A Level Biology Unit 9 page 1

Heckmondwike Grammar School Biology Department

Edexcel A-Level Biology B

Contents
Nervous transmission ............................................................ p4
Synapses .................................................................................... p10
Effects of drugs on the nervous system ............................ p13
The Organisation of the Nervous System ........................ p14
The Brain .................................................................................. p18
The Eye ..................................................................................... p21
The Endocrine system ........................................................... p26
Homeostasis............................................................................. p28
Temperature Homeostasis ................................................... p30
Control of Heart Rate ........................................................... p34
Excretion and the Kidney ..................................................... p37
Water Homeostasis ............................................................... p42
Plant Responses ...................................................................... p46

These notes may be used freely by biology students and teachers.

I would be interested to hear of any comments and corrections.
Neil C Millar (nmillar@[Link]) January 2017

Unit 1 Biochemistry Unit 2 Cells

Y12 Unit 3 Reproduction Unit 4 Transport
Unit 5 Biodiversity
Unit 6 Ecology
Y13 Unit 7 Metabolism Unit 8 Microbes
Unit 9 Control Systems Unit 10 Genetics

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 2

Biology Unit 9 Control Systems

Specification
The Nerve Impulse
The properties of the axon membrane and the Homeostasis
transport of Na+ ions and K+ ions result in a resting Homeostasis is the maintenance of a state of dynamic
potential. How an action potential is formed and how equilibrium. The importance of maintaining pH,
it is propagated along an axon. The speed of temperature and water potential in the body. What is
transmission along myelinated axons is greater than meant by negative feedback and positive feedback
along non-myelinated axons, including the role of control.
saltatory conduction.
Temperature Homeostasis
Synapses An endotherm is able to produce heat through
The structure and function of a synapse, including the metabolic processes but an ectotherm must rely on
role of transmitter substances limited to acetylcholine the external environment. How an endotherm is able
and noradrenaline. The formation and effects of to regulate its temperature through behaviour, and
excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. also physiologically through the autonomic nervous
system, including the role of thermoreceptors,
Effects of drugs on the nervous system hypothalamus and the skin.
How the effects of drugs can be caused by their
influence on synaptic transmission, including: Control of Heart Rate
 nicotine (mimicking effects of acetylcholine); How the autonomic nervous system controls heart
 cobra venom (blocking acetylcholine receptors). rate, including: aortic and carotid baroreceptors and
 lidocaine (blocking voltage-gated Na+ ion channels); chemoreceptors; cardiac centre in the medulla
oblongata; sympathetic nerve stimulated to release
The Human Nervous System noradrenaline at the SAN; parasympathetic nerve
The mammalian nervous system is composed of the stimulated to release acetylcholine at the SAN. The
central and peripheral nervous systems. The role of the autonomic nervous system in causing the
peripheral nervous system is divided into autonomic release of adrenaline to increase heart rate.
and voluntary systems. Why the autonomic nervous
system is divided into sympathetic and The Kidney
parasympathetic systems, which act antagonistically. The gross and microscopic structure of the
mammalian kidney. How urea is produced in the liver
The Central Nervous System from excess amino acids (details of the ornithine cycle
The structure of the spinal cord. The location in the are not required) and how it is removed from the
brain and main functions of: bloodstream by ultrafiltration. How solutes are
 the medulla oblongata – controls breathing and selectively reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and how
heart rate the Loop of Henle acts as a counter-current multiplier
 hypothalamus – temperature regulation and to increase the reabsorption of water. How the
osmoregulation kidney of a kangaroo rat (Dipodomys sp.) is adapted for
 cerebellum – controls balance and coordination of life in a dry environment.
movement
 cerebrum – initiates movement Water Homeostasis
How the pituitary gland and osmoreceptors in the
The Eye hypothalamus, combined with the action of
The structure of the human retina. The role of the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) bring about negative
rhodopsin in initiating action potentials. How the feedback control of mammalian plasma concentration.
distribution of human rod and cone cells maintain
vision in different light intensities. Plant Responses
Chemical control in plants is brought about by plant
The Endocrine System growth substances such as auxins, cytokinins and
The principles of mammalian hormone production by gibberellins. Auxin has several effects, including cell
endocrine glands and their mode of action involving elongation, suppression of lateral buds (apical
receptors on target cells. There are two main modes dominance) and promoting root growth. Plant growth
of action in hormones: substances often interact with each other as shown by
 hormones attach to receptor sites and trigger the the antagonistic actions of cytokinin and auxin on
release of a second messenger that activates apical dominance.
specific enzymes in the cell, including adrenaline;
 hormones enter cells and bind directly to How phytochrome controls flowering and
transcription factors, including oestrogen. photomorphogenesis.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 3

Blank Page

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 4

The Human Nervous System

Humans, like all living organisms, can respond to changes in the environment and so increase survival.
Humans have two control systems to do this: the nervous system and the endocrine (hormonal) system.
We’ll look at the endocrine system later, but first we’ll look at the nervous system. The human nervous
system controls everything from breathing and standing upright, to memory and intelligence. It has three
parts: detecting stimuli; coordinating; and effecting a response:

Stimuli are changes in the external or internal environment, such as light waves,
pressure or blood sugar. Humans can detect at least nine external stimuli and dozens
Stimulus of internal stimuli, so the commonly-held believe that humans have just five senses is
obviously very wide of the mark!

Receptor cells detect stimuli. Receptor cells are often part of sense organs, such as the
ear, eye or skin. Receptor cells all have special receptor proteins on their cell
Receptor
membranes that actually do the sensing, so “receptor” can confusingly mean a protein,
a cell or a group of cells.

The coordinator is the name given to the network of interneurones connecting the
sensory and motor systems. In humans the coordinator is the central nervous system
Coordinator
(CNS) consisting of the brain and spinal cord (p2). Its job is to receive impulses from
sensory neurones and transmit impulses to motor neurones.

Effectors are the cells that effect a response. In humans there are just two kinds:
muscles and glands. Muscles include skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac
muscle, and they cause all movements in humans, such as walking, talking, breathing,
Effector
swallowing, peristalsis, vasodilation and giving birth. Glands can be exocrine – secreting
liquids to the outside (such as tears, sweat, mucus, enzymes or milk); or endocrine –
secreting hormones into the bloodstream.

Responses aid survival. They include movement of all kinds, secretions from glands and
Response
all behaviours such as stalking prey, communicating and reproducing.

We’re going to be looking at each of these stages in turn, but first we’ll look at the cells that comprise the
nervous system.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 5

Nerve Cells
The nervous system composed of nerve cells, or nerve fibres or neurones. A
neurone has a cell body with extensions leading off it. Several dendrites (or
one dendron) carry nerve impulses towards the cell body, while a single long
axon carries the nerve impulse away from the cell body. Axons and dendrons
are only 10µm in diameter but can be up to 4m in length in a large animal (a
piece of spaghetti the same shape would be 400m long)! A nerve is a discrete
bundle of several thousand neurone axons and dendrons.

Nerve impulses are passed from the axon of one neurone to the dendrites or
cell body of another at a synapse. The dendrites provide a large surface area
for connecting with other neurones.

Most neurones also have many companion cells called Schwann cells, which
are wrapped around the axon many times in a spiral to form a thick lipid layer
called the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath provides physical protection and
electrical insulation for the axon. There are gaps in the sheath, called nodes of
Ranvier, which we’ll examine later.

Humans have three types of neurone:

 Sensory neurones (or afferent neurones) have a long dendron and transmit
nerve impulses from sensory receptors all over the body to the central
nervous system.
 Effector neurones (also called motor or efferent neurones) have a long
axon and transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to
effectors (muscles and glands) all over the body.
 Interneurones (also called connector, relay or bipolar neurones) are much
smaller cells, with many interconnections. They comprise the central
nervous system. 99.9% of all neurones are interneurones.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 6

The Nerve Impulse

Neurones transmit simple on/off signals called impulses (never talk about nerve signals or messages). These
impulses are due to events in the cell membrane, so to understand the nerve impulse we need to revise
some properties of cell membranes.

The Membrane Potential

All animal cell membranes contain a protein pump called the Na+ K+ ATPase. This uses the energy from ATP
splitting to simultaneously pump 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions in. If this was to
continue unchecked there would be no sodium or potassium ions left to pump, but there are also sodium
and potassium ion channels in the membrane. These channels are normally closed, but even when closed,
they “leak”, allowing the ions to diffuse slowly back down their respective concentration gradients. In
practice there are far more potassium ion channels than sodium ion channels, so potassium ions diffuse out
much faster than sodium ions diffuse in.

The combination of the Na+ K+ ATPase pump and the leak channels cause a stable imbalance of Na+ and
K+ ions across the membrane. This imbalance causes a potential difference across all animal cell membranes,
called the membrane potential. The membrane potential is always negative inside the cell, and varies in size
from –20 to –200mV in different cells and species. The Na+ K+ ATPase is thought to have evolved as an
osmoregulator to keep the internal water potential high and so stop water entering animal cells and
bursting them. Plant cells don’t need this pump as they have strong cells walls to prevent bursting (which is
why plants never evolved a nervous system).

