be modified to improve chip formation,
but the machinist must consider their impact on chip formation.
IV. cooling system: The influence of cooling system on chip formation is rather arbitrary. It is
very difficult to see fixed relationships between the type of cooling system and its impact
on chip formation. One exception is the so-called HPDC (High Pressurized Directed
 Cooling) system, which clearly leads to much-shorter chips. This type of cooling system is
applied in the Seco Jetstream tooling system.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF BASIC CHIP TYPES

The actual cross section defines the four different types of chips:

• Serrated, segmented or noncontinuous chips

• Continuous chips with narrow, straight, primary shear zones, or continuous chips with a
secondary shear zone at the tool chip interface
• Builtup edge chips
• Shearing chips or short chips

All chips have two surfaces. The outer surface displays a shiny, polished surface because it rubs – and
causes wear – on the rake face of the tool. Every chip also has an inner surface formed by the original
surface of the workpiece, with a jagged, rough appearance caused by the actual shearing mechanism.

A. Chip

B. Without chip breaker

C. With chip breaker

D. Chip breaker

E. Tool

F. Workpiece
2.8 THE EFFECTS OF HEAT GENERATION ON CUTTING TOOL AND MACHINED WORKPIECE

Metal cutting processes usually cause heat generation at the cutting zone (around the workpiece-tool
intersection). The heat generated during these processes may cause different effects on both the
workpiece and tool, this in turn may affect the finished product and the general performance of the
machined piece.

Heat generated during machining could have both positive and adverse effects on the workpiece material.
Heat generated during machining could result in the reduction of strength/hardness of the workpiece
material, thereby lowered cutting forces. The reduction of cutting forces more often results a reduction
of power consumption and an improvement in machinability of the workpiece material. However, higher
temperature at the cutting zone due to chemical reactivity of workpiece and cutting tool at high
temperature, results in adhesion and diffusion wear.

Higher rate of heat is generated at the cutting zone during machining of metals and alloys with low
thermal conductivity, this heat cannot be rapidly dispersed into the rapidly moving chip. Higher
temperature generation also affects the micro-structural constituents of the alloys, which may pose
danger since the alloy is used for sensitive purposes. One major effect of heat on workpiece is its influence
on surface roughness during metal cutting processes.

Some other problems heat generation could have on the workpiece include; dimensional inaccuracy in
the products as a result of thermal distortion together with expansion-contraction in the process and after
machining, surface damage due to oxidation, burning and rapid corrosion. Summarily, when the heat
generated affects and causes deterioration of cutting tool, there is a resultant effect on the workpiece as
surface integrity becomes compromised and this has contributed to failure of most fabricated parts.

2.9 TOOL LIFE AND WEAR

Tool life refers to the useful life of a machine tool. It can be expressed in the amount of good parts that a
given tool is capable of machining. Once a tool is worn to the point that the parts being created are out
of spec, its life is effectively over and the tool should be replaced.

Tool wear, tool failure, and tool life are a reality of CNC machining. All tools experience tool wear and will
eventually fail if they continue to do work. However, it is in managing the lifespan of the tool effectively
that manufacturers can drive the most efficient use of their machine tools.

The only possible way to increase machine tool life while preventing scrap parts and failures is to collect
machine tool data and use it to determine when a tool changeover should take place.

All tools have predictable lifespan curves – the time period that a tool is expected to last and produce
parts to desired quality standards. However, tool life can be difficult to determine accurately, especially if
done manually, due to the wide variety of factors that affect the lifespan of a tool. For example, the
material being worked upon, the type of cut, the speed and feed rates, etc.
I WAYS TO IMPROVE TOOL LIFE

While no tool lasts forever, there are many factors affecting tool life. Here are a few methods to reduce
tool wear and tear:

a. Use Appropriate Speeds and Feeds

While the cutting tool rotates, bores, or cuts at a set cutting speed, it also traverses along the
workpiece. Using the right speed and feed settings will increase tool life significantly. While
actual cutting time is always a consideration, the proper settings for speed and feed can
extend the tool's life.

