Reference No: KLL-FO-ACAD-000 | Effectivity Date: August 3, 2020 | Revisions No.

: 00

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
PROCESSES
These form the backbone of knowledge management processes as they outline all
aspects involved in the actual management of knowledge.

• Knowledge Discovery & Detection

• Knowledge Organization & Assessment
• Knowledge Sharing
• Knowledge Reuse
• Knowledge Creation
• Knowledge Acquisition

 KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY & DETECTION

This step deals with discovering the knowledge that a firm possesses all over the
organization, as well as the patterns in the information available that hide previously
undetected pockets of knowledge. Once knowledge is created, it exists within the
organization. However, before it can be reused or shared it must be properly recognized
and categorized.

• Explicit Knowledge: This is largely a process of sorting through documents and

other records, as well as discovering knowledge within existing data and
knowledge repositories. For detection, IT can be used to uncover hidden
knowledge by looking at patterns and relationships within data and text. The main
tools/practices in this case include intelligence gathering, data mining (finding
patterns in large bodies of data and information), and text mining (text analysis to
search for knowledge, insights, etc.). Intelligence gathering is closely linked to
expert systems where the system tries to capture the knowledge of an expert,
though the extent to which they are competent for this task is questionable.

• Tacit knowledge: Discovering and detecting tacit knowledge is a lot more

complex and often it is up to the management in each firm to gain an understanding
of what their company's experts actually know. Since tacit knowledge is considered
as the most valuable in relation to sustained competitive advantage, this is a crucial
step that often simply involves observation and awareness. There are several
qualitative and quantitative tools/practices that can help in the process; these
include knowledge surveys, questionnaires, individual interviews, group
interviews, focus groups, network analysis, and observation. IT can be used to
help identify experts and communities. Groupware systems and other
social/professional networks as well as expert finders can point to people who are
considered experts and may also give an indication of the knowledge these
people/groups.

• Embedded Knowledge: This implies an examination and identification of the

knowledge trapped inside organizational routines, processes, products etc., which
has not already been made explicit. Management must essentially ask “why do we
do something a certain way?" This type of knowledge discovery involves
observation and analysis, and the use of reverse engineering and modeling tools
possess.

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

It is important to note that the sources of knowledge that a firm has access to may extend
well outside the organization. This type of knowledge is called extra-organizational
knowledge. This can exist in both formal and informal settings. The former refers to
management driven initiatives like partnerships, while the latter refers to the informal
networks of individual members. We are interested in the formal, which can be located
and managed at least to some degree.

• Alliances
• Suppliers
• Customers

Knowledge from alliances and partners can exist in joint projects, shared
knowledge/experts’ operational data and so on. Suppliers and customers can provide
product feedback, trends, developments etc. Within their respective limitations, similar
tools as above can be used to identify the knowledge and/or knowledge sources.

IT can be used in this context both as a means of feedback, communication, and

cooperation between partners, and also as a way to gather, analyze, and "mine” data and
information.

 KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION &

ASSESSMENT
In order to determine what resources they have at their disposal and to pin point strengths
and weaknesses, management needs to organize the knowledge into something
manageable. This involves activities that:

• Classify
• Map
• Index
• Categorize

The role of preparing, sanitizing, and organizing this knowledge to a "knowledge

intermediary". This may be a knowledge manager, or it may also be the actual producer
of the knowledge. The point is, that in order for knowledge to be shared (either for reuse
in a business situation or as a tool for knowledge creation), it must be prepared in such a
way that it can be identified, retrieved, and understood by the knowledge user.

• Explicit Knowledge - IT is generally encouraged as a means of organizing and

retrieving. IT based systems use taxonomies and ontologies to classify and
organize knowledge and information. These are categorization methods that
create a logical, hierarchical knowledge map, allowing the user to navigate by
category. It is relevant to note here that although explicit knowledge is not
considered as valuable as tacit knowledge, due to its sheer volume, an effective
method of classification and retrieval is often essential. Other tools include libraries
and data marts.