The Action Potential

In nerve and muscle cells the membranes are electrically excitable, which means that they can change their
membrane potential, and this is the basis of the nerve impulse. The sodium and potassium channels in these
cells are voltage gated, which means that they can open and close depending on the size of the voltage
across the membrane.

The nature of the nerve impulse was discovered by Hodgkin, Huxley and Katz in Plymouth in the 1940s, for
which work they received a Nobel Prize in 1963. They used squid giant neurones, whose axons are almost
1 mm in diameter (compared to 10 µm normally), big enough to insert wire electrodes so that they could
measure the potential difference across the cell membrane. In a typical experiment they would apply an

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 7

electrical pulse at one end of an axon and measure the voltage changes at the other end, using an
oscilloscope:

The normal membrane potential of these nerve cells is –70mV (inside the axon), and since this potential
can change in nerve cells it is called the resting potential. When a stimulating pulse was applied a brief
reversal of the membrane potential, lasting about a millisecond, was recorded. This brief reversal of the
membrane potential is actually the nerve impulse, and is also called the action potential:

The action potential has 2 phases called depolarisation and repolarisation.

1. Depolarisation. The sodium channels open fully for 0.5ms,

causing sodium ions to quickly diffuse in down their gradient, and
making the inside of the cell more positive. This is a depolarisation
because the normal voltage polarity (negative inside) is reversed
(becomes positive inside).

2. Repolarisation. The potassium channels open fully for 0.5ms,

causing potassium ions to quickly diffuse out down their
concentration gradient, making the inside more negative again. This
is a repolarisation because it restores the original polarity.

Since both channels are voltage-gated, they are triggered to open by changes in the membrane potential
itself. The sodium channel opens at–30mV and the potassium channel opens at 0V. The Na+ K+ ATPase
pump runs continuously, restoring the resting concentrations of sodium and potassium ions.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 8

How do Nerve Impulses Start?

In the squid experiments the action potential was initiated by the stimulating electrodes. In living cells they
are started by receptor cells. These all contain special receptor proteins that sense the stimulus. The
receptor proteins are sodium channels that are not voltage-gated, but instead are gated by the appropriate
stimulus (directly or indirectly). For example chemical-gated sodium channels in tongue taste receptor cells
open when a certain chemical in food binds to them; mechanically-gated ion channels in the hair cells of the
inner ear open when they are distorted by sound vibrations; and so on. In each case the correct stimulus
causes the sodium channel to open; which causes sodium ions to diffuse into the cell; which causes a
depolarisation of the membrane potential, which affects the voltage-gated sodium channels nearby and
starts an action potential.

How are Nerve Impulses Propagated?

Once an action potential has started it is moved (propagated) along an axon automatically. The local
reversal of the membrane potential is detected by the surrounding voltage-gated ion channels, which open
when the potential changes enough.

The ion channels have two other features that help the nerve impulse work effectively:
 After an ion channel has opened, it needs a “rest period” before it can open again. This is called the
refractory period, and lasts about 2ms. This means that, although the action potential affects all other
ion channels nearby, the upstream ion channels cannot open again since they are in their refractory
period, so only the downstream channels open, causing the action potential to move one way along the
axon.
 The ion channels are either open or closed; there is no half-way position. This means that the action
potential always reaches +40mV as it moves along an axon, and it is never attenuated (reduced) by long
axons. In other word the action potential is all-or-nothing.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 9

How can Nerve Impulses convey strength?

How do impulses convey the strength of the stimulus? Since nerve impulses are all-or-nothing, they cannot
vary in size. Instead, the strength of stimulus is indicated by the frequency of nerve impulses. A weak
stimulus (such as dim light, a quiet sound or gentle pressure) will cause a low frequency of nerve impulses
along a sensory neurone (around 10Hz). A strong stimulus (such as a bright light, a loud sound or strong
pressure) will cause a high frequency of nerve impulses along a sensory neurone (up to 100Hz).

How Fast are Nerve Impulses?

Action potentials can travel along axons at speeds of 0.1-100 ms-1. This means that nerve impulses can get
from one part of a body to another in a few milliseconds, which allows for fast responses to stimuli.
(Impulses are much slower than electrical currents in wires, which travel at close to the speed of light,
3x108 ms-1.) The speed of nerve conduction is affected by 3 factors:
 Temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the speed. So homeothermic (warm-blooded)
animals have faster responses than poikilothermic (cold-blooded) ones.
 Axon diameter. The larger the diameter, the faster the speed. So marine invertebrates, which live at
temperatures close to 0°C, have developed thick axons to speed up their responses. This explains why
squid have their giant axons.
 Myelin sheath. Only vertebrates have a myelin sheath surrounding their neurones. The voltage-gated
ion channels are found only at the nodes of Ranvier, and between the nodes the myelin sheath acts as a
good electrical insulator. The action potential can therefore jump large distances from node to node
(1 mm), a process that is called saltatory propagation (or saltatory conduction). This increases the speed
of propagation dramatically, so while nerve impulses in unmyelinated neurones have a maximum speed
of around 1 ms-1, in myelinated neurones they travel at 100 ms-1.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 10

Synapses
The junction between two neurones is called a synapse. An action potential cannot cross the gap between
the neurones (called the synaptic cleft), and instead the nerve impulse is carried by chemicals called
neurotransmitters. These chemicals are made by the cell that is sending the impulse (the pre-synaptic
neurone) and stored in synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon. The cell that is receiving the nerve impulse
(the post-synaptic neurone) has chemical-gated ion channels in its membrane, called neuroreceptors. These
have specific binding sites for the neurotransmitters.

1. At the end of the pre-synaptic neurone there are voltage-gated calcium channels. When an action
potential reaches the synapse these channels open, causing calcium ions to diffuse into the cell down
their concentration gradient.
2. These calcium ions cause the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their contents
(the neurotransmitter chemicals) by exocytosis.
3. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft.
4. The neurotransmitter binds to the neuroreceptors in the post-synaptic membrane, causing the ion
channels to open. In the example shown these are sodium channels, so sodium ions diffuse in down
their gradient.
5. This causes a local depolarisation of the post-synaptic cell membrane, called the post-synaptic potential
(PSP), which may initiate an action potential.
6. The neurotransmitter must be removed from the synaptic cleft to stop the synapse being permanently
switched on. This can be achieved in two ways:
 by breaking down the neurotransmitter using a specific enzyme in the post-synaptic cell membrane
(e.g. the enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine). The
breakdown products diffuse back across the cleft and are absorbed by the pre-synaptic neurone by
endocytosis and used to re-synthesise more neurotransmitter, using energy from the mitochondria.
 by absorbing the intact neurotransmitter using an active transport protein in the pre-synaptic
neurone membrane.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 11

Different Types of Synapse

The human nervous system uses a number of different neurotransmitters and neuroreceptors, and they
don’t all work in the same way. We can group synapses into five types:

1. Excitatory Ion-channel Synapses.

These synapses have neuroreceptors that are sodium (Na+ ) channels. When the channels open, positive
Na+ ions diffuse in, causing a local depolarisation called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and
making an action potential more likely. This was the kind of synapse described on the previous page.
Typical neurotransmitters in these synapses are acetylcholine, glutamate or aspartate.

2. Inhibitory Ion-channel Synapses.

These synapses have neuroreceptors that are chloride (Cl- ) channels. When the channels open, negative

Cl- ions diffuse in causing a local hyperpolarisation called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and
making an action potential less likely. So with these synapses an impulse in one neurone can inhibit an
impulse in the next. Typical neurotransmitters in these synapses are glycine or GABA.

3. Non-channel Synapses.
These synapses have neuroreceptors that are not channels at all, but instead are membrane-bound
enzymes. When activated by the neurotransmitter, they catalyse the production of a “messenger chemical”
(e.g. Ca2+ ) inside the cell, which in turn can affect many aspects of the cell’s metabolism. In particular they
can alter the number and sensitivity of the ion channel receptors in the same cell. These synapses are
involved in slow and long-lasting responses like learning and memory. Typical neurotransmitters are
adrenaline, noradrenaline (NB adrenaline is called epinephrine in America), dopamine, serotonin,
endorphin, angiotensin, and acetylcholine.

4. Neuromuscular Junctions.
These are the synapses formed between effector neurones and muscle cells. They always use the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and are always excitatory. Effector neurones also form specialised synapses
with secretory cells.