b. Apply Cutting Fluid

The cutting process generates a lot of heat due to metal-to-metal contact. The right type of
cutting fluid and the right amount of fluid application will prolong tool life.

c. Do Not Re-Cut Chips

Chips are the way to have the metal material removed from the workpiece after cutting. They
also carry away excess heat generated during cutting. But settings must be correct to prevent
re-cutting chips resulting in flank wear increases, crater wear, and other tool wear causes.

d. Use the Right Tools

The complexity of the workpiece, surface roughness, required machining accuracy, tolerance
requirements for the finished part, and other considerations are critical. For example, some
workpieces may be strong enough to need a high-speed steel tool. Knowing these parameters
will help select the right tool for the combination of factors.
 e. Distribute Wear over the Cutting Edge
Programs and cutting plans should be designed to utilize as much of the cutting edge as
possible. Continuous focus on one part of the cutting tool can increase tool wear.

f. Control Runout
Age of equipment can affect runout in machining. Modern-day machines may have
an[Link] automated tool holder. This tool
holder ensures proper positioning and securing of the tool. For older machines, runout comes
from misaligning or securing the centre of the tool shaft relative to the centreline of the
central axis and can result in scrapped parts and lower tool life.

g. Control Deflection
As heat builds and cutting is underway, tremendous cutting forces are happening as material
characteristics affect both tool and workpiece. The chips that are formed as metal is removed
and exit the workpiece push back when they build up. If variables are not correct, this can
bend or deflect the tool.

II FACTORS INFLUENCING TOOL LIFE

Using a tool life curve calculation such as Taylor's Tool Life Equation, different factors can be plotted to
project different tool life curves for a tool depending on the combination of variables that applies. These
include:

a. Cutting Rate

Faster is not always better. Workpiece hardness, different tool materials, the complexity of cuts, and
other factors mean an optimum rate for each combination of factors.

b. Feed Rate and Cut Depth

Like cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut can also be optimized. And that optimal point will be
determined by the aggressiveness of the required cut.

c. Workpiece Hardness

Tools used to cut very hard material will wear faster than those used in cutting softer metals. The
different hardness of the workpiece can trigger different tool wear types. Built-up edge can occur in
soft metals such as aluminium. Metals like titanium can cause catastrophic failure to an incorrect tool.

d. Tool Material

Like workpiece hardness, tool material must have performance characteristics that meet or exceed
the cut piece. Some tools can be specially hardened to work with material life-hardened steel or exotic
metals like titanium. But they must also be designed to work with metals that have a poor surface
finish.
 e. Type of Cutting

Some cutting tools impart light abrasion to create a surface finish. Others are more aggressive. Like
the cutting speed and feed rate, the type of cutting must be considered in plotting tool life curves and
reducing wear.

2.10 VIBRATION AND CHATTER IN MACHINE TOOL OPERATIONS

During the machining process, there might be undesired vibrations as the cutting tool interacts with the
material, known as ‘chatter’. The term might sound trivial, but it’s a key factor that can be the difference
between a flawless component and a flawed one.

Chatter in machining isn’t about conversations; it’s about the undesired vibrations during machining
processes. These vibrations can compromise the quality, accuracy, and finish of the machined parts.
Chatter, in the simplest terms, represents the vibrations that occur between a workpiece and the
machining tool during the process. These vibrations, while they might sound inconsequential, can produce
a domino effect, leading to numerous challenges and imperfections in the machined product.