• Tacit Knowledge – Use of focus groups, expertise guides, social network

analysis, and knowledge coordinators. The role of the latter is to understand in
which context the tacit knowledge was created. Expertise locators, such as
corporate yellow pages, social network analysis and other knowledge maps can
be used to pinpoint the location and categorize the valuable expertise of tacit
knowledge sources (a.k.a. experts). They can also shed light into how widespread

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

 certain tacit knowledge is, enabling the firm to plan ahead for the retirement of key
employees.

• Embedded Knowledge - Job/workplace design, workflow analyses and

performance measures can be used to organize and assess embedded
knowledge. Mapping is also useful here, and knowledge maps outlining embedded
knowledge can be formulated under the guidance of knowledge brokers.

The determination of how important certain knowledge is to the organization is by two key
factors which are knowledge severity or criticality and knowledge availability. The more
critical the knowledge and the more unavailable it is (e.g. if only one or a few experts exist
and/or if they are near retirement age), the more attention this knowledge deserves.

Knowledge organization and assessment can seem like an expensive endeavor,

particularly since the return on investment is indirect. In other words, there is little visible
gain from meticulously classifying and organizing knowledge assets. However, it is an
important step in the knowledge management and reuse process. As discussed in the
subsection on knowledge detection, the organization can put systems in place that
facilitate the detection and organization of knowledge. These depend on the situation
within which the knowledge was created, and the possible recipients.

 KNOWLEDGE SHARING
As stated earlier, knowledge management is fundamentally about making the right
knowledge or the right knowledge sources (including people) available to the right people
at the right time. Knowledge sharing is therefore perhaps the single most important aspect
in this process, since the vast majority of KM initiatives depend upon it. Knowledge
sharing can be described as either push or pull. The latter is when the knowledge worker
actively seeks out knowledge sources (e.g. library search, seeking out an expert,
collaborating with a coworker etc.), while knowledge push is when knowledge is "pushed
onto" the user (e.g. newsletters, unsolicited publications, etc.).

Knowledge sharing depends on the habit and willingness of the knowledge worker to seek
out and/or be receptive to these knowledge sources. The right culture, incentives, and so
on must therefore be present.

Explicit Knowledge Sharing

Successful explicit knowledge sharing is determined by the following criteria:
 Articulation: The ability of the user to define what he needs.
 Awareness: Awareness of the knowledge available. The provider is
encouraged to make use of directories, maps, corporate yellow pages, etc.
 Access: Access to the knowledge.
 Guidance: Knowledge managers are often considered key in the build-up of a
knowledge sharing system. They must help define the areas of expertise of the
members of the firm, guide their contributions, assist users, and be responsible
for the language used in publications and other communication material. This
is so as to avoid an information/knowledge overload.
 Completeness: Access to both centrally managed and self-published
knowledge. The former is often more scrutinized but takes longer to publish
and is not as hands-on (and potentially relevant). Self-published information on
the other hand runs the risk of not being as reliable.

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

  IT systems have proved extremely useful in aiding or performing many of these
functions

Explicit Knowledge Sharing and IT

• IT is useful in most stages of the knowledge sharing process, and it is used for
content management as well as data and text mining (looking for hidden
knowledge, relationships, etc. within data and documents). Content management
systems are used to update, distribute, tag, and otherwise manage content. They
may include a wide range of functions, including web content management and
document management systems. They may be used to:
• Import and create documents and multimedia material.
• Identify key users and their roles.
• Assign roles and responsibilities to different instances of content
categories or types.
• Define workflow tasks. Content managers can be alerted when changes
in content are made.
• Track and manage multiple versions of content.
• Publish content to a repository to support access. Increasingly, the
repository is a part of the system, incorporating search and retrieval.
• Document management systems use numerous advanced indexing,
searching, and retrieval mechanisms (e.g. using meta data or content from
the actual document) to facilitate explicit knowledge sharing.

To take advantage of all of these functions, it is a foregone conclusion that the system
was chosen and implemented appropriately. All in all, IT is a very useful tool in the
management of explicit knowledge and information. This is not to say that humans no
longer play a part. They certainly do, and knowledge and content managers are
instrumental in ensuring that the knowledge is relevant, up to date, and presented
correctly.

Can Explicit Knowledge Sharing Systems Yield Competitive Advantage?