5. Electrical Synapses.
In these synapses the membranes of the two cells actually touch, and they share proteins. This allows the
action potential to pass directly from one membrane to the next without using a neurotransmitter. They
are very fast, but are quite rare, found only in the heart and the eye.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 12

Synaptic Integration

One neurone can have hundreds (or even thousands) of synapses on its cell body and dendrites. This
arrangement is called axon convergence (because many axons converge on one cell body), and it means the
post-synaptic neurone has many inputs but only one output, through its axon. Each of the many synapses
will produce its own local voltage change, called a postsynaptic potential (PSP), but some of these potentials
will be excitatory (EPSP) and some will be inhibitory (IPSP). The excitatory and inhibitory PSPs from all that
cell’s synapses sum together to form a grand postsynaptic potential (GPSP) in the neurone’s axon. Only if
this GPSP is above a threshold potential will an action potential be initiated in the axon. This process is
called synaptic integration or summation.

 Spatial summation is the summing of PSPs from different synapses over the cell body and dendrite tree
 Temporal summation is the summing of a sequence of PSPs at one synapse over a brief period of time.

Summation is the basis of the processing power in the nervous system. Neurones (especially
interneurones) are a bit like logic gates in a computer, where the output depends on the state of one or
more inputs. By connecting enough logic gates together you can make a computer, and by connecting
enough neurones together to can make a nervous system, including a human brain.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 13

Drugs and Synapses

Almost all drugs taken by humans (medicinal and recreational) affect the nervous system, especially
synapses. Drugs that stimulate a synapse are called agonists, and those that inhibit a synapse are called
antagonists. Drugs can affect synapses in various ways, shown in this table:
Drug action Effect Examples
1. Mimic a neurotransmitter agonist nicotine, levodopa
2. Stimulate the release of a neurotransmitter agonist cocaine, caffeine
3. Open a neuroreceptor channel agonist alcohol, marijuana, salbutamol
4. Block a neuroreceptor channel antagonist -neurotoxins, curare, opioids
5. Inhibit the breakdown enzyme agonist DDT

The beauty of synapses, from a pharmacological point of view, is that synapses in different parts of the
nervous system use different neurotransmitters and neuroreceptors, so drugs can be designed to target
specific synapses and so affect specific aspects of the nervous system. There are three examples of drug
action that you need to understand:

1. Nicotine has a similar structure to acetylcholine, so binds to cholinergic neuroreceptors in the CNS
and switches them on, just like acetylcholine. Nicotine is therefore an agonist of these synapses, but in
an uncontrolled way. The affected neuroreceptors have complex functions involving the release of
other neurotransmitters in the CNS. So by strongly switching on these channels, nicotine causes the
release of more neurotransmitters, including:
 adrenaline, which triggers the fight or flight response of the sympathetic nervous system (see p14),
including an increase in heart rate and blood pressure
 dopamine, which stimulates the reward system in the brain, leading to feelings of pleasure.
 endorphins, which also cause feelings of well-being, but lead to withdrawal symptoms and so cause
addiction.

2. The cobra venom -neurotoxin binds tightly and irreversibly to the acetylcholine receptors in
neuromuscular junctions, stopping the receptors from opening and so stopping skeletal muscles from
contracting. The victim is thus paralysed and is killed if the toxin reaches the breathing muscles.

3. Lidocaine blocks voltage-gated sodium channels, so stopping all action potentials. In low doses
lidocaine has only a local effect at the site of administration, as it is quickly broken down. So lidocaine
acts as a local anaesthetic by inhibiting sensory neurones and as a muscle relaxant by inhibiting motor
neurones. It is commonly used as a quick-acting, short-lasting local anaesthetic, such as in dental
surgery. In high doses lidocaine has more widespread effects and can be fatal.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 14

The Organisation of the Human Nervous System

The organisation of the human nervous system is shown in this diagram:

The Autonomic Nervous System

It is easy to forget that much of the human nervous system is concerned with routine, involuntary jobs,
such as homeostasis, digestion, posture, breathing, etc. These are the jobs of the autonomic nervous
system. Its functions are split into two divisions, called the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic
system. These systems have opposite (or antagonistic) effects. In general the sympathetic system stimulates
the “fight or flight” responses to threatening situations, while the parasympathetic system relaxes the body
(the “rest and digest” responses). The two systems have their own neurones in anatomically-distinct
nerves. The neurones of the sympathetic system pass down the spinal cord, while those of the
parasympathetic system are most outside the spinal cord, bundled into the large vagus nerve. Most body
organs are innervated by effector neurones from each system.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 15

This table gives some examples.

sympathetic system parasympathetic system

(fight or flight responses) (rest and digest responses)
adrenal gland stimulates adrenaline secretion no innervation
liver stimulates glycogenolysis stimulates glycogenesis
salivary glands inhibits saliva secretion stimulates saliva secretion
heart increases heart rate decreases heart rate
bronchiole muscles dilates bronchioles constricts bronchioles
skeletal muscle arterioles vasodilation vasoconstriction
skin arterioles vasoconstriction vasodilation
iris muscles of eye dilates pupil constricts pupil
digestive system inhibits peristalsis, constricts sphincters stimulates peristalsis, dilates sphincters
bladder relaxes bladder, constricts sphincter contracts bladder, dilates sphincter

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 16

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a thick cable of billions of neurones extending up the spine and into the brain. It contains
two regions: the central zone consists of unmyelinated interneurones called grey matter (because it
appears grey under a light microscope), while the outer zone consist of sensory and effector neurones
called white matter (because the lipids in the myelin sheaths scatter light, so the tissue appears white under
a light microscope). The white matter in the back, or dorsal, side of the spinal cord contains the sensory
neurones, while the white matter in the front, or ventral, side of the spinal cord contains the effector
neurones. There is a small, fluid-filled central canal in the middle.

The spinal cord is enclosed and protected by the 33 bony vertebrae of the spine. The gaps between the
vertebrae allow the spine to flex and also allow branches of the spinal cord to extend out to the periphery
of the body. There are two branches, or roots, on each side of the spinal cord: the dorsal (back) root and
the ventral (front) root. Sensory neurones always enter the spinal cord through the dorsal root, which
contains a swelling, called the dorsal root ganglion, to hold all the sensory neurone cell bodies. Effector
neurones always leave the spinal cord through the ventral root. Their cell bodies are at the end of the cell
in the grey matter of the spinal cord.

Reflexes
The spinal cord transmits nerve impulses between the brain and the periphery through the white matter,
but it also interconnects neurones through the grey matter and so performs simple processing, called
reflexes. A reflex is a specific response to a specific stimulus, which protects the body from damage.
Reflexes are very fast (since they involve few neurones, so few synapses); involuntary (the brain is not
involved); invariable and innate. The path taken by the nerve impulse is called the reflex arc, and involves
only three neurones. Examples of reflexes include the knee-jerk reflex (which protects the knee joint from
damage) and the pupil reflex (which protects the retina from damage by intense light).

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 17

Blank Page

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 18

The Brain
The human brain is the site of the major coordination in the nervous system. It contains around 10 11
interneurones, each making thousands of connections to other neurones, so the number of pathways
through the brain is vast. Different regions of the brain can be identified by their appearance, and
techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to study the functions of each region. It
turns out that the regions of the brain have specific different roles.

All the regions except the cerebrum are involved in involuntary functions, and are connected to the
autonomic nervous system. The four regions that you need to know about are:

The Medulla Oblongata

The medulla oblongata (or just medulla) is at the base of the brain and is a continuation of the spinal cord.
It controls basic autonomic functions required for survival, including the control of heart rate (p34),
breathing, peristalsis, and reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting.

The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls temperature and water homeostasis (p42). It also controls the release of
hormones by the pituitary gland, including the sex hormones LH and FSH, the kidney hormone ADH, and
human growth hormone HGH.

The Cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates muscle movement and so controls balance, posture and locomotion (standing,
walking, running, jumping, etc.). The motor areas of the cerebral cortex initiate a particular movement
(such as going for a walk or drawing a picture) but the motor impulses are passed through the cerebellum,
which organises exactly which muscle groups to contract and relax. The cerebellum receives sensory input
from the vestibular system in the inner ear (which senses balance) and from the proprioceptors in the
muscle and joints (which sense body position) and uses this information to coordinate muscle contraction
all over the body to maintain balance and smooth movement. Damage to the cerebellum results in jerky,
uncoordinated movement.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 19

The Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres, cerebral cortex)

The cerebrum covers the upper half of the brain and is responsible for all voluntary functions. The
cerebrum is divided down the middle by a deep cleft into two cerebral hemispheres, which are quite
separate except for the corpus callosum, a bundle of 108 neurones which run between the two halves. The
inside of the cerebrum contains fluid and the neurones are only found in the highly-folded outer 3mm,
called the cerebral cortex (or just cortex).

The various functions of the cortex are localised into discrete areas. Some of these areas are shown on this
map of the surface of the left cerebral cortex (you don’t have to learn these).