I Causes of Chatter in Machining

In fact, chatter is a common phenomenon, and has its roots in various factors. Pinpointing these causes is
the first step toward understanding how to mitigate them. By segregating these factors into three distinct
categories: Machine Tool Dynamics, Cutting Conditions, and Tool Geometry and Condition, we can
uncover the origins of chatter and pave the way for more efficient machining processes.

a. Machine Tool Dynamics

At the core of any machining process is the machine itself. However, every machine,
irrespective of its sophistication, has certain inherent dynamics that play a role in the
emergence of chatter.
Natural Frequencies: Every mechanical structure possesses certain natural
frequencies at which it tends to vibrate. If the machining operation aligns with these
frequencies, it can lead to chatter. The exact frequency can vary from one machine
to another, based on its design, construction, and wear and tear.
Stability Lobes: In machining, there’s a phenomenon known as stability lobes which
essentially represents the regions of stability in terms of spindle speed. Operating
within these stability regions can help reduce chatter.
Machine Rigidity: The rigidity of the machine plays a vital role. Machines that are
more rigid can absorb more vibrations, thereby reducing the chances of chatter.

b. Cutting Conditions
Once we understand the machine’s inherent dynamics, it’s essential to consider the
conditions under which cutting occurs. These conditions, often influenced by external
factors, play a significant role in either suppressing or exacerbating chatter.
 The amount of material being removed in one pass (depth of cut) and the speed at which
the tool advances (feed rate) can impact chatter. An aggressive depth of cut can amplify
vibrations. While coolants help in reducing heat, their application can affect the cutting
process. An uneven or inappropriate application can lead to inconsistencies, paving the
way for chatter. Furthermore, how the workpiece is held during the machining process
matters. If it’s not fixed securely, it can vibrate and lead to chatter.

c. Tool Geometry and Condition

The third pillar in understanding chatter causes revolves around the tool being employed.
The shape, size, material, and overall health of the tool can greatly influence the
emergence of chatter.

3.0 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING AND 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

Additive manufacturing is the process of creating an object by building it one layer at a time. It is the
opposite of subtractive manufacturing, in which an object is created by cutting away at a solid block of
material until the final product is complete.

Technically, additive manufacturing can refer to any process where a product is created by building
something up, such as moulding, but it typically refers to 3-D printing.

3.1 RAPID PROTOTYPING

Additive manufacturing was first used to develop prototypes in the 1980s — these objects were not
usually functional. This process was known as rapid prototyping because it allowed people to create a
scale model of the final object quickly, without the typical setup process and costs involved in creating a
prototype.

As additive manufacturing improved, its uses expanded to rapid tooling, which was used to create moulds
for final products. By the early 2000s, additive manufacturing was being used to create functional
products. More recently, companies like Boeing and General Electric have begun using additive
manufacturing as integral parts of their business processes.

3.2 THE ADVANTAGES OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

I. COMPLEX GEOMETRIES
The technology enables engineers to design parts that incorporate complexity that is not possible
using other methods. Intricate features, such as conformal cooling passages, can be incorporated
directly into a design. Parts that previously required assembly and welding or brazing of multiple
pieces can now be grown as a single part, which makes for greater strength and durability.
Designers are no longer restricted to the limitations of traditional machines and can create parts
with greater design freedom.
 II. TIME SAVINGS
Additive manufacturing is ideal for getting prototypes made quickly. Parts are manufactured
directly from a 3D CAD file, which eliminates the cost and lengthy process of having fixtures or
dies created. Plus, changes can be made mid-stream with virtually no interruption in the process.

III. WEIGHT SAVINGS

By incorporating organic structures into designs, designers can eliminate substantial weight while
maintaining the part’s strength and integrity. An illustration of this advantage can be seen in a
GrabCAD® Bracket Challenge conducted by GE (General Electric). An existing bracket was
redesigned for additive manufacturing, with the winning entry maintaining strength of the original
while reducing the weight by 84%.

3.3 WHAT IS 3D PRINTING

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional objects from a digital file.
The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process an object
is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is created. Each of these layers can
be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the object.

There is one exception though, and it’s called volumetric 3D printing. With volumetric printing entire
structures can be formed at once without the need for layer-by-layer fabrication. It’s worth noting,
however, that as of now, volumetric technology is primarily in the research phase.