For the actual storage and retrieval, there is very little disagreement on the value
of IT as a means of sharing, sorting, and accessing explicit knowledge. Where one
does find disagreement is on the value placed on this function. KM and
organizational learning theorists have sometimes downplayed the value of explicit
knowledge and focused largely on tacit knowledge. However, it has also been
argued that in a world where we have an overflow of explicit knowledge and
information, the ability to manage it, and thus to provide continuous streams of
relevant knowledge and information, can be a source of competitive advantage in
itself. The latter view appears to be gaining support, although one important point
should be considered: explicit knowledge management systems are quite
transparent and therefore fairly easy to replicate. This means that they cannot be
the source of sustained long term competitive advantage.

All this being said, in most cases, implementing a solid system that enables explicit
knowledge sharing is crucial for the following reasons:

• Not doing so would almost certainly become a source of competitive

disadvantage.
• They may well provide a short-term advantage, which may be extended through
continuous improvements and new technologies.
• With proper care, such systems will also play a limited role in the sharing of tacit
knowledge.

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

Tacit Knowledge Sharing
Sharing tacit knowledge requires socialization. This can take many different forms. Below
are few of relevant factors

 Informal networks, which involve the day to day interaction between people
within work environments are considered very important. Unlike the formalized
structure of the firm, these networks span functions and hierarchies. They are
therefore difficult to identify and monitor. Management should support these
networks by providing the means for communication. Japanese firms have
created talk rooms where employees can engage in unstructured, unmonitored
discussions. A specific location is useful but not mandatory - this process also
occurs in cafeterias etc. Management must simply provide the means for
employees to foster informal networks and "trade" tacit knowledge.

 Management must also understand the value of chaos. This refers to the value
of unstructured work practices that encourage experimentation and social
interaction. Within a more chaotic environment, individuals are given the
freedom to solve problems creatively and, in so doing, must tap into and evolve
their social networks. The value of less structured work environments is also
well known within innovation management.

 Codification of tacit knowledge is difficult and sometimes outright impossible.

There will often be a resulting knowledge. Often, it is much more reasonable to
simply externalize the sources of tacit knowledge rather than the knowledge
itself. This means that often it is better for experts to externalize what they know
rather than how they know it. The main role of KM then becomes making sure
that experts can be found so that tacit knowledge can be passed on through
practice, mentoring, and networking (socialization), and that the firm supports
and encourages the networking that is necessary for these functions to occur.

To share tacit knowledge requires a culture conducive to this type of sharing.

Furthermore, knowledge managers (generalists that understand the types of knowledge
that exist in the communities) must be used to locate and translate knowledge elements,
thus facilitating their integration into other communities. This endeavor is very much about
people and managing organizational culture change.

Tacit Knowledge Sharing and IT

• It is important for tacit sharing of knowledge to be people focused. However,
increasingly, IT systems are becoming useful in this area as well. They can support
interaction between people that are not in the same location and some tools are
designed to capture unstructured thoughts and ideas. The important factor to
remember is that tacit knowledge cannot always be made explicit (and may lose
some of its richness in the process). Therefore, IT systems should not attempt or
pretend that they can carry out this process, but instead act as an important
support to existing practices.

IT can be useful as a forum for externalization of tacit knowledge. For example, groupware
systems that support brainstorming can help in the codification process. Online
discussion databases and forums can also be sources of externalized knowledge,
although the richness of this knowledge should be questioned.

While IT is crucial for information management, it is important not to confuse information

with knowledge. Using IT to move tacit knowledge is difficult since knowledge represents
the shared understanding and the sense making that is deeply rooted in the social

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

practice of the community. The focus for the successful sharing of tacit knowledge must
be on social interaction, problem solving, mentoring, and teaching, and IT systems must
be used to support these processes intelligently.

IT's contribution to OL therefore depends on its fit to the social context of the communities.
Technology must not be seen as the superior solution and should not be used to structure
organizational practice (at most to supplement it). There is also the danger that IT may
limit the participation of some members of the community. It may make it more difficult
for individuals to become accepted members of the community by limiting socialization
channels. The challenge is to extend the reach of communication without sacrificing
reciprocity in regard to knowledge sharing or socialization.