These areas can be split into three groups:

 Sensory areas, which receive and organise sensory input from receptor cells. There are different sensory
areas for each sense organ (visual, auditory, smell, touch, etc.). The skin has the largest sensory area in
the brain; a large strip called the somatosensory area.
 Association areas, which compare (or associate) sensory input with previous experiences, and so make
decisions. They are therefore involved in advanced skills such as visual recognition, language
understanding, speech, writing and memory retrieval. The frontal lobes are particularly large in humans,
and thought to be responsible for such higher functions as abstract thought, personality and emotion.
 Motor areas, which organise and send motor output to skeletal muscles. There is just one main motor
area, alongside the somatosensory area, which sends impulses via motor neurones to skeletal muscles.
The somatosensory and the main motor areas are duplicated on the two cerebral hemispheres, but they
control the opposite (or contralateral) side of the body. So the main sensory and motor areas of the left
cerebral hemisphere are linked to the right side of the body, and those of the right cerebral hemisphere
are linked to the left side of the body.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 20

Receptors
Receptor cells detect stimuli. Humans have over 20 different kinds of receptors. They can be classified as

 photoreceptors – detecting light and other kinds of electromagnetic radiation

 mechanoreceptors – detecting movements, pressures, tension, gravity and sound waves
 chemoreceptors – detecting specific chemicals such as glucose, H+ or pheromones
 thermoreceptors – detecting hot and cold temperatures
 Other animals have electroreceptors and magnetoreceptors.

In some receptors the receptor cell is the sensory neurone itself, while in others, there is a separate
receptor cell that synapses with a sensory neurone. Receptor cells are often part of sense organs, such as
the ear, eye or skin. Receptor cells all have special receptor proteins on their cell membranes that actually
do the sensing, so “receptor” can confusingly mean a protein, a cell or a group of cells. We’ll look at
pressure receptors and light receptors in more detail.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 21

The Eye
The eye is a complex sense organ, not just detecting light, but regulating its intensity and focussing it to
form sharp images. The structure of the eye is shown here.

The actual detection of light is carried out by photoreceptor cells in the retina. The structure of the retina
is shown in more detail in this diagram:

There are two kinds of photoreceptor cells in human eyes: rods and cones, and we shall look at the
difference between these shortly. These rods and cones form synapses with special interneurones called
bipolar neurones, which in turn synapse with sensory neurones called ganglion cells. The axons of these
ganglion cells cover the inner surface of the retina and eventually form the optic nerve (containing about a
million axons) that leads to the brain. Each cone cell is connected to one bipolar neurone, while rod cells
are connected in groups of up to 100 to a single bipolar neurone. This linking together is called retinal
convergence.

A surprising feature of the retina is that it is back-to-front (inverted). The photoreceptor cells are at the
back of the retina, and the light has to pass through several layers of neurones to reach them. This is due
to the evolutionary history of the eye, but in fact doesn’t matter very much as the neurones are small and
transparent. However, it does mean that the sensory neurones must pass through the retina where
converge at the optic nerve, causing the blind spot.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 22

Visual Transduction
Visual transduction is the process by which light initiates a nerve impulse in the retina. The photoreceptor
cells contain hundreds of membrane disks, which each hold thousands of molecules of rhodopsin, the
photoreceptor protein. Rhodopsin is a trans-membrane protein, made up of the polypeptide opsin
surrounding a small molecule derived from vitamin A called retinal.

Retinal is light-sensitive and it can exists in two isomeric forms: a cis form and a trans form. In the dark
retinal is in the cis form, but when it absorbs a photon of light it quickly switches to the trans form, in a
process called bleaching. Rhodopsin with trans retinal changes shape to an unstable form that dissociates
into opsin and free retinal. The opsin initiates a cascade of chemical reactions in the rod cell that eventually
cause an action potential to the brain.

The reverse reaction (trans to cis retinal) requires ATP and several enzyme reactions and is very slow,
taking a few minutes. This explains why you are initially blind when you walk from sunlight to a dark room:
in the light almost all your retinal was in the trans form, and it takes some time to convert enough into cis
retinal to turn off the nerve impulse.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 23

How does the bleaching of the rhodopsin send a nerve impulse to the brain? The details of the process are
complicated and unexpected. Like all neurones, rod cell membranes contain the Na+ K+ ATPase pump,
which generates a sodium gradient. They also have a special sodium channel that is gated indirectly by
rhodopsin.
 In the dark the sodium channels are open, so sodium ions diffuse in, so the rod cell is depolarised and
releases neurotransmitter at its synapse. However the synapse with the bipolar cell is an inhibitory
synapse, so the neurotransmitter stops the bipolar cell generating its own nerve impulse, so there are
no impulses to the brain.
 In the light rhodopsin with trans retinal initiates a cascade of chemical reactions in the rod cell that close
the sodium channels. Sodium ions stop diffusing in, causing a hyperpolarisation. If enough sodium
channels close the hyperpolarisation reaches a threshold and the synapse is switched off. The bipolar
cell now generates and action potential, which is transmitted to the sensory neurone and so to the
brain.

Fortunately you don’t have to remember these details, but you should be able to understand them.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 24

Rods and Cones

The photoreceptor cells have the following structures:

The rods and cones serve two different functions as shown in this table:
Rods Cones
Shape Outer segment is rod shaped Outer segment is cone shaped
Visual Rhodopsin Photopsin (aka iodopsin)
pigment
Density and 109 cells per eye, distributed throughout the 106 cells per eye, found mainly in the fovea,
distribution retina, so used for peripheral vision. so can only detect images in centre of
retina.
Colour Only 1 type, so only monochromatic vision. 3 types (red green and blue), so are
responsible for colour vision.
Connections Many rods connected to one bipolar cell, Each cone connected to one bipolar cell, so
giving retinal convergence. no convergence.
Sensitivity High sensitivity due to high concentration of Low sensitivity due to lower concentration
(ability to rhodopsin, and to retinal convergence – of rhodopsin and to no convergence – one
detect low one photon per rod will sum to cause an photon per cone not enough to cause an
light intensity) action potential. Used for night vision. action potential. Need bright light, so work
best in the day.
Acuity Poor acuity due to low density in periphery Good acuity due high density in fovea and
(ability to of retina, and retinal convergence (i.e. rods 1:1 connections with interneurones (i.e.
resolve fine are not good at resolving fine detail). cones are used for resolving fine detail such
detail) as reading).

Although there are far more rods than cones, we use cones most of the time because they have better
acuity and can resolve colours. Since the cones are almost all found in the fovea, a 1mm² region of the
retina directly opposite the lens, we constantly move our eyes so that images are always focused on the
fovea. You can only read one word of a book at a time, but your eyes move so quickly that it appears that
you can see much more. The more densely-packed the cone cells, the better the visual acuity. In the fovea
of human eyes there are 160 000 cones per mm2, while hawks have 1 million cones per mm2, so they really
do have far better acuity.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 25

Colour Vision
There are three different kinds of cone cell, each with a slightly different form of opsin, but the same
retinal. These three forms of photopsin are sensitive to different parts of the spectrum, so there are red-
sensitive cones (max absorption at 564nm), green-sensitive cones (max 533nm) and blue-sensitive cones
(max 437nm). By contrast, rods have maximum absorbance at 498nm.

Coloured light stimulates these three cells differently, so by comparing the nerve impulses from the three
kinds of cone, the brain can detect any colour. For example:
Colour Wavelength Red cone absorption Green cone absorption Blue cone absorption
of light (nm) (as % of max) (as % of max) (as % of max)
Cyan 480 12 45 51
Yellow 570 98 62 2
Red 650 10 2 0

So each colour of light has a unique pattern of nerve impulses from the three kinds of cone. The brain uses
this “in reverse” to determine the colour from the pattern of nerve impulses. This is called the
trichromatic theory of colour vision. Colour vision is more complicated than this as most colours are
composed of many different wavelengths and our ability to detect colours also depends on lighting
conditions and other features of the image, and colour vision is a complex interaction of photoreceptors
and neural processing in the retina and in cerebral cortex of the brain.

The opsin proteins in red, green and blue cones are made by three different genes. The blue gene is on
chromosome 7, but the green and red genes are on the X chromosome. This means that males have only
one copy of these two genes (i.e. they’re haploid for these genes). About 8% of males have a defect in one
or other of these genes, leading to red-green colour blindness. Other forms of colour blindness are also
possible, but are much rarer.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 26

The Endocrine System

Humans have two complementary control systems that they can use to respond to their environment: the
nervous system and the endocrine (hormonal) system. We’ve looked at the nervous system, so now we’ll
now look briefly at the hormone system.

Hormones are secreted by glands into the blood stream. There are two kinds of glands:
 Exocrine glands secrete solutions to the outside, or to body cavities, usually through ducts (tubes). e.g.
sweat glands, tear glands, mammary glands, digestive glands.
 Endocrine glands do not have ducts but secrete chemicals directly into the tissue fluid, whence they
diffuse into the blood stream. e.g. thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal gland. The hormone-secreting
glands are all endocrine glands.

This table shows some of the main endocrine glands and their hormones. The hormones marked with a *
are ones that we shall look at in detail later.