3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing out a block of
material with for instance a milling machine. 3D printing enables you to produce complex shapes using
less material than traditional manufacturing methods.

3.4 HOW DOES 3D PRINTING WORK

To create an object using additive manufacturing, someone must first create a design. This is typically
done using computer aided design, or CAD, software, or by taking a scan of the object someone wants to
print. A software then translates the design into a layer by layer framework for the additive manufacturing
machine to follow, this process is known as slicing. Slicing basically means slicing up a 3D model into
hundreds or thousands of layers and is done with slicing software.

When your file is sliced, it’s ready to be sent to the 3-D printer, which begins creating the object
immediately, hence making you go directly from digital to physical. Feeding the file to your printer can be
done via USB, SD or Wi-Fi. Your sliced file is now ready to be 3D printed layer by layer. Additive
manufacturing uses any number of materials, from polymers, metals, and ceramics to foams, gels, and
even biomaterials.
3.5 EXAMPLES OF 3D PRINTING

3D printing encompasses many forms of technologies and materials as 3D printing is being used in almost
all industries you could think of. It’s important to see it as a cluster of diverse industries with a myriad of
different applications.

A few examples:

– consumer products (eyewear, footwear, design, furniture)

– industrial products (manufacturing tools, prototypes, functional end-use parts)

– dental products

– prosthetics

– architectural scale models & maquettes

– reconstructing fossils

– replicating ancient artefacts

– reconstructing evidence in forensic pathology

– movie props

3.6 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING VERSUS CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING

Despite all the advantages of additive manufacturing, it does not mean that it will replace traditional
manufacturing completely—at least for now. This is because, aside from specific use cases, traditional
manufacturing is still faster and less expensive. This is especially true when creating granular products.
The smaller the layer size, the slower the manufacturing. While the initial units are cheaper and faster
when made with additive manufacturing, in the long run, printing out every unit would take longer.

For some companies, though, using additive manufacturing is worth it. There is a case to be made for a
hybrid model of manufacturing. In this situation, the initial products would be additively manufactured,
but traditional manufacturing would take over once the lot sizes increased to a certain point. That would
continue while the product was in high demand, but instead of creating large amounts of excess inventory,
companies could revert back to additive manufacturing to meet demand as needed once it slowed.

This end of product-life use of additive manufacturing could be useful even for companies that have never
used the technology before. Companies like Caterpillar, which ships replacement parts within 24 hours,
could have 3-D printers set up at strategic locations to print and deliver those parts instead of keeping
inventory stocked at those locations. Mercedes, which says it will always supply spare parts for any car,
could 3-D print the parts for a 1928 SSK for significantly less than it would cost to produce them
traditionally.
Possible industries for disruption

There are a few industries where 3-D printing parts or products makes more sense than manufacturing
them traditionally. Aerospace, race cars, and the medical field are all industries where additive
manufacturing can make inroads.

That is because they are all industries where function is more important than price. Or where small lot
sizes or customization makes it less expensive to manufacture an object additively than traditionally.

Many other businesses may have uses for additive manufacturing. Without the setup costs of creating a
new product, entrepreneurs can quickly additively manufacture objects or parts to see if they work as
needed. If they don’t, they can iterate and try again, all using an additive manufacturing machine, until
they find a product that does. They may not even need their own machine to do this — companies like
UPS have set up 3-D printing machines at various locations that can be used by anyone.

Established businesses can also evaluate whether additive manufacturing can be part of their business
models. If a company produces products that are specialized or would benefit from the ability to have
complex geometries, it will have to determine whether additive manufacturing would improve its
products. Companies like Adidas are using additive manufacturing to create sneaker soles at speeds that
may make it suitable for mass customization.

REFERENCES

[Link]
introduction/#:~:text=Lathe%20machine%20is%20one%20of,to%20form%20the%20desired%20
shape
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
engine-lathe/
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]