During KM's boom at the turn of the century, IT-driven KM initiatives turned out to be a
major pitfall. Today you still see a divide between technologically-centric views and
people-oriented approaches Increasingly however, IT is being recognized for its ability to
provide support to sound KM initiatives, within knowledge sharing, creation, etc. In
different capacities, IT should be regarded as a critical tool (though not as the initiative
itself).

The role of IT for tacit knowledge sharing can thus be summarized as follows:
 As an expert finder: To locate the source of the tacit knowledge through
systems like corporate yellow pages.
 As providing support in the socialization of tacit knowledge: If IT systems
support varied, formal and informal forms of communication then they can
help tacit knowledge sharing by supporting teams, projects, communities,
etc. Functions like being able to attach notes to documents, or video
conferencing can support work environments over long distances to some
degree. It is important not to replace existing socialization functions with IT;
instead socialization should be enhanced and extended between people
who would otherwise be unable to participate.
 As providing some support in the externalization of tacit knowledge:
Through groupware applications that support the codification process,
discussion forums etc. However, not only is this aspect limited, but
externalization itself is only rarely feasible.

Embedded Knowledge Sharing

 As a reminder, embedded knowledge refers to knowledge locked in products,
processes, routines, etc.
 Embedded knowledge can be shared when the knowledge from one product or
process is incorporated into another. Management must understand what
knowledge is locked within those sources, and they must transfer the relevant parts
into a different system. To do this, Gamble and Blackwell advocate the use of:
 Scenario planning: The practice of creating a set of scenarios and hypothesizing
how they might unfold by drawing upon the perspectives of experts, the firm's
knowledge asserts, and so on.
 After action reviews: "is a structured review or de-brief process for analyzing what
happened, why it happened, and how it can be done better".
 Management training

Embedded knowledge could theoretically be transferred as is, simply by testing the

effects of procedures or design features transferred from one area to another. However,
often it will have to be made explicit, or partially explicit, at least to the responsible
managers. This way they can hypothesize the effects that embedded knowledge has in a
given situation and use simulation and experimentation to implement it in a new area.

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]

Beyond the knowledge mapping functions, IT's use is usually more indirect. It can be used
as support in the design of simulations, experiments, and product design, and it can also
provide modeling tools used in reverse engineering of products. However, these tools are
not typically considered as being knowledge management systems and are thus beyond
the scope of this website.

 One direct role of IT systems is as an embedded knowledge repository where

procedures, guidelines, etc. are stored and retrieved. If implemented properly,
with the IT system complementing rather than disrupting existing processes
and culture, then it can support practices and routines, and eventually become
an embedded knowledge artifact in its own right.

Conclusion
 To facilitate knowledge sharing, KM must understand the requirements of the
users, as well as the complexities and potential problems with managing
knowledge and knowledge sources. Very broadly speaking, management must
therefore implement the right processes, frameworks, and systems that enable
knowledge sharing. They must also foster a knowledge sharing culture that
ensures that these investments are fully utilized.

For explicit knowledge, seven issues have been identified that KM must consider, these
are: articulation, awareness, access, guidance, completeness. IT has been identified as
a key component of this type of knowledge sharing, facilitating and lowering the cost of
the storage, access, retrieval, and variety of explicit knowledge.

Tacit knowledge sharing depends on socialization and practice. KM must offer the means
for this to take place by providing the right forums (primarily physical, but also virtual),
supporting networks and communities, and accepting unstructured work environments.
Generalists, known as knowledge managers, should be used to gain an understanding of
the location of knowledge sources and to bridge the gaps between communities and
networks.

In order to support the transfer of tacit knowledge, KMS must support the socialization
functions, while at the same time not enforcing strict managerial
practices/routines/hierarchies/etc. One of its roles is as an expert finder, and it can also
help in the direct transfer of tacit knowledge through the support of rich and varied
methods of communication, which preferably includeinformal communication channels.

Embedded knowledge sharing is a process whereby embedded knowledge is passed on

from one product, routine, or process to another. Several tools have been described that
can help management understand the effects of embedded knowledge and help in its
transfer. These were: scenario planning, after action reviews, and management training.

SOURCE: Knowledge Management System and Practices: A Theoretical and Practical Guide for Knowledge Management in Your
Organization by Emil Hajric

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | [Link]