Once a hormone has been secreted by its gland, it diffuses into the blood stream and is carried all round
the body to all organs. However, it only affects certain target organs, which can respond to it. These target
organs have specific receptor molecules in their cells to which the hormone binds. These receptor
molecules are proteins, and they form specific hormone-receptor complexes, very much like enzyme-
substrate complexes. Cells without the specific receptor will just ignore a hormone. The hormone-

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 27

receptor complex can affect almost any aspect of a cell’s function, including metabolism, transport, protein
synthesis, cell division or cell death.

There are two different ways in which a hormone can affect cell function:

 Most hormones do not enter the cell, but bind  The steroid hormones are lipid-soluble so can
to a receptor protein on the cell membrane, to form easily pass through cell membranes by lipid diffusion.
a hormone-receptor complex. This complex then They bind to receptor proteins to form a hormone-
activates an enzyme in the membrane. For example receptor complex in the cytoplasm, which enters
adrenaline activated the enzyme adenylate cyclase, the nucleus and stimulates protein synthesis by
which catalyses the production of the chemical cyclic binding to DNA and acting as a transcription factor
AMP (cAMP) from ATP in the cytoplasm. The cAMP (unit 10). For example the steroid hormone
in turn activates a cascade of enzymes, resulting in oestrogen stimulates the growth of the uterus lining
the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. The cAMP is by being a transcription factor.
called a “second messenger”.

The effect of a hormone is determined not by the hormone itself, but by the receptor in the target cell.
Thus the same hormone can have different effects in different target cells.

Comparison of Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Nervous System Endocrine System
Transmitted by specific neurone cells Transmitted by the circulatory system
Effect localised by neurone anatomy Effect localised by target cell receptor proteins
Target always muscle or gland Target can be any cell
Fast-acting (ms–s) Slow-acting (minutes–days)
Short-lived response Long-lived response
The two systems work closely together: endocrine glands are often controlled by the nervous system, and
neurotransmitters at a synapse work just like local hormones. Responses to a stimulus often involve both
systems.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 28

Homeostasis
Homeostasis literally means “staying the same” and it refers to the process of keeping the internal body
environment in a steady state. The importance of this cannot be over-stressed, and a great deal of the
hormone system and autonomic nervous system is dedicated to homeostasis.

Factors that are controlled include

 body temperature to keep enzymes working near their optimum temperature and stop them
denaturing.

 blood pH to keep enzymes working near their optimum pH.

 blood glucose to ensure there is enough glucose available for cellular respiration, but not
concentration enough to lower the blood water potential and dehydrate cells.

 blood water potential to prevent loss or gain of water from cells by osmosis.

 blood O2 and CO2 to ensure there is sufficient oxygen for respiration and to prevent carbon
concentration dioxide from forming carbonic acid.

 blood pressure to maintain blood flow around the body without losing too much fluid in
capillary beds.

 blood ion ions, like Na+ , K+ and Ca2+ , are needed for nerve impulses and metabolic
2- 3-
concentration reactions, while others, like CO3 and PO4 are needed as pH buffers.

The problem for the body is that all of these factors will inevitably change due to normal activities like
respiring, eating, exercising and so on. So homeostasis must constantly deal with these changes by making
more changes itself. Homeostasis is therefore described as a dynamic equilibrium because the factors don’t
stay absolutely constant and set in stone, but rather fluctuate slightly over time. In a good homeostatic
system the fluctuations will be very small.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 29

Negative and Positive Feedback

All homeostatic mechanisms use negative feedback to maintain a constant value (called the set point).
Negative feedback means that whenever a change occurs in a system, the change automatically causes a
corrective mechanism to start, which reverses the original change and brings the system back to normal. It
also means that the bigger then change the bigger the corrective mechanism. Negative feedback applies to
electronic circuits and central heating systems as well as to biological systems.

So in a system controlled by negative feedback the level is never maintained perfectly, but constantly
oscillates about the set point. An efficient homeostatic system minimises the size of the oscillations.

Positive feedback occurs when the change stimulates a further

change in the same direction, away from the set point. Positive
feedback cannot therefore be used in homeostasis and in fact
is potentially dangerous. It is usually associated with a
breakdown in the normal homeostasis mechanism (e.g.
potentially-fatal hypothermia, when the body cools below the set point). However, positive feedback is
occasionally used when fats, explosive responses are required. For example:
 In blood clotting (unit 4), activated platelets release chemicals that activate more platelets, causing a
rapid increase in the number of platelets and the clotting cascade.
 In childbirth the pressure of the fetus on the cervix causes stretch receptors to send impulses to the
hypothalamus, which releases the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates the uterus to contract, which
stimulates the stretch receptors again.
In both these cases the positive feedback loop is stopped by other events (the sealing of the wound in
blood clotting and the expulsion of the baby in childbirth).

We shall look at two examples of homeostasis in detail: temperature and blood glucose.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 30

Temperature Homeostasis (Thermoregulation)

One of the most important examples of homeostasis is the regulation of body temperature. Body
temperature needs to be regulated to keep enzymes working close to their optimum temperature and to
prevent them from denaturing. There are basically two ways of doing this: mammals and birds can generate
their own heat and are called endotherms; while all other animals rely on gaining heat from their
surroundings, so are called ectotherms.

Temperature Homeostasis in Endotherms

Endotherms (mammals and birds) can generate heat internally, have thermal insulation, and can usually
maintain a remarkably constant body temperature. Humans and most other mammals maintain a set point
of 37.5 ± 0.5 °C, while birds usually have set points o86f 40-42°C. Endotherms are sometimes called
warm-blooded animals, but this term isn’t very scientific, partly because endotherms can get quite cold (e.g.
during hibernation). Endotherms don’t keep their whole body at the same temperature: they maintain a
constant core temperature; while allowing the peripheral temperature to be colder, especially the surface,
which is in contact with the surroundings.

In humans temperature homeostasis is controlled by two thermoregulatory centres in the hypothalamus.

The thermoregulatory centres receive input from two sets of thermoreceptors: receptors in the
hypothalamus itself monitor the temperature of the blood as it passes through the brain (the core
temperature), and receptors in the skin monitor the external temperature. Both pieces of information are
needed so that the body can make appropriate adjustments.
 One of the thermoregulatory centres – the heat loss centre – is activated when the core temperature
rises. It sends impulses to several different effectors in the body to reduce the core temperature.
 The other thermoregulatory centre – the heat gain centre – is activated when the core temperature
falls. It sends impulses to several different effectors in the body to increase the core temperature.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 31

The thermoregulatory centre is part of the autonomic nervous system, so the various responses are all
involuntary. The exact responses to high and low temperatures are described in the table below:

Response to Low Temperature Response to High Temperature

Effector
(controlled by the heat gain centre) (controlled by the heat loss centre)
Smooth muscles in Muscles contract causing Muscles relax causing vasodilation. More
peripheral vasoconstriction. Less heat is carried heat is carried from the core to the
arterioles in the from the core to the surface of the body, surface, where it is lost by convection
skin. maintaining core temperature. and radiation. Skin turns red.
Extremities can turn blue and feel cold
and can even be damaged (frostbite).

Sweat glands No sweat produced. Glands secrete sweat onto surface of

skin, where it evaporates. This is an
endothermic process, and since water has
a high latent heat of evaporation, it takes
a lot of heat from the body. Some hairy
mammals pant instead of sweating.

Skeletal muscles Muscles contract and relax repeatedly No shivering.

and involuntarily, generating heat by
friction and from metabolic reactions.

Erector pili Muscles contract, raising skin hairs and Muscles relax, lowering the skin hairs and
muscles in skin trapping an insulating layer of still, warm allowing air to circulate over the skin,
(attached to skin air next to the skin. Not very effective in encouraging convection and evaporation.
hairs) humans, just causing “goosebumps”.

Brown fat tissue Non-shivering thermogenesis. Increased Decreased respiration in brown fat tissue.
respiration in brown fat tissue –
specialised fat tissue packed with
“uncoupled” mitochondria that respire
triglycerides to produce heat but no ATP.
Especially important in babies and
hibernating mammals.

Adrenal and Glands secrete adrenaline and thyroxine Glands stop releasing adrenaline and
thyroid glands respectively, which increase the thyroxine, so metabolic rate slows.
metabolic rate in different tissues,
especially the liver, so generating heat.

Behaviour Curling up, huddling, finding shelter, Basking, stretching out, finding shade,
putting on more clothes, etc. swimming, removing clothes, etc.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 32

Note that
 some of the responses to low temperature actively generate heat (thermogenesis), while others just
conserve heat.
 Similarly some of the responses to warm temperatures actively cool the body down, while others just
reduce heat production or transfer heat to the surface.
The body thus has a range of responses available, depending on the internal and external temperatures.

Mammals can alter their set point in special circumstances:

 Fever. White blood cells release chemicals called pyrogens as part of the inflammatory response to
infection. These pyrogens raise the set point of the thermoregulatory centre causing the whole body
temperature to increase by 2-3 °C. This helps to kill bacteria and explains why patients shiver even
though they are hot.
 Hibernation. Some mammals release hormones that reduce their set point to around 5°C while they
hibernate. This drastically reduces their metabolic rate and so conserves their food reserves.
 Torpor. Bats and hummingbirds reduce their set point every day while they are inactive. They have a
high surface area: volume ratio, so this reduces heat loss.

Failure of temperature homeostasis

 Hypothermia occurs when heat loss exceeds heat generation, due to prolonged exposure to cold
temperatures. As the core temperature decreases the metabolic rate also decreases, leading to less
thermogenesis. If the core temperature drops below 32°C shivering stops so the core temperature
drops even further. If the core temperature falls below 30°C hypothermia is usually fatal.
 Hyperthermia occurs when heat gain exceeds heat loss, usually due to prolonged exposure to high
temperatures. This situation is often associated with dehydration, which reduces sweating, the only
effective way to cool down. A rise in core temperature increases the metabolic rate, fuelling a further
increase in temperature. If the core temperature rises above 40°C hyperthermia is usually fatal.
Both hypothermia and hyperthermia are examples of the dangers of positive feedback.

The advantage of being endothermic is that animals can survive in a wide range of environmental
temperatures, and so can colonise almost any habitat, and remain active at night and in cold weather. This
gives endothermic predators an obvious advantage over ectothermic prey. The disadvantage is that it
requires a lot of energy, so endotherms need to eat far more than ectoderms.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 33

Temperature Control in Ectotherms

Ectotherms (all animals except mammals and birds) rely on external heat sources to warm up; do not have
thermal insulation; and their body temperature varies with the environmental temperature. Ectotherms are
sometimes called cold-blooded animals, but this term isn’t very scientific, because ectoderms can get very
warm. Reptiles, such as lizards, iguanas and crocodiles are classic ectotherms. They cannot warm up by
shivering because, if their temperature is low, they cannot respire fast enough to make ATP for rapid
muscle contraction. Instead, reptiles regulate their body temperature by thermoregulatory behaviour e.g.
 Iguanas start every day by basking on rocks in the sun until their metabolic rate is fast enough for them
to become active.
 Lizards lie down on warm ground to gain heat, and raise themselves off the ground if they get too hot.
 To prevent overheating in the midday sun lizards take shelter under rocks or vegetation.
 Some lizards can adjust the amount of heat they gain by changing their angle to the sun. Turning their
backs to the sun presents the maximum surface area, while pointing towards the sun presents the
minimum surface area.
 Crocodiles can move between the land and the water during the day to maintain a constant
temperature.
 At night, lizards shelter in burrows, which provide insulation to reduce heat loss (and hide them from
predators).

The advantage of being ectothermic is that animals use far less energy than endoderms. At rest the
metabolic rate of a reptile is only 10% of that of a mammal of similar size. At night, when the core
temperature of ectotherms drops with the temperature of the surroundings, their metabolic rate drops
still further. This means ectothermic animals need to eat far less than endotherms, and can often survive
for weeks without eating. The disadvantages are that, at certain times of the day, ectotherms can only
move slowly and have slow reactions. This makes them easy prey and poor predators.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 34

Control of Heart Rate

In unit 4 we learnt that the heart is myogenic – each heart beat is initiated by the sinoatrial node (SAN) in
the heart itself, not by nerve impulses from the CNS. We also learnt that the cardiac output – the volume
of blood flowing in a given time – is given by this equation:
cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
The CNS doesn’t initiate heartbeats, but it does regulate the cardiac output by controlling both the heart
rate and the stroke volume. The cardiac output is not maintained at a constant level, but instead is actively
changed by the CNS in order to maintain other factors (like blood pressure and blood gas concentration)
at a constant level. So the control of heart rate is part of homeostasis.

The heart rate is controlled by a part of the medulla oblongata called the cardiac (or cardiovascular) centre.
The cardiac centre can send impulses to the SAN of the heart either through sympathetic neurones or
parasympathetic neurones.

Impulses through sympathetic neurones release the Impulses through parasympathetic neurones release
neurotransmitter noradrenaline at the SAN, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the SAN,
causing the heart rate to increase. causing the heart rate to decrease.

The role of the cardiac centre is summarised in this diagram:

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 35

Blood Pressure Homeostasis

Arterial blood pressure is detected by stretch
receptors in the wall of certain arteries called
baroreceptors. The important baroreceptors are
found in the walls of the aortic arch as it leave
the heart (the aortic bodies) and in the walls of
the carotid arteries as they enter the head (the
carotid bodies).

A high blood pressure stretches the artery wall

and this stretch is detected by the
baroreceptors, which send more frequent
impulses through sensory neurones to the
cardiac centre. The cardiac centre then sends
impulses through the parasympathetic neurones
to the SAN of the heart to reduce the heart
rate. The cardiac centre also sends impulses
through the parasympathetic neurones to arterioles around the body, causing them to dilate. These
responses both reduce blood pressure. This example of a negative feedback loop is called the baroreflex.

Blood Gas Homeostasis

The concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood will change depending on the rate of cellular
respiration. When the body exercises, skeletal muscles contract more and so respire more quickly to make
more ATP. The increase in respiration reduces the oxygen concentration in the blood and increases the
carbon dioxide concentration, which in turn decreases the blood pH (since the carbon dioxide dissolves to
form carbonic acid). All of these changes are detected by specific receptor cells, but the pH changes are the
most sensitive and therefore the most important. These pH changes are detected by chemoreceptors in
the aortic and carotid bodies. The sequence of events as exercise starts is shown in this flow diagram:

The cardiac centre can also change the stroke volume by controlling blood pressure. It can increase the
stroke volume by sending nerve impulses to the arterioles to cause vasoconstriction, which increases blood
pressure so more blood fills the heart at diastole. Alternatively it can decrease the stroke volume by
causing vasodilation and reducing the blood pressure.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 36

The overall effects of the cardiac centre in response to exercise are shown in this table:
heart rate stroke volume cardiac output
(beats min-1) (cm3 beat-1) (cm3 min-1)
at rest 75 75 5 600
at exercise 180 120 22 000

Another part of the medulla, called the ventilation centre, controls the breathing rate and causes it to
increase during exercise. Together, these systems provide more oxygen for the muscles to respire.

Response to Stress
The heart rate can also be controlled through the endocrine system, particularly by the hormone
adrenaline. As we’ve already seen, hormonal control is slower but longer-lasting than nervous control, and
hormones can also have more wide-ranging effects. These differences are illustrated by the fight-or-flight
response to stress. In our distant past these stressful situations would be hunting woolly mammoths or
escaping attack by a sabre-tooth tiger, but today the stress is more likely to be running for a bus, playing
sport or even preparing for an exam. Whatever the initial stimulus, the response is coordinated by the
cerebral cortex, which send impulses through the sympathetic system to various organs, especially the
adrenal glands.

The two adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys. Each gland has an outer layer, called the cortex,
which secretes steroid hormones, and an inner layer, called the medulla (not to be confused with the
medulla oblongata in the brain), which secretes adrenaline. Adrenaline has many target organs:
 The SAN responds to adrenaline by increasing the heart rate
 Arterioles respond to adrenaline by constricting, which increases the blood pressure and so also
increases the heart stroke volume.
 The cardiac centre in the medulla responds by increasing the frequency of sympathetic impulses to the
heart.
Collectively, these responses to adrenaline allow faster respiration and contraction by skeletal muscles. It is
interesting to note that the hormone adrenaline has exactly the same fight-or-flight effects on target organs
as the closely-related neurotransmitter noradrenaline, released from sympathetic neurones.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 37

Excretion
Excretion means the removal of metabolic waste products from cells. There are five important excretory
organs in humans:
• Skin excretes sweat, containing water, ions and urea
• Lungs excrete carbon dioxide and water
• Liver excretes bile, containing bile pigments, cholesterol and mineral ions
• Gut excretes gut mucosa cells, water and bile in faeces. (The bulk of faeces comprises plant fibre
and bacterial cells, which have never been absorbed into the body, so are not excreted but
egested.)
• Kidneys excrete urine, containing urea, mineral ions, water and other toxins from the blood.

This section is mainly concerned with the excretion of nitrogenous waste as urea. The body cannot store
protein in the way it can store carbohydrate and fat, so it cannot keep excess amino acids. The “carbon
skeleton” of the amino acids can be used in respiration, but the nitrogenous amino group must be
excreted.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 38

Amino Acid Metabolism

Amino acid metabolism takes place in the liver, and consists of three stages:

1. Transamination
In this reaction an amino group is transferred from an amino acid to a keto acid, to form a different amino
acid.
Amino acid 1 + Keto acid 2 → Keto acid 1 + Amino acid 2
In this way scarce amino acids can be made from abundant ones. In adult humans only 11 of the 20 amino
acids can be made by transamination. The others are called essential amino acids, and they must be supplied
in the diet.

2. Deamination
In this reaction an amino group is removed from an amino acid to form ammonia and a keto acid. The most
common example is glutamate deamination:

This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase. Most other amino acids are first
transaminated to from glutamate, which is then deaminated. The NADH produced is used in the
respiratory chain; the -ketoglutarate enters the Krebs cycle; and the ammonia is converted to urea (step
3).

3. Urea Synthesis
In this reaction ammonia is converted to urea, ready for excretion by the kidney.

Ammonia is highly toxic, due to the reversal of the glutamate dehydrogenase reaction that would use up all
the -ketoglutarate and so stop the Krebs cycle. Urea is less toxic than ammonia, so it is safer to have in
the bloodstream. The disadvantage is that it “costs” 3 ATP molecules to make one urea molecule. This is
not in fact a single reaction, but is a summary of another cyclic pathway, called the urea (or orthnthine)
cycle.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 39

The Kidney
The kidneys remove urea and other toxic wastes from the blood, forming a dilute solution called urine in
the process. The two kidneys have a very extensive blood supply and the whole blood supply passes
through the kidneys every five minutes, ensuring that waste materials do not build up. The renal artery
carries blood to the kidney, while the renal vein carries blood, now with far lower concentrations of urea
and mineral ions, away from the kidney. The urine formed passes down the ureter to the bladder.

The important part of the kidney is a folded tube called a nephron. There are thousands of nephrons in
each kidney. There are five parts to a nephron, and five steps in producing urine in a nephron:

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 40

1. Renal capsule – Ultrafiltration

The renal artery splits into numerous arterioles, each feeding a nephron. Each arteriole splits into
numerous capillaries, which form a knot called a glomerulus. The glomerulus is enclosed by the Bowman’s
capsule – the first part of the nephron. The arteriole leading into the glomerulus (the afferent arteriole) is
wider than the one leading out (the efferent arteriole), so there is high blood pressure in the capillaries of
the glomerulus. This pressure forces plasma out of the blood by ultrafiltration. The endothelial cells lining
the capillaries have gaps between them called fenestrations, and the capsule walls are formed from special
cells called podocytes, because they have numerous “feet” with slits between them. These gaps allow all
molecules with a molecular mass of <70k to pass through under pressure to form a filtrate in the renal
capsule. Only blood cells and large proteins remain in the blood.

2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule – Reabsorption.

The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest (14mm) and widest (60µm) part of the nephron. It is lined
with epithelial cells containing microvilli and numerous mitochondria. In this part of the nephron over 80%
of the filtrate is reabsorbed into the tissue fluid and then to the blood. This ensures that all the “useful”
materials that were filtered out of the blood (such as glucose and amino acids) are now returned to the
blood.
 All glucose, all amino acids and 85% of mineral ions are reabsorbed by active transport from the filtrate
to the tissue fluid. They then diffuse into the blood capillaries.
 Small proteins are reabsorbed by pinocytosis, digested, and the amino acids diffuse into the blood.
 80% of the water is reabsorbed to the blood by osmosis.
 Surprisingly, some urea is reabsorbed to the blood by diffusion. Urea is a small, uncharged molecule, so
it can pass through membranes by lipid diffusion and there isn’t much the kidney can do about it. Since
this is a passive process, urea diffuses down its concentration gradient until the concentrations of urea
in the filtrate and blood are equal. So in each pass through the kidneys half the urea is removed from
the blood and half remains in the blood.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 41

3. Loop of Henle – Formation of a Salt Bath.

The job of the loop of Henle is to make the medulla a “salt bath”, which can be used to reabsorb water
later (step 5). It does this in a very efficient way, using a countercurrent multiplier to create a salt bath
gradient. The loop of Henle is lined with squamous epithelial cells, but the two limbs have different
properties: the descending limb is permeable to water but not to ions, while the ascending limb is
permeable to ions but not water.

To understand the process, we start in the ascending limb. The cells of the ascending limb have a special
Na-K-Cl cotransporter protein as well as the usual Na-K-ATPase pump. Together, the proteins act to

pump Na+ , K+ and Cl- ions out of the filtrate into the medulla. This makes the medulla more concentrated
and the filtrate less concentrated. Water would follow by osmosis, but it can’t, because the ascending limb
is impermeable to water. As the filtrate moves up the ascending limb it loses more ions so becomes more
dilute. The ion pumps work at a constant rate, always keeping the medulla a little more concentrated than
the filtrate, so a concentration
gradient is built up in the medulla.

Now look at the filtrate entering the

descending limb. It enters as a fairly
dilute solution, most of the solutes
having been removed in the proximal
convoluted tubule. The medulla is
more concentrated so water leaves
the filtrate by osmosis. This causes
the filtrate to become more
concentrated. But, as the filtrate
moves down the descending limb, the
medulla also gets more concentrated,
so water will always be able to pass out, down its water potential gradient, causing the filtrate to become
very concentrated at the bottom of the loop. Most of the water diffuses in the blood capillaries and is
carried away, so it doesn’t dilute the medulla.

So the countercurrent multiplier ensures there is always a concentration gradient between the filtrate and
the medulla along the whole length of the loop of Henle, enabling the maximum salt gradient to be built up
in the medulla. At the base of the medulla it is three times more concentrated than seawater.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 42

4. Distal Convoluted tubule – Homeostasis and Secretion

In the distal convoluted tubule certain substances are actively transported from the blood into the filtrate,
in other words they are secreted. It is relatively short and has a brush border (i.e. microvilli) with
numerous membrane pumps for active transport. The important point about this secretion is that it is
regulated by hormones, so this is the homeostatic part of the kidney. Substances secreted include H+ (for
pH homeostasis), K+ (for salt homeostasis), ethanol, toxins, drugs and other toxic substances.

5. Collecting Duct – Concentration

As the collecting duct passes through the low  salt bath in the medulla, water leaves the filtrate by
osmosis, so concentrating the urine and conserving water. The water mainly diffuses through special water
channels in the cell membrane called aquaporins as well as through the phospholipid bilayer. The number
aquaporin channels can be controlled by the hormone ADH, so allowing the amount of water in the urine
to be controlled (next page).

Blood Water Homeostasis (Osmoregulation)

The water potential of the blood must be regulated to prevent loss or gain of water from cells. Blood
water homeostasis is controlled by the hypothalamus. It contains osmoreceptor cells, which can detect
changes in the water potential of the blood passing through the brain. In response, the hypothalamus
controls the sensation of thirst, and it also secretes the hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone, also known
as vasopressin). ADH is stored in the pituitary gland, and its target cells are the endothelial cells of the
collecting ducts of the kidney nephrons.

Remember that the collecting duct cells contain aquaporin protein channels that allow water to diffuse very
quickly through the cell membrane. ADH binds to a specific ADH receptor protein in the epithelial cell
membrane, which catalyses the release of the second messenger cAMP (cyclic AMP) inside the endothelial
cells. The cAMP in turn causes vesicles containing aquaporin channels to fuse with the cell membrane thus
making the cell membrane much more permeable to water.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 43

The amount of water in the blood also affects blood pressure. As we saw on p34, blood pressure is
detected by baroreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies. These baroreceptors also send impulses to the
hypothalamus to control the release of ADH.

The effects of ADH are summarised in this diagram:

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 44

Water Conservation in the Desert Kangaroo Rat

Conservation of water is a problem for all terrestrial animals, especially
those that live in hot, dry environments. A good example is the desert
kangaroo rat Dipodomys deserti, which is a small rodent found in desert
areas in southwest USA. It has a number of adaptations to help it survive
in its desert niche:
 Anatomical adaptations. Kangaroo rats do not have sweat glands, so they cannot lose water through
sweating, although of course they cannot cool themselves by sweating either so they need other
strategies to prevent overheating.
 Behavioural adaptations. Kangaroo rats spend the hot daytime in underground burrows and are
active during the night when temperatures are cool and there is no need to sweat.
 Physiological adaptations. Kangaroo rats obtain most of their water from metabolic reactions like
digestion and respiration, which largely involve condensation reactions, producing water. They never
need to drink, and they get their remaining water from food. The kidneys of kangaroo rats are
specialised for conserving water: they have long loops of Henle descending deep into the medulla,
together with very active ion pumps in the ascending limb, which collectively create a very hypertonic
medulla. This means almost all water is reabsorbed from the Kangaroo rat’s urine, so they a produce a
very small volume of very concentrated urine – about twenty times more concentrated than human
urine.

This chart shows the volumes of water gained and lost each day by humans and kangaroo rats. Although
the overall daily water turnover per gram of body mass is similar, the desert rat manages to do this without
drinking at all.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 45

Blank Page

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 46

Plant Responses
Like all living organisms, plants can sense and respond to stimuli. For example plants can sense light
direction, gravity and moisture, and can respond by growing in particular direction, flowering or dropping
leaves (abscission). The responses in plants are much slower than those in animals and they usually involve
growth. Plants don’t have a nervous system and their responses are coordinated by plant hormones. Plant
hormones, also known as plant growth substances, are small molecules like animals hormones but with
some significant differences:
 Animal hormones are produced in specialised glands, whereas plants don’t have glands and plant
hormones are produced in unspecialised cells in any parts of the plant.
 Animal hormones are carried round the whole body in the bloodstream, whereas plant hormones
usually diffuse from cell to cell and have fairly local effects, though they can also be transported through
the xylem and phloem.
 Animal hormones affect specific target cells by binding to specific hormone receptor proteins on those
cells, whereas plant hormones generally enter cells and can have many different effects.

Some of the different plant hormones and their effects are summarised in this table:
Plant Hormone Auxin Cytokinin Giberellin Florigen

Chemical structure ?

enhances cytokine promotes cell

Cell division no effect no effect
effect division
promotes elongation
Cell elongation promotes elongation no effect no effect
between nodes
promotes root promotes shoot
Cell differentiation no effect no effect
growth growth
promotes apical promotes lateral
Apical dominance enhances auxin effect no effect
dominance dominance
promotes seed
Seed germination no effect no effect no effect
germination
enhances florigen
Flowering no effect no effect promotes flowering
effect

As this table shows plant hormones generally have multiple effects. They also interact with each other, so
that a particular effect is often the result of contributions from two or more hormones.
 When plant hormones promote similar processes, they have a synergistic effect and the overall effect is
enhanced. For example auxin and gibberellin have synergistic actions on shoot growth.
 When plant hormones promote opposite processes, they have an antagonistic effect and the overall
effect depends on the balance between the hormones. For example auxin and cytokinin have
antagonistic actions on apical dominance.

We’ll look at each process and hormone in more detail.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

 A Level Biology Unit 9 page 47

Tropisms and Cell Elongation

It has long been observed that plants show directional growth responses, called tropisms. Tropisms can be
positive (growing towards the stimulus) or negative (growing away from the stimulus) and occur in
response to a variety of stimuli: phototropism is the response to light; gravitropism is the response to
gravity and hydrotropism is the response to water.

Some of the earliest experiments on plant responses investigated this tropism response, and indeed
Charles Darwin and his son Francis studied phototropism in the 1880s. They used coleoptiles – young grass
shoots protected by a smooth cylindrical sheath that grow straight without leaves or buds, so are ideal for
observing growth patterns. The Darwins observed the effects of
light
directional light on these coleoptiles – what we now call phototropism.
Their experiments, and others by later investigators, concluded that a
chemical (a plant hormone named auxin) is synthesized in the coleoptile
tip; asymmetric illumination is detected by
the coleoptile tip and this causes auxin to move into the darker side; auxin
diffuses down the coleoptile; the higher auxin concentration on the darker
side causes more growth on that side; which causes the coleoptile to bend
towards the light source.

In 1934 auxin was identified as a compound called indoleacetic acid, or IAA. IAA is hydrophobic so it can
diffuse through cell membranes and so move around the plant. IAA (auxin) causes growth by stimulating
cell elongation. It activates an enzyme that breaks the bonds between cellulose microfibrils and this loosens
the cell wall and so allows the cell to elongate under the internal turgor pressure.

Another effect of cell elongation is shown by the plant hormone

gibberellin. In stems this hormone specifically promotes elongation
between nodes, making stems longer. This has important
commercial applications, for example to increase the length of
sugar cane stems to make more sugar, or as a weed killer to make
weeds grow so tall that they fall over and die.

Cell Division
Tropism work primarily by stimulating cell elongation, but many plant hormones also stimulate cell division.
For example cytokinins are produced by meristem tissue at the tips of roots and shoots where they
stimulate cell division by triggering formation of transcription factors (unit 10). The name cytokinin was
given because the hormone promotes cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 48

Cell Differentiation
As plants grow new cells differentiate into a particular type of plant tissue. Experiments have shown that
differentiation depends on the relative concentrations of two or more plant hormones. For example:
 If cytokinin = auxin then cells form an undifferentiated cell mass called a callus.
 If cytokinin > auxin then cells differentiate into shoot cells.
 If cytokinin < auxin then cells differentiate into root cells.
The two plant hormones are antagonists. This knowledge is very useful in commercial plant tissue culture,
where whole plants are grown from cloned cells.

Apical Dominance
Plants grow from meristem (growing) tissue in buds. Buds are found at the tips, or apex, of shoots and
roots (apical buds) and at branches (lateral buds). Auxin and cytokinin work antagonistically to control bud
growth: auxin inhibits lateral buds while cytokinin stimulates lateral buds. Normally it is important for
plants to grow tall so they can out-compete their neighbours and absorb
more sunlight for photosynthesis, and to help achieve this goal the apical
buds produce auxin, which passes down the phloem and inhibits the
growth of the later buds below. Thus most of the plant’s sugars are used
for growth at the apex. This control is called apical dominance. Further
down the stem the concentration of auxin decreases, so lateral buds can
start to grow, and this explains the “Christmas tree” shape of many
plants, with a wide base and a narrow top.

An understanding of apical dominance is use for gardeners who want to

produce particular shapes of plants. By cutting off the apical bud the
inhibition by auxin removed, so lateral buds can start to grow, giving the
plant a more bushy appearance.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 49

Seed Germination
A plant seed is in a dormant state to protect the embryo during harsh times and while the seed is
dispersed. When conditions are right the dormancy is broken and the seed germinates, growing a shoot
and root. The plant hormone gibberellin is involved in this germination process.

1. The seed absorbs water. This stimulates the embryo to secrete gibberellin, which diffuses to the outer,
alurone layer.
2. Gibberellin is a transcription factor, and it stimulates the cells of the alurone layer to express the
amylase gene and synthesise the enzyme amylase. The amylase diffuses into the endosperm, where it
digests the starch reserves into the sugars maltose and glucose.
3. The sugars are absorbed by the embryo and used for respiration and as raw materials for biosynthesis
of protein, carbohydrates and lipids to form new cells.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 50

Flowering and Photoperiodism

It is common for both plants and animals to reproduce at certain times of the year, in order to maximise
their offspring’s chances of survival. In the case of flowering plants, they produce flowers in particular
seasons, depending on their location. Experiments in the 1930s showed that flowering was triggered by
length of the day.
 Long-day plants flower when the number of daylight hours exceeds a certain threshold. In the northern
hemisphere this means flowering during late spring or early summer as days are getting longer. Long-day
species include lettuce, spinach and petunias.
 Short-day plants flower when the number of daylight hours is less than a threshold. In the northern
hemisphere this means flowering in the autumn after the summer solstice on the 21st June as days are
getting shorter. Long-day species include strawberries, chrysanthemums and rice.
 Day-neutral plants flower irrespective of day length. These plants evolved in tropical regions where the
day length doesn’t change so can’t be used as a trigger. Instead flowering is triggered by another
environmental cue such as temperature. Day-neutral species include cucumber, tomatoes and peas.

In fact, later experiments showed that the length of darkness is more important than the length of daylight:

So long-day plants are really short-night plants and short-day plants are really long-night plants, but the
original labels are still used. The correct period of darkness is called the photoperiod and the response to
the correct photoperiod is called photoperiodism.

How do Plants detect the photoperiod?

Plants have a light receptor protein called phytochrome, found in the cells of all plant leaves. Phytochrome
has a light-sensitive prosthetic group, a bit like rhodopsin. Phytochrome exists in two forms, called
phytochrome red (Pr), which has an absorption maximum in the red part of the spectrum at 660nm, and
phytochrome far-red (Pfr), which has an absorption maximum in the infra-red part of the spectrum at
720nm. The conversion between the two forms is light-dependent. Red light (present in normal daylight)
will quickly convert Pr to Pfr, while infra-red light (not common nature) or darkness will slowly convert Pfr
to Pr.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17

A Level Biology Unit 9 page 51

Plants can therefore use the phytochrome system to measure photoperiods. At dawn any Pr is quickly
converted to Pfr, while during the night the Pfr is slowly converted to Pr. The longer the night the more Pfr
will be converted and the lower the Pfr:Pr ratio. Pfr is the physiologically-active form of phytochrome,
though its mode of action is not clear. It appears to be a transcription factor, switching the expression of
various genes.

How does phytochrome control flowering?

Experiments have shown that the photoperiod is detected by the phytochrome system in the leaves below
the apex of the plants and a signal is transmitted to the apex to initiate flowering (experiment A). The signal
can pass through grafts to stimulate flowering in a different plant, so it must be a chemical message that can
diffuse through cells (experiment B).

This signal must therefore be a plant hormone and it has been named florigen. Despite years of research,
florigen has not yet been identified, and it may in fact be a combination of other plant hormones.
Gibberellin appears to act synergistically with florigen to promote flowering.

Other aspects of plant growth and development are also controlled by light, including seed germination, the
size, shape and number of leaves and chlorophyll synthesis. In all cases phytochrome is the light receptor
and it switches on expression on genes. The control of growth and development in plants by specific
wavelengths of light is called photomorphogenesis.

HGS Biology A-level notes NCM 1